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diff --git a/old/12443.txt b/old/12443.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6a52461 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12443.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3630 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished +Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth + +Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour + +Release Date: May 26, 2004 [EBook #12443] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY *** + + + + + + + + + +[Advertisement 1: David Bridge & Co., LTD.] + +[Advertisement 2: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.] + +[Advertisement 3: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.] + +[Advertisement 4: Robert Hall & Sons] + +[Advertisement 5: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.] + +[Advertisement 6: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.] + +[Advertisement 7: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.] + +[Advertisement 8: White, Milne & Co.] + +[Advertisement 9: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.] + +[Advertisement 10: Robert Stiven & Co.] + + + + + + + +THE JUTE INDUSTRY + + + + +[Advertisement 11: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series +(Book List)] + + + +PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES + + + +THE JUTE INDUSTRY +FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH + +BY T. WOODHOUSE + + HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE + TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART + + FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS, + BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH. + AUTHOR OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS," + "HEALDS AND REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND PORTERS," + JOINT AUTHOR OF + "JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM," + "TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED," + "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING," + "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," + "TEXTILE MATHEMATICS," + "TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC., + +AND + +P. KILGOUR + + HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT, + DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART + FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS. + JOINT AUTHOR OF + "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING," + "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC. + + + +1921 + + + +[Advertisement 12: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.,] + + + + +PREFACE + + The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically + all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants, + the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre + into useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every + important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated, + and the description, although not severely technical, is + sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous + knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently, + and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine + of jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium + of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the + more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects. + + T. WOODHOUSE. + P. KILGOUR. + + March, 1921. + + +[Advertisement 13: J. M. Adam & Co.] + +CONTENTS + + CHAP. + PREFACE + I. INTRODUCTORY + II. CULTIVATION + III. RETTING + IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE. + V. MILL OPERATIONS + VI. BATCHING + VII. CARDING + VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES + IX. THE ROVING FRAME + X. SPINNING + XI. TWISTING AND REELING. + XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS + XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING. + XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING + XV. FINISHING + INDEX + + +[Advertisement 14: James F. Low & Co., LTD.] + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + FIG. + 1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND + 2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING" + 3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT + 4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE + FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE + 5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A + WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS + 6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE + ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR + 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE + FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6 + 8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.) + 9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD) + 10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED + AND PREPARED FIBRE + 11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS + 12. BATCHING APPARATUS + 13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS + 14. MODERN BREAKER CARD + 15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD + 16. WASTE TEAZER + 17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME + 18. ROVING FRAME + 19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK + 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT + 21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES + 22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) + 23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS + 24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) + 25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.) + 26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.) + 27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS. + 28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE + 29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE + 30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS + 31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY + 32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS + 33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS. + 34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH + 35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS. + 36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS + 37. BOBBY LOOM + 38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM + 39. THE OLD WAY + 40. THE NEW WAY + 41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK + 42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE + 43. DAMPING MACHINE + 44. CALENDER + 45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE + 46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE + 47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE + 48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE + 49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE. + 50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE. + + + + +THE JUTE INDUSTRY + +FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH + + + + +CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY + +The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton, +flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in +general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price, +but also in regard to utility. It is only under phenomenal +conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took +place during the world's great war from 1914 onwards that, from a +commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre +and its products are fully realized. Millions of sand bags were made +from the year 1914 to the year 1918 solely for military purposes, +while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering +material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other +textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. It is on +record that in one short period of fourteen days, 150,000,000 +sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from Dundee to be +used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict. + +A glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the +fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a +hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to +import the fibre into Great Britain in the latter part of the 18th +century, and it has been used in India for centuries in the making +of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous +to that country. And since all the manufacturing methods there, for +a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could +be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the +needs of a small section of the community on the Eastern shores. + +The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of +Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it was only after +repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples +of jute for practical experiments The fibre was so unlike any of the +existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious +to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so; +these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was +finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute +industry. + +Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute +fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when the first +small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home of the jute +industry. This quantity was imported into this country with the +special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the +same way as flax fibre was being treated. At this period Dundee was +a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning +and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural +that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute +fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the +preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we +mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a +considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax, +and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to +be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated. +These modifications shall be discussed at a later stage. + +It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was +reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, the +imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns which were +made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for +the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of +cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized. +About the year 1838, representatives of the Dutch Government placed +comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to +be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their West Indian +possessions. The subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the +demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above +fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance. + +By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute fibre had +increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 tons in the +season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed to the +possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in India--the +seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At least such a +probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a small +consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an attempt +made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the Indian +native industry. + +The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand +labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories +soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to +induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of +training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives +constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to leave the +mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the +country. + +In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in +India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, the +quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other British ports +amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period preceding the war, +nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various countries, while the +Indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the +mills in the vicinity of Calcutta--reached the same huge total of +one million tons. + +The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and +consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the +production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be +ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and +one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the +near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. As a +matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are +contemplated and actually taking place in India. + + + + +CHAPTER II. CULTIVATION + +_Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant_. Jute fibre is +obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in +the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the fruit of the +variety _Corchorus Capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of +approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety +_Corchorus Olitorius_ is contained in a pod. Both belong to the +order _Tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in Bengal and +Assam. + +Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _Corchorus Japonicus_ of Japan, +and the _Corchorus Mompoxensis_ used in Panama for making a kind of +tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of +job as the Jew's Mallow; this variety _C. Olitorius_, has been used +in the East from time immemorial as a pot herb. + +The two main varieties _C. Capsularis_ and _C. Olilorius_ are +cultivated in Bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed +purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in Assam, and the +seeds exported for use principally in Mymensingh and Dacca. + +The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from 5 to +15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four +months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems of jute +plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are +green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. The leaves +are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in length, and about 1-1/2 +inches in breadth with serrated edges. Pale yellow flowers spring +from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of +small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of +the variety. + +While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in +various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the +necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are +completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the geographical +position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions. +On referring to a map of India, it will be seen that Bengal is +directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north +by the great Himalayan mountains. + +During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north, +large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but +when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly +during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general +temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts. +The rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and +west of Bengal--the Patna and the Brahmaputra--and the tremendous +volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter +which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial +deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the +propagation of the jute plants. + +The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most +extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the +rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and Pabna, +and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, Orissa +and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these areas. + +The _Corchorus Capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the +higher and richer soils, while the _Corchorus Olitorius_ variety is +most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts +where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _C. Olitorius_ may be +grown in certain other districts of India which appear quite +unsuitable for the _C. Capsularis_. + +The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with +the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not +the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there +is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern +methods may be the absence of horses. + +The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in teams +of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where +a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute +cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as +horses do in this country. + +The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods +may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece +of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks. + +The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process +which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are +made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting +pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the +previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be +used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine +tilth may be produced. + +When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but +other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at +similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure is preferred, but +castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good +substitutes. + + +After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by +hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular +district. The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May, +and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND] + +There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully +judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for +the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for +easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of +seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ. + + +It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two +directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform +a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used depends partly +upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre +are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2 +lbs.). + +[Illustration: FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"] + +Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in +order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants. +Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from +plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants; +they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. The fibres +obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining +seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when +succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to. + +If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in +8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. The heat and +showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should +be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with +long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the operation in process. This +second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture +and heat to enter. The young plants are now thinned, and the ground +weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or +strength to prevent the words from spreading. + +The space between the growing plants will vary according to the +region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance +of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants +show prospects of growing thick and tall. + +In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 1/2 to +4 months from the time of sowing. Although different opinions are +held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are +setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage +usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly +cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality. + +The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general, +these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite +suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants ready for cutting +will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the +operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it +requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green crop to produce about 10 to +15 cwt. of clean dry fibre. + + + + +CHAPTER III. RETTING + +The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are +embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water, +since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a +period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is dependent upon the +period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is +performed. + +The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is +technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or +steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the +water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the +plants are under treatment. + +The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a +bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. The +farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making +by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the +formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to +see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous +layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. The stems are +tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast +layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. When the ryot +considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently +easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is +commenced immediately. This latter process is conducted in various +ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district. + + +In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody +structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails +fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand; +while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women +who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core +or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. The strips of fibre +are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable +impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it +over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun. + +If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants +are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to +some other place provided with a better supply of water for the +final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to +create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or +difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry. + +Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant. +The lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a +complete cross section. The central part of the stem or pith is +lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; the outer +covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual fibrous layer +appears between the parts B and C, and some of the fibres are +indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding parts in the three +distinct views. The middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a +small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a +further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. It will +be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE +PLANT] + +Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks, +and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of +preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say +one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the +tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus +loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the +fibrous layer free. The straws are collected for future use, while the +fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE + +The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. The +method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some +districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a +number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in +the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to +sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. A +maund is approximately equal to 8 lbs., and this quantity forms a +comparatively small bundle. In other cases, the fibre is made up into +what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2 +to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in +India. + +Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 million +bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the remaining half is +baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over +one million bales are exported annually to Great Britain, the bulk +of this fibre comes to Dundee. + +It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the +material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of +assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea +of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for +special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of selecting and +grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large +amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark." +A mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol, +name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or +more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the +origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant. + +In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better +quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality +is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality +of which is below these good ones. Since there are hundreds of +different marks which are of value only to those connected directly +with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. The +following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is +taken from the Market Report of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920. +The price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date +very high, so in order to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal +prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first +marks, for the same month in the years 1915 onwards. + + + JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH + First Marks + + Year. Price per ton. + + L. s. d. L. s. d. + 1915 27 to 35 15 + 1916 44 + 1917 42 10 + 1918 51 + 1919 49 + 1920 70 (spot) + + +It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are +generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite +satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract, +and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre. + +After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is +made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of these +200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the +weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a permitted +quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while the +dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X 1'6" X 1' +4". + +[Illustration: FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE +FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE] + +Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are +conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or +press houses as they are termed. These are very large establishments, +and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and +efficiently with the large number of bales. In Fig. 4 scores of +natives, superintended by a European, are seen carrying the smaller +bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. It is, +of course, unnecessary to make the solid 400 lb. bales for Indian +consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which +is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at +the baling station by a Chamber of Commerce expert. + +Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the Calcutta +district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with the most +efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 illustrates one +of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity. +Two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by +different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential +for the successful prosecution of the work. Two such presses as that +illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, under efficient administration, of +turning out 130 bales of 400 lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is +compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal +to 6,000 lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in +cubical capacity 11 cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is +usual for freight purposes to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton. +(Now changed to 50 cubic feet.) + +The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from +barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 to +46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel brought +70,000 bales. + +As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality, +and all disputes must be settled by arbitration. Although this is +the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute +to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the +"Spot." It is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample, +such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or +"parcel," as it is often called. The contract forms are very complete, +and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all +concerned in the trade. + +[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT +CYCLONE PRESS] + +It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large +quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from +plants which have been grown under variable climatic and +agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the +finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very +indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the +ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it should +be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and +additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears +possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it +seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands +for a corresponding type of manufactured product. + +The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually, +but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree +the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of +the world. + + + EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA + + Year. Tons. Bales. + + 1828 18 300 lbs/bale + 1832 182 300 lbs/bale + 1833 300 300 lbs/bale + 1834 828 300 lbs/bale + 1835 1,222 300 lbs/bale + 1836 16 300 lbs/bale + 1837 171 300 lbs/bale + + +[Illustration: FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING +JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR] + + JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA + + Season. Tons. Bales (400 lbs.). + + 1850-51. 28,247 158,183 + 1860-61. 46,182 258,619 + 1862-63. 108,776 609,146 + 1863-64. 125,903 707,056 + 1872-73. 406,335 2,275,476 + 1880-81. 343,596 1,924,137 + 1886-87. 413,664 2,316,518 + 1892-93. 586,258 3,083,023 + 1896-97. 588,141 3,293,591 + 1902-03. 580,967 3,253,414 + 1906-07. 829,273 4,643,929 + 1907-08. 1,761,982 9,867,100 + 1908-09. 1,135,856 6,360,800 + 1909-10. 1,302,782 7,295,580 + 1910-11 1,434,286 8,032,000 + 1911-12. 1,488,339 8,334,700 + 1912-13. 1,718,180 9,621,829 + 1913-14. 1,580,674 8,851,775 + 1914-15. 1,898,483 10,631,505 + 1915-16. 1,344,417 7,528,733 + 1916-17. 1,493,976 8,366,266 + 1917-18. 1,607,922 9,004,364 + 1918-19. 1,278,425 7,159,180 + 1919-20. 1,542,178 8,636,200 + + +A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side +adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are raised quickly +from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in Fig. +6 since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in Fig. +7. When the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to +the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to +the more horizontal part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then +removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and +piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid +of a crane. Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales +to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed +spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are stored +in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM +THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6] + + + + +CHAPTER V. MILL OPERATIONS + +_Bale Opening_. Each spinner, as already indicated, stores his +bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient +manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number +of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing +department of the mill. + +In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the +mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different +kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for +the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of +material. In much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the +jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more +extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," in its simplest +definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable +for subsequent handling in the Batching Department. This number may +include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute according to the amount of +accommodation in the preparing department. + +All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard +quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It must be +remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to +quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or +firms of balers or merchants. At other times, the batch of 5 to 10 +bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of +each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn, +partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of +the combination. + +It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn +is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any +particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple differentiation, +the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of +cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in +some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same +cloth. + +On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of +jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so +that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be +produced. The same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year, +but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary +from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation +of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather +during the time of growth, and during the season generally. + +A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department, +this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales are, of course, +defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must +be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is +any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be +notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its +place without effecting any great change in the character or quality +of the yarn. + +When the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed +from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are +conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable +position near the first machine in the series. It need hardly be +mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is +subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a +very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the various +so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced +into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are quite +unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened +out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from +each other. This operation is termed "opening" and the process is +conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is +illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., +Ltd., Dundee. + +The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner +near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that +they can be handled to the best advantage. The bands or ropes, see +Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large +pieces of jute can be separated. If any irregularity in the +selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes +place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty +handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no +chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at +this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the +fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good +average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a +judicious selection in every case. The usual variations are--the +colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain +impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute, +which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully +mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may +disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different +machines. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, +Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.] + +The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in +hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and +this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. As already +indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left +in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which +carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed +rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very +deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair of +deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure. +These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads +of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery +sheet on the right. The delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has +a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the +extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by +the operatives. The upper rollers in the machine may rise in their +bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the +bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin +places of the heads. + +A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, & +Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart patent is illustrated in +Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in +the shape of the crushing or opening rollers. + +It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are +three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and +situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller has a +series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. The +knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard +layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute +have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing +between the rollers. This double action naturally aids in opening up +the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective, +gives excellent results in practice. The degree of pressure provided +for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads +of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the +highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Charles +Parker, Sons, & Co_.] + +The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this +machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the +machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives good +results in practice. + +In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that +the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size +quite freely. + +The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position +near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as +the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the +batchers, who split them. The most suitable size of pieces are 2-1/2 +to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 feet in length, but the size of +the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is +to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's +opinion of what will give the best overall result. + +After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller +pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher +or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could watch the above +operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it +would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of +unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. As the +loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 or 9, it is +placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging, +and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he +grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a +dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the +handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it +takes to describe the operation. + +As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on +stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by +means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added +for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables +the fibre to work freely in the various machines. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. BATCHING + +_Softening and Softening Machines_. Two distinct courses are +followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the +bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. These +courses are designated as-- + + 1. Hand Batching. + 2. Machine Batching. + +In the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of +jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to +facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts +which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not +convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large +stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. 10. + +On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the +necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the +pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually +long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, from a similar +sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the +attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity. +The ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount +of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above +method is not to be commended. A conscientious worker can, however, +with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of +course, supplied by the person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on +the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the +spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or +partition on the right. + +[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED AND +PREPARED FIBRE] + +The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is filled +with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain +there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the material may be +more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. At the end of this +time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the +softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of +bending and crushing. + +All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often +called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of +rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of +managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, which, in the +form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls, +is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of rollers or any other number +which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. The sections are made in 8's. The +illustration shows only 31 pairs. + +The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the +foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as clearly +shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique +flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. What +is often considered as a standard softening machine contains 63 +pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers. +As mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances. + +The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet, +and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways +before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the +machine. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus] + +Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application +of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform +than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. On the +other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the +lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously, +although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the +cart after it has left the softener. + +The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., +Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or +"stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual lubricating +equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the +centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to the side frames +of the softening machine proper, say that shown in Fig. 11. Its +exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a +matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the +material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers. + +In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen clearly, +and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or +pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately +above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars. + +Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one vertical +and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is attached by +suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the +machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame, +while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a +rod projecting from the frame. The lower or curved end of the +oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping +of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular +feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against +the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a +thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the +curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and +thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity +of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism +is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick. +When the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in +the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is +moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the +thin part of the strick. It will be understood that all makers of +softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching +apparatus when desired. + +A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel wheels at +the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against +accidents. In many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed +end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the +operative is in danger. The batching apparatus for this machine is +of a different kind from that illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it +is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed +pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane, +and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on +the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting. + +The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the +nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The barrow +of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which +have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for +conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future +treatment. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus] + +While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is graded +in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn +without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to +utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection +and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching. + +What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine +known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into the +machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in +order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter drops +through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is +delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the +softener. + +The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine +termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively +hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a teazer may also be +used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and +similar close textures. + +The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a +heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then +the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed +to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain quantity of +this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to +form a batch suitable for the intended yarn. + +A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of +a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends of the +stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two parts are +severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the +strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder, +and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of +securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. CARDING + +_Breaker and Finisher Cards_. After the fibre from the softening +machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for +one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture; +this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct +types of machines-- + + + 1. The breaker card. + 2. The finisher card. + + +The functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one +might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one +continuous operation. + +The main difference between the two types of machines is in the +method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the +small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the action +on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and +splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move +relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving +roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side +by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of +another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the +combing of the fibre. The pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so +to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller +comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a +comparatively fine division. + +The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first +arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the +operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A receptacle, +very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far +end of the softening machine in Fig. 13. + +A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or back of +the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card +on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the +observer. The protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would +be seen as clearly as possible. + +Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of +the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped +stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth, +which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the +feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a "shell" feed +because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped +somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually decreasing and +suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins +of the feed roller. + +The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of +fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously +carried into the machine where they come into contact with the +points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a +cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes +place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, 24 inches to +30 inches below. The fibres which are separated at this stage are +carried a little further round until they come into contact with the +points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller, +termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward +under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further +combed and split. A portion of the fibres is carried round by the +pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the +quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a +"stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of +the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD] + +The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker +and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a +second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately +the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the +pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing +rollers. The sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into +the broad and upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly +of tin and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in +Fig. 14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the +conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and, +of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and +delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can, +distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. The sliver is +seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can. + +The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward +relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less +parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" is used to +indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other, +and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out +of the fibres by this special term "draft." + +It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can +at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant flow will +soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can, +although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. The machine must, +of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be +kept in practically constant work. As a matter of fact, the machines +are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable +condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be +satisfactorily fulfilled. + +The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to +that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the pulley +side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & +Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are fed by slivers which +have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but +there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of +arranging the slivers at the feed side. In both cases, however, the +full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with, +however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each +extreme end. + +One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full sliver +cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and +to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The sliver from +each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and +thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The slivers are +guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet" +which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers. +The feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type, +and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. It +will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different +problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively +uneven stricks. + +[Illustration: By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd. +FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD] + +The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the +machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus form, +as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this +sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs +of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as +already described in connection with the breaker card. There are, +however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are +in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs +of rollers, the former may be arranged with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs +of rollers (6 workers and 6 strippers). The number of pairs of +rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the +opinions of the various managers. + +There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz-- + + 1. Half-circular finisher cards. + + 2. Full-circular finisher cards. + +The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and such +machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so +disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete +circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to +undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact +with the doffer. There are five pairs of rollers in the machine in +Fig. 15, and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels +fenced. The arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very +similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14, +and therefore requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes +the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and +adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to +examine the rollers and other parts. + +The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various +rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are +ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the +cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. The +conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the +width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the +other section. These two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet, +traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two +slivers about 6 inches above the point or plane in which the 10 or 12 +slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two +slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface +of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction +of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to +pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the +left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can. + +In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of +mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine illustrated +in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported +by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. This special +mechanism is termed a "Patent Push Bar Drawing Head," and the +function which it performs will be described shortly; in the +meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the +slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. A +very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a +finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should +work in unison. In the machine under consideration, the feed and +delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage +of the draw-head mechanism. + +One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform +thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. A +so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter, +but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected +with the full sense of the word uniform. + +It has already been stated that in the batching department various +qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to +obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different grades and marks +vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness; +it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse +qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process +so as to facilitate the subsequent operations. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd. _ +FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER] + +However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the +batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be +desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary. +It need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement, +and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care +which is exercised in the preliminary processes. + +The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the +finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new length, +and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each +individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the new +length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths +and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting takes place +in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined +10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of 8 to 16 or even +more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which +passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of 8 to 16 yards +or whatever the draft happens to be. The resulting sliver will +therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the +original individual slivers. The actual ratio between them will +obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the +material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers. + +It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous +material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as +card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is produced, in +spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine +which is not delivered as perfect material. All this waste from +various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes, +dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver +for heavy sacking weft. + +The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the +valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are +passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. F. Low & +Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. The resulting mass +is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material, +and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the +production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used +for sacking. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES + +The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the +breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement +of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in +the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the +peripheries of rotating rollers. In the draw-head mechanism, the +pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or +straight path. In the machines which fall to be discussed in this +chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the +slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a +matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small +drawing frame, as its name implies. Moreover, each row or rather +double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a +"faller." The faller as a whole consists of three parts: + + 1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for being + moved in a closed circuit. + + 2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or + "stocks," fixed to the rod. + + 3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes about + 1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or + hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above + gills. + +The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular +method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the +fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the +movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers. +There are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of +a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining" +rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller; +immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last +pair is the delivery rollers. The delivery rollers of one type of +drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by +Messsrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly +in Fig. 17, and the can or cans into which the slivers are +ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more +sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration. +The large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing +roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the +centre of same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are +situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill +pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins. + +Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is +led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver +guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately the slivers +leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of +a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the +upper and active position. Each short length of slivers is +penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up +successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the +same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. The sheet of +pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the +drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. As each +faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is +made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this +point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until +it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the +fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be +seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between +the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always +one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining +the set at the back. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame] + +The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing +rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all +cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. This condition is +necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much +greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference +between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual +draft. + +Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded +in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned, +to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip +of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward ends of the fibres +are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres +affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing +rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. It will +be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two +pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be +snapped. It is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance +between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres +under treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach." + +On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass +between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which +bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers, +and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are +diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again +diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes +straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the +guide of the delivery rollers. It will thus be seen that a number of +slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft, +are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or +conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a +sliver can. + +The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of the +same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. With +the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the +far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. The +set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the +fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown, +and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to +the operative. The machines are made with what are known as +"two heads" or "three heads." It will be seen from the large +pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a +"two-head" drawing frame. + +The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a +further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine +termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills for this +frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first +drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and +the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and +therefore need no further description. It should be mentioned, +however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their +designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the +fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. The names +of other drawing frames appear below. + + Spiral or screw gill; + Open link chain; + Rotary; + Ring Carrier + Circular. + +For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is +considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in +a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered +sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. THE ROVING FRAME + +The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there +still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the +slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. And, in +addition to these important functions, two other equally important +operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to +the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a +"rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove +bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame. + +The machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a +"roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, and with +different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided +for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with +two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of spindles, flyers, +and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in Fig. 18, which +represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & +Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. + +Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the +upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the +flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The discs or +bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or +"builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass +through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a +"flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the +spindles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME _By Permission of Messrs. +Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.] + +A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be seen +that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers +passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye, +then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer, +round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of +the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. Each bobbin has its +own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this +can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining +rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the +drawing (also the delivery) rollers. Here the sliver terminates +because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and +causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form. +From this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described +above. + +As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver +is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery +of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about 20 yards +per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also driven at a +constant speed, because in all cases we have-- + + spindle speed = delivery x twist. + +There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove +bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven +independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one +series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the bobbin differs, +however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the +effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the +beginning of each new layer. + +The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane, +and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height +from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are raised gradually by +the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the +bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during +the formation of each layer from bottom to top. In other words, the +travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the +inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK] + +Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue +of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin, +and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the +combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of +the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and +variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by means of which this +desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one +of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in +textile machinery. Some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as +well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered +from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical +experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed 50 years +elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts +was evolved for performing the function. + +The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential +motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing +arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the +various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide +with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated +but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without +strain or stretch. The varying motion is regulated and obtained by a +drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear +is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct +motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the +bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine. + +The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and the +whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels +to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest +the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded, +and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position +on both sides. The machine is adapted for building 10 in. X 5 in. +bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. outside diameter, +and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the illustration showing +part of a machine and approximately 48 spindles. + +The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of +the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 in. frame, +and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are 10 in. +apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder +would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the standard size for +the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. bobbins are +used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. When the +finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning +direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, 8 in. x 4 +in. bobbins are largely used. + +Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove +so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and +according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in +these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist +gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic +index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion. + + + + +CHAPTER X. SPINNING + +The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn +required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process of +spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole +routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the +name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of +processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done +before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The nomenclature +is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the +conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus +than it is at present; the established name to denote this +conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number +of important processes, each one of which is as important and +necessary as the actual operation of spinning. + +A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the +Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly the wide +"pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method +adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. Spinning +frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any +practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per side are +common numbers. + +[Illustration: FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT] + +The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. 20, are +brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel +(often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually +above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove bobbin is free to +rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the +retaining rollers. The final drafting of the material takes place in +this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the +drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of +yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of +spinning bobbin. + +When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a +"breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the +conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by +means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing +rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the +retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and +the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the +"thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the +arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer +arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The latter is raised and lowered +as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be +distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges. + +Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which +passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of +the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of +the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of +spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this connection, the +parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the +functions of the two frames differ. The yarn has certainly to be +wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from +the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin, +which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the +roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually +driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and +just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of +the "temper band" and weight. The temper band is simply a piece of +leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other +end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES] + +The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one +of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in +contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. A varying +amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue +of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is +obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves +in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of +the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension. + +The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of the +frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 are at +right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief +parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the +pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove +yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until +they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to +and wound upon the spinning bobbins. The flyers--at one time termed +throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper +weights. The chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever, +adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the +frame nearest the observer. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. TWISTING AND REELING + +In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form +they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On the +other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it +is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to +combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes +"doubling" when two single yarns only are combined. + +Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is +to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is +not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or +more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when +this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of +twines, ropes and the like. The twist or twine thus formed will have +the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required +for the finished product. The same operation is conducted in the +making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are +laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to +distinguish them.[1] + +[Footnote 1: See _Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres_, by T. +Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.] + +When two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can +be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a +ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. There may +be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop +motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of +any group which are being combined happens to break. When several +threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting +frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters," +and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a +plate or disc before they reach the tube. + +More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally +adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned +work on Cordage and similar literature for detailed information. + +When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it +is made up according to requirements, and the general operations +which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll +or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. The type or class of +yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment +of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be +used previous to despatching the yarn. + +_Reeling_. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting +solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on +to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter, +or rather circumference. Indeed, the circumference of the reel was +fixed by an Act of Convention of Estates, dating as far back as 1665 +and as under: + +"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half +to the King and half to the attacher." + +"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than +_ten quarters_." + +The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All such +yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be +reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads +which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems of dyeing +and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not +employed much in the jute industry. Large quantities of jute yarns +intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable +bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and +sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries. + + YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS + + 90 inches, or 2-1/2 yards = 1 thread, or + the circumference of the reel + 120 threads or 300 yards = 1 cut (or lea) + 2 cuts or 600 yards = 1 heer + 12 cuts or 3,600 yards = 1 standard hank + 48 cuts or 14,400 yards = 1 spyndle + +Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest +yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn is made +up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, even 6 cuts +are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of 4 cuts, 3 cuts, +2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any group less than 12 +cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of +convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on +the swift in the winding frame. + +The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure +the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming +the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of +designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. We have already +seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs. +of one spyndle (14,400 yds.). + +For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same +count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins on the +reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins is wound +round, say, + +6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or 120 +threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 separate +cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been reeled as +mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are +complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round +each group of 120 threads. + +A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the +reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be +in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this +movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to accommodate +the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank. + +Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell rings, the +reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the +mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. In some +case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are +simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking +the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the +cuts. At the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the +mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied. + +The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of +winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate +correctness. + +When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut hanks, +there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. The 24 +mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks +taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along with others +of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from 54 lb. +to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. Each bundle contains a +number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the +purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed, +the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there +would be exactly 56 lb. per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn, +there would be 60 lb in a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb. +in a bundle of 9 lb. yarn. + +The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of +threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal +condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to +approach it as closely as possible. Careless workers allow the reel +to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this +yields what is known as "short tell." It is not uncommon to +introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or 124 teeth, instead of the +nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS + +The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed, +the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types +of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. In its simplest +definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in +such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. The +two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical +terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. The +threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp, +while the transverse threads are the weft. + +The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a +large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be +prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two distinct +conditions necessitate two general types of winding: + +(_a_) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns. + +(_b_) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns. + +For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the +spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from 7 to +8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops +which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces. + +Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins +very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used +for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding machine marked a +great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with +the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are +used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached, +dyed or similarly treated. Fig. 22 illustrates one of the modern +bobbin winding machines for jute made by Messrs. Charles Parker, +Sons & Co., Dundee. The finished product is illustrated by two full +bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. There are +also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of +yarn on the swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and +since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the +bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout +the process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin; +this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin +is filled as exemplified in the illustration. + +The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a +fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is +limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and +any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. of yarn, +a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 to 8 lb. +Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. diameter; hence for +8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 yards. + +Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines +adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It is built +specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of 15 in. +diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is used +mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll only is +shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a 10 +in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by surface or +frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating +drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of +the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the +floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and +upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. This rapid traverse, +combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be +securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required, +and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations +for rolls is much below that for bobbins. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_. +FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS] + +Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary 9 +in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and dressing +departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning +bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having +two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is 80. + +The double tier on each side is practicable because of the small +space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, rolls are +wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as practised in +several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each +side is possible. Both types are made by each machine maker, the one +illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product of Messrs. Charles Parker, +Sons & Co., Dundee. + +In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the +wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically +indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it +looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still +further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS _By permission of +Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.] + +The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other makers, +is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls, +can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions, +one for each roll. + +A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A recent +improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic +stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted, +has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour frame. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) _By +permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.] + +Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning +bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority of +manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The cops are +almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the +exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. There are +different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case +the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a +rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so +necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition of the cops in +the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the +tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning +bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in +other machines these conditions are opposite. Thus, in the cop +winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, +and illustrated in Fig. 25, the spinning bobbins are below the cops, +the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers, +and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. This view shows +about three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48 +spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one +partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the above-mentioned +opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning +bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the +low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing +downwards. Six spindles only appear in this view, which represents +the machine made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, +but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as +desired within practicable and economic limits. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_. +FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE] + +The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in Fig. +26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while +the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles. +The upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a +clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the +spindle. When the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are +when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when +the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when +the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel +wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the +spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in +conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface +of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of +the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the +length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the +partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until +the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically +stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may +be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for +jute shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the +angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 degrees. + +[Illustration: FIG 26 COP WINDING MACHINE _By permission of Messrs. +Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING + +There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the +weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are-- + +1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and +when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred +on to the weaver's beam. + +2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and +then beamed on to a weaver's beam. + +3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large +cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam. + +4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on +to a weaver's beam. + +The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall +describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned. + +For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full spinning +bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right +of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The ends of the +threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves +of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The heck, or +apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's +lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the +bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the +illustration. The heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains, +and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction +the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when +the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised +gradually between the same slides. These movements are necessary in +order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally +round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the +figure. The particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing +if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of +spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about +42 spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number +multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of +the warp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS] + +At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's +lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill +with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is rotated by means +of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill. +As the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually +and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical +spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached. +A beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs; +there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the +pin lease; a common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been +formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion +finished being (50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads +required for the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on +the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next +section of 50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite +direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second +group of 50 to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch +with the threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of +the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads +passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the +same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been +introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to accommodate all the +threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more +parts or chains. It will be noticed that the heck for the nearest +mill is opposite about the 12th round of threads from the bobbin, +whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from +the top. A completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the +third mill. When the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and +simultaneously linked into a chain. + +A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often +better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in No. 2 +method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the full +equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a +bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a frame for +forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for +drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring +the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and +finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the +form of a chain. + +In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is +shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from the +two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame +immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are +made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp. +Between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in +the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. Only +part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the +frame adjoining them. All these frames and machines are necessary, +but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they +perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the +foreground of Fig. 28. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE] + +Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is +a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts +convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a linked chain, +and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to +the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind of link is made by +the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in Fig. 27 are being +withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains are shown tied up in +Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near +the bank. + +The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is +now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the +small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a +kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and +arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are +attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The chain is +held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the +latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact beam of yarn is +obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam +last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is +removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread +lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually +and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in +which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the +camas or HEALDS, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to +the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth +which has been completed. + +Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on +the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's +beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct +processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously. +Thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any +particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be +very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools. +Say, for example, a warp was required to be 600 yards long, and that +there should be 500 threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn +would be placed in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads +from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the +splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position +in regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which +perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while +others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam rotates +at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the +beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per +minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., +Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 29, and the mechanism displayed +is identical with that employed for No. 4 method of preparing warps. + +The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our example) +would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. 29. The +threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet +between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the +supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame appears on the +extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction +with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a +position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough +to hold the required number of spools. The part on the extreme right +can be ignored at present. + +The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in Fig. +28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in Fig. 29, +and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the +stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame, +and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. It +may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that +the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the +same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE _By +permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.] + +The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the +two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being +positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal +shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The loom beam, which +is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by +friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant; +hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the +revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying +amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their +flannels. + +As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between +the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would be +arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., and +bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus, +to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which 500 +threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the +ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be understood that in +the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to +bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a +fixed position in the width. + +The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 method, +for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous +processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example, +all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size +immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary +frame in Fig. 29. The moistened threads must, however, be dried +before they reach the loom beam. When a warp is starched, dried and +beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed." + +In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in Fig. 30, +there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns +before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or rather part +of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be +formed of the great length occupied. Several of the threads from the +spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed, +then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is +partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second +reed. After the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes +partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each +of three cylinders arranged deg.o deg., and finally on to the loom beam. +Each cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a +position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame +in Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly +disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of +the right in the same illustration. + +The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend +somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed +which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for +ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX +STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS] + +A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in Fig. 31. +This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. Charles Parker, +Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps +under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the +banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the +same time. In such a case, three cylinders only would be used for +each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single +dressing machines. The two weaver's beams, with their pressing +rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. Some +machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight. +A very similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that +all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and +all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be +wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if the number +of threads is too many for one bank. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS +SIMULTANEOUSLY _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.] + +Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of 500, +as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in each of +the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as +much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one +sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring +roller. Both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of +the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in this form on to one of the loom +beams. + +It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box +is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of +the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. 30, is a +pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type. +Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads passes, becomes +impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the +lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and +returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards +towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn emerges from the rollers +and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to +suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom +beam at the same rate. But since the diameter of the beam increases +each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread, +it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion. + +The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the +beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A certain +amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for +this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn +dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw +forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the +yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed. + +During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train +of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed +over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in +addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an +ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as +a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has +been woven. Thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts, +each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, the above apparatus would +measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark +at intervals of 120 yards on some of the threads. And all this is +done without stopping the machine. At the time of marking, or +immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring +automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the +warp is about to approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig. +29, near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame. + +As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at +the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a +pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads. + +After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from +the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails +of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts) +and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of +the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been +woven into cloth. These latter threads are still intact in the cambs +and reed in the loom. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING + +If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the +ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when +the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly, +and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots +have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far +forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward, +or beating up, position during the operation of weaving. + +If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or +newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations +would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and, +when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs +and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter," +"tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual +operation of weaving. The latter work is often termed "gaiting a web." + +There is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the +simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable +difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. In nearly all +the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in +the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture +of comparatively simple fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there +are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others; +these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling +and sacking. In addition to these main types, there are several +other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or +other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate +types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of +carpets and the like. + +It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of +this kind; the commoner types are described in _Jute and Linen +Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics_; and the more +elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in +_Textile Design: Pure and Applied_, both by T. Woodhouse and T. +Milne. + +Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. The +technical characteristics of each are as follows-- + +[Illustration: FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS] + +H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine single + warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest + order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is made from the + scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that + illustrated. + +B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in + pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is thick, and the + weave is also plain. + +T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in bagging, + although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft. + It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the + structures are identical. + +S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp yarns, + usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium + or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill order. The weaves + are shown in Fig. 33. + +C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or + two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. The + threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed + to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern, + or arrow-head pattern. + +P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring warp + is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite + pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. The + weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite + different from the other plain cloths illustrated. The cloth is + reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing + slightly in colour ornamentation. + +As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or +coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, B, +T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is +constant and as stated. + +All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in Fig. +33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the +yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, the unit +weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid squares, while the +repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVERS FOR +VARIOUS CLOTHS] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN +CLOTH] + +A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H and P, +Fig. 32. + +B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the method +of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When the warp +is made double as indicated in weave _B_, the effect in the cloth +can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for +weave _A_. Hence, the cloths _H_, _B_ and _T_ can be woven without +any mechanical alteration in the loom. + +_C_ is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 units; +since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two +identical single rows, they may be represented as at _D_. The actual +structure of the cloth _S_ in Fig. 32 is represented on design paper +at _C_, Fig. 33. + +_D_ is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units shown, but +the mechanical parts for weaving both _C_ and _D_ remain constant. + +_E_ is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, while + +_F_ is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown. + +The patterns or cloths for _E_ and _F_ are not illustrated. + +_G_ is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, two +units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at _C_, Fig. 32, +and involves the use of 4 leaves in the loom. + +The solid squares in weave _A_, Fig. 33, are reproduced in the +left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of a plain +cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in +the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks +of weft (the difference is for distinction only). The left-hand +intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks, +while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads +interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from the weave or design +to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will +be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread +on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft +shot on the surface, and _vice versa_. + +A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by +belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The loom in +the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to that +illustrated at _S_, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a full weaver's +warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in Fig. 35. There +are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS] + +During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a +cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in Fig. 25, +and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle, +is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the +opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. The positions of +the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see +Fig. 33, and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom +the other layer occupies a low position. The threads of the warp are +placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed +healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these +two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each +time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft +each journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels +moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two +layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each +journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes +successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones +which preceded. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS _By +permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd._] + +The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as +already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. 33, and the +selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the +surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same +colour. A great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method +of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of +pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to +the mode of interlacing. + +To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving +shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead +shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which all the looms +are individually driven by small motors made by the English Electric +Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular illustration shows +cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is +being adopted in many jute factories. + +A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that +illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those +illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than +that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in +these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 leaves +are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the +nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine is made +by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. The dobby itself, +or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the +requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the +frame-work, and is designed to control 12 leaves, that is, it +operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_. +FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM] + +A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made from +jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this +particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for +forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the +back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton carpet) +and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed. +The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the +cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the +needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which +e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond +with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer. +This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton fabrics, and +these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _P_, Fig. +32. In both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are +required. It need hardly be said that there is a considerable +difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the +designs and the looms in which they are woven.[2] + +[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, _see_ pp. 394-114, _Textile +Design: Pure and Applied_, by T. Woodhouse and T. Milne.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM] + +In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in +the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy +rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room. +Accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the +warp beams, are being placed in position. In order to minimize the +danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with +fewer hands, some firms have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with +suitable Lifting Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from +the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and +then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of +transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to +each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are +valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct +from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the +old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place +to place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method. +The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by +Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important +branch of the industry. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY] + +[Illustration: FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY _By permission of Messrs. +Herbert Morris, Ltd_.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. FINISHING + +The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves +the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the cloth, +removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any +damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth is passed through +a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting +fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart +appearance. It is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although +there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated, +while others again miss this operation entirely. + +A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and in +this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at +the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been +woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in Fig. 38. The +fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton carpets. The +illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of +the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually with either two or +four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK] + +The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a +series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable +arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating +slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth +in contact with them. This is, of course, at the feed side; the +cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown +distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This view illustrates a double +cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. As the +cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two +spirals.[3] When four spirals are required, the frame is much wider, +and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the +machines illustrated. + +[Illustration: FIG 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE _By permission of +Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd_.] + +[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing processes, +see _The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics_, by T. Woodhouse. +(Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., Manchester.)] + +The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed +on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in Fig. 43, +which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &, Co., +Dundee. The cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then +upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and +over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the +pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by +means of a belt on the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled +rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on +to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes +in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process. +At other times, or rather in other machines, the water is +distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly +rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in +a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of the +fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The damped +fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is, +to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the +calender. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., +Ltd_. FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE] + +The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different +rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls, +the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. A five-bowl +calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. 41, and in the +background, while a complete illustration of a modern 5-bowl calender, +with full equipment, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., +Dundee, appears in Fig. 44. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_. +FIG. 44 CALENDAR] + +The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of +the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom +roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls +according to the type of finish desired. For calender finish, the +bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so +that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave +the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in Fig. 34, are +eliminated by this calendering action. The cloth is then delivered +at the far side of the machine in Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface +speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the +others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by +ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. The +faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender +finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same. + +Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish" +or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length of cloth is +wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, Fig. 44, +and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the +amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the +way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. The two +sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in Fig. 44, and these +act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the +dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light +finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. After +the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it +is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with +its belt pulley in Fig. 41. + +There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; one is +driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. Provision +is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. The +pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are +inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure. +Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a +oblique position. + +The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and +the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure, +and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small +weights used. The heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the +chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the +"mangle finish." + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_. +FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE] + +A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by Messrs. +Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 45. +The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to +what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when +the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge +rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four narrow pieces are +shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the two rollers. There are +other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the +beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery +side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. The +three pins are arranged thus o deg.o, and since all three are +moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each +roller or pin is moved through 120 deg.. Thus, the stripped pin will be +placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the +mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the +stripping position. + +While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move +first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this +change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism +situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing +seen at the far end of the mangle. And while this mangling is taking +place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously +mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus +which deposits the cloth in folds. This operation is also known as +"cuttling" or "faking." It will be, understood that a wide mangle, +such as that illustrated in Fig. 45. is constructed specially for +treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply +because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co. +Ltd_. Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE] + +The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation +of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought +into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is +applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers. + +Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a +measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed +through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on +the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one circle +of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, 30, up to +100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in +circumference. + +If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing +or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden +centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well, +and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar +to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. Cloths +for this purpose are often made up to 600 yards in length; indeed, +special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to +weave cloths up to 2,000 yards in length. Special dressing machines +and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. When the +linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre +are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are +returned periodically. + +Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a +simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth, +and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or +folded by special machines such as that illustrated in Fig. 46. The +cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown, +to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars. +As the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand +side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the +convex table. The carriers may be adjusted to move through different +distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may +be made. + +Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but +some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and +this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, however, +the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. Thus, +Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and +made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., Ltd., Dundee. The +full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent +stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth passes upwards +obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it +is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left. +The doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven +drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as +indicated. The machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and +delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. In other +industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging. Some of +the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth +lengthwise as illustrated in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at +the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. Ltd_. +FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE] + +If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the +making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made +annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand, +semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are +sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways +according to requirements. + +[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_ +FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE] + +Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this +purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. Urquhart, +Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine different cloths +are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of +these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the +machine. They are then led between the rollers, under the cutting +knife, and on to the table. The length of cloth is measured as it +passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are +supplied so that practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine +lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and +when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts +the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by +means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table. +He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length +is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means are provided for +registering the number passed through; from 36,000 yards to 40,000 +yards can be treated per day. + +The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in +Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the sewing is +usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the Yankee or +Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than 2,000 +bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking, +_S_, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost invariably done by the Laing or +overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in +Fig. 49, and made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works, +Dundee. This is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000 +bags can be sewn in one day. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE _By +permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_] + +The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form +of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at +_S_, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a considerable variety can be +made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and +their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same +cloth, the variety is still further increased. + +Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and +other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the +necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by +a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. The +latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in Fig. 50. +It is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, +Dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two +distinct colours, say red and black. Occasionally three and +four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably +the most common. + +[Illustration: _By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_. FIG 50 SACK +PRINTING MACHINE] + +The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the +many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number +their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock, +or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a +special numbering machine, also made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald. + +The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is +that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a +hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower moving table upon +a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite +quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are +placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the +bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed +table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per square inch is applied +according to the nature of the goods and their destination. While +the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates, +the wrappers a sewn together. Then specially prepared hoops or metal +bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system, +involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The +ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent +ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the +pins inserted in the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is +removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the +bale securely. + +Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre, +the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into +cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the +world's common carrier. + + + + +INDEX + +ACCUMULATOR +Assorting jute fibre. + +BAG-MAKING +Bale opener + opening +Baling cloth + house + press + station +Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer) +Batch +Batchers +Batching + apparatus + carts or stalls +Batch-ticket +Beamer's lease +Beaming + (dry) direct from bank, +Blending +Bobbin winding +Bojah +Botanical features of jute plants +Breaker card +Brussels carpet +Bundle of jute. + +CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into +Calender + finish +Calenderoy +Carding +Card waste +Cargoes of jute +Chest finish +Clasp-rods +Conditioning fibre +Cops +Cop winding +Corchorus capsularis + clitorius +Crisping and crisping machines +Cropping machine +Cultivation of jute +Cutting knife for jute fibre +Cuttings. + +DAMPING machine +Defects in fibre and in handling +Designs or weaves +Differential motion +Dobby loom +Draft +Drafting +Drawing + frames + different kinds of +Drawing-in +Dressing and dressing machine +Drum +Drying jute fibre +Dust shaker. + +EAST India Co. +Exports of jute from India. + +FABRICS +Faller +Farming operations +Fibres, + the five main + imports of jute. + + +Fibrous layer +Finisher card +Finishing +folding machine. + +Gaiting +Glazed finish +Grading jute fibre +Gunny bags. + +Hand batching +Harvesting the plants +Height of jute plants +Hydraulic mangle + press. + +Identification marks on bags +Imports of jute. + +Jacquard loom +Jute crop + exports from India + fabrics + fibre, imports of + industry + knife + plants, botanical and physical features of + cultivation of + height of + marks. + +Laddering +Ladders +Lapping machine +Linking machine +Linoleum +Looms +Lubrication of fibre. + +Machine batching +Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta +Mangle finish + (hydraulic) +Marks of jute (_see_ jute marks) +Maund +Measuring and marking machine + machine for cloth + the warp +Methods of preparing warps +Multiple-colour printing machines. + +Numbering machine for bags. + +Opening jute heads +Overhead runway systems + sewing machine (Laing's). + +Packing goods +Physical features of jute plants +Pin-lease +Plaiting machine +Plants, thinning of + weeding of +Ploughs for jute cultivation +Point-paper designs +Porcupine feed +Printing machine. + +Reach +Reeling +Retting +Roller-feed +Rolls +Root-comber + opener +Round-thread finish +Rove +Roving frame +Roxburgh, Dr. + +Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical +Sack making + printing machine +Sand bags +Seed + per acre, amount of + sowing of +Sewing machines +Shell-feed +Short-tell +Snipping machine +Softening machines +Spinning +Spool or roll winding +Spools (_see_ Rolls) +Standard bale +Starching (_see_ Dressing) +Steeping (_see_ Retting) +Striker-up (_see_ Batcher) +Stripping +Systems. + +Teazer +Tell (of yarn) +Thinning of plants +Thrum +Time for harvesting the plants +Tube-twisters +Twist +Twisting +Two-colour printing machine +Tying-on +Typical jute fabrics. + +Union Or Yankee sewing machine +Unloading bales of jute from ship. + +Variations in jute +Varieties of jute fibre + plants. + +Warp +Warp dressing (_see_ Dressing) +Warping, beaming and dressing + mill +Washing +Waste + teazer +Weaves or designs +Weaving +Weaver's lease +Weeding of plants +Weft + winding +Wilton carpet +Winding (bobbin) machine + from hank + (large roll) machine + (ordinary size from hanks) machine + rolls and cops +World's great war. + +Yankee or Union sewing machine +Yarn table +Yield of fibre. + + + +_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_ + + + +[Advertisement 14: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE] + +[Advertisement 15: ROYLES LIMITED.] + +[Advertisement 16: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.] + +[Advertisement 17: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.] + +[Advertisement 18: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED] + +[Advertisement 19: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.] + +[Advertisement 20: FREDERICK SMITH & CO.] + +[Advertisement 21: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.] + +[Advertisement 22: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC] + +[Advertisement 23: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING & ACCOUNTANCY] + +[Advertisement 24: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING] + +[Advertisement 25: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE] + +[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY] + +[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING] + +[Advertisement 27: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX] + +[Advertisement 28: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING] + +[Advertisement 29: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE] + +[Advertisement 30: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW] + +[Advertisement 31: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH] + +[Advertisement 32: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH] + +[Advertisement 33: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND] + +[Advertisement 34: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES] + +[Advertisement 35: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE, READING] + +[Advertisement 36: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING, PERIODICALS] + +[Advertisement 36: HENRY TAYLOR & SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S BOOKS] + +[Advertisement 37: THOS. BROADBENT & SONS, LTD.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to +Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 12443.txt or 12443.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/4/4/12443/ + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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