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diff --git a/12443-h/12443-h.htm b/12443-h/12443-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d991d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/12443-h/12443-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4122 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Jute Industry, from Seed to Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg"/> +<style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify;} + p {text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: 0.25em; + margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + img {border: solid; border-left: dashed thin; border-width: 4px;} + IMG {BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px } + h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 , h5 , h6 { text-align : center; } + h1 , h2 { font-variant : small-caps; } + h1 { margin-bottom : 1em; margin-top : 2em; } + h2 { margin-bottom : 1em; margin-top : 1em; } + hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + .poem { margin-left : 10%; margin-right : 5%; text-align : left; } + .poem .stanza { margin : 1em 0; } + .poem p { margin : 0; padding-left : 3em; text-indent : -3em; } + .poem p.i0 { margin-left : 0em; } + .poem p.i4 { margin-left : 2em; } + .poem p.i6 { margin-left : 3em; } + .poem p.i8 { margin-left : 4em; } + .poem p.i10 { margin-left : 5em; } + ul {list-style-type: none; margin-left : 10%;} + .persona {margin-left : 15%; font-size: 80%; font-style: italic; font-weight : bold; } + li.i0 { margin-left : 0em; } + li.i2 { margin-left : 1em; } + li.i4 { margin-left : 2em; } + li.i6 { margin-left : 3em; } + li.i8 { margin-left : 4em; } + li.i10 { margin-left : 5em; } +.ctr {text-align: center;} + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> +</head> +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Jute Industry:<br /> + From Seed to Finished Cloth</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 26, 2004 [eBook #12443]<br /> +[Most recently updated: March 29, 2023]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***</div> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a1.PNG"><img src="images/a1.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: David Bridge & Co., LTD." /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: David Bridge & Co., LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a2.PNG"><img src="images/a2.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co." /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>Advertisement: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.</h3> +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a3.PNG"><img src="images/a3.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD." /></a><br/> + <b>Advertisement: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a4.PNG"><img src="images/a4.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Robert Hall & Sons" /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: Robert Hall & Sons</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a5.PNG"><img src="images/a5.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD." /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a6.PNG"><img src="images/a6.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a7.PNG"><img src="images/a7.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD." /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a8.PNG"><img src="images/a8.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: White, Milne & Co." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: White, Milne & Co.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a9.PNG"><img src="images/a9.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Thomas C. Keay, LTD." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a10.PNG"><img src="images/a10.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Robert Stiven & Co." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: Robert Stiven & Co.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>THE JUTE INDUSTRY</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a11.PNG"><img src="images/a11.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series" /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>PITMAN'S<br/> +COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES<br/> +SERIES</h2> +<h1>THE JUTE INDUSTRY<br/> +FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH</h1> + +<h2>by T. WOODHOUSE</h2> + +<ul class="persona"> +<li class="i0">HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT,</li> +<li class="i2">DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART</li> +<li>FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN</li> +<li class="i4">MANUFACTURERS, BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, +KNARESBOROUGH.</li> +<li class="i2">AUTHOR OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN +FABRICS,"</li> +<li class="i2">"HEALDS AND REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND +PORTERS,"</li> +<li class="i0"><br/> +</li> +<li class="i0">JOINT AUTHOR OF</li> +<li class="i0">"JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"</li> +<li class="i0">"TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"</li> +<li class="i0">"JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"</li> +<li class="i0">"CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"</li> +<li class="i0">"TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"</li> +<li class="i0">"TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,</li> +</ul> + +<h3>AND</h3> +<h2>P. KILGOUR</h2> + +<ul class="persona"> +<li class="i2">HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,</li> +<li class="i4">DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART</li> +<li class="i2">FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.</li> +<li class="i2">JOINT AUTHOR OF</li> +<li class="i4">"JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"</li> +<li class="i4">"CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.</li> +</ul> + +<h5>LONDON<br/> +SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD.<br/> +PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2<br/> +BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK<br/> +1921<br/> +</h5> +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a12.PNG"><img src="images/a12.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="gPREF" href="#PREFg">PREFACE</a></h2> +<p>The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically +all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants, the +extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre into +useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every +important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated, +and the description, although not severely technical, is +sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous +knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently, +and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine of +jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium of +study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the +more detailed literature by the authors on these textile +subjects.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i10">T. WOODHOUSE.</p> +<p class="i10">P. KILGOUR.</p> +</div> + +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i4">March, 1921.</p> +</div> +</div> +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a13.PNG"><img src="images/a13.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: J. M. Adam & Co." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: J. M. Adam & Co.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a14.PNG"><img src="images/a14.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: James F. Low & Co., LTD." /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: Advertisement: James F. Low & Co., +LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> + +<ul> +<li class="i6"><a name="PREFg" href="#gPREF">PREFACE</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="INTRg" href="#gINTR">I. +INTRODUCTORY</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="CULTg" href="#gCULT">II. +CULTIVATION</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="RETTg" href="#gRETT">III. +RETTING</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="ASSOg" href="#gASSO">IV. ASSORTING AND +BALING JUTE FIBRE.</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="MILLg" href="#gMILL">V. MILL +OPERATIONS</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="BATCg" href="#gBATC">VI. +BATCHING</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="CARDg" href="#gCARD">VII. +CARDING</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="DRAWg" href="#gDRAW">VIII. DRAWING AND +DRAWING FRAMES</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="THERg" href="#gTHER">IX. THE ROVING +FRAME</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="SPINg" href="#gSPIN">X. SPINNING</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="TWISg" href="#gTWIS">XI. TWISTING AND +REELING.</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="WINDg" href="#gWIND">XII. WINDING: ROLLS +AND COPS</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="WARPg" href="#gWARP">XIII. WARPING, +BEAMING AND DRESSING.</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="TYINg" href="#gTYIN">XIV. TYING-ON, +DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="FINIg" href="#gFINI">XV. +FINISHING</a></li> +<li class="i6"><a name="INDEg" href="#gINDE">INDEX</a></li> +</ul> +<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3> + +<ul> +<li class="i2">FIG.</li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._1">1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._2">2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._3">3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._4">4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE</a></li> +<li class="i8">FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE</li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._5">5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A</a></li> +<li class="i8">WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS</li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._6">6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE</a></li> +<li class="i8">ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR</li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._7">7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE</a></li> +<li class="i8">FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6</li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._8">8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._9">9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD)</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._10">10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED</a></li> +<li class="i8">AND PREPARED FIBRE</li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._11">11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._12">12. BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._13">13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._14">14. MODERN BREAKER CARD</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._15">15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._16">16. WASTE TEAZER</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._17">17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._18">18. ROVING FRAME</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._19">19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._20">20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._21">21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._22">22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._23">23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._24">24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._25">25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.)</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._26">26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._27">27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._28">28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._29">29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._30">30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._31">31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._32">32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._33">33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._34">34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._35">35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._36">36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._37">37. BOBBY LOOM</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._38">38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._39">39. THE OLD WAY</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._40">40. THE NEW WAY</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._41">41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._42">42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._43">43. DAMPING MACHINE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._44">44. CALENDER</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._45">45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._46">46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._47">47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._48">48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._49">49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.</a></li> +<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._50">50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.</a></li> +</ul> + +<hr /> + +<h2>THE JUTE INDUSTRY</h2> +<h3>FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH</h3> + +<h2><a name="gINTR" href="#INTRg">CHAPTER I. +INTRODUCTORY</a></h2> +<p>The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are +cotton, flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been +considered in general as being of the least value, not only in +regard to price, but also in regard to utility. It is only under +phenomenal conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as +that which took place during the world's great war from 1914 +onwards that, from a commercial point of view, the extreme +importance of the jute fibre and its products are fully realized. +Millions of sand bags were made from the year 1914 to the year +1918 solely for military purposes, while huge quantities of jute +cloth were utilized as the covering material for food stuffs of +various kinds, thus liberating the other textile fibres and cloth +for equally important purposes. It is on record that in one short +period of fourteen days, 150,000,000 sand-bags were collected, +packed and despatched from Dundee to be used as protective +elements in various ways and seats of conflict.</p> +<p>A glance into the records of the textile industries will +reveal the fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in +these islands a hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were +certainly made to import the fibre into Great Britain in the +latter part of the 18th century, and it has been used in India +for centuries in the making of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, +because the fibre is indigenous to that country. And since all +the manufacturing methods there, for a considerable time were +manual ones, the industry--if such it could be called--moved +along slowly, providing employment only for the needs of a small +section of the community on the Eastern shores.</p> +<p>The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the +instigation of Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it +was only after repeated requests that any attempt was made to +utilize the samples of jute for practical experiments The fibre +was so unlike any of the existing staples that those interested +in textiles were not anxious to experiment with it, but +ultimately they were persuaded to do so; these persistent +requests for trials, and the interest which was finally aroused, +formed the nucleus of the existing important jute industry.</p> +<p>Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of +the jute fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when +the first small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home +of the jute industry. This quantity was imported into this +country with the special object of having it treated by +mechanical means, much in the same way as flax fibre was being +treated. At this period Dundee was a comparatively important +textile centre in regard to the spinning and weaving of flax and +hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural that the longer, but +otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute fibre should be +submitted to the machinery in vogue for the preparation and +spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we mean in +general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a +considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and +flax, and hence the modifications in preparation which had +ultimately to be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be +successfully treated. These modifications shall be discussed at a +later stage.</p> +<p>It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was +reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, +the imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns +which were made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those +in demand for the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that +other types of cloth should be introduced so that these yarns +could be utilized. About the year 1838, representatives of the +Dutch Government placed comparatively large orders with the +manufacturers for jute bags to be used for carrying the crop of +coffee beans from their West Indian possessions. The subsequent +rapid growth of the industry, and the demand for newer types of +cloth, are perhaps due more to the above fortunate experiment +than to any other circumstance.</p> +<p>By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute +fibre had increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 +tons in the season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed +to the possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in +India--the seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At +least such a probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a +small consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an +attempt made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the +Indian native industry.</p> +<p>The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand +labour and the essential organization of modern mills and +factories soon became apparent, for in the first place it was +difficult to induce the natives to remain inside the works during +the period of training, and equally difficult to keep the trained +operatives constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to +leave the mills and factories for their more usual mode of living +in the country.</p> +<p>In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew +in India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, +the quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other +British ports amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period +preceding the war, nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various +countries, while the Indian annual consumption--due jointly to +the home industry and the mills in the vicinity of +Calcutta--reached the same huge total of one million tons.</p> +<p>The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, +and consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to +the production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables +it to be ranked as one of the important industries in the textile +group, and one which may perhaps attain a much more important +position in the near future amongst our national manufacturing +processes. As a matter of fact, at the present time, huge +extensions are contemplated and actually taking place in +India.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gCULT" href="#CULTg">CHAPTER II. +CULTIVATION</a></h2> +<p><b>Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant</b>. Jute +fibre is obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to +differ only in the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the +fruit of the variety <i>Corchorus Capsularis</i> is enclosed in a +capsule of approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of +the variety <i>Corchorus Olitorius</i> is contained in a pod. +Both belong to the order <i>Tiliacea</i>, and are annuals +cultivated mostly in Bengal and Assam.</p> +<p>Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the <i>Corchorus +Japonicus</i> of Japan, and the <i>Corchorus Mompoxensis</i> used +in Panama for making a kind of tea, while one variety of jute +plant is referred to in the book of job as the Jew's Mallow; this +variety <i>C. Olitorius</i>, has been used in the East from time +immemorial as a pot herb.</p> +<p>The two main varieties <i>C. Capsularis</i> and <i>C. +Olilorius</i> are cultivated in Bengal for the production of +fibre, while for seed purposes, large tracts of land are +cultivated in Assam, and the seeds exported for use principally +in Mymensingh and Dacca.</p> +<p>The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from +5 to 15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about +four months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems +of jute plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in +general, they are green or pink, and straight with a tendency to +branch. The leaves are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in +length, and about 1-1/2 inches in breadth with serrated edges. +Pale yellow flowers spring from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, +and there is an abundance of small seeds in the fruit which, as +mentioned, is characteristic of the variety.</p> +<p>While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in +various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the +necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are +completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the +geographical position of this province is mainly responsible for +these conditions. On referring to a map of India, it will be seen +that Bengal is directly north of the bay of that name, and is +bounded on the north by the great Himalayan mountains.</p> +<p>During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from +the north, large areas of the mountainous regions are covered +with snow, but when the winds change and come from the south, and +particularly during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises +the general temperature and also melts much of the snow on the +mountain tracts. The rain and melted snow swell the two great +rivers on the east and west of Bengal--the Patna and the +Brahmaputra--and the tremendous volume of water carries down +decayed vegetable and animal matter which is ultimately spread on +the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial deposits, and thus provides +an ideal layer of soil for the propagation of the jute +plants.</p> +<p>The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most +extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of +the rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and +Pabna, and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, +Orissa and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these +areas.</p> +<p>The <i>Corchorus Capsularis</i> variety is usually cultivated +in the higher and richer soils, while the <i>Corchorus +Olitorius</i> variety is most suited for the lower-lying alluvial +soils, and to the districts where the rainfall is irregular; +indeed, the <i>C. Olitorius</i> may be grown in certain other +districts of India which appear quite unsuitable for the <i>C. +Capsularis</i>.</p> +<p>The farming operations in India are rather simple when +compared with the corresponding operations in this country; there +is evidently not the same necessity for extensive working of the +Indian soil as there is for the heavier lands; another reason for +the primitive Eastern methods may be the absence of horses.</p> +<p>The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in +teams of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in +Fig. 1 where a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process +in jute cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the +same way as horses do in this country.</p> +<p>The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough +clods may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the +"hengha"--a piece of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of +bullocks.</p> +<p>The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning +process which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these +ladders are made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided +with projecting pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect +the roots of the previous crop; they are the equivalent of our +harrows, and may be used repeatedly during the winter and spring +seasons so that a fine tilth may be produced.</p> +<p>When manure is essential, it is applied in the later +ploughings, but other large areas have artificial or chemical +manures added at similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure +is preferred, but castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a +weed--constitute good substitutes.</p> +<p>After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is +sown by hand at the period which appears most suitable for the +particular district. The usual sowing time is from February to +the end of May, and even in June in some districts where late +crops can be obtained.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._1"></a> +<a href="images/f1.PNG"><img src="images/f1.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND</h3> +<p>There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a +carefully judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the +districts for the growing period will not only yield a succession +of crops for easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in +the selection of seeds for other areas where atmospheric +conditions differ.</p> +<p>It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two +directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as +uniform a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used +depends partly upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to +30 lbs. per acre are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or +more per ser (about 2 lbs.).</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._2"></a> +<a href="images/f2.PNG"><img src="images/f2.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR 'LADDERING'" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"</h3> +<p>Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of +seed in order to obtain the best results from these seeds for +fibre plants. Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been +collected from plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and +often poor plants; they also grow plants year after year on the +same soil. The fibres obtained, as a rule, and as a result of +this method of obtaining seeds, gradually deteriorate; much +better results accrue when succession of crops and change of seed +are carefully attended to.</p> +<p>If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will +germinate in 8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. +The heat and showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the +soil which should be broken; this is done by means of another +ladder provided with long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the +operation in process. This second laddering process opens up the +soil and allows the moisture and heat to enter. The young plants +are now thinned, and the ground weeded periodically, until the +plants reach a sufficient height or strength to prevent the words +from spreading.</p> +<p>The space between the growing plants will vary according to +the region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an +abundance of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where +the plants show prospects of growing thick and tall.</p> +<p>In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 +1/2 to 4 months from the time of sowing. Although different +opinions are held as to the best time for harvesting, that when +the fruits are setting appears to be most in favour; plants +harvested at this stage usually yield a large quantity of good +fibre which can be perfectly cleaned, and which is of good +spinning quality.</p> +<p>The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in +general, these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear +to be quite suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants +ready for cutting will certainly form a delightful picture, but +the prospect of the operation of cutting indicates a formidable +piece of work since it requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green +crop to produce about 10 to 15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gRETT" href="#RETTg">CHAPTER III. RETTING</a></h2> +<p>The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres +are embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply +of water, since the plants must be completely submerged in the +water for a period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is +dependent upon the period of the year and upon the district in +which the operation is performed.</p> +<p>The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem +is technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or +steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where +the water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time +the plants are under treatment.</p> +<p>The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due +to a bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. +The farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is +making by the presence of the air bells which rise to the +surface; when the formation of air bells ceases, the men examine +the plants daily to see that the operation does not go too far, +otherwise the fibrous layer would be injured, and the resulting +fibre weak. The stems are tested in these examinations to see if +the fibrous layer, or bast layer, will strip off clean from the +wood or stem. When the ryot considers that the layers are +separated from the core sufficiently easy, the work of steeping +ceases, and the process of stripping is commenced immediately. +This latter process is conducted in various ways depending upon +the practice in vogue in the district.</p> +<p>In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the +woody structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and +cross rails fixed to uprights in the water; others break the +stems by hand; while in other cases the stems are handed out of +the water to women who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve +intact the central core or straw to be used ultimately for +thatching. The strips of fibre are all cleaned and rubbed in the +water to remove all the vegetable impurities, and finally the +fibre is dried, usually by hanging it over poles and protecting +it from the direct rays of the sun.</p> +<p>If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the +plants are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous +layers to some other place provided with a better supply of water +for the final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning +are apt to create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable +trouble or difficulties in subsequent branches of the +industry.</p> +<p>Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a +jute plant. The lower illustration represents approximately one +quarter of a complete cross section. The central part of the stem +or pith is lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; +the outer covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual +fibrous layer appears between the parts B and C, and some of the +fibres are indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding +parts in the three distinct views. The middle illustration shows +an enlarged view of a small part of the lowest view, while the +upper illustration is a further enlarged view of a small section +of the middle view. It will be seen that each group of fibres is +surrounded by vegetable matter.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._3"></a> +<a href="images/f3.PNG"><img src="images/f3.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE +PLANT</h3> +<p>Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or +stalks, and one which is practised in certain districts with the +object of preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small +portion, say one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative +then grasps the tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro +in the water, thus loosening the parts, after which the straws +float out, leaving the fibrous layer free. The straws are +collected for future use, while the fibre is cleaned and washed +in the usual way.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gASSO" href="#ASSOg">CHAPTER IV. ASSORTING AND +BALING JUTE FIBRE</a></h2> +<p>The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various +conditions. The method of marketing may be of such a nature that +the farmers in some districts may have to make a rough assortment +of the fibre into a number of qualities or grades, and these +grades are well known in the particular areas; on the other hand, +the farmers may prefer to sell the total yield of fibre at an +overhead price per maund. A maund is approximately equal to 8 +lbs., and this quantity forms a comparatively small bundle. In +other cases, the fibre is made up into what is known as a "drum"; +this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2 to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it +is a very convenient size for transit in India.</p> +<p>Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 +million bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the +remaining half is baled for export to the various parts of the +world; a little over one million bales are exported annually to +Great Britain, the bulk of this fibre comes to Dundee.</p> +<p>It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the +material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method +of assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good +idea of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or +otherwise for special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of +selecting and grading has been established on a basis that +provides a very large amount of jute each year of a quality which +is known as "a first mark." A mark, in general, in reference to +fibre, is simply some symbol, name, letter, monogram or the like, +or a combination of two or more, oft-times with reference to some +colour, to distinguish the origin of the fibre, the baler, or the +merchant.</p> +<p>In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a +better quality than what is known as "first mark," and this +better quality is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a +further lot, the quality of which is below these good ones. Since +there are hundreds of different marks which are of value only to +those connected directly with the trade, it is unnecessary to +dwell on the subject. The following list, however, shows +quotations of various kinds, and is taken from the Market Report +of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920. The price of jute, like +almost everything else, was at this date very high, so in order +to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal prices, we introduce +the prices for the corresponding grade, first marks, for the same +month in the years 1915 onwards.</p> +<pre> + + JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH + First Marks +<br/> + Year. Price per ton. +<br/> + £. s. d. £. s. d. + 1915 27 to 35 15 + 1916 44 + 1917 42 10 + 1918 51 + 1919 49 + 1920 70 (spot) + +</pre> +<p>It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are +generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite +satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under +contract, and guarantees regarding the properties of the +fibre.</p> +<p>After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre +is made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of +these 200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard +bale, the weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a +permitted quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while +the dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X +1'6" X 1' 4".</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._4"></a> +<a href="images/f4.PNG"><img src="images/f4.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE<br/> +FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE</h3> +<p>Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are +conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or +press houses as they are termed. These are very large +establishments, and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to +deal rapidly and efficiently with the large number of bales. In +Fig. 4 scores of natives, superintended by a European, are seen +carrying the smaller bales on their heads from the river boat to +the press house. It is, of course, unnecessary to make the solid +400 lb. bales for Indian consumption; this practice is usually +observed only for jute which is to be exported, and all such +bales are weighed and measured at the baling station by a Chamber +of Commerce expert.</p> +<p>Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the +Calcutta district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with +the most efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 +illustrates one of these huge presses with a number of natives in +close proximity. Two or three distinct operations are conducted +simultaneously by different groups of operatives, and ingenious +mechanism is essential for the successful prosecution of the +work. Two such presses as that illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, +under efficient administration, of turning out 130 bales of 400 +lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is compressed into comparatively +small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal to 6,000 lbs. per square +inch, and no packed bale must exceed in cubical capacity 11 cubic +feet after it leaves the press; it is usual for freight purposes +to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton. (Now changed to 50 +cubic feet.)</p> +<p>The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river +from barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 +to 46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel +brought 70,000 bales.</p> +<p>As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to +quality, and all disputes must be settled by arbitration. +Although this is the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for +quantities of jute to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may +be disposed of on the "Spot." It is a common practice to sell a +number of bales to sample, such number depending generally upon +the extent of the quantity, or "parcel," as it is often called. +The contract forms are very complete, and enable the business to +be conducted to the satisfaction of all concerned in the +trade.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._5"></a> +<a href="images/f5.PNG"><img src="images/f5.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE +PRESS</h3> +<p>It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a +large quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained +from plants which have been grown under variable climatic and +agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the +finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very +indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the +ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it +should be stated that there is such a wide range of goods +manufactured, and additional varieties occasionally introduced, +that it appears possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any +year; indeed, it seems as if the available types of fibre each +season create demands for a corresponding type of manufactured +product.</p> +<p>The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value +annually, but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in +some degree the extent of the industry and its development in +various parts of the world.</p> +<pre> + + EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA +<br/> + Year. Tons. Bales. +<br/> + 1828 18 300 lbs/bale + 1832 182 300 lbs/bale + 1833 300 300 lbs/bale + 1834 828 300 lbs/bale + 1835 1,222 300 lbs/bale + 1836 16 300 lbs/bale + 1837 171 300 lbs/bale + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._6"></a> +<a href="images/f6.PNG"><img src="images/f6.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE<br/> +ADJOINING JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR</h3> +<pre> + + JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA +<br/> + Season. Tons. Bales (400 lbs.). +<br/> + 1850-51. 28,247 158,183 + 1860-61. 46,182 258,619 + 1862-63. 108,776 609,146 + 1863-64. 125,903 707,056 + 1872-73. 406,335 2,275,476 + 1880-81. 343,596 1,924,137 + 1886-87. 413,664 2,316,518 + 1892-93. 586,258 3,083,023 + 1896-97. 588,141 3,293,591 + 1902-03. 580,967 3,253,414 + 1906-07. 829,273 4,643,929 + 1907-08. 1,761,982 9,867,100 + 1908-09. 1,135,856 6,360,800 + 1909-10. 1,302,782 7,295,580 + 1910-11 1,434,286 8,032,000 + 1911-12. 1,488,339 8,334,700 + 1912-13. 1,718,180 9,621,829 + 1913-14. 1,580,674 8,851,775 + 1914-15. 1,898,483 10,631,505 + 1915-16. 1,344,417 7,528,733 + 1916-17. 1,493,976 8,366,266 + 1917-18. 1,607,922 9,004,364 + 1918-19. 1,278,425 7,159,180 + 1919-20. 1,542,178 8,636,200 + +</pre> +<p>A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the +quay-side adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are +raised quickly from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, +scarcely visible in Fig. 6 since it is at the far end of the +vessel, but seen clearly in Fig. 7. When the bales are raised +sufficiently high, they are guided to the comparatively steep +part of a chute from which they descend to the more horizontal +part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then removed by means of +hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and piled or stored in +some suitable arrangement with or without the aid of a crane. +Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales to the +various mills where the first actual process in what is termed +spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are +stored in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as +stated.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._7"></a> +<a href="images/f7.PNG"><img src="images/f7.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE<br/> +FROM THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6</h3> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gMILL" href="#MILLg">CHAPTER V. MILL +OPERATIONS</a></h2> +<p><b>Bale Opening</b>. Each spinner, as already indicated, +stores his bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a +convenient manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any +required number of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to +the preparing department of the mill.</p> +<p>In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to +indicate the mixing of different varieties of material (as well +as different kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a +mixture suitable for the preparing and spinning of a definite +quality and colour of material. In much the same way, the term +"batching" is used in the jute industry, although it will be seen +shortly that a more extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," +in its simplest definition, therefore indicates a number of bales +which is suitable for subsequent handling in the Batching +Department. This number may include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute +according to the amount of accommodation in the preparing +department.</p> +<p>All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same +standard quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It +must be remembered that although the marks have a distinct +reference to quality and colour, they actually represent some +particular firm or firms of balers or merchants. At other times, +the batch of 5 to 10 bales may be composed of different qualities +of jute, the number of each kind depending partly upon the +finished price of the yarn, partly upon the colour, and partly +upon the spinning properties of the combination.</p> +<p>It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished +yarn is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales +for any particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple +differentiation, the yarn which is to be used for the warp +threads in the weaving of cloth must, in nearly every case, have +properties which differ in some respects from the yarn which is +to be used as weft for the same cloth.</p> +<p>On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same +grade of jute is required, to select a batch from different +balers' marks so that throughout the various seasons an average +quality may be produced. The same class of yarn is expected at +all times of the year, but it is well known that the properties +of any one mark may vary from time to time owing to the slight +variations in the manipulation of the fibre at the farms, and to +the variations of the weather during the time of growth, and +during the season generally.</p> +<p>A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching +department, this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales +are, of course, defined by their marks, and those mentioned on +the batch-ticket must be rigidly adhered to for one particular +class of yarn; if there is any chance of one kind running short, +the condition should be notified in time so that a suitable mark +may be selected to take its place without effecting any great +change in the character or quality of the yarn.</p> +<p>When the number and kind of bales have been selected and +removed from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, +they are conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a +suitable position near the first machine in the series. It need +hardly be mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of +baling, is subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale +presents a very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the +various so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together +and forced into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are +quite unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to +be opened out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less +separated from each other. This operation is termed "opening" and +the process is conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one +type of which is illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. +Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.</p> +<p>The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable +manner near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the +view, so that they can be handled to the best advantage. The +bands or ropes, see Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order +that the heads or large pieces of jute can be separated. If any +irregularity in the selection of the heads from the different +bales of the batch takes place in this first selection of the +heads of jute, the faulty handling may affect subsequent +operations in such a way that no chance of correcting the defect +can occur; it should be noted at this stage that if there are +slight variations of any kind in the fibres, it is advisable to +make special efforts to obtain a good average mixture; as a +matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a judicious selection +in every case. The usual variations are--the colour of the fibre, +its strength, and the presence of certain impurities such as +stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute, which are +affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully mixed with +the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may disappear as +the fibre proceeds on its way through the different machines.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._8"></a> +<a href="images/f8.PNG"><img src="images/f8.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" FIG. 8 BALE OPENER" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 8 BALE OPENER<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge +hammer in hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener +is used, and this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. +As already indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine +from the left in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling +feed cloth which carries the heads of jute successively between a +pair of feed rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs +of very deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair +of deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the +figure. These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the +compressed heads of jute and deliver them in a much softer +condition to the delivery sheet on the right. The delivery sheet +is an endless cloth which has a continuous motion, and thus the +softened heads are carried to the extreme right, at which +position they are taken from the sheet by the operatives. The +upper rollers in the machine may rise in their bearings against +the downward pressure of the volute springs on the bearings; this +provision is essential because of the thick and thin places of +the heads.</p> +<p>A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles +Parker, Sons, & Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart +patent is illustrated in Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the +machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in the shape of the crushing or +opening rollers.</p> +<p>It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there +are three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top +and situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller +has a series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. +The knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the +hard layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads +of jute have to bend partially round the larger roller as they +are passing between the rollers. This double action naturally +aids in opening up the material, and the machine, which is both +novel and effective, gives excellent results in practice. The +degree of pressure provided for the top roller may be varied to +suit different conditions of heads of jute by the number of +weights which are shown clearly in the highest part of the +machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._9"></a> +<a href="images/f9.PNG"><img src="images/f9.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" FIG. 9 BALE OPENER " /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 9 BALE OPENER<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, & +Co</i>.</h3> +<p>The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in +this machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of +the machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives +good results in practice.</p> +<p>In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a +condition that the operatives can split them up into pieces of a +suitable size quite freely.</p> +<p>The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a +position near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the +heads of jute as the latter approach the end of the table, and +then pass them to the batchers, who split them. The most suitable +size of pieces are 2-1/2 to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 +feet in length, but the size of the pieces is regulated somewhat +by the system of feeding which is to be adopted at the +breaker-card, as well as by the manager's opinion of what will +give the best overall result.</p> +<p>After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable +smaller pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for +the batcher or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could +watch the above operation of separating the heads of jute into +suitable sizes, it would perhaps be much easier to understand the +process of unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of +fibre. As the loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 +or 9, it is placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the +head hanging, and by a sort of intuition acquired by great +experience, she or he grips the correct amount of fibre between +the fingers, and by a dexterous movement, and a simultaneous +shake of the whole piece, the handful just comes clear of the +bulk and in much less time than it takes to describe the +operation.</p> +<p>As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid +on stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the +method by means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is +to be added for the essential process of lubrication; this +lubrication enables the fibre to work freely in the various +machines.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gBATC" href="#BATCg">CHAPTER VI. BATCHING</a></h2> +<p><b>Softening and Softening Machines</b>. Two distinct courses +are followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves +the bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. +These courses are designated as--</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i6">1. Hand Batching.</p> +<p class="i6">2. Machine Batching.</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>In the former process, which is not largely practised, the +pieces of jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight +twist, to facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in +large carts which can be wheeled from place to place; if this +method is not convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and +deposited in large stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. +10.</p> +<p>On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the +necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over +the pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated +outlets--usually long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, +from a similar sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is +added until the attendant has applied what he or she considers is +the proper quantity. The ratio between a measured amount of oil +and an unmeasured amount of water is thus somewhat varied, and +for this reason the above method is not to be commended. A +conscientious worker can, however, with judgment, introduce +satisfactory proportions which are, of course, supplied by the +person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on the right is where the +oil is stored, while the oil can, and the spray-pipe and tube for +water, are shown near the second post or partition on the +right.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._10"></a> +<a href="images/f10.PNG"><img src="images/f10.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT<br/> +WITH UNPREPARED AND PREPARED FIBRE</h3> +<p>The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is +filled with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to +remain there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the +material may be more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. +At the end of this time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to +and fed into the softening machines where the fibres undergo a +further process of bending and crushing.</p> +<p>All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are +often called, are similar in construction, but the number of +pairs of rollers varies according to circumstances and to the +opinions of managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, +which, in the form shown, is intended to treat jute from the +above-mentioned stalls, is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of +rollers or any other number which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. +The sections are made in 8's. The illustration shows only 31 +pairs.</p> +<p>The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the +foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as +clearly shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with +oblique flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the +horizontal. What is often considered as a standard softening +machine contains 63 pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual +feed and delivery rollers. As mentioned above, this number is +varied according to circumstances.</p> +<p>The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller +sheet, and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in +different ways before they emerge from the delivery rollers at +the other end of the machine.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._11"></a> +<a href="images/f11.PNG"><img src="images/f11.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>Fig. 11 SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS</h3> +<p>Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the +application of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are +much more uniform than they are by the above mentioned process of +hand batching. On the other hand, there is no time for +conditioning the fibre because the lubrication and the softening +are proceeding simultaneously, although conditioning may proceed +while the fibre remains in the cart after it has left the +softener.</p> +<p>The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay +& Co., Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the +pieces or "stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual +lubricating equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular +frame in the centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to +the side frames of the softening machine proper, say that shown +in Fig. 11. Its exact position, with respect to its distance from +the feed, is a matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged +to fall on to the material at any point between the second and +twelfth rollers.</p> +<p>In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen +clearly, and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with +the stricks or pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs +shown immediately above the roller bearings and partially +enclosed in bell-jars.</p> +<p>Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one +vertical and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is +attached by suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at +each end of the machine and to the valve of the water pipe near +the top of the frame, while the upper end of the inclined or +oblique rod is fulcrumed on a rod projecting from the frame. The +lower or curved end of the oblique rod rests against the boss of +one of the upper rollers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._12"></a> +<a href="images/f12.PNG"><img src="images/f12.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 12 Hand-Batching Department" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 12 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT<br/> +WITH UNPREPARED AND AND PREPARED FIBRE</h3> +<p>The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and +stopping of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when +irregular feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise +slightly against the pressure of the springs when thick stricks +appear; hence, when a thick place passes under the roller which +is in contact with the curved end of the oblique rod, the end +moves slightly clockwise, and thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this +results in an increased quantity of oil being liberated from the +source of supply, and the mechanism is so arranged that the oil +reaches the thick part of the strick. When the above-mentioned +upper roller descends, due to a decrease in the thickness of the +strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is moved slightly +counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the thin part of +the strick. It will be understood that all makers of softening +machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching apparatus +when desired.</p> +<p>A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel +wheels at the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a +protection against accidents. In many machines safety appliances +are fitted at the feed end so that the machine may be +automatically stopped if the operative is in danger. The batching +apparatus for this machine is of a different kind from that +illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it is placed nearer the feed +rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed pipes for the oil and the +water are shown coming from a high plane, and the supply is under +the influence of chain gearing as shown on the right near the +large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.</p> +<p>The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and +the nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The +barrow of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from +stricks which have passed through the machine, and these stricks +are now ready for conditioning, and will be stored in a +convenient position for future treatment.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._13"></a> +<a href="images/f13.PNG"><img src="images/f13.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>Fig. 13 SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS</h3> +<p>While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is +graded in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of +yarn without any further selection or treatment, it may be +possible to utilize the material to better advantage by a +judicious selection and treatment after it has undergone the +operation of batching.</p> +<p>What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special +machine known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into +the machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins +in order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter +drops through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre +is delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet +of the softener.</p> +<p>The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special +machine termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the +comparatively hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a +teazer may also be used for somewhat similar purposes, and for +opening out ropes and similar close textures.</p> +<p>The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from +a heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and +then the material is built up with room left for expansion, and +allowed to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain +quantity of this material may then be used along with other marks +of jute to form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.</p> +<p>A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by +means of a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends +of the stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two +parts are severed when it is desired to utilize only the best +part of the strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour +than the remainder, and hence the above process is one of +selection with the object of securing a yarn which will be +uniform in colour and in strength.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gCARD" href="#CARDg">CHAPTER VII. CARDING</a></h2> +<p><b>Breaker and Finisher Cards</b>. After the fibre from the +softening machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it +is ready for one of the most important processes in the cycle of +jute manufacture; this process is termed carding, and is +conducted in two distinct types of machines--</p> +<ul> +<li class="i8">1. The breaker card.</li> +<li class="i8">2. The finisher card.</li> +</ul> +<p>The functions of the two machines are almost identical; +indeed, one might say that the work of carding should be looked +upon as one continuous operation.</p> +<p>The main difference between the two types of machines is in +the method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of +the small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the +action on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing +and splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move +relatively to each other so that while the pins of a +slowly-moving roller allow the strick or stricks (because there +are several side by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end +to end, the pins of another but quickly-moving roller perform the +splitting and the combing of the fibre. The pins of the +slowly-moving roller hold, so to speak, the strick, while the +pins of the quickly-moving roller comb out the fibres and split +adhering parts asunder so as to make a comparatively fine +division.</p> +<p>The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first +arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the +operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A +receptacle, very similar to that used at the breaker card, +appears near the far end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.</p> +<p>A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or +back of the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front +of the card on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card +is facing the observer. The protecting cages were removed so that +the wheels would be seen as clearly as possible.</p> +<p>Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed +side of the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a +channel-shaped stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, +or feed cloth, which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the +grip of the feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a +"shell" feed because the upper contour of the guiding feed +bracket is shaped somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually +decreasing and suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the +shell and the pins of the feed roller.</p> +<p>The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks +of fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and +simultaneously carried into the machine where they come into +contact with the points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving +large roller, termed a cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and +splitting action takes place at this point as well as for a +distance of, say, 24 inches to 30 inches below. The fibres which +are separated at this stage are carried a little further round +until they come into contact with the points of the pins in the +above-mentioned slowly-moving roller, termed a "worker," and +while the fibres are moving slowly forward under the restraining +influence of the worker, they are further combed and split. A +portion of the fibres is carried round by the pins of the worker +from which such fibres are removed by the quicker moving pins of +the second roller of the pair, termed a "stripper," and in turn +these fibres are removed from the pins of the stripper by the +much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._14"></a> +<a href="images/f4.PNG"><img src="images/f14.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG.14 MODERN BREAKER CARD" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD</h3> +<p>The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers +(worker and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are +repeated by a second and similar pair of rollers (worker and +stripper), and ultimately the thin sheet of combed and split +fibres comes into contact with the pins of the doffer from which +it is removed by the drawing and pressing rollers. The sheet of +fibres finally emerges from these rollers into the broad and +upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly of tin +and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in Fig. +14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the +conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width +and, of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously +guided and delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to +the sliver can, distinctly seen immediately below the delivery +rollers. The sliver is seen emerging from the above rollers and +entering the sliver can.</p> +<p>The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn +forward relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged +more or less parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" +is used to indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip +on each other, and in future we shall speak about this +attenuation or drawing out of the fibres by this special term +"draft."</p> +<p>It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into +the can at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant +flow will soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a +sliver can, although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. +The machine must, of course, deliver its quota to enable +succeeding machines to be kept in practically constant work. As a +matter of fact, the machines are arranged in what are termed +"systems," so that this desirable condition of a constant and +sufficient feed to all may be satisfactorily fulfilled.</p> +<p>The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar +to that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the +pulley side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. +Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are +fed by slivers which have been made as explained in connection +with the breaker card, but there are two distinct methods of +feeding the slivers, or rather of arranging the slivers at the +feed side. In both cases, however, the full width of the card is +fed by slivers laid side by side, with, however, a thin guide +plate between each pair, and one at each extreme end.</p> +<p>One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full +sliver cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the +floor and to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The +sliver from each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver +guide, and thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The +slivers are guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or +"feed sheet" which, in turn, conveys them continuously between +the feed rollers. The feed apparatus in such machines is +invariably of the roller type, and sometimes it involves what is +known as a "porcupine" roller. It will be understood that the +feeding of level slivers is a different problem from that which +necessitates the feeding of comparatively uneven stricks.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._15"></a> +<a href="images/f15.PNG"><img src="images/f15.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &Sons, +Ltd.</i></h3> +<p>The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter +the machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus +form, as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, +and this sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the +various pairs of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much +the same way as already described in connection with the breaker +card. There are, however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher +card than there are in the breaker card, for while the latter is +provided with two pairs of rollers, the former may be arranged +with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs of rollers (6 workers and 6 +strippers). The number of pairs of rollers depends upon the +degree of work required, and upon the opinions of the various +managers.</p> +<p>There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--</p> +<ul> +<li class="i8">1. Half-circular finisher cards.</li> +<li class="i8">2. Full-circular finisher cards.</li> +</ul> +<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and +such machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers +are so disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a +complete circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from +pair to pair to undergo the combing and splitting action before +coming into contact with the doffer. There are five pairs of +rollers in the machine in Fig. 15, and all the rollers are +securely boxed in, and the wheels fenced. The arrangement of the +wheels on the gear side is very similar to that shown in +connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14, and therefore +requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes the covers, +shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and adapted +to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to examine the +rollers and other parts.</p> +<p>The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the +various rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of +draft, are ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the +pins of the cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the +conductor. The conductor of a finisher card is made in two +widths, so that half the width of the film enters one section and +the other half enters the other section. These two parallel +sheets, split from one common sheet, traverse the two conductors +and are ultimately delivered as two slivers about 6 inches above +the point or plane in which the 10 or 12 slivers entered, and on +to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two slivers are then +guided by horns projecting from the upper surface of the sliver +plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction of +delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to +pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the +left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver +can.</p> +<p>In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of +mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine +illustrated in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism +which is supported by the small supplementary frame on the +extreme right. This special mechanism is termed a "Patent Push +Bar Drawing Head," and the function which it performs will be +described shortly; in the meantime it is sufficient to say that +it is used only when the slivers from the finisher card require +extra or special treatment. A very desirable condition in +connection with the combination of a finisher card and a +draw-head is that the two distinct parts should work in unison. +In the machine under consideration, the feed and delivery rollers +of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage of the +draw-head mechanism.</p> +<p>One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a +uniform thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other +respects. A so-called level thread refers, in general, to a +uniform diameter, but there are other equally, if not more, +important phases connected with the full sense of the word +uniform.</p> +<p>It has already been stated that in the batching department +various qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in +order to obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different +grades and marks vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, +length and suppleness; it is of the utmost importance that these +fibres of diverse qualities should be distributed as early as +possible in the process so as to facilitate the subsequent +operations.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._16"></a> +<a href="images/f16.PNG"><img src="images/f16.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd.</i></h3> +<p>However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed +in the batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves +something to be desired; further improvement is still desirable +and indeed necessary. It need hardly be said, however, that the +extent of the improvement, and the general final result, are +influenced greatly by the care which is exercised in the +preliminary processes.</p> +<p>The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the +finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new +length, and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of +each individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the +new length of sliver is identical with each of the individual +lengths and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting +takes place in the finisher card, so that the fibres which +compose the combined 10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a +draft of 8 to 16 or even more; this means that for every yard of +the group of slivers which passes into the machine there is drawn +out a length of 8 to 16 yards or whatever the draft happens to +be. The resulting sliver will therefore be approximately +two-thirds the bulk of each of the original individual slivers. +The actual ratio between them will obviously depend upon the +actual draft which is imparted to the material by the relative +velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.</p> +<p>It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the +fibrous material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is +known as card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is +produced, in spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed +into the machine which is not delivered as perfect material. All +this waste from various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, +card waste, ropes, dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately +utilized to produce sliver for heavy sacking weft.</p> +<p>The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from +the valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products +are passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. +F. Low & Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. +The resulting mass is then re-carded, perhaps along with other +more valuable material, and made into a sliver which is used, as +stated above, in the production of a cheap and comparatively +thick weft such as that used for sacking.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gDRAW" href="#DRAWg">CHAPTER VIII. DRAWING AND +DRAWING FRAMES</a></h2> +<p>The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both +the breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular +movement of the pins since all these (with the single exception +of those in the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) +are carried on the peripheries of rotating rollers. In the +draw-head mechanism, the pins move, while in contact with the +fibres, in a rectilinear or straight path. In the machines which +fall to be discussed in this chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," +the action of the pins on the slivers from the finisher card is +also in a straight path; as a matter of fact, the draw-head of a +finisher card is really a small drawing frame, as its name +implies. Moreover, each row or rather double row, of pins is +carried separately by what is termed a "faller." The faller as a +whole consists of three parts:</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i6">1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for +being</p> +<p class="i10">moved in a closed circuit.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i6">2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or</p> +<p class="i10">"stocks," fixed to the rod.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i6">3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes +about</p> +<p class="i10">1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill +or</p> +<p class="i10">hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the +above</p> +<p class="i10">gills.</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the +particular method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the +length of the fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to +restrain the movements of the fibres between two important pairs +of rollers. There are actually about four sets of rollers from +front to back of a drawing frame; one set of three rollers +constitute the "retaining" rollers; then comes the drawing roller +and its large pressing roller; immediately after this pair is the +"slicking" rollers, and the last pair is the delivery rollers. +The delivery rollers of one type of drawing frame, called the +"push-bar" drawing frame, and made by Messsrs. Douglas Fraser +& Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly in Fig. 17, and +the can or cans into which the slivers are ultimately delivered +are placed immediately below one or more sections of these +rollers and in the foreground of the illustration. The large +pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing roller, +occupy the highest position in the machine and near the centre of +same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are +situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of +gill pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.</p> +<p>Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a +set, is led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to +the sliver guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately +the slivers leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by +the gill pins of a faller which is rising from the lower part of +its circuit to the upper and active position. Each short length +of slivers is penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these +coming up successively as the preceding one moves along at +approximately the same surface speed as that of the retaining +rollers. The sheet of pins and their fallers are thus +continuously moving towards the drawing rollers and supporting +the slivers at the same time. As each faller in succession +approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is made to descend so +that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this point the +faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until it +reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the +fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be +seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch +between the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there +is always one faller leaving the upper set at the front and +another joining the set at the back.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._17"></a> +<a href="images/f17.PNG"><img src="images/f17.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>Fig. 17 PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME</h3> +<p>The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the +drawing rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and +must in all cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. +This condition is necessary because the surface speed of the +drawing roller is much greater than that of the retaining +rollers; indeed, the difference between the surface speeds of the +two pairs of rollers is the actual draft.</p> +<p>Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are +embedded in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, +as mentioned, to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the +latter to the nip of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward +ends of the fibres are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing +rollers, the fibres affected slide on those which have not yet +reached the drawing rollers, and, incidentally, help to +parallelize the fibres. It will be clear that if any fibre +happened to be in the grip of the two pairs of rollers having +different surface speeds, such fibre would be snapped. It is to +avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance between the two +sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres under +treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."</p> +<p>On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass +between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate +which bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the +delivery rollers, and by means of which plate two or more +individual slivers are diverted at right angles, first to join +each other, and then again diverted at right angles to join +another sliver which passes straight from the drawing rollers and +over the sliver plate to the guide of the delivery rollers. It +will thus be seen that a number of slivers, each having been +drawn out according to the degree of draft, are ultimately joined +to pass through a common sliver guide or conductor to the nip of +the delivery rollers, and thence into a sliver can.</p> +<p>The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of +the same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. +With the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels +are at the far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in +dust-proof casing. The set-on handles, for moving the belt from +the loose pulley to the fast pulley, or <i>vice versa</i>, are +conveniently situated, as shown, and in a place which is +calculated to offer the least obstruction to the operative. The +machines are made with what are known as "two heads" or "three +heads." It will be seen from the large pressing rollers that +there are two pairs; hence the machine is a "two-head" drawing +frame.</p> +<p>The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to +a further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar +machine termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills +for this frame are rather finer and more closely set than those +in the first drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the +machines, and the operations conducted therein, are practically +identical, and therefore need no further description. It should +be mentioned, however, that there are different types of drawing +frames, and their designation is invariably due to the particular +manner in which the fallers are operated while traversing the +closed circuit. The names of other drawing frames appear +below.</p> +<ul> +<li class="i2">Spiral or screw gill;</li> +<li class="i2">Open link chain;</li> +<li class="i2">Rotary;</li> +<li class="i2">Ring Carrier</li> +<li class="i2">Circular.</li> +</ul> +<p>For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is +considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation +in a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are +considered sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gTHER" href="#THERg">CHAPTER IX. THE ROVING +FRAME</a></h2> +<p>The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but +there still remains a process by means of which the drafting of +the slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. +And, in addition to these important functions, two other equally +important operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of +imparting to the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is +known as a "rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a +large rove bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.</p> +<p>The machine in which this multiple process is performed is +termed a "roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, +and with different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is +provided for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of +course, with two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of +spindles, flyers, and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in +Fig. 18, which represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. +Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.</p> +<p>Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from +the upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes +in the flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The +discs or bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter +rail" or "builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical +spindles pass through the centre of the discs, each spindle being +provided with a "flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon +the tops of the spindles.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._18"></a> +<a href="images/f18.PNG"><img src="images/f18.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME<br/> +<i>By Permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, +Ltd</i></h3> +<p>A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be +seen that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing +rollers passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a +guide eye, then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part +of the flyer, round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme +end of either of the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. +Each bobbin has its own sliver can (occasionally two), and the +sliver passes from this can between the sides of the sliver +guide, between the retaining rollers, then amongst the gill pins +of the fallers and between the drawing (also the delivery) +rollers. Here the sliver terminates because the rotary action of +the flyer imparts a little twist and causes the material to +assume a somewhat circular sectional form. From this point, the +path followed to the bobbin is that described above.</p> +<p>As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the +sliver is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the +periphery of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to +about 20 yards per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also +driven at a constant speed, because in all cases we have--</p> +<ul> +<li class="i2">spindle speed = delivery x twist.</li> +</ul> +<p>There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the +rove bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is +driven independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for +any one series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the +bobbin differs, however, for each complete layer of rove, simply +because the effective diameter of the material on the bobbin +changes with the beginning of each new layer.</p> +<p>The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal +plane, and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the +same height from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are +raised gradually by the builder during the formation of each +layer from the top of the bobbin to the bottom, and lowered +gradually by the builder during the formation of each layer from +bottom to top. In other words, the travel of the builder is +represented by the distance between the inner faces of the +flanges of the rove bobbin.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._19"></a> +<a href="images/f19.PNG"><img src="images/f19.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME<br/> + FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK</h3> +<p>Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in +virtue of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating +bobbin, and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter +increases the combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by +two diameters of the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an +intermittent and variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by +means of which this desirable and necessary speed is given to the +bobbin constitutes one of the most elegant groups of mechanical +parts which obtains in textile machinery. Some idea of the +intricacy of the mechanism, as well as its value and importance +to the industry, may be gathered from the fact that a +considerable number of textile and mechanical experts struggled +with the problem for years; indeed 50 years elapsed before an +efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts was evolved for +performing the function.</p> +<p>The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the +differential motion," and the difficulties in constructing its +suitable gearing arose from the fact that the speed of the rove +passing on to the various diameters must be maintained +throughout, and must coincide with the delivery of yarn from the +rollers, so that the attenuated but slightly twisted sliver can +be wound on to the bobbin without strain or stretch. The varying +motion is regulated and obtained by a drive, either from friction +plates or from cones, and the whole gear is interesting, +instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct motions, a +constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the bobbins from +the driving shaft of the machine.</p> +<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and +the whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of +wheels to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that +nearest the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently +guarded, and provision is made to start or stop the machine from +any position on both sides. The machine is adapted for building +10 in. X 5 in. bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. +outside diameter, and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the +illustration showing part of a machine and approximately 48 +spindles.</p> +<p>The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the +size of the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 +in. frame, and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin +are 10 in. apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of +the builder would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the +standard size for the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 +in. bobbins are used for the roves from which finer yarns are +spun. When the finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often +termed spinning direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or +thick yarns, 8 in. x 4 in. bobbins are largely used.</p> +<p>Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size +of rove so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of +spinning and according to the count of the required yarn; the +parts involved in these changes are those which affect the draft +gearing, the twist gearing, and the builder gearing in +conjunction with the automatic index wheel which acts on the +whole of the regulating motion.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gSPIN" href="#SPINg">CHAPTER X. SPINNING</a></h2> +<p>The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size +of yarn required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process +of spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole +routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the +name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of +processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be +done before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The +nomenclature is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times +when the conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much +simpler apparatus than it is at present; the established name to +denote this conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of +a large number of important processes, each one of which is as +important and necessary as the actual operation of spinning.</p> +<p>A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one +of the Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly +the wide "pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the +method adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. +Spinning frames are usually double-sided, and each side may +contain any practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per +side are common numbers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._20"></a> +<a href="images/f20.PNG"><img src="images/f20.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT</h3> +<p>The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. +20, are brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs +of a creel (often called a hake) near the top of the spinning +frame-actually above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove +bobbin is free to rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is +drawn downwards by the retaining rollers. The final drafting of +the material takes place in this frame, and a considerable amount +of twist is imparted to the drawn out material; the latter, now +in the desired form and size of yarn, is wound simultaneously on +to a suitable size and form of spinning bobbin.</p> +<p>When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed +over a "breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of +the conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor +by means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the +drawing rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out +between the retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft +required, and the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed +in a slot of the "thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, +round one of the arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at +the end of the flyer arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The +latter is raised and lowered as in the roving frame by a builder +motion, so that the yarn may be distributed over the full range +between the ends or flanges.</p> +<p>Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band +which passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven +whorl of the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the +delivery of the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the +operation of spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this +connection, the parts resemble those in the roving frame, but +from this point the functions of the two frames differ. The yarn +has certainly to be wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as +it is delivered from the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the +spinning frame the bobbin, which rotates on the spindle, is not +driven positively, as in the roving frame, by wheel gearing; each +spinning bobbin is actually driven by the yarn being pulled round +by the arm of the flyer and just sufficient resistance is offered +by the pressure or tension of the "temper band" and weight. The +temper band is simply a piece of leather or hemp twine to which +is attached a weight, and the other end of the leather or twine +is attached to the builder rail.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._21"></a> +<a href="images/f21.PNG"><img src="images/f21.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES</h3> +<p>The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves +into one of which the temper-band is placed so that the band +itself is in contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin +flange. A varying amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin +is required in virtue of the varying size of the partially-filled +bobbin, and this is obtained by placing the temper-band +successively in different groves in the builder so that it will +embrace a gradually increasing arc of the spinning bobbin, and +thus impart a heavier drag or tension.</p> +<p>The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of +the frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 +are at right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of +the chief parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen +distinctly on the pegs of the creel in the upper part of the +figure, and the rove yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as +already described, until they ultimately enter the eyes of the +flyer arms to be directed to and wound upon the spinning bobbins. +The flyers--at one time termed throstles--are clearly visible a +little above the row of temper weights. The chief parts for +raising the builder--cam lever, adjustable rod, chain and +wheel--are illustrated at the end of the frame nearest the +observer.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gTWIS" href="#TWISg">CHAPTER XI. TWISTING AND +REELING</a></h2> +<p>In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the +form they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On +the other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving +included, it is necessary to take two, three, or more of these +single yarns and to combine them by a process technically termed +twisting, and sometimes "doubling" when two single yarns only are +combined.</p> +<p>Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements +go, is to twist two single yarns together to make a compound +yarn, it is not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, +sixteen or more single yarns are often united for special +purposes, but, when this number is exceeded, the operation comes +under the heading of twines, ropes and the like. The twist or +twine thus formed will have the number of yarns regulated by the +levelness and strength required for the finished product. The +same operation is conducted in the making of strands for cordage, +but when a number of these twines are laid-up or twisted +together, the name cord or rope is used to distinguish +them.[1]</p> +<p>[Footnote 1: See <i>Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres</i>, +by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]</p> +<p>When two or three threads are united by twisting, the +operation can be conducted in a twisting frame which differs +little from a ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be +described. There may be, however, appliances embodying some +system of automatic stop motion to bring the individual spindles +to rest if one thread out of any group which are being combined +happens to break. When several threads have to be twisted +together, special types of twisting frames are employed; these +special machines are termed "tube twisters," and the individual +threads pass through holes suitably placed in a plate or disc +before they reach the tube.</p> +<p>More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are +occasionally adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the +above-mentioned work on Cordage and similar literature for +detailed information.</p> +<p>When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting +frame, it is made up according to requirements, and the general +operations which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, +cop-winding, roll or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. +The type or class of yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to +be used, or the equipment of the manufacturer, determines which +of these methods should be used previous to despatching the +yarn.</p> +<p><b>Reeling</b>. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, +consisting solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or +twisting bobbins on to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width +and of a fixed diameter, or rather circumference. Indeed, the +circumference of the reel was fixed by an Act of Convention of +Estates, dating as far back as 1665 and as under:</p> +<p><em>"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of +confiscation, half to the King and half to the +attacher."</em></p> +<p><em>"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be +shorter than <b>ten quarters</b>."</em></p> +<p>The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All +such yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated +must be reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the +threads which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems +of dyeing and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but +these are not employed much in the jute industry. Large +quantities of jute yarns intended for export are reeled, partly +because bundles form suitable bales for transport, and partly +because of the varied operations and sizes of apparatus which +obtain in foreign countries.</p> +<pre> + + YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS +<br/> + 90 inches, or 2-1/2 yards = 1 thread, or + the circumference + of the reel + 120 threads or 300 yards = 1 cut (or lea) + 2 cuts or 600 yards = 1 heer + 12 cuts or 3,600 yards = 1 standard hank + 48 cuts or 14,400 yards = 1 spyndle +</pre> +<p>Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very +finest yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn +is made up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, +even 6 cuts are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of +4 cuts, 3 cuts, 2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any +group less than 12 cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used +is simply one of convenience to enable the mill-hank to be +satisfactorily placed on the swift in the winding frame.</p> +<p>The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to +measure the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, +or forming the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as +the method of designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. +We have already seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by +the weight in lbs. of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).</p> +<p>For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the +same count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins +on the reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins +is wound round, say,</p> +<p>6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or +120 threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 +separate cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been +reeled as mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the +cuts are complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" +is tied round each group of 120 threads.</p> +<p>A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the +reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may +be in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and +this movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to +accommodate the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.</p> +<p>Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell +rings, the reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that +when the mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be +distinct. In some case, the two threads of the lease-band instead +of being tied, are simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, +without of course breaking the yarn which is being reeled, +although effectively separating the cuts. At the end of the +operation (when the quantity of cuts for the mill-hank has been +reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.</p> +<p>The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation +of winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with +approximate correctness.</p> +<p>When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut +hanks, there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. +The 24 mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and +the hanks taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along +with others of the same count, are made up into bundles which +weigh from 54 lb. to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. +Each bundle contains a number of complete hanks, and it is +unusual to split a hank for the purpose of maintaining an +absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed, the bundles contain an +even number of hanks, so that while there would be exactly 56 lb. +per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn, there would be 60 lb in +a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb. in a bundle of 9 lb. +yarn.</p> +<p>The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct +number of threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct +tell"; this ideal condition may be impracticable in actual work, +but it is wise to approach it as closely as possible. Careless +workers allow the reel to run on after one or more spinning +bobbins are empty, and this yields what is known as "short tell." +It is not uncommon to introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or +124 teeth, instead of the nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for +this defect in reeling.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gWIND" href="#WINDg">CHAPTER XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND +COPS</a></h2> +<p>The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus +completed, the yarns are ready to be combined either for more +elaborate types of twist, or for the processes of cloth +manufacture. In its simplest definition, a fabric consists of two +series of threads interlaced in such way as to form a more or +less solid and compact structure. The two series of threads which +are interlaced receive the technical terms of warp and weft--in +poetical language, warp and woof. The threads which form the +length of the cloth constitute the warp, while the transverse +threads are the weft.</p> +<p>The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to +a large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has +to be prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two +distinct conditions necessitate two general types of winding:</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp +yarns.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.</p> +<p>For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from +the spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain +from 7 to 8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning +bobbin into cops which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.</p> +<p>Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged +bobbins very similar to, but larger than, those which are at +present used for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding +machine marked a great advance in the method of winding warp +yarns as compared with the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the +jute trade, the latter are used only for winding from hank those +yarns which have been bleached, dyed or similarly treated. Fig. +22 illustrates one of the modern bobbin winding machines for jute +made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Dundee. The +finished product is illustrated by two full bobbins on the stand +and close to a single empty bobbin. There are also two full +bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of yarn on the +swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and since +the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the bobbin, +an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout the +process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin; +this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the +bobbin is filled as exemplified in the illustration.</p> +<p>The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, +a fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is +limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths +and any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. +of yarn, a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 +to 8 lb. Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. +diameter; hence for 8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 +yards.</p> +<p>Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special +machines adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It +is built specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of +15 in. diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is +used mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll +only is shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material +from a 10 in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by +surface or frictional contact between the roll itself and a +rapidly rotating drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side +to side by means of the grooved cam on the left, the upright +lever fulcrumed near the floor, and the horizontal rod which +passes in front of the rolls and upon which are fixed the actual +yarn guides. This rapid traverse, combined with the rotation of +the rolls, enables the yarn to be securely built upon a paper or +wooden tube; no flanges are required, and hence the initial cost +as well as the upkeep of the foundations for rolls is much below +that for bobbins.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._22"></a> +<a href="images/f22.PNG"><img src="images/f22.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS</h3> +<p>Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the +ordinary 9 in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and +dressing departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn +on spinning bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, +each side having two tiers; a common number of spools for one +machine is 80.</p> +<p>The double tier on each side is practicable because of the +small space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, +rolls are wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as +practised in several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one +row only at each side is possible. Both types are made by each +machine maker, the one illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product +of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Dundee.</p> +<p>In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the +wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically +indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed +it looks highly probable that the use of these articles will +still further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle +form.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._23"></a> +<a href="images/f23.PNG"><img src="images/f23.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other +makers, is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different +sizes of rolls, can be run at a high speed, and possesses +automatic stop motions, one for each roll.</p> +<p>A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A +recent improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an +automatic stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is +exhausted, has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour +frame.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._24"></a> +<a href="images/f24.PNG"><img src="images/f24.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & +Co</i>.</h3> +<p>Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the +spinning bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority +of manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The +cops are almost invariably wound direct from the spinning +bobbins, the exception being coloured yarn which is wound from +hank. There are different types of machines used for cop winding, +but in every case the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the +yarn guide has a rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known +cross-wind so necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition +of the cops in the winding operation is vertical, but while in +some machines the tapered nose of the cop is in the high position +and the spinning bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in +the low position, in other machines these conditions are +opposite. Thus, in the cop winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas +Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, and illustrated in Fig. 25, +the spinning bobbins are below the cops, the tapered noses of the +latter are upwards in their cones or shapers, and the yarn guides +are near the top of the machine. This view shows about +three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48 +spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one +partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the +above-mentioned opposite type, and the one most generally +adopted, with the spinning bobbins as shown near the top of the +frame, the yarn guides in the low position, and the point or +tapered nose of the cop pointing downwards. Six spindles only +appear in this view, which represents the machine made by Messrs. +Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, but it will be +understood that all machines are made as long as desired within +practicable and economic limits.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._25"></a> +<a href="images/f25.PNG"><img src="images/f25.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly +in Fig. 26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main +shaft, while the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their +respective spindles. The upper face of each small skew bevel +wheel forms one part of a clutch; the other part of the clutch is +slidably mounted on the spindle. When the two parts of the clutch +are separated, as they are when the yarn breaks or runs slack, +when it is exhausted, or when the cop reaches a predetermined +length, the spindle stops; but when the two parts of the clutch +are in contact, the small skew bevel wheel drives the clutch, the +latter rotates the spindle, and the spindle in turn draws forward +the yarn from the bobbin, and in conjunction with the rapidly +moving yarn guide and the inner surface of the cone imparts in +rapid succession new layers on the nose of the cop, and thus the +formed layers of the latter increase the length proportionately +to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the partially completed cop +moves slowly away from its cup or cone until the desired length +is obtained when the spindle is automatically stopped and the +winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may be made of +any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for jute +shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the angle +formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 +degrees.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._26"></a> +<a href="images/f26.PNG"><img src="images/f26.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 26 COP WINDING MACHINE" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 26 COP WINDING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gWARP" href="#WARPg">CHAPTER XIII. WARPING, BEAMING +AND DRESSING</a></h2> +<p>There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on +the weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2">1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a +warping mill,</p> +<p class="i6">and when the completed chain is removed from the +mill it is</p> +<p class="i6">transferred on to the weaver's beam.</p> +</div> +<br/> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2">2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a +linking</p> +<p class="i6">machine, and then beamed on to a weaver's beam.</p> +</div> +<br/> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2">3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from +the large</p> +<p class="i6">cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's +beam.</p> +</div> +<br/> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2">4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and +beamed</p> +<p class="i6">simultaneously on to a weaver's beam.</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall +describe the four processes briefly, and in the order +mentioned.</p> +<p>For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full +spinning bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated +to the right of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The +ends of the threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes +of two leaves of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The +heck, or apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's +lease, drawer's lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown +clearly between the bobbin bank and the female warper in the +foreground of the illustration. The heck is suspended by means of +cords, or chains, and so ranged that when the warping mill is +rotated in one direction the heck is lowered gradually between +suitable slides, while when the mill is rotated in the opposite +direction the heck is raised gradually between the same slides. +These movements are necessary in order that the threads from the +bobbins may be arranged spirally round the mill and as +illustrated clearly on all the mills in the figure. The +particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing if +chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of +spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about 42 +spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number +multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length +of the warp.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._27"></a> +<a href="images/f27.PNG"><img src="images/f27.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILL" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS</h3> +<p>At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the +weaver's lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of +the mill with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is +rotated by means of the handle and its connections shown near the +bottom of the mill. As the mill rotates, the heck with the +threads descends gradually and thus the group of threads is +disposed spirally on the vertical spokes of the mill until the +desired length of the warp is reached. A beamer's lease or "pin +lease" is now made on the two lower pegs; there may be two, +three, four or more threads in each group of the pin lease; a +common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been formed, one +section of the warp has been made, the proportion finished being +(50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads required for +the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on the same +two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next section of +50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite direction +in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second group of 50 +to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch with the +threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of the +mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads +passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the +same two operations until the requisite number of threads has +been introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to +accommodate all the threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp +is made in two or more parts or chains. It will be noticed that +the heck for the nearest mill is opposite about the 12th round of +threads from the bobbin, whereas the heck for the second mill is +about the same distance from the top. A completed warp or chain +is being bundled up opposite the third mill. When the warp is +completed it is pulled off the mill and simultaneously linked +into a chain.</p> +<p>A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and +often better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in +No. 2 method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the +full equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of +apparatus--a bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a +frame for forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, +machine for drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and +for measuring the length and marking the warp at predetermined +intervals, and finally the actual machine which links the group +of threads in the form of a chain.</p> +<p>In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, +is shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from +the two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine +or frame immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds +of lease are made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the +end of the warp. Between this leasing frame and the linking +machine proper, shown in the foreground, is the drawing, +measuring and marking machine. Only part of this machine is +seen--the driving pulleys and part of the frame adjoining them. +All these frames and machines are necessary, but the movements +embodied in them, or the functions which they perform, are really +subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the foreground of Fig. +28.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._28"></a> +<a href="images/f28.PNG"><img src="images/f28.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" IG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE</h3> +<p>Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, +it is a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these +parts convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a +linked chain, and the latter is shown distinctly descending from +the chute on to the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind +of link is made by the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in +Fig. 27 are being withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains +are shown tied up in Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools +appear against the wall near the bank.</p> +<p>The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking +machine is now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, +or rather the small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been +disposed in a kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or +radial, and arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, +they are attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The +chain is held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the +beam while the latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact +beam of yarn is obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes +on to the beam last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the +completed beam is removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, +this single-thread lease enables the next operative to select the +threads individually and to draw the threads, usually single, but +sometimes in pairs, in which case the lease would be in pairs, +through the eyes of the camas or HEALDS, or to select them for +the purpose of tying them to the ends of the warp in the loom, +that is to the "thrum" of a cloth which has been completed.</p> +<p>Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, +or on the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the +weaver's beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise +distinct processes of warping and beaming may be conducted +simultaneously. Thus, the total number of threads required for +the manufacture of any particular kind of cloth--unless the +number of threads happens to be very high--may be wound on to the +loom beam direct from the spools. Say, for example, a warp was +required to be 600 yards long, and that there should be 500 +threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn would be placed +in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads from these +spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the splits or +openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position in +regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which +perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, +while others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam +rotates at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in +others the beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of +revolutions per minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS +Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. +29, and the mechanism displayed is identical with that employed +for No. 4 method of preparing warps.</p> +<p>The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our +example) would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. +29. The threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight +wide sheet between the pair of rollers, these parts being +contained in the supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame +appears on the extreme right of the figure, and this would be +used in conjunction with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but +which would occupy a position further to the right, i.e. if one +bank was not large enough to hold the required number of spools. +The part on the extreme right can be ignored at present.</p> +<p>The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated +in Fig. 28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in +Fig. 29, and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken +across the stretch between the supplementary frame and the main +central frame, and attached to the weavers beam just below the +pressing rollers. It may be advisable to have another reed just +before the beam, so that the width occupied by the threads in the +beam may be exactly the same as the width between the two flanges +of the loom beam.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._29"></a> +<a href="images/f29.PNG"><img src="images/f29.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of +the two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller +being positively driven from the central part through the long +horizontal shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The +loom beam, which is seen clearly immediately below the pressing +rollers, is driven by friction because the surface speed of the +yarn must be constant; hence, as the diameter over the yarn on +the beam increases, the revolutions per minute of the beam must +decrease, and a varying amount of slip takes place between the +friction-discs and their flannels.</p> +<p>As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers +between the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would +be arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., +and bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter +is thus, to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon +which 500 threads are wound at the same time, instead of one +thread as in the ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be +understood that in the latter case the same thread moves from +side to side in order to bridge the gap, whereas in the former +case each thread maintains a fixed position in the width.</p> +<p>The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 +method, for the weaver is that where, in addition to the +simultaneous processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in +the last example, all the threads are coated with some suitable +kind of starch or size immediately they reach the two rollers +shown in the supplementary frame in Fig. 29. The moistened +threads must, however, be dried before they reach the loom beam. +When a warp is starched, dried and beamed simultaneously, it is +said to be "dressed."</p> +<p>In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in +Fig. 30, there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched +yarns before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or +rather part of both, can be seen in this view, from which some +idea will be formed of the great length occupied. Several of the +threads from the spools in the left bank are seen converging +towards the back reed, then they pass between the two +rollers--the bottom one of which is partially immersed in the +starch trough--and forward to the second reed. After the sheet of +threads leaves the second reed, it passes partially round a small +guide roller, then almost wholly round each of three cylinders +arranged °o°, and finally on to the loom beam. Each +cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a position +between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame in +Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly +disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of +the right in the same illustration.</p> +<p>The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, +depend somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the +speed which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for +ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._30"></a> +<a href="images/f30.PNG"><img src="images/f30.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED +CYLINDERS</h3> +<p>A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in +Fig. 31. This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. +Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to +show that if the warps under preparation contain a comparatively +few threads, or if the banks are made larger than usual, two +warps may be dressed at the same time. In such a case, three +cylinders only would be used for each warp, and the arrangement +would be equivalent to two single dressing machines. The two +weaver's beams, with their pressing rollers, are shown plainly in +the centre of the illustration. Some machines have four +cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight. A very +similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that +all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, +and all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns +may be wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if +the number of threads is too many for one bank.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._31"></a> +<a href="images/f31.PNG"><img src="images/f31.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS +SIMULTANEOUSLY<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & +Co</i>.</h3> +<p>Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of +500, as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in +each of the two banks, the threads disposed as already described +to use as much of the heating surface of the cylinder as +possible, and one sheet of threads passed partially round what is +known as a measuring roller. Both sheets of threads unite into +one sheet at the centre of the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in +this form on to one of the loom beams.</p> +<p>It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch +box is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central +part of the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. +30, is a pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a +flannel type. Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads +passes, becomes impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by +the surface of the lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is +squeezed out and returns to the trough, or joins that which is +already moving upwards towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn +emerges from the rollers and over the cylinders at a constant +speed, which may be chosen to suit existing conditions, and it +must also be wound on to the loom beam at the same rate. But +since the diameter of the beam increases each revolution by +approximately twice the diameter of the thread, it is necessary +to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.</p> +<p>The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive +the beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A +certain amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is +designed for this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted +by the yarn dresser during the operation of dressing to enable +them to draw forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal +sections, so that the yarn is drawn forward continuously and at +uniform speed.</p> +<p>During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent +train of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has +passed over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired +length; in addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism +uses an ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such +mark to act as a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length +of warp which has been woven. Thus if the above warp were +intended to be five cuts, each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, +the above apparatus would measure and indicate the yards and +cuts, and would introduce a mark at intervals of 120 yards on +some of the threads. And all this is done without stopping the +machine. At the time of marking, or immediately before or after, +just as desired, a bell is made to ring automatically so that the +attendant is warned when the mark on the warp is about to +approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig. 29, near the +right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.</p> +<p>As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is +made at the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is +known as a pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of +warp threads.</p> +<p>After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed +from the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes +or mails of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other +districts) and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to +the ends of the threads of the previous warp which, with the +weft, has been woven into cloth. These latter threads are still +intact in the cambs and reed in the loom.</p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gTYIN" href="#TYINg">CHAPTER XIV. TYING-ON, +DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING</a></h2> +<p>If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to +the ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, +when the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam +slowly, and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all +the knots have passed through the cambs and the reed, and +sufficiently far forward to be clear of the latter when it +approaches its full forward, or beating up, position during the +operation of weaving.</p> +<p>If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or +newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these +operations would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding +department, and, when completed, the loom beam with its attached +warp threads, cambs and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom +where the "tenter," "tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts +preparatory to the actual operation of weaving. The latter work +is often termed "gaiting a web."</p> +<p>There is a great similarity in many of the operations of +weaving the simpler types of cloth, although there may be a +considerable difference in the appearance of the cloths +themselves. In nearly all the various branches of the textile +industry the bulk of the work in the weaving departments of such +branches consists of the manufacture of comparatively simple +fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there are four distinct +types of cloth which predominate over all others; these types are +known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling and sacking. +In addition to these main types, there are several other simple +types the structure of which is identical with one or other of +the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate types +of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of carpets +and the like.</p> +<p>It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a +work of this kind; the commoner types are described in <i>Jute +and Linen Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics</i>; and +the more elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, +appear in <i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>, both by T. +Woodhouse and T. Milne.</p> +<p>Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. +The technical characteristics of each are as follows--</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._32"></a> +<a href="images/f32.PNG"><img src="images/f32.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS</h3> +<p>H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine +single warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the +simplest order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is +made from the scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely +woven than that illustrated.</p> +<p>B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp +arranged in pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is +thick, and the weave is also plain.</p> +<p>T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in +bagging, although there is a much wider range in the thickness of +the weft. It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but +otherwise the structures are identical.</p> +<p>S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp +yarns, usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, +with medium or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill +order. The weaves are shown in Fig. 33.</p> +<p>C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply +or two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft +yarns. The threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down +twill, directed to right and then to left, and thus forming a +herring-bone pattern, or arrow-head pattern.</p> +<p>P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring +warp is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an +indefinite pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp +and weft. The weave is again plain, although the structure of the +fabric is quite different from the other plain cloths +illustrated. The cloth is reversible, the two sides being similar +structure but differing slightly in colour ornamentation.</p> +<p>As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or +coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, +B, T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one +group is constant and as stated.</p> +<p>All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner +in Fig. 33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves +and the yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, +the unit weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid +squares, while the repetitions of the units in each case are +represented by the dots.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._33"></a> +<a href="images/f33.PNG"><img src="images/f33.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS +CLOTHS</h3> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._34"></a> +<a href="images/f34.PNG"><img src="images/f34.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" IG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN +CLOTH</h3> +<p>A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H +and P, Fig. 32.</p> +<p>B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the +method of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When +the warp is made double as indicated in weave <i>B</i>, the +effect in the cloth can be produced by using the mechanical +arrangements employed for weave <i>A</i>. Hence, the cloths +<i>H</i>, <i>B</i> and <i>T</i> can be woven without any +mechanical alteration in the loom.</p> +<p><i>C</i> is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 +units; since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists +of two identical single rows, they may be represented as at +<i>D</i>. The actual structure of the cloth <i>S</i> in Fig. 32 +is represented on design paper at <i>C</i>, Fig. 33.</p> +<p><i>D</i> is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units +shown, but the mechanical parts for weaving both <i>C</i> and +<i>D</i> remain constant.</p> +<p><i>E</i> is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, +while</p> +<p><i>F</i> is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.</p> +<p>The patterns or cloths for <i>E</i> and <i>F</i> are not +illustrated.</p> +<p><i>G</i> is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, +two units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at +<i>C</i>, Fig. 32, and involves the use of 4 leaves in the +loom.</p> +<p>The solid squares in weave <i>A</i>, Fig. 33, are reproduced +in the left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of +a plain cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is +exhibited in the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and +four black picks of weft (the difference is for distinction +only). The left-hand intersection shows one thread interweaving +with all the four picks, while the bottom intersection shows all +the four threads interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from +the weave or design to the thread and pick respectively show the +connection, and it will be seen that a mark (solid) on the design +represents a warp thread on the surface of the cloth, while a +blank square represents a weft shot on the surface, and <i>vice +versa</i>.</p> +<p>A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven +by belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The +loom in the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to +that illustrated at <i>S</i>, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a +full weaver's warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in +Fig. 35. There are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving +shed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._35"></a> +<a href="images/f35.PNG"><img src="images/f35.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS</h3> +<p>During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is +placed a cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine +in Fig. 25, and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye +of the shuttle, is driven alternately from side to side of the +cloth through the opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the +warp. The positions of the threads in these two layers are +represented by the designs, see Fig. 33, and while one layer +occupies a high position in the loom the other layer occupies a +low position. The threads of the warp are placed in these two +positions by the leaves of the camb (termed healds and also gears +in other districts) and it is between these two layers that the +shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each time it makes a +journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft each +journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels moves +back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two +layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each +journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus +pushes successively the shots of weft into close proximity with +the ones which preceded.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._36"></a> +<a href="images/f36.PNG"><img src="images/f36.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS<br/> +<i>By permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd.</i></h3> +<p>The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp +is, as already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. +33, and the selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the +pattern on the surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns +are of the same colour. A great diversity of pattern can be +obtained by the method of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a +still greater variety of pattern is possible when +differently-coloured threads are added to the mode of +interlacing.</p> +<p>To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a +weaving shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from +overhead shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which +all the looms are individually driven by small motors made by the +English Electric Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular +illustration shows cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same +principle of driving is being adopted in many jute factories.</p> +<p>A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that +illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those +illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than +that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in +these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 +leaves are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, +of the nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine +is made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. +The dobby itself, or the apparatus which lifts the leaves +according to the requirements of the design, is fixed on the +upper part of the frame-work, and is designed to control 12 +leaves, that is, it operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts +differently from the others.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._37"></a> +<a href="images/f37.PNG"><img src="images/f37.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & +Co</i>.</h3> +<p>A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made +from jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this +particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for +forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at +the back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton +carpet) and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through +the reed. The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended +in the cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate +on the needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of +yarn which e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth +t correspond with the colour effect on the design paper made by +the designer. This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton +fabrics, and these cloths are quite different from that +illustrated at <i>P</i>, Fig. 32. In both fabrics, however, +ground or foundation warps are required. It need hardly be said +that there is a considerable difference between the two types of +cloth, as well as between the designs and the looms in which they +are woven.[2]</p> +<p>[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, <i>see</i> pp. 394-114, +<i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>, by T. Woodhouse and T. +Milne.]</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._38"></a> +<a href="images/f38.PNG"><img src="images/f38.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM</h3> +<p>In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be +placed in the looms, and in the finishing department there are +often heavy rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to +the despatch room. Accidents often happen when these heavy +packages, especially the warp beams, are being placed in +position. In order to minimize the danger to workpeople and to +execute the work more quickly and with fewer hands, some firms +have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with suitable Lifting +Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from the dressing +and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and then lowered +quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of transport are +exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to each other +and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are valuable for +all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct from the +looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the old +wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place to +place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method. +The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by +Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important +branch of the industry.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._39"></a> +<a href="images/f39.PNG"><img src="images/f39.PNG" +width="40%" alt=" FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY</h3> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._40"></a> +<a href="images/f40.PNG"><img src="images/f40.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd</i>.</h3> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="gFINI" href="#FINIg">CHAPTER XV. FINISHING</a></h2> +<p>The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter +leaves the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the +cloth, removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as +repairing any damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth +is passed through a cropping machine the function of which is to +remove all projecting fibres from the surface of the cloth, and +so impart a clean, smart appearance. It is usual to crop both +sides of the cloth, although there are some cloths which require +only one side to be treated, while others again miss this +operation entirely.</p> +<p>A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and +in this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or +cut at the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which +have been woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in +Fig. 38. The fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton +carpets. The illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the +upper part of the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually +with either two or four of such spirals with their corresponding +fixed blades.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._41"></a> +<a href="images/f41.PNG"><img src="images/f41.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK</h3> +<p>The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a +series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially +adjustable arrangement by means of which the tension may be +varied by rotating slightly the two rails so as to alter the +angle formed by the cloth in contact with them. This is, of +course, at the feed side; the cloth is pulled through the machine +by three rollers shown distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This +view illustrates a double cropper in which both the spirals are +controlled by one belt. As the cloth is pulled through, both +sides of it are cropped by the two spirals.[3] When four spirals +are required, the frame is much wider, and the second set of +spirals is identical with those in the machines illustrated.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._42"></a> +<a href="images/f42.PNG"><img src="images/f42.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing +processes, see <i>The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics</i>, by +T. Woodhouse. (Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., +Manchester.)]</p> +<p>The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and +placed on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in +Fig. 43, which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles +Parker, Sons &, Co., Dundee. The cloth is passed below a +roller near to the floor, then upwards and over the middle +roller, backwards to be passed under and over the roller on the +left, and then forwards to the nip of the pulling rollers, the +bottom one of which is driven positively by means of a belt on +the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled rapidly through this +machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on to the two sides +of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes in which +heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process. At +other times, or rather in other machines, the water is +distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly +rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating +in a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of +the fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The +damped fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to +condition, that is, to enable the moisture to spread, and then it +is taken to the calender.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._43"></a> +<a href="images/f43.PNG"><img src="images/f43.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five +different rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of +these bowls, the smallest diameter one, is often heated with +steam. A five-bowl calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. +41, and in the background, while a complete illustration of a +modern 5-bowl calender, with full equipment, and made by Messrs. +Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, appears in Fig. +44.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._44"></a> +<a href="images/f44.PNG"><img src="images/f44.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 44 CALENDAR" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 44 CALENDAR</h3> +<p>The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct +parts of the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near +the bottom roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of +the bowls according to the type of finish desired. For calender +finish, the bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads +and picks, so that all the interstices which appear in most +cloths as they leave the loom, and which are exaggerated in the +plan view in Fig. 34, are eliminated by this calendering action. +The cloth is then delivered at the far side of the machine in +Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface speed of the middle or +steam-heated roller may differ from the others so that a glazed +effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by ordinary ironing--is +imparted to the surface of the fabric. The faster moving roller +is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender finish, the +surface speed of all the rollers is the same.</p> +<p>Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest +finish" or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length +of cloth is wound either on to the top roller, or the second top +one, Fig. 44, and while there is subjected to the degree of +pressure required; the amount of pressure can be regulated by the +number of weights and the way in which the tension belt is +attached to its pulley. The two sets of weights are seen clearly +on the left in Fig. 44, and these act on the long horizontal +levers, usually to add pressure to the dead weight of the top +roller, but occasionally, for very light finishes, to decrease +the effective weight of the top bowl. After the cloth has been +chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it is stripped from +the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with its belt pulley +in Fig. 41.</p> +<p>There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; +one is driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. +Provision is thus made for driving the calender in both +directions. The pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both +of which are inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in +the figure. Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the +handle to a oblique position.</p> +<p>The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top +bowl, and the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the +necessary pressure, and this pressure may be varied according to +the number of small weights used. The heaviest finish on the +calender, i.e. the chest-finish on the second top roller, +imitates more or less the "mangle finish."</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._45"></a> +<a href="images/f45.PNG"><img src="images/f45.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE.<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by +Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated +in Fig. 45. The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the +front on to what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick +iron bowl; when the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved +between two huge rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four +narrow pieces are shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the +two rollers. There are other four narrow pieces, already beamed +on another pin, in the beaming position, and there is still +another pin at the delivery side with a similar number of cloths +ready for being stripped. The three pins are arranged thus +o°o, and since all three are moved simultaneously, when the +mangling operation is finished, each roller or pin is moved +through 120°. Thus, the stripped pin will be placed in the +beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the mangling +position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the +stripping position.</p> +<p>While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers +move first in one direction and then in the other direction, and +this change of direction is accomplished automatically by +mechanism situated between the accumulator and the +helical-toothed gearing seen at the far end of the mangle. And +while this mangling is taking place, the operatives are beaming a +fresh set, while the previously mangles pieces are being stripped +by the plaiting-down apparatus which deposits the cloth in folds. +This operation is also known as "cuttling" or "faking." It will +be, understood that a wide mangle, such as that illustrated in +Fig. 45. is constructed specially for treating wide fabrics, and +narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply because circumstances and +change of trade from time to time demand it.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._46"></a> +<a href="images/f46.PNG"><img src="images/f46.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co. +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the +manipulation of this and the number of wide weights which are +ingeniously brought into action to act on the plunger determine +the pressure which is applied to the fabrics between the bowls or +rollers.</p> +<p>Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through +a measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed +through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers +on the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one +circle of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, +30, up to 100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually +one yard in circumference.</p> +<p>If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the +backing or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a +wooden centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, +measured as well, and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction +drive somewhat similar to that mentioned in connection with the +dressing machine. Cloths for this purpose are often made up to +600 yards in length; indeed, special looms, with winding +appliances, have been constructed to weave cloths up to 2,000 +yards in length. Special dressing machines and loom beams have to +be made for the latter kind. When the linoleum backing is +finished at the calender, both cloth and centre are forwarded +direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are returned +periodically.</p> +<p>Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of +a simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar +cloth, and several types of cloths of much wider width, are +lapped or folded by special machines such as that illustrated in +Fig. 46. The cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by +the discs shown, to the upper part of the carrier where it passes +between the two bars. As the carrier is oscillated from side to +side (it is the right hand side in the illustration) the cloth is +piled neatly in folds on the convex table. The carriers may be +adjusted to move through different distances, so that any width +or length of fold, between limits, may be made.</p> +<p>Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, +but some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, +and this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, +however, the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute +fabrics. Thus, Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for +this purpose, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., +Ltd., Dundee. The full-width cloth on the right has obviously two +prominent stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth +passes upwards obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth +reaches the apex it is doubled and passed between two bars also +set obliquely on the left. The doubled piece now passes between a +pair of positively driven drawing rollers, and is then "faked," +"cuttled," or pleated as indicated. The machine thus +automatically, doubles the piece, and delivers it as exemplified +in folds of half width. In other industries, this operation is +termed creasing and, rigging. Some of the later types of crisping +or creasing machines double the cloth lengthwise as illustrated +in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at the same time instead of +delivering it in loose folds.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._47"></a> +<a href="images/f47.PNG"><img src="images/f47.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. +Ltd</i>.</h3> +<p>If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for +the making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags +are made annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either +by hand, semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the +lengths are sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in +various ways according to requirements.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._48"></a> +<a href="images/f48.PNG"><img src="images/f48.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. +Ltd</i></h3> +<p>Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for +this purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. +Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine +different cloths are arranged in frames behind the cutting +machine, and the ends of these cloths passed between the +horizontal bars at the back of the machine. They are then led +between the rollers, under the cutting knife, and on to the +table. The length of cloth is measured as it passes between the +rollers, and different change pinions are supplied so that +practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine lengths are thus +passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and when the +required length has been delivered, the operative inserts the +knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by +means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and +table. He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a +further length is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means +are provided for registering the number passed through; from +36,000 yards to 40,000 yards can be treated per day.</p> +<p>The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first +four in Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the +sewing is usually done by quick-running small machines, such as +the Yankee or Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing +more than 2,000 bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, +such as sacking, <i>S</i>, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost +invariably done by the Laing or overhead sewing machine, the +general type of which is illustrated in Fig. 49, and made by Mr. +D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works, Dundee. This is an +absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000 bags can be sewn +in one day.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._49"></a> +<a href="images/f49.PNG"><img src="images/f49.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE" /> +</a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald</i></h3> +<p>The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take +the form of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as +illustrated at <i>S</i>, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a +considerable variety can be made by altering the number of the +stripes, their position, and their width, while if different +coloured threads appear in the same cloth, the variety is still +further increased.</p> +<p>Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, +and other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these +cases, the necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise +completed bag by a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or +circular roller type. The latter type, which is most largely +used, is illustrated in Fig. 50. It is termed a two-colour +machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, Dundee; it will be +observed that there are two rollers for the two distinct colours, +say red and black. Occasionally three and four-colour machines +are used, but the one-colour type is probably the most +common.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<a name="FIG._50"></a> +<a href="images/f50.PNG"><img src="images/f50.PNG" +width="40%" alt="FIG. 50 SACK PRINTING MACHINE" /></a><br/> +</p> +<h3>FIG. 50 SACK PRINTING MACHINE<br/> +<i>By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald</i>.</h3> +<p>The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one +of the many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires +to number their bags consecutively in order to provide a record +of their stock, or for any other purpose, the bags may be so +numbered by means of a special numbering machine, also made by +Mr. D. J. Macdonald.</p> +<p>The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the +goods, is that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by +means of a hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower +moving table upon a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; +when the requisite quantity has been placed thereon, the top and +side wrappers are placed in position, and the pumps started in +order to raise the bottom table and to squeeze the content +between it and the top fixed table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per +square inch is applied according to the nature of the goods and +their destination. While the goods are thus held securely in +position between the two plates, the wrappers a sewn together. +Then specially prepared hoops or metal bands are placed round the +bale, and an ingenious and simple system, involving a buckle and +two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The ends of the hoop or +band are bent in a small press, and these bent ends are passed +through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the pins inserted in +the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is removed, the bale +expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the bale +securely.</p> +<p>Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the +fibre, the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and +then into cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the +function of the world's common carrier.</p> + +<hr /> + +<ul> +<li><a name="gINDE" href="#INDEg">INDEX</a></li> +<li class="i2"><br/> +</li> +<li>ACCUMULATOR</li> +<li>Assorting jute fibre.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>BAG-MAKING</li> +<li>Bale opener</li> +<li class="i4">opening</li> +<li>Baling cloth</li> +<li class="i4">house</li> +<li class="i4">press</li> +<li class="i4">station</li> +<li>Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)</li> +<li>Batch</li> +<li>Batchers</li> +<li>Batching</li> +<li class="i4">apparatus</li> +<li class="i4">carts or stalls</li> +<li>Batch-ticket</li> +<li>Beamer's lease</li> +<li>Beaming</li> +<li class="i4">(dry) direct from bank,</li> +<li>Blending</li> +<li>Bobbin winding</li> +<li>Bojah</li> +<li>Botanical features of jute plants</li> +<li>Breaker card</li> +<li>Brussels carpet</li> +<li>Bundle of jute.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into</li> +<li>Calender</li> +<li class="i4">finish</li> +<li>Calenderoy</li> +<li>Carding</li> +<li>Card waste</li> +<li>Cargoes of jute</li> +<li>Chest finish</li> +<li>Clasp-rods</li> +<li>Conditioning fibre</li> +<li>Cops</li> +<li>Cop winding</li> +<li>Corchorus capsularis</li> +<li class="i4">clitorius</li> +<li>Crisping and crisping machines</li> +<li>Cropping machine</li> +<li>Cultivation of jute</li> +<li>Cutting knife for jute fibre</li> +<li>Cuttings.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>DAMPING machine</li> +<li>Defects in fibre and in handling</li> +<li>Designs or weaves</li> +<li>Differential motion</li> +<li>Dobby loom</li> +<li>Draft</li> +<li>Drafting</li> +<li>Drawing</li> +<li class="i2">frames</li> +<li class="i4">different kinds of</li> +<li>Drawing-in</li> +<li>Dressing and dressing machine</li> +<li>Drum</li> +<li>Drying jute fibre</li> +<li>Dust shaker.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>EAST India Co.</li> +<li>Exports of jute from India.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>FABRICS</li> +<li>Faller</li> +<li>Farming operations</li> +<li>Fibres,</li> +<li class="i2">the five main</li> +<li class="i4">imports of jute.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Fibrous layer</li> +<li>Finisher card</li> +<li>Finishing</li> +<li>folding machine.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Gaiting</li> +<li>Glazed finish</li> +<li>Grading jute fibre</li> +<li>Gunny bags.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Hand batching</li> +<li>Harvesting the plants</li> +<li>Height of jute plants</li> +<li>Hydraulic mangle</li> +<li class="i2">press.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Identification marks on bags</li> +<li>Imports of jute.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Jacquard loom</li> +<li>Jute crop</li> +<li class="i2">exports from India</li> +<li class="i2">fabrics</li> +<li class="i2">fibre, imports of</li> +<li class="i2">industry</li> +<li class="i2">knife</li> +<li class="i2">plants, botanical and physical features of</li> +<li class="i2">cultivation of</li> +<li class="i2">height of</li> +<li class="i2">marks.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Laddering</li> +<li>Ladders</li> +<li>Lapping machine</li> +<li>Linking machine</li> +<li>Linoleum</li> +<li>Looms</li> +<li>Lubrication of fibre.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Machine batching</li> +<li>Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta</li> +<li>Mangle finish</li> +<li class="i2">(hydraulic)</li> +<li>Marks of jute (<i>see</i> jute marks)</li> +<li>Maund</li> +<li>Measuring and marking machine</li> +<li class="i2">machine for cloth</li> +<li class="i2">the warp</li> +<li>Methods of preparing warps</li> +<li>Multiple-colour printing machines.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Numbering machine for bags.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Opening jute heads</li> +<li>Overhead runway systems</li> +<li class="i2">sewing machine (Laing's).</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Packing goods</li> +<li>Physical features of jute plants</li> +<li>Pin-lease</li> +<li>Plaiting machine</li> +<li>Plants, thinning of</li> +<li class="i2">weeding of</li> +<li>Ploughs for jute cultivation</li> +<li>Point-paper designs</li> +<li>Porcupine feed</li> +<li>Printing machine.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Reach</li> +<li>Reeling</li> +<li>Retting</li> +<li>Roller-feed</li> +<li>Rolls</li> +<li>Root-comber</li> +<li class="i2">opener</li> +<li>Round-thread finish</li> +<li>Rove</li> +<li>Roving frame</li> +<li>Roxburgh, Dr.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical</li> +<li>Sack making</li> +<li class="i2">printing machine</li> +<li>Sand bags</li> +<li>Seed</li> +<li class="i2">per acre, amount of</li> +<li class="i2">sowing of</li> +<li>Sewing machines</li> +<li>Shell-feed</li> +<li>Short-tell</li> +<li>Snipping machine</li> +<li>Softening machines</li> +<li>Spinning</li> +<li>Spool or roll winding</li> +<li>Spools (<i>see</i> Rolls)</li> +<li>Standard bale</li> +<li>Starching (<i>see</i> Dressing)</li> +<li>Steeping (<i>see</i> Retting)</li> +<li>Striker-up (<i>see</i> Batcher)</li> +<li>Stripping</li> +<li>Systems.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Teazer</li> +<li>Tell (of yarn)</li> +<li>Thinning of plants</li> +<li>Thrum</li> +<li>Time for harvesting the plants</li> +<li>Tube-twisters</li> +<li>Twist</li> +<li>Twisting</li> +<li>Two-colour printing machine</li> +<li>Tying-on</li> +<li>Typical jute fabrics.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Union Or Yankee sewing machine</li> +<li>Unloading bales of jute from ship.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Variations in jute</li> +<li>Varieties of jute fibre</li> +<li class="i2">plants.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Warp</li> +<li>Warp dressing (<i>see</i> Dressing)</li> +<li>Warping, beaming and dressing</li> +<li class="i2">mill</li> +<li>Washing</li> +<li>Waste</li> +<li class="i2">teazer</li> +<li>Weaves or designs</li> +<li>Weaving</li> +<li>Weaver's lease</li> +<li>Weeding of plants</li> +<li>Weft</li> +<li class="i2">winding</li> +<li>Wilton carpet</li> +<li>Winding (bobbin) machine</li> +<li class="i2">from hank</li> +<li class="i2">(large roll) machine</li> +<li class="i2">(ordinary size from hanks) machine</li> +<li class="i2">rolls and cops</li> +<li>World's great war.</li> +<li><br/> +</li> +<li>Yankee or Union sewing machine</li> +<li>Yarn table</li> +<li>Yield of fibre.</li> +</ul> +<h4><i>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, +England</i></h4> +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a15.PNG"><img src="images/a15.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE" /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & +LESLIE"</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a16.PNG"><img src="images/a16.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: ROYLES LIMITED." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: ROYLES LIMITED.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a17.PNG"><img src="images/a17.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a18.PNG"><img src="images/a18.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD." /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a19.PNG"><img src="images/a19.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED" /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a20.PNG"><img src="images/a20.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD." /></a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.</b></p> +<h4><b>NORTHROP AUTOMATIC LOOM as used in the jute trade</b><br/> +<i>Models for Cotton, Woolen, and Worsted, jute, linen, silk, +etc.<br/> +All sizes from 28" to 120"</i></h4> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a21.PNG"><img src="images/a21.PNG" +width="40%" alt="Advertisement: FREDERICK SMITH & CO." /> +</a><br/> +<b>Advertisement: 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