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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: The Jute Industry:
+       From Seed to Finished Cloth
+
+Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+Release Date: May 26, 2004 [eBook #12443]
+[Most recently updated: March 29, 2023]
+
+Language: English
+
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 1: David Bridge & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 2: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 3: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 4: Robert Hall & Sons]
+
+[Advertisement 5: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 6: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 7: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 8: White, Milne & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 9: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 10: Robert Stiven & Co.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 11: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series
+(Book List)]
+
+
+
+PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+BY T. WOODHOUSE
+
+  HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE
+  TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+
+  FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS,
+  BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH.
+  AUTHOR   OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS,"
+  "HEALDS AND   REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND PORTERS,"
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"
+    "TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"
+    "TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"
+    "TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,
+
+AND
+
+P. KILGOUR
+
+  HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,
+    DUNDEE TECHNICAL   COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+  FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.
+
+
+
+1921
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 12: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.,]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+  The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+  all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants,
+  the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre
+  into useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+  important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+  and the   description, although not severely technical, is
+  sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+  knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+  and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine
+  of jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium
+  of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+  more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects.
+
+              T. WOODHOUSE.
+              P. KILGOUR.
+
+     March, 1921.
+
+
+[Advertisement 13: J. M. Adam & Co.]
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  CHAP.
+        PREFACE
+     I. INTRODUCTORY
+    II. CULTIVATION
+   III. RETTING
+    IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE.
+     V. MILL OPERATIONS
+    VI. BATCHING
+   VII. CARDING
+  VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+    IX. THE ROVING FRAME
+     X. SPINNING
+    XI. TWISTING AND REELING.
+   XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+  XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING.
+   XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING
+    XV. FINISHING
+        INDEX
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: James F. Low & Co., LTD.]
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.
+   1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND
+   2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"
+   3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT
+   4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+        FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE
+   5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A
+        WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS
+   6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE
+        ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR
+   7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE
+        FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6
+   8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+   9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD)
+  10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED
+        AND PREPARED FIBRE
+  11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS
+  12. BATCHING APPARATUS
+  13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS
+  14. MODERN BREAKER CARD
+  15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD
+  16. WASTE TEAZER
+  17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME
+  18. ROVING FRAME
+  19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK
+  20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT
+  21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES
+  22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS
+  24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.)
+  26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+  27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.
+  28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE
+  29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE
+  30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS
+  31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY
+  32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS
+  33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.
+  34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH
+  35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.
+  36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS
+  37. BOBBY LOOM
+  38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM
+  39. THE OLD WAY
+  40. THE NEW WAY
+  41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK
+  42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE
+  43. DAMPING MACHINE
+  44. CALENDER
+  45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE
+  46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE
+  47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE
+  48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE
+  49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.
+  50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTORY
+
+The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton,
+flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in
+general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price,
+but also in regard to utility. It is only under phenomenal
+conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took
+place during the world's great war from 1914 onwards that, from a
+commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre
+and its products are fully realized. Millions of sand bags were made
+from the year 1914 to the year 1918 solely for military purposes,
+while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering
+material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other
+textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. It is on
+record that in one short period of fourteen days, 150,000,000
+sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from Dundee to be
+used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict.
+
+A glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the
+fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a
+hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to
+import the fibre into Great Britain in the latter part of the 18th
+century, and it has been used in India for centuries in the making
+of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous
+to that country. And since all the manufacturing methods there, for
+a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could
+be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the
+needs of a small section of the community on the Eastern shores.
+
+The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of
+Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it was only after
+repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples
+of jute for practical experiments The fibre was so unlike any of the
+existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious
+to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so;
+these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was
+finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute
+industry.
+
+Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute
+fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when the first
+small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home of the jute
+industry. This quantity was imported into this country with the
+special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the
+same way as flax fibre was being treated. At this period Dundee was
+a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning
+and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural
+that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute
+fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the
+preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we
+mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax,
+and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to
+be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated.
+These modifications shall be discussed at a later stage.
+
+It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, the
+imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns which were
+made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for
+the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of
+cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized.
+About the year 1838, representatives of the Dutch Government placed
+comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to
+be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their West Indian
+possessions. The subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the
+demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above
+fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance.
+
+By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute fibre had
+increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 tons in the
+season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed to the
+possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in India--the
+seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At least such a
+probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a small
+consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an attempt
+made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the Indian
+native industry.
+
+The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories
+soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to
+induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of
+training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives
+constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to leave the
+mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the
+country.
+
+In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in
+India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, the
+quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other British ports
+amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period preceding the war,
+nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various countries, while the
+Indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the
+mills in the vicinity of Calcutta--reached the same huge total of
+one million tons.
+
+The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and
+consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the
+production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be
+ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and
+one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the
+near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. As a
+matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are
+contemplated and actually taking place in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  CULTIVATION
+
+_Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant_. Jute fibre is
+obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in
+the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the fruit of the
+variety _Corchorus Capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of
+approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety
+_Corchorus Olitorius_ is contained in a pod. Both belong to the
+order _Tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in Bengal and
+Assam.
+
+Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _Corchorus Japonicus_ of Japan,
+and the _Corchorus Mompoxensis_ used in Panama for making a kind of
+tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of
+job as the Jew's Mallow; this variety _C. Olitorius_, has been used
+in the East from time immemorial as a pot herb.
+
+The two main varieties _C. Capsularis_ and _C. Olilorius_ are
+cultivated in Bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed
+purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in Assam, and the
+seeds exported for use principally in Mymensingh and Dacca.
+
+The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from 5 to
+15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four
+months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems of jute
+plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are
+green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. The leaves
+are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in length, and about 1-1/2
+inches in breadth with serrated edges. Pale yellow flowers spring
+from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of
+small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of
+the variety.
+
+While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the geographical
+position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions.
+On referring to a map of India, it will be seen that Bengal is
+directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north
+by the great Himalayan mountains.
+
+During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north,
+large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but
+when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly
+during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general
+temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts.
+The rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and
+west of Bengal--the Patna and the Brahmaputra--and the tremendous
+volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter
+which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial
+deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the
+propagation of the jute plants.
+
+The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the
+rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and Pabna,
+and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, Orissa
+and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these areas.
+
+The _Corchorus Capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the
+higher and richer soils, while the _Corchorus Olitorius_ variety is
+most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts
+where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _C. Olitorius_ may be
+grown in certain other districts of India which appear quite
+unsuitable for the _C. Capsularis_.
+
+The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with
+the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not
+the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there
+is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern
+methods may be the absence of horses.
+
+The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in teams
+of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where
+a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute
+cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as
+horses do in this country.
+
+The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods
+may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece
+of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks.
+
+The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process
+which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are
+made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting
+pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the
+previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be
+used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine
+tilth may be produced.
+
+When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but
+other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at
+similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure is preferred, but
+castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good
+substitutes.
+
+
+After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by
+hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular
+district. The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May,
+and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND]
+
+There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully
+judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for
+the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for
+easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of
+seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ.
+
+
+It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform
+a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used depends partly
+upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre
+are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2
+lbs.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"]
+
+Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in
+order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants.
+Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from
+plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants;
+they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. The fibres
+obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining
+seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when
+succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to.
+
+If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in
+8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. The heat and
+showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should
+be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with
+long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the operation in process. This
+second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture
+and heat to enter. The young plants are now thinned, and the ground
+weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or
+strength to prevent the words from spreading.
+
+The space between the growing plants will vary according to the
+region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance
+of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants
+show prospects of growing thick and tall.
+
+In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 1/2 to
+4 months from the time of sowing. Although different opinions are
+held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are
+setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage
+usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly
+cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality.
+
+The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general,
+these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite
+suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants ready for cutting
+will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the
+operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it
+requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green crop to produce about 10 to
+15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  RETTING
+
+The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are
+embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water,
+since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a
+period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is dependent upon the
+period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is
+performed.
+
+The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is
+technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the
+water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the
+plants are under treatment.
+
+The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a
+bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. The
+farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making
+by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the
+formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to
+see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous
+layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. The stems are
+tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast
+layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. When the ryot
+considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently
+easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is
+commenced immediately. This latter process is conducted in various
+ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district.
+
+
+In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody
+structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails
+fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand;
+while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women
+who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core
+or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. The strips of fibre
+are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable
+impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it
+over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun.
+
+If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants
+are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to
+some other place provided with a better supply of water for the
+final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to
+create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or
+difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry.
+
+Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant.
+The lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a
+complete cross section. The central part of the stem or pith is
+lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; the outer
+covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual fibrous layer
+appears between the parts B and C, and some of the fibres are
+indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding parts in the three
+distinct views. The middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a
+small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a
+further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. It will
+be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT]
+
+Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks,
+and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of
+preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say
+one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the
+tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus
+loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the
+fibrous layer free. The straws are collected for future use, while the
+fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE
+
+The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. The
+method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some
+districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a
+number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in
+the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to
+sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. A
+maund is approximately equal to 8 lbs., and this quantity forms a
+comparatively small bundle. In other cases, the fibre is made up into
+what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2
+to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in
+India.
+
+Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 million
+bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the remaining half is
+baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over
+one million bales are exported annually to Great Britain, the bulk
+of this fibre comes to Dundee.
+
+It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of
+assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea
+of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for
+special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of selecting and
+grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large
+amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark."
+A mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol,
+name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or
+more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the
+origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant.
+
+In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better
+quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality
+is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality
+of which is below these good ones. Since there are hundreds of
+different marks which are of value only to those connected directly
+with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. The
+following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is
+taken from the Market Report of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920.
+The price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date
+very high, so in order to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal
+prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first
+marks, for the same month in the years 1915 onwards.
+
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+
+           £. s. d.      £. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+
+It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract,
+and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre.
+
+After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is
+made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of these
+200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the
+weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a permitted
+quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while the
+dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X 1'6" X 1'
+4".
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE]
+
+Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large establishments,
+and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and
+efficiently with the large number of bales. In Fig. 4 scores of
+natives, superintended by a European, are seen carrying the smaller
+bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. It is,
+of course, unnecessary to make the solid 400 lb. bales for Indian
+consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which
+is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at
+the baling station by a Chamber of Commerce expert.
+
+Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the Calcutta
+district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with the most
+efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 illustrates one
+of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity.
+Two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by
+different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential
+for the successful prosecution of the work. Two such presses as that
+illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, under efficient administration, of
+turning out 130 bales of 400 lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is
+compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal
+to 6,000 lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in
+cubical capacity 11 cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is
+usual for freight purposes to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton.
+(Now changed to 50 cubic feet.)
+
+The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from
+barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 to
+46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel brought
+70,000 bales.
+
+As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality,
+and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.  Although this is
+the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute
+to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the
+"Spot." It is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample,
+such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or
+"parcel," as it is often called. The contract forms are very complete,
+and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all
+concerned in the trade.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT
+CYCLONE PRESS]
+
+It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large
+quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from
+plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it should
+be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and
+additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears
+possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it
+seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands
+for a corresponding type of manufactured product.
+
+The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually,
+but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree
+the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of
+the world.
+
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING
+JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR]
+
+              JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+
+             Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+
+A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side
+adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are raised quickly
+from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in Fig.
+6 since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in Fig.
+7. When the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to
+the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to
+the more horizontal part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then
+removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and
+piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid
+of a crane. Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales
+to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are stored
+in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM
+THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  MILL OPERATIONS
+
+_Bale Opening_. Each spinner, as already indicated, stores his
+bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient
+manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number
+of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing
+department of the mill.
+
+In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the
+mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different
+kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for
+the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of
+material. In much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the
+jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more
+extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," in its simplest
+definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable
+for subsequent handling in the Batching Department. This number may
+include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute according to the amount of
+accommodation in the preparing department.
+
+All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard
+quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It must be
+remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to
+quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or
+firms of balers or merchants. At other times, the batch of 5 to 10
+bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of
+each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn,
+partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of
+the combination.
+
+It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn
+is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any
+particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple differentiation,
+the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of
+cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in
+some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same
+cloth.
+
+On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of
+jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so
+that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be
+produced. The same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year,
+but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary
+from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation
+of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather
+during the time of growth, and during the season generally.
+
+A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department,
+this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales are, of course,
+defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must
+be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is
+any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be
+notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its
+place without effecting any great change in the character or quality
+of the yarn.
+
+When the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed
+from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are
+conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable
+position near the first machine in the series. It need hardly be
+mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is
+subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a
+very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the various
+so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced
+into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are quite
+unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened
+out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from
+each other. This operation is termed "opening" and the process is
+conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is
+illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee.
+
+The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner
+near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that
+they can be handled to the best advantage. The bands or ropes, see
+Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large
+pieces of jute can be separated. If any irregularity in the
+selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes
+place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty
+handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no
+chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at
+this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the
+fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good
+average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a
+judicious selection in every case. The usual variations are--the
+colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain
+impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute,
+which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully
+mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may
+disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different
+machines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in
+hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and
+this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. As already
+indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left
+in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which
+carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed
+rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very
+deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair of
+deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure.
+These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads
+of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery
+sheet on the right. The delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has
+a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the
+extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by
+the operatives. The upper rollers in the machine may rise in their
+bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the
+bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin
+places of the heads.
+
+A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &
+Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart patent is illustrated in
+Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in
+the shape of the crushing or opening rollers.
+
+It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are
+three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and
+situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller has a
+series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. The
+knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard
+layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute
+have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing
+between the rollers. This double action naturally aids in opening up
+the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective,
+gives excellent results in practice. The degree of pressure provided
+for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads
+of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the
+highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, & Co_.]
+
+The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this
+machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives good
+results in practice.
+
+In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that
+the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size
+quite freely.
+
+The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position
+near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as
+the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the
+batchers, who split them. The most suitable size of pieces are 2-1/2
+to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 feet in length, but the size of
+the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is
+to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's
+opinion of what will give the best overall result.
+
+After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller
+pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher
+or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could watch the above
+operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it
+would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of
+unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. As the
+loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 or 9, it is
+placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging,
+and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he
+grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a
+dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the
+handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it
+takes to describe the operation.
+
+As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on
+stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by
+means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added
+for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables
+the fibre to work freely in the various machines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  BATCHING
+
+_Softening and Softening Machines_. Two distinct courses are
+followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the
+bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. These
+courses are designated as--
+
+      1. Hand Batching.
+      2. Machine Batching.
+
+In the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of
+jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to
+facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts
+which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not
+convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large
+stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. 10.
+
+On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the
+pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually
+long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, from a similar
+sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the
+attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity.
+The ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount
+of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above
+method is not to be commended. A conscientious worker can, however,
+with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of
+course, supplied by the person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on
+the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the
+spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or
+partition on the right.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED AND
+PREPARED FIBRE]
+
+The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is filled
+with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain
+there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the material may be
+more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. At the end of this
+time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the
+softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of
+bending and crushing.
+
+All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often
+called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of
+rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of
+managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, which, in the
+form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls,
+is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of rollers or any other number
+which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. The sections are made in 8's. The
+illustration shows only 31 pairs.
+
+The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as clearly
+shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique
+flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. What
+is often considered as a standard softening machine contains 63
+pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers.
+As mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances.
+
+The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet,
+and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways
+before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the
+machine.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus]
+
+Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application
+of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform
+than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. On the
+other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the
+lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously,
+although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the
+cart after it has left the softener.
+
+The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or
+"stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual lubricating
+equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the
+centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to the side frames
+of the softening machine proper, say that shown in Fig. 11. Its
+exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a
+matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the
+material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers.
+
+In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen clearly,
+and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or
+pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately
+above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars.
+
+Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one vertical
+and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is attached by
+suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the
+machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame,
+while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a
+rod projecting from the frame. The lower or curved end of the
+oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping
+of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular
+feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against
+the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a
+thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the
+curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and
+thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity
+of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism
+is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick.
+When the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in
+the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is
+moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the
+thin part of the strick. It will be understood that all makers of
+softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching
+apparatus when desired.
+
+A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel wheels at
+the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against
+accidents. In many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed
+end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the
+operative is in danger. The batching apparatus for this machine is
+of a different kind from that illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it
+is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed
+pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane,
+and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on
+the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.
+
+The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the
+nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The barrow
+of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which
+have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for
+conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future
+treatment.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus]
+
+While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is graded
+in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn
+without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to
+utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection
+and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching.
+
+What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine
+known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into the
+machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in
+order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter drops
+through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is
+delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the
+softener.
+
+The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine
+termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively
+hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a teazer may also be
+used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and
+similar close textures.
+
+The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a
+heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then
+the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed
+to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain quantity of
+this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to
+form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.
+
+A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of
+a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends of the
+stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two parts are
+severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the
+strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder,
+and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of
+securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  CARDING
+
+_Breaker and Finisher Cards_. After the fibre from the softening
+machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for
+one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture;
+this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct
+types of machines--
+
+
+        1. The breaker card.
+        2. The finisher card.
+
+
+The functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one
+might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one
+continuous operation.
+
+The main difference between the two types of machines is in the
+method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the
+small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the action
+on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and
+splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving
+roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side
+by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of
+another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the
+combing of the fibre. The pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so
+to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller
+comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a
+comparatively fine division.
+
+The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A receptacle,
+very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far
+end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.
+
+A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or back of
+the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card
+on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the
+observer. The protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would
+be seen as clearly as possible.
+
+Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of
+the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped
+stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth,
+which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the
+feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a "shell" feed
+because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped
+somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually decreasing and
+suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins
+of the feed roller.
+
+The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of
+fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously
+carried into the machine where they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a
+cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes
+place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, 24 inches to
+30 inches below. The fibres which are separated at this stage are
+carried a little further round until they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller,
+termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward
+under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further
+combed and split. A portion of the fibres is carried round by the
+pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the
+quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a
+"stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of
+the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD]
+
+The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker
+and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a
+second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately
+the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the
+pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing
+rollers. The sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into
+the broad and upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly
+of tin and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in
+Fig. 14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and,
+of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and
+delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can,
+distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. The sliver is
+seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can.
+
+The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward
+relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less
+parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" is used to
+indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other,
+and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out
+of the fibres by this special term "draft."
+
+It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can
+at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant flow will
+soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can,
+although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. The machine must,
+of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be
+kept in practically constant work. As a matter of fact, the machines
+are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable
+condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be
+satisfactorily fulfilled.
+
+The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to
+that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the pulley
+side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are fed by slivers which
+have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but
+there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of
+arranging the slivers at the feed side. In both cases, however, the
+full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with,
+however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each
+extreme end.
+
+One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full sliver
+cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and
+to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The sliver from
+each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and
+thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The slivers are
+guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet"
+which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers.
+The feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type,
+and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. It
+will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different
+problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively
+uneven stricks.
+
+[Illustration: By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd.
+FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD]
+
+The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the
+machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus form,
+as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this
+sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs
+of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as
+already described in connection with the breaker card. There are,
+however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are
+in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs
+of rollers, the former may be arranged with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs
+of rollers (6 workers and 6 strippers). The number of pairs of
+rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the
+opinions of the various managers.
+
+There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--
+
+         1. Half-circular finisher cards.
+
+         2. Full-circular finisher cards.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and such
+machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so
+disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete
+circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to
+undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact
+with the doffer. There are five pairs of rollers in the machine in
+Fig. 15, and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels
+fenced. The arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very
+similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14,
+and therefore requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes
+the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and
+adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to
+examine the rollers and other parts.
+
+The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various
+rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are
+ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the
+cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. The
+conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the
+width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the
+other section. These two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet,
+traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two
+slivers about 6 inches above the point or plane in which the 10 or 12
+slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two
+slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface
+of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction
+of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can.
+
+In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine illustrated
+in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported
+by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. This special
+mechanism is termed a "Patent Push Bar Drawing Head," and the
+function which it performs will be described shortly; in the
+meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the
+slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. A
+very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a
+finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should
+work in unison. In the machine under consideration, the feed and
+delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage
+of the draw-head mechanism.
+
+One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform
+thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. A
+so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter,
+but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected
+with the full sense of the word uniform.
+
+It has already been stated that in the batching department various
+qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to
+obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different grades and marks
+vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness;
+it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse
+qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process
+so as to facilitate the subsequent operations.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd. _
+FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER]
+
+However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the
+batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be
+desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary.
+It need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement,
+and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care
+which is exercised in the preliminary processes.
+
+The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new length,
+and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each
+individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the new
+length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths
+and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting takes place
+in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined
+10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of 8 to 16 or even
+more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which
+passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of 8 to 16 yards
+or whatever the draft happens to be. The resulting sliver will
+therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the
+original individual slivers. The actual ratio between them will
+obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the
+material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.
+
+It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous
+material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as
+card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is produced, in
+spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine
+which is not delivered as perfect material. All this waste from
+various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes,
+dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver
+for heavy sacking weft.
+
+The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the
+valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are
+passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. F. Low &
+Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. The resulting mass
+is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material,
+and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the
+production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used
+for sacking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+
+The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the
+breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement
+of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in
+the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the
+peripheries of rotating rollers. In the draw-head mechanism, the
+pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or
+straight path. In the machines which fall to be discussed in this
+chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the
+slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a
+matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small
+drawing frame, as its name implies. Moreover, each row or rather
+double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a
+"faller." The faller as a whole consists of three parts:
+
+        1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for being
+        moved in a closed circuit.
+
+        2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or
+        "stocks," fixed to the rod.
+
+        3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes about
+        1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or
+        hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above
+        gills.
+
+The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular
+method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the
+fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the
+movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers.
+There are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of
+a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining"
+rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller;
+immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last
+pair is the delivery rollers. The delivery rollers of one type of
+drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by
+Messsrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly
+in Fig. 17, and the can or cans into which the slivers are
+ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more
+sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration.
+The large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing
+roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the
+centre of same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill
+pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.
+
+Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is
+led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver
+guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately the slivers
+leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of
+a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the
+upper and active position. Each short length of slivers is
+penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up
+successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the
+same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. The sheet of
+pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the
+drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. As each
+faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is
+made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this
+point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until
+it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between
+the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always
+one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining
+the set at the back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame]
+
+The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing
+rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all
+cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. This condition is
+necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much
+greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference
+between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual
+draft.
+
+Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded
+in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned,
+to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip
+of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward ends of the fibres
+are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres
+affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing
+rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. It will
+be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two
+pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be
+snapped. It is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance
+between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres
+under treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."
+
+On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which
+bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers,
+and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are
+diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again
+diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes
+straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the
+guide of the delivery rollers. It will thus be seen that a number of
+slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft,
+are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or
+conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a
+sliver can.
+
+The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of the
+same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. With
+the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the
+far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. The
+set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the
+fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown,
+and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to
+the operative. The machines are made with what are known as
+"two heads" or "three heads." It will be seen from the large
+pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a
+"two-head" drawing frame.
+
+The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a
+further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine
+termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills for this
+frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first
+drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and
+the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and
+therefore need no further description. It should be mentioned,
+however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their
+designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the
+fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. The names
+of other drawing frames appear below.
+
+  Spiral or screw gill;
+  Open link chain;
+  Rotary;
+  Ring Carrier
+  Circular.
+
+For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in
+a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered
+sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE ROVING FRAME
+
+The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there
+still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the
+slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. And, in
+addition to these important functions, two other equally important
+operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to
+the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a
+"rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove
+bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.
+
+The machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a
+"roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, and with
+different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided
+for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with
+two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of spindles, flyers,
+and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in Fig. 18, which
+represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.
+
+Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the
+upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the
+flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The discs or
+bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or
+"builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass
+through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a
+"flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the
+spindles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME _By Permission of Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be seen
+that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers
+passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye,
+then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer,
+round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of
+the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. Each bobbin has its
+own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this
+can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining
+rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the
+drawing (also the delivery) rollers. Here the sliver terminates
+because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and
+causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form.
+From this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described
+above.
+
+As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver
+is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery
+of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about 20 yards
+per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also driven at a
+constant speed, because in all cases we have--
+
+  spindle speed = delivery x twist.
+
+There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove
+bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven
+independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one
+series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the bobbin differs,
+however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the
+effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the
+beginning of each new layer.
+
+The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane,
+and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height
+from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are raised gradually by
+the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the
+bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during
+the formation of each layer from bottom to top. In other words, the
+travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the
+inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK]
+
+Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue
+of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin,
+and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the
+combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of
+the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and
+variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by means of which this
+desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one
+of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in
+textile machinery. Some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as
+well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered
+from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical
+experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed 50 years
+elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts
+was evolved for performing the function.
+
+The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential
+motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing
+arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the
+various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide
+with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated
+but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without
+strain or stretch. The varying motion is regulated and obtained by a
+drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear
+is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct
+motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the
+bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and the
+whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels
+to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest
+the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded,
+and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position
+on both sides. The machine is adapted for building 10 in. X 5 in.
+bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. outside diameter,
+and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the illustration showing
+part of a machine and approximately 48 spindles.
+
+The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of
+the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 in. frame,
+and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are 10 in.
+apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder
+would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the standard size for
+the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. bobbins are
+used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. When the
+finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning
+direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, 8 in. x 4
+in. bobbins are largely used.
+
+Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove
+so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and
+according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in
+these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist
+gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic
+index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.  SPINNING
+
+The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn
+required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process of
+spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done
+before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The nomenclature
+is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the
+conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus
+than it is at present; the established name to denote this
+conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number
+of important processes, each one of which is as important and
+necessary as the actual operation of spinning.
+
+A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the
+Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly the wide
+"pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method
+adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. Spinning
+frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any
+practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per side are
+common numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT]
+
+The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. 20, are
+brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel
+(often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually
+above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove bobbin is free to
+rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the
+retaining rollers. The final drafting of the material takes place in
+this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the
+drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of
+yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of
+spinning bobbin.
+
+When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a
+"breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the
+conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by
+means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing
+rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the
+retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and
+the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the
+"thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the
+arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer
+arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The latter is raised and lowered
+as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be
+distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges.
+
+Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which
+passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of
+the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of
+the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of
+spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this connection, the
+parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the
+functions of the two frames differ. The yarn has certainly to be
+wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from
+the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin,
+which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the
+roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually
+driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and
+just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of
+the "temper band" and weight. The temper band is simply a piece of
+leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other
+end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES]
+
+The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one
+of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in
+contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. A varying
+amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue
+of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is
+obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves
+in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of
+the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension.
+
+The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of the
+frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 are at
+right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief
+parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the
+pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove
+yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until
+they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to
+and wound upon the spinning bobbins. The flyers--at one time termed
+throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper
+weights. The chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever,
+adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the
+frame nearest the observer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  TWISTING AND REELING
+
+In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form
+they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On the
+other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it
+is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to
+combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes
+"doubling" when two single yarns only are combined.
+
+Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is
+to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is
+not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or
+more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when
+this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of
+twines, ropes and the like. The twist or twine thus formed will have
+the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required
+for the finished product. The same operation is conducted in the
+making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are
+laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to
+distinguish them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres_, by T.
+Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]
+
+When two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can
+be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a
+ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. There may
+be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop
+motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of
+any group which are being combined happens to break. When several
+threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting
+frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters,"
+and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a
+plate or disc before they reach the tube.
+
+More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally
+adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned
+work on Cordage and similar literature for detailed information.
+
+When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it
+is made up according to requirements, and the general operations
+which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll
+or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. The type or class of
+yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment
+of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be
+used previous to despatching the yarn.
+
+_Reeling_. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting
+solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on
+to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter,
+or rather circumference. Indeed, the circumference of the reel was
+fixed by an Act of Convention of Estates, dating as far back as 1665
+and as under:
+
+"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half
+to the King and half to the attacher."
+
+"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than
+_ten quarters_."
+
+The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All such
+yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be
+reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads
+which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems of dyeing
+and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not
+employed much in the jute industry. Large quantities of jute yarns
+intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable
+bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and
+sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries.
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+
+Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest
+yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn is made
+up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, even 6 cuts
+are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of 4 cuts, 3 cuts,
+2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any group less than 12
+cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of
+convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on
+the swift in the winding frame.
+
+The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure
+the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming
+the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of
+designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. We have already
+seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs.
+of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).
+
+For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same
+count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins on the
+reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins is wound
+round, say,
+
+6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or 120
+threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 separate
+cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been reeled as
+mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are
+complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round
+each group of 120 threads.
+
+A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be
+in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this
+movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to accommodate
+the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.
+
+Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell rings, the
+reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the
+mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. In some
+case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are
+simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking
+the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the
+cuts. At the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the
+mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.
+
+The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of
+winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate
+correctness.
+
+When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut hanks,
+there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. The 24
+mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks
+taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along with others
+of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from 54 lb.
+to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. Each bundle contains a
+number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the
+purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed,
+the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there
+would be exactly 56 lb. per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn,
+there would be 60 lb in a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb.
+in a bundle of 9 lb. yarn.
+
+The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of
+threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal
+condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to
+approach it as closely as possible. Careless workers allow the reel
+to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this
+yields what is known as "short tell." It is not uncommon to
+introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or 124 teeth, instead of the
+nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+
+The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed,
+the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types
+of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. In its simplest
+definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in
+such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. The
+two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical
+terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. The
+threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp,
+while the transverse threads are the weft.
+
+The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a
+large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be
+prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two distinct
+conditions necessitate two general types of winding:
+
+(_a_) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns.
+
+(_b_) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.
+
+For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the
+spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from 7 to
+8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops
+which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.
+
+Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins
+very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used
+for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding machine marked a
+great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with
+the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are
+used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached,
+dyed or similarly treated. Fig. 22 illustrates one of the modern
+bobbin winding machines for jute made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee. The finished product is illustrated by two full
+bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. There are
+also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of
+yarn on the swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and
+since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the
+bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout
+the process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin
+is filled as exemplified in the illustration.
+
+The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a
+fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and
+any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. of yarn,
+a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 to 8 lb.
+Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. diameter; hence for
+8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 yards.
+
+Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines
+adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It is built
+specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of 15 in.
+diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is used
+mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll only is
+shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a 10
+in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by surface or
+frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating
+drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of
+the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the
+floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and
+upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. This rapid traverse,
+combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be
+securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required,
+and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations
+for rolls is much below that for bobbins.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS]
+
+Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary 9
+in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and dressing
+departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning
+bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having
+two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is 80.
+
+The double tier on each side is practicable because of the small
+space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, rolls are
+wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as practised in
+several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each
+side is possible. Both types are made by each machine maker, the one
+illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product of Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee.
+
+In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it
+looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still
+further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS _By permission of
+Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other makers,
+is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls,
+can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions,
+one for each roll.
+
+A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A recent
+improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic
+stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted,
+has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) _By
+permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning
+bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority of
+manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The cops are
+almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the
+exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. There are
+different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case
+the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a
+rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so
+necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition of the cops in
+the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the
+tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning
+bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in
+other machines these conditions are opposite. Thus, in the cop
+winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath,
+and illustrated in Fig. 25, the spinning bobbins are below the cops,
+the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers,
+and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. This view shows
+about three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the above-mentioned
+opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning
+bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the
+low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing
+downwards. Six spindles only appear in this view, which represents
+the machine made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee,
+but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as
+desired within practicable and economic limits.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.
+FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE]
+
+The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in Fig.
+26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while
+the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles.
+The upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a
+clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the
+spindle. When the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are
+when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when
+the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when
+the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel
+wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the
+spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in
+conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface
+of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of
+the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the
+length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the
+partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until
+the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically
+stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may
+be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for
+jute shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the
+angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 26 COP WINDING MACHINE _By permission of Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING
+
+There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the
+weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--
+
+1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and
+when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred
+on to the weaver's beam.
+
+2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and
+then beamed on to a weaver's beam.
+
+3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large
+cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam.
+
+4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on
+to a weaver's beam.
+
+The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned.
+
+For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full spinning
+bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right
+of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The ends of the
+threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves
+of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The heck, or
+apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's
+lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the
+bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the
+illustration. The heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains,
+and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction
+the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when
+the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised
+gradually between the same slides. These movements are necessary in
+order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally
+round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the
+figure. The particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing
+if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about
+42 spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of
+the warp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS]
+
+At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's
+lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill
+with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is rotated by means
+of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill.
+As the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually
+and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical
+spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached.
+A beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs;
+there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the
+pin lease; a common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been
+formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion
+finished being (50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads
+required for the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on
+the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next
+section of 50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite
+direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second
+group of 50 to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch
+with the threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of
+the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been
+introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to accommodate all the
+threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more
+parts or chains. It will be noticed that the heck for the nearest
+mill is opposite about the 12th round of threads from the bobbin,
+whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from
+the top. A completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the
+third mill. When the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and
+simultaneously linked into a chain.
+
+A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often
+better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in No. 2
+method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the full
+equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a
+bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a frame for
+forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for
+drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring
+the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and
+finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the
+form of a chain.
+
+In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is
+shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from the
+two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame
+immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are
+made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp.
+Between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in
+the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. Only
+part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the
+frame adjoining them. All these frames and machines are necessary,
+but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they
+perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the
+foreground of Fig. 28.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE]
+
+Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is
+a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts
+convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a linked chain,
+and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to
+the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind of link is made by
+the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in Fig. 27 are being
+withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains are shown tied up in
+Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near
+the bank.
+
+The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is
+now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the
+small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a
+kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and
+arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are
+attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The chain is
+held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the
+latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact beam of yarn is
+obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam
+last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is
+removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread
+lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually
+and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in
+which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the
+camas or HEALDS, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to
+the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth
+which has been completed.
+
+Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on
+the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's
+beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct
+processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously.
+Thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any
+particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be
+very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools.
+Say, for example, a warp was required to be 600 yards long, and that
+there should be 500 threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn
+would be placed in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads
+from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the
+splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position
+in regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while
+others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam rotates
+at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the
+beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per
+minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 29, and the mechanism displayed
+is identical with that employed for No. 4 method of preparing warps.
+
+The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our example)
+would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. 29. The
+threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet
+between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the
+supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame appears on the
+extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction
+with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a
+position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough
+to hold the required number of spools. The part on the extreme right
+can be ignored at present.
+
+The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in Fig.
+28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in Fig. 29,
+and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the
+stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame,
+and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. It
+may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that
+the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the
+same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE _By
+permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.]
+
+The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the
+two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being
+positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal
+shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The loom beam, which
+is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by
+friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant;
+hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the
+revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying
+amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their
+flannels.
+
+As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between
+the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would be
+arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., and
+bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus,
+to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which 500
+threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the
+ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be understood that in
+the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to
+bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a
+fixed position in the width.
+
+The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 method,
+for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous
+processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example,
+all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size
+immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary
+frame in Fig. 29. The moistened threads must, however, be dried
+before they reach the loom beam. When a warp is starched, dried and
+beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed."
+
+In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in Fig. 30,
+there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns
+before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or rather part
+of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be
+formed of the great length occupied. Several of the threads from the
+spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed,
+then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is
+partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second
+reed. After the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes
+partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each
+of three cylinders arranged °o°, and finally on to the loom beam.
+Each cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a
+position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame
+in Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.
+
+The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend
+somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed
+which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX
+STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS]
+
+A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in Fig. 31.
+This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps
+under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the
+banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the
+same time. In such a case, three cylinders only would be used for
+each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single
+dressing machines. The two weaver's beams, with their pressing
+rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. Some
+machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight.
+A very similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and
+all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be
+wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if the number
+of threads is too many for one bank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of 500,
+as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in each of
+the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as
+much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one
+sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring
+roller. Both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of
+the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in this form on to one of the loom
+beams.
+
+It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box
+is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of
+the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. 30, is a
+pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type.
+Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads passes, becomes
+impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the
+lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and
+returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards
+towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn emerges from the rollers
+and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to
+suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom
+beam at the same rate. But since the diameter of the beam increases
+each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread,
+it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.
+
+The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the
+beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A certain
+amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for
+this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn
+dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw
+forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the
+yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed.
+
+During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train
+of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed
+over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in
+addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an
+ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as
+a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has
+been woven. Thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts,
+each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, the above apparatus would
+measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark
+at intervals of 120 yards on some of the threads. And all this is
+done without stopping the machine. At the time of marking, or
+immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring
+automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the
+warp is about to approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig.
+29, near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.
+
+As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at
+the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a
+pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads.
+
+After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from
+the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails
+of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts)
+and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of
+the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been
+woven into cloth. These latter threads are still intact in the cambs
+and reed in the loom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING
+
+If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the
+ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when
+the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly,
+and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots
+have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far
+forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward,
+or beating up, position during the operation of weaving.
+
+If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations
+would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and,
+when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs
+and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter,"
+"tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual
+operation of weaving. The latter work is often termed "gaiting a web."
+
+There is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the
+simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable
+difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. In nearly all
+the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in
+the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture
+of comparatively simple fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there
+are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others;
+these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling
+and sacking. In addition to these main types, there are several
+other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or
+other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate
+types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of
+carpets and the like.
+
+It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of
+this kind; the commoner types are described in _Jute and Linen
+Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics_; and the more
+elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in
+_Textile Design: Pure and Applied_, both by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.
+
+Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. The
+technical characteristics of each are as follows--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS]
+
+H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine single
+  warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest
+  order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is made from the
+  scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that
+  illustrated.
+
+B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in
+  pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is thick, and the
+  weave is also plain.
+
+T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in bagging,
+  although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft.
+  It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the
+  structures are identical.
+
+S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp yarns,
+  usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium
+  or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill order. The weaves
+  are shown in Fig. 33.
+
+C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or
+  two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. The
+  threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed
+  to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern,
+  or arrow-head pattern.
+
+P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring warp
+  is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite
+  pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. The
+  weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite
+  different from the other plain cloths illustrated. The cloth is
+  reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing
+  slightly in colour ornamentation.
+
+As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, B,
+T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is
+constant and as stated.
+
+All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in Fig.
+33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the
+yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, the unit
+weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid squares, while the
+repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVERS FOR
+VARIOUS CLOTHS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH]
+
+A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H and P,
+Fig. 32.
+
+B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the method
+of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When the warp
+is made double as indicated in weave _B_, the effect in the cloth
+can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for
+weave _A_. Hence, the cloths _H_, _B_ and _T_ can be woven without
+any mechanical alteration in the loom.
+
+_C_ is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 units;
+since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two
+identical single rows, they may be represented as at _D_. The actual
+structure of the cloth _S_ in Fig. 32 is represented on design paper
+at _C_, Fig. 33.
+
+_D_ is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units shown, but
+the mechanical parts for weaving both _C_ and _D_ remain constant.
+
+_E_ is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, while
+
+_F_ is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.
+
+The patterns or cloths for _E_ and _F_ are not illustrated.
+
+_G_ is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, two
+units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at _C_, Fig. 32,
+and involves the use of 4 leaves in the loom.
+
+The solid squares in weave _A_, Fig. 33, are reproduced in the
+left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of a plain
+cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in
+the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks
+of weft (the difference is for distinction only). The left-hand
+intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks,
+while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads
+interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from the weave or design
+to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will
+be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread
+on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft
+shot on the surface, and _vice versa_.
+
+A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by
+belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The loom in
+the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to that
+illustrated at _S_, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a full weaver's
+warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in Fig. 35. There
+are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS]
+
+During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a
+cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in Fig. 25,
+and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle,
+is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the
+opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. The positions of
+the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see
+Fig. 33, and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom
+the other layer occupies a low position. The threads of the warp are
+placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed
+healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these
+two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each
+time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft
+each journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels
+moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes
+successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones
+which preceded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS _By
+permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd._]
+
+The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as
+already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. 33, and the
+selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the
+surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same
+colour. A great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method
+of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of
+pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to
+the mode of interlacing.
+
+To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving
+shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead
+shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which all the looms
+are individually driven by small motors made by the English Electric
+Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular illustration shows
+cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is
+being adopted in many jute factories.
+
+A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 leaves
+are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the
+nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine is made
+by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. The dobby itself,
+or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the
+requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the
+frame-work, and is designed to control 12 leaves, that is, it
+operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM]
+
+A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made from
+jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the
+back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton carpet)
+and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed.
+The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the
+cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the
+needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which
+e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond
+with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer.
+This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton fabrics, and
+these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _P_, Fig.
+32. In both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are
+required. It need hardly be said that there is a considerable
+difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the
+designs and the looms in which they are woven.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, _see_ pp. 394-114, _Textile
+Design: Pure and Applied_, by T. Woodhouse and T. Milne.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM]
+
+In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in
+the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy
+rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room.
+Accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the
+warp beams, are being placed in position. In order to minimize the
+danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with
+fewer hands, some firms have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with
+suitable Lifting Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from
+the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and
+then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of
+transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to
+each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are
+valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct
+from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the
+old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place
+to place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY _By permission of Messrs.
+Herbert Morris, Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  FINISHING
+
+The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves
+the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the cloth,
+removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any
+damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth is passed through
+a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting
+fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart
+appearance. It is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although
+there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated,
+while others again miss this operation entirely.
+
+A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and in
+this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at
+the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been
+woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in Fig. 38. The
+fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton carpets. The
+illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of
+the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually with either two or
+four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK]
+
+The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable
+arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating
+slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth
+in contact with them. This is, of course, at the feed side; the
+cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown
+distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This view illustrates a double
+cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. As the
+cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two
+spirals.[3] When four spirals are required, the frame is much wider,
+and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the
+machines illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE _By permission of
+Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing processes,
+see _The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics_, by T. Woodhouse.
+(Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., Manchester.)]
+
+The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed
+on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in Fig. 43,
+which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &, Co.,
+Dundee. The cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then
+upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and
+over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the
+pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by
+means of a belt on the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled
+rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on
+to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes
+in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process.
+At other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in
+a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of the
+fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The damped
+fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is,
+to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the
+calender.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.,
+Ltd_. FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE]
+
+The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different
+rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls,
+the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. A five-bowl
+calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. 41, and in the
+background, while a complete illustration of a modern 5-bowl calender,
+with full equipment, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd.,
+Dundee, appears in Fig. 44.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 44 CALENDAR]
+
+The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of
+the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom
+roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls
+according to the type of finish desired. For calender finish, the
+bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so
+that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave
+the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in Fig. 34, are
+eliminated by this calendering action. The cloth is then delivered
+at the far side of the machine in Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface
+speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the
+others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by
+ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. The
+faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender
+finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same.
+
+Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish"
+or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length of cloth is
+wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, Fig. 44,
+and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the
+amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the
+way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. The two
+sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in Fig. 44, and these
+act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the
+dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light
+finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. After
+the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it
+is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with
+its belt pulley in Fig. 41.
+
+There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; one is
+driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. Provision
+is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. The
+pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are
+inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure.
+Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a
+oblique position.
+
+The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and
+the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure,
+and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small
+weights used. The heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the
+chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the
+"mangle finish."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE]
+
+A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 45.
+The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to
+what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when
+the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge
+rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four narrow pieces are
+shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the two rollers. There are
+other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the
+beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery
+side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. The
+three pins are arranged thus o°o, and since all three are
+moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each
+roller or pin is moved through 120°. Thus, the stripped pin will be
+placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the
+mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.
+
+While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move
+first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this
+change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism
+situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing
+seen at the far end of the mangle. And while this mangling is taking
+place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously
+mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus
+which deposits the cloth in folds. This operation is also known as
+"cuttling" or "faking." It will be, understood that a wide mangle,
+such as that illustrated in Fig. 45. is constructed specially for
+treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply
+because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.
+Ltd_. Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE]
+
+The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation
+of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought
+into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is
+applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers.
+
+Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a
+measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on
+the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one circle
+of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, 30, up to
+100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in
+circumference.
+
+If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing
+or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden
+centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well,
+and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar
+to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. Cloths
+for this purpose are often made up to 600 yards in length; indeed,
+special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to
+weave cloths up to 2,000 yards in length. Special dressing machines
+and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. When the
+linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre
+are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are
+returned periodically.
+
+Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a
+simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth,
+and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or
+folded by special machines such as that illustrated in Fig. 46. The
+cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown,
+to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars.
+As the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand
+side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the
+convex table. The carriers may be adjusted to move through different
+distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may
+be made.
+
+Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but
+some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and
+this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, however,
+the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. Thus,
+Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and
+made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., Ltd., Dundee. The
+full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent
+stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth passes upwards
+obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it
+is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left.
+The doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven
+drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as
+indicated. The machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and
+delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. In other
+industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging.  Some of
+the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth
+lengthwise as illustrated in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at
+the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.
+FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE]
+
+If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the
+making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made
+annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand,
+semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are
+sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways
+according to requirements.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_
+FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE]
+
+Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this
+purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine different cloths
+are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of
+these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the
+machine. They are then led between the rollers, under the cutting
+knife, and on to the table. The length of cloth is measured as it
+passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are
+supplied so that practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine
+lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and
+when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts
+the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table.
+He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length
+is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means are provided for
+registering the number passed through; from 36,000 yards to 40,000
+yards can be treated per day.
+
+The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in
+Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the sewing is
+usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the Yankee or
+Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than 2,000
+bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking,
+_S_, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost invariably done by the Laing or
+overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in
+Fig. 49, and made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works,
+Dundee. This is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000
+bags can be sewn in one day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE _By
+permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_]
+
+The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form
+of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at
+_S_, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a considerable variety can be
+made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and
+their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same
+cloth, the variety is still further increased.
+
+Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and
+other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the
+necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by
+a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. The
+latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in Fig. 50.
+It is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald,
+Dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two
+distinct colours, say red and black. Occasionally three and
+four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably
+the most common.
+
+[Illustration: _By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_. FIG 50 SACK
+PRINTING MACHINE]
+
+The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the
+many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number
+their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock,
+or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a
+special numbering machine, also made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald.
+
+The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is
+that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a
+hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower moving table upon
+a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite
+quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are
+placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the
+bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed
+table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per square inch is applied
+according to the nature of the goods and their destination. While
+the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates,
+the wrappers a sewn together. Then specially prepared hoops or metal
+bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system,
+involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The
+ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent
+ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the
+pins inserted in the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is
+removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the
+bale securely.
+
+Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre,
+the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into
+cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the
+world's common carrier.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+ACCUMULATOR
+Assorting jute fibre.
+
+BAG-MAKING
+Bale opener
+     opening
+Baling cloth
+     house
+     press
+     station
+Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)
+Batch
+Batchers
+Batching
+     apparatus
+     carts or stalls
+Batch-ticket
+Beamer's lease
+Beaming
+     (dry) direct from bank,
+Blending
+Bobbin winding
+Bojah
+Botanical features of jute plants
+Breaker card
+Brussels carpet
+Bundle of jute.
+
+CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into
+Calender
+     finish
+Calenderoy
+Carding
+Card waste
+Cargoes of jute
+Chest finish
+Clasp-rods
+Conditioning fibre
+Cops
+Cop winding
+Corchorus capsularis
+     clitorius
+Crisping and crisping machines
+Cropping machine
+Cultivation of jute
+Cutting knife for jute fibre
+Cuttings.
+
+DAMPING machine
+Defects in fibre and in handling
+Designs or weaves
+Differential motion
+Dobby loom
+Draft
+Drafting
+Drawing
+  frames
+    different kinds of
+Drawing-in
+Dressing and dressing machine
+Drum
+Drying jute fibre
+Dust shaker.
+
+EAST India Co.
+Exports of jute from India.
+
+FABRICS
+Faller
+Farming operations
+Fibres,
+  the five main
+    imports of jute.
+
+
+Fibrous layer
+Finisher card
+Finishing
+folding machine.
+
+Gaiting
+Glazed finish
+Grading jute fibre
+Gunny bags.
+
+Hand batching
+Harvesting the plants
+Height of jute plants
+Hydraulic mangle
+  press.
+
+Identification marks on bags
+Imports of jute.
+
+Jacquard loom
+Jute crop
+  exports from India
+  fabrics
+  fibre, imports of
+  industry
+  knife
+  plants, botanical and physical features of
+  cultivation of
+  height of
+  marks.
+
+Laddering
+Ladders
+Lapping machine
+Linking machine
+Linoleum
+Looms
+Lubrication of fibre.
+
+Machine batching
+Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta
+Mangle finish
+  (hydraulic)
+Marks of jute (_see_ jute marks)
+Maund
+Measuring and marking machine
+  machine for cloth
+  the warp
+Methods of preparing warps
+Multiple-colour printing machines.
+
+Numbering machine for bags.
+
+Opening jute heads
+Overhead runway systems
+  sewing machine (Laing's).
+
+Packing goods
+Physical features of jute plants
+Pin-lease
+Plaiting machine
+Plants, thinning of
+  weeding of
+Ploughs for jute cultivation
+Point-paper designs
+Porcupine feed
+Printing machine.
+
+Reach
+Reeling
+Retting
+Roller-feed
+Rolls
+Root-comber
+  opener
+Round-thread finish
+Rove
+Roving frame
+Roxburgh, Dr.
+
+Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical
+Sack making
+  printing machine
+Sand bags
+Seed
+  per acre, amount of
+  sowing of
+Sewing machines
+Shell-feed
+Short-tell
+Snipping machine
+Softening machines
+Spinning
+Spool or roll winding
+Spools (_see_ Rolls)
+Standard bale
+Starching (_see_ Dressing)
+Steeping (_see_ Retting)
+Striker-up (_see_ Batcher)
+Stripping
+Systems.
+
+Teazer
+Tell (of yarn)
+Thinning of plants
+Thrum
+Time for harvesting the plants
+Tube-twisters
+Twist
+Twisting
+Two-colour printing machine
+Tying-on
+Typical jute fabrics.
+
+Union Or Yankee sewing machine
+Unloading bales of jute from ship.
+
+Variations in jute
+Varieties of jute fibre
+  plants.
+
+Warp
+Warp dressing (_see_ Dressing)
+Warping, beaming and dressing
+  mill
+Washing
+Waste
+  teazer
+Weaves or designs
+Weaving
+Weaver's lease
+Weeding of plants
+Weft
+  winding
+Wilton carpet
+Winding (bobbin) machine
+  from hank
+  (large roll) machine
+  (ordinary size from hanks) machine
+  rolls and cops
+World's great war.
+
+Yankee or Union sewing machine
+Yarn table
+Yield of fibre.
+
+
+
+_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE]
+
+[Advertisement 15: ROYLES LIMITED.]
+
+[Advertisement 16: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.]
+
+[Advertisement 17: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 18: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED]
+
+[Advertisement 19: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 20: FREDERICK SMITH & CO.]
+
+[Advertisement 21: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 22: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC]
+
+[Advertisement 23: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING & ACCOUNTANCY]
+
+[Advertisement 24: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING]
+
+[Advertisement 25: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING]
+
+[Advertisement 27: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX]
+
+[Advertisement 28: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING]
+
+[Advertisement 29: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE]
+
+[Advertisement 30: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW]
+
+[Advertisement 31: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH]
+
+[Advertisement 32: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH]
+
+[Advertisement 33: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND]
+
+[Advertisement 34: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES]
+
+[Advertisement 35: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE, READING]
+
+[Advertisement 36: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING, PERIODICALS]
+
+[Advertisement 36: HENRY TAYLOR & SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S BOOKS]
+
+[Advertisement 37: THOS. BROADBENT & SONS, LTD.]
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Jute Industry, from Seed to Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</title>
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+<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
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+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Jute Industry:<br />
+  From Seed to Finished Cloth</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 26, 2004 [eBook #12443]<br />
+[Most recently updated: March 29, 2023]</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***</div>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a1.PNG"><img src="images/a1.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: David Bridge &amp; Co., LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: David Bridge &amp; Co., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a2.PNG"><img src="images/a2.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Chas. Parker, Sons &amp; Co." />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Advertisement: Chas. Parker, Sons &amp; Co.</h3>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a3.PNG"><img src="images/a3.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD." /></a><br/>
+ <b>Advertisement: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a4.PNG"><img src="images/a4.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Robert Hall &amp; Sons" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Robert Hall &amp; Sons</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a5.PNG"><img src="images/a5.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: A. F. Craig &amp; Co., LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: A. F. Craig &amp; Co., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a6.PNG"><img src="images/a6.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a7.PNG"><img src="images/a7.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: H. Smethurst &amp; Sons, LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: H. Smethurst &amp; Sons, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a8.PNG"><img src="images/a8.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: White, Milne &amp; Co." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: White, Milne &amp; Co.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a9.PNG"><img src="images/a9.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Thomas C. Keay, LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a10.PNG"><img src="images/a10.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Robert Stiven &amp; Co." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Robert Stiven &amp; Co.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>THE JUTE INDUSTRY</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a11.PNG"><img src="images/a11.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>PITMAN'S<br/>
+COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES<br/>
+SERIES</h2>
+<h1>THE JUTE INDUSTRY<br/>
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH</h1>
+
+<h2>by T. WOODHOUSE</h2>
+
+<ul class="persona">
+<li class="i0">HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT,</li>
+<li class="i2">DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART</li>
+<li>FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON &amp; CO., LINEN</li>
+<li class="i4">MANUFACTURERS, BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS,
+KNARESBOROUGH.</li>
+<li class="i2">AUTHOR OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN
+FABRICS,"</li>
+<li class="i2">"HEALDS AND REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND
+PORTERS,"</li>
+<li class="i0"><br/>
+</li>
+<li class="i0">JOINT AUTHOR OF</li>
+<li class="i0">"JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>AND</h3>
+<h2>P. KILGOUR</h2>
+
+<ul class="persona">
+<li class="i2">HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,</li>
+<li class="i4">DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART</li>
+<li class="i2">FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.</li>
+<li class="i2">JOINT AUTHOR OF</li>
+<li class="i4">"JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"</li>
+<li class="i4">"CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5>LONDON<br/>
+SIR ISAAC PITMAN &amp; SONS, LTD.<br/>
+PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2<br/>
+BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK<br/>
+1921<br/>
+</h5>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a12.PNG"><img src="images/a12.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: George Hattersley &amp; Sons, LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: George Hattersley &amp; Sons, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="gPREF" href="#PREFg">PREFACE</a></h2>
+<p>The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants, the
+extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre into
+useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+and the description, although not severely technical, is
+sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine of
+jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium of
+study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+more detailed literature by the authors on these textile
+subjects.</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i10">T. WOODHOUSE.</p>
+<p class="i10">P. KILGOUR.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i4">March, 1921.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a13.PNG"><img src="images/a13.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: J. M. Adam &amp; Co." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: J. M. Adam &amp; Co.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a14.PNG"><img src="images/a14.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: James F. Low &amp; Co., LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Advertisement: James F. Low &amp; Co.,
+LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="i6"><a name="PREFg" href="#gPREF">PREFACE</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="INTRg" href="#gINTR">I.
+INTRODUCTORY</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="CULTg" href="#gCULT">II.
+CULTIVATION</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="RETTg" href="#gRETT">III.
+RETTING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="ASSOg" href="#gASSO">IV. ASSORTING AND
+BALING JUTE FIBRE.</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="MILLg" href="#gMILL">V. MILL
+OPERATIONS</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="BATCg" href="#gBATC">VI.
+BATCHING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="CARDg" href="#gCARD">VII.
+CARDING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="DRAWg" href="#gDRAW">VIII. DRAWING AND
+DRAWING FRAMES</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="THERg" href="#gTHER">IX. THE ROVING
+FRAME</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="SPINg" href="#gSPIN">X. SPINNING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="TWISg" href="#gTWIS">XI. TWISTING AND
+REELING.</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="WINDg" href="#gWIND">XII. WINDING: ROLLS
+AND COPS</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="WARPg" href="#gWARP">XIII. WARPING,
+BEAMING AND DRESSING.</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="TYINg" href="#gTYIN">XIV. TYING-ON,
+DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="FINIg" href="#gFINI">XV.
+FINISHING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="INDEg" href="#gINDE">INDEX</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="i2">FIG.</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._1">1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._2">2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._3">3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._4">4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE</a></li>
+<li class="i8">FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._5">5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A</a></li>
+<li class="i8">WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._6">6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE</a></li>
+<li class="i8">ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._7">7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE</a></li>
+<li class="i8">FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._8">8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY &amp; CO., LTD.)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._9">9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS &amp; CO., LTD)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._10">10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED</a></li>
+<li class="i8">AND PREPARED FIBRE</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._11">11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._12">12. BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._13">13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._14">14. MODERN BREAKER CARD</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._15">15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._16">16. WASTE TEAZER</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._17">17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._18">18. ROVING FRAME</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._19">19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._20">20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._21">21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._22">22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._23">23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._24">24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._25">25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER &amp; SONS, LTD.)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._26">26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY &amp; CO., LTD.)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._27">27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._28">28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._29">29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._30">30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._31">31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._32">32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._33">33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._34">34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._35">35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._36">36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._37">37. BOBBY LOOM</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._38">38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._39">39. THE OLD WAY</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._40">40. THE NEW WAY</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._41">41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._42">42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._43">43. DAMPING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._44">44. CALENDER</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._45">45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._46">46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._47">47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._48">48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._49">49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._50">50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>THE JUTE INDUSTRY</h2>
+<h3>FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH</h3>
+
+<h2><a name="gINTR" href="#INTRg">CHAPTER I.
+INTRODUCTORY</a></h2>
+<p>The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are
+cotton, flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been
+considered in general as being of the least value, not only in
+regard to price, but also in regard to utility. It is only under
+phenomenal conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as
+that which took place during the world's great war from 1914
+onwards that, from a commercial point of view, the extreme
+importance of the jute fibre and its products are fully realized.
+Millions of sand bags were made from the year 1914 to the year
+1918 solely for military purposes, while huge quantities of jute
+cloth were utilized as the covering material for food stuffs of
+various kinds, thus liberating the other textile fibres and cloth
+for equally important purposes. It is on record that in one short
+period of fourteen days, 150,000,000 sand-bags were collected,
+packed and despatched from Dundee to be used as protective
+elements in various ways and seats of conflict.</p>
+<p>A glance into the records of the textile industries will
+reveal the fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in
+these islands a hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were
+certainly made to import the fibre into Great Britain in the
+latter part of the 18th century, and it has been used in India
+for centuries in the making of cord, twine and coarse fabrics,
+because the fibre is indigenous to that country. And since all
+the manufacturing methods there, for a considerable time were
+manual ones, the industry--if such it could be called--moved
+along slowly, providing employment only for the needs of a small
+section of the community on the Eastern shores.</p>
+<p>The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the
+instigation of Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it
+was only after repeated requests that any attempt was made to
+utilize the samples of jute for practical experiments The fibre
+was so unlike any of the existing staples that those interested
+in textiles were not anxious to experiment with it, but
+ultimately they were persuaded to do so; these persistent
+requests for trials, and the interest which was finally aroused,
+formed the nucleus of the existing important jute industry.</p>
+<p>Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of
+the jute fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when
+the first small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home
+of the jute industry. This quantity was imported into this
+country with the special object of having it treated by
+mechanical means, much in the same way as flax fibre was being
+treated. At this period Dundee was a comparatively important
+textile centre in regard to the spinning and weaving of flax and
+hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural that the longer, but
+otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute fibre should be
+submitted to the machinery in vogue for the preparation and
+spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we mean in
+general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and
+flax, and hence the modifications in preparation which had
+ultimately to be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be
+successfully treated. These modifications shall be discussed at a
+later stage.</p>
+<p>It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828,
+the imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns
+which were made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those
+in demand for the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that
+other types of cloth should be introduced so that these yarns
+could be utilized. About the year 1838, representatives of the
+Dutch Government placed comparatively large orders with the
+manufacturers for jute bags to be used for carrying the crop of
+coffee beans from their West Indian possessions. The subsequent
+rapid growth of the industry, and the demand for newer types of
+cloth, are perhaps due more to the above fortunate experiment
+than to any other circumstance.</p>
+<p>By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute
+fibre had increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000
+tons in the season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed
+to the possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in
+India--the seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At
+least such a probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a
+small consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an
+attempt made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the
+Indian native industry.</p>
+<p>The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and
+factories soon became apparent, for in the first place it was
+difficult to induce the natives to remain inside the works during
+the period of training, and equally difficult to keep the trained
+operatives constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to
+leave the mills and factories for their more usual mode of living
+in the country.</p>
+<p>In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew
+in India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war,
+the quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other
+British ports amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period
+preceding the war, nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various
+countries, while the Indian annual consumption--due jointly to
+the home industry and the mills in the vicinity of
+Calcutta--reached the same huge total of one million tons.</p>
+<p>The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world,
+and consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to
+the production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables
+it to be ranked as one of the important industries in the textile
+group, and one which may perhaps attain a much more important
+position in the near future amongst our national manufacturing
+processes. As a matter of fact, at the present time, huge
+extensions are contemplated and actually taking place in
+India.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gCULT" href="#CULTg">CHAPTER II.
+CULTIVATION</a></h2>
+<p><b>Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant</b>. Jute
+fibre is obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to
+differ only in the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the
+fruit of the variety <i>Corchorus Capsularis</i> is enclosed in a
+capsule of approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of
+the variety <i>Corchorus Olitorius</i> is contained in a pod.
+Both belong to the order <i>Tiliacea</i>, and are annuals
+cultivated mostly in Bengal and Assam.</p>
+<p>Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the <i>Corchorus
+Japonicus</i> of Japan, and the <i>Corchorus Mompoxensis</i> used
+in Panama for making a kind of tea, while one variety of jute
+plant is referred to in the book of job as the Jew's Mallow; this
+variety <i>C. Olitorius</i>, has been used in the East from time
+immemorial as a pot herb.</p>
+<p>The two main varieties <i>C. Capsularis</i> and <i>C.
+Olilorius</i> are cultivated in Bengal for the production of
+fibre, while for seed purposes, large tracts of land are
+cultivated in Assam, and the seeds exported for use principally
+in Mymensingh and Dacca.</p>
+<p>The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from
+5 to 15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about
+four months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems
+of jute plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in
+general, they are green or pink, and straight with a tendency to
+branch. The leaves are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in
+length, and about 1-1/2 inches in breadth with serrated edges.
+Pale yellow flowers spring from the axil (axilla) of the leaves,
+and there is an abundance of small seeds in the fruit which, as
+mentioned, is characteristic of the variety.</p>
+<p>While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the
+geographical position of this province is mainly responsible for
+these conditions. On referring to a map of India, it will be seen
+that Bengal is directly north of the bay of that name, and is
+bounded on the north by the great Himalayan mountains.</p>
+<p>During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from
+the north, large areas of the mountainous regions are covered
+with snow, but when the winds change and come from the south, and
+particularly during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises
+the general temperature and also melts much of the snow on the
+mountain tracts. The rain and melted snow swell the two great
+rivers on the east and west of Bengal--the Patna and the
+Brahmaputra--and the tremendous volume of water carries down
+decayed vegetable and animal matter which is ultimately spread on
+the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial deposits, and thus provides
+an ideal layer of soil for the propagation of the jute
+plants.</p>
+<p>The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of
+the rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and
+Pabna, and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal,
+Orissa and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these
+areas.</p>
+<p>The <i>Corchorus Capsularis</i> variety is usually cultivated
+in the higher and richer soils, while the <i>Corchorus
+Olitorius</i> variety is most suited for the lower-lying alluvial
+soils, and to the districts where the rainfall is irregular;
+indeed, the <i>C. Olitorius</i> may be grown in certain other
+districts of India which appear quite unsuitable for the <i>C.
+Capsularis</i>.</p>
+<p>The farming operations in India are rather simple when
+compared with the corresponding operations in this country; there
+is evidently not the same necessity for extensive working of the
+Indian soil as there is for the heavier lands; another reason for
+the primitive Eastern methods may be the absence of horses.</p>
+<p>The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in
+teams of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in
+Fig. 1 where a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process
+in jute cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the
+same way as horses do in this country.</p>
+<p>The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough
+clods may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the
+"hengha"--a piece of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of
+bullocks.</p>
+<p>The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning
+process which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these
+ladders are made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided
+with projecting pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect
+the roots of the previous crop; they are the equivalent of our
+harrows, and may be used repeatedly during the winter and spring
+seasons so that a fine tilth may be produced.</p>
+<p>When manure is essential, it is applied in the later
+ploughings, but other large areas have artificial or chemical
+manures added at similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure
+is preferred, but castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a
+weed--constitute good substitutes.</p>
+<p>After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is
+sown by hand at the period which appears most suitable for the
+particular district. The usual sowing time is from February to
+the end of May, and even in June in some districts where late
+crops can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._1"></a>
+<a href="images/f1.PNG"><img src="images/f1.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND</h3>
+<p>There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a
+carefully judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the
+districts for the growing period will not only yield a succession
+of crops for easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in
+the selection of seeds for other areas where atmospheric
+conditions differ.</p>
+<p>It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as
+uniform a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used
+depends partly upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to
+30 lbs. per acre are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or
+more per ser (about 2 lbs.).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._2"></a>
+<a href="images/f2.PNG"><img src="images/f2.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR 'LADDERING'" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"</h3>
+<p>Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of
+seed in order to obtain the best results from these seeds for
+fibre plants. Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been
+collected from plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and
+often poor plants; they also grow plants year after year on the
+same soil. The fibres obtained, as a rule, and as a result of
+this method of obtaining seeds, gradually deteriorate; much
+better results accrue when succession of crops and change of seed
+are carefully attended to.</p>
+<p>If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will
+germinate in 8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly.
+The heat and showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the
+soil which should be broken; this is done by means of another
+ladder provided with long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the
+operation in process. This second laddering process opens up the
+soil and allows the moisture and heat to enter. The young plants
+are now thinned, and the ground weeded periodically, until the
+plants reach a sufficient height or strength to prevent the words
+from spreading.</p>
+<p>The space between the growing plants will vary according to
+the region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an
+abundance of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where
+the plants show prospects of growing thick and tall.</p>
+<p>In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3
+1/2 to 4 months from the time of sowing. Although different
+opinions are held as to the best time for harvesting, that when
+the fruits are setting appears to be most in favour; plants
+harvested at this stage usually yield a large quantity of good
+fibre which can be perfectly cleaned, and which is of good
+spinning quality.</p>
+<p>The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in
+general, these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear
+to be quite suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants
+ready for cutting will certainly form a delightful picture, but
+the prospect of the operation of cutting indicates a formidable
+piece of work since it requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green
+crop to produce about 10 to 15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gRETT" href="#RETTg">CHAPTER III. RETTING</a></h2>
+<p>The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres
+are embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply
+of water, since the plants must be completely submerged in the
+water for a period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is
+dependent upon the period of the year and upon the district in
+which the operation is performed.</p>
+<p>The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem
+is technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where
+the water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time
+the plants are under treatment.</p>
+<p>The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due
+to a bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation.
+The farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is
+making by the presence of the air bells which rise to the
+surface; when the formation of air bells ceases, the men examine
+the plants daily to see that the operation does not go too far,
+otherwise the fibrous layer would be injured, and the resulting
+fibre weak. The stems are tested in these examinations to see if
+the fibrous layer, or bast layer, will strip off clean from the
+wood or stem. When the ryot considers that the layers are
+separated from the core sufficiently easy, the work of steeping
+ceases, and the process of stripping is commenced immediately.
+This latter process is conducted in various ways depending upon
+the practice in vogue in the district.</p>
+<p>In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the
+woody structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and
+cross rails fixed to uprights in the water; others break the
+stems by hand; while in other cases the stems are handed out of
+the water to women who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve
+intact the central core or straw to be used ultimately for
+thatching. The strips of fibre are all cleaned and rubbed in the
+water to remove all the vegetable impurities, and finally the
+fibre is dried, usually by hanging it over poles and protecting
+it from the direct rays of the sun.</p>
+<p>If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the
+plants are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous
+layers to some other place provided with a better supply of water
+for the final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning
+are apt to create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable
+trouble or difficulties in subsequent branches of the
+industry.</p>
+<p>Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a
+jute plant. The lower illustration represents approximately one
+quarter of a complete cross section. The central part of the stem
+or pith is lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter;
+the outer covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual
+fibrous layer appears between the parts B and C, and some of the
+fibres are indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding
+parts in the three distinct views. The middle illustration shows
+an enlarged view of a small part of the lowest view, while the
+upper illustration is a further enlarged view of a small section
+of the middle view. It will be seen that each group of fibres is
+surrounded by vegetable matter.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._3"></a>
+<a href="images/f3.PNG"><img src="images/f3.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT</h3>
+<p>Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or
+stalks, and one which is practised in certain districts with the
+object of preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small
+portion, say one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative
+then grasps the tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro
+in the water, thus loosening the parts, after which the straws
+float out, leaving the fibrous layer free. The straws are
+collected for future use, while the fibre is cleaned and washed
+in the usual way.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gASSO" href="#ASSOg">CHAPTER IV. ASSORTING AND
+BALING JUTE FIBRE</a></h2>
+<p>The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various
+conditions. The method of marketing may be of such a nature that
+the farmers in some districts may have to make a rough assortment
+of the fibre into a number of qualities or grades, and these
+grades are well known in the particular areas; on the other hand,
+the farmers may prefer to sell the total yield of fibre at an
+overhead price per maund. A maund is approximately equal to 8
+lbs., and this quantity forms a comparatively small bundle. In
+other cases, the fibre is made up into what is known as a "drum";
+this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2 to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it
+is a very convenient size for transit in India.</p>
+<p>Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10
+million bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the
+remaining half is baled for export to the various parts of the
+world; a little over one million bales are exported annually to
+Great Britain, the bulk of this fibre comes to Dundee.</p>
+<p>It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method
+of assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good
+idea of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or
+otherwise for special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of
+selecting and grading has been established on a basis that
+provides a very large amount of jute each year of a quality which
+is known as "a first mark." A mark, in general, in reference to
+fibre, is simply some symbol, name, letter, monogram or the like,
+or a combination of two or more, oft-times with reference to some
+colour, to distinguish the origin of the fibre, the baler, or the
+merchant.</p>
+<p>In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a
+better quality than what is known as "first mark," and this
+better quality is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a
+further lot, the quality of which is below these good ones. Since
+there are hundreds of different marks which are of value only to
+those connected directly with the trade, it is unnecessary to
+dwell on the subject. The following list, however, shows
+quotations of various kinds, and is taken from the Market Report
+of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920. The price of jute, like
+almost everything else, was at this date very high, so in order
+to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal prices, we introduce
+the prices for the corresponding grade, first marks, for the same
+month in the years 1915 onwards.</p>
+<pre>
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+<br/>
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+<br/>
+          &pound;. s. d.      &pound;. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+</pre>
+<p>It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under
+contract, and guarantees regarding the properties of the
+fibre.</p>
+<p>After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre
+is made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of
+these 200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard
+bale, the weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a
+permitted quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while
+the dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X
+1'6" X 1' 4".</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._4"></a>
+<a href="images/f4.PNG"><img src="images/f4.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE<br/>
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE</h3>
+<p>Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large
+establishments, and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to
+deal rapidly and efficiently with the large number of bales. In
+Fig. 4 scores of natives, superintended by a European, are seen
+carrying the smaller bales on their heads from the river boat to
+the press house. It is, of course, unnecessary to make the solid
+400 lb. bales for Indian consumption; this practice is usually
+observed only for jute which is to be exported, and all such
+bales are weighed and measured at the baling station by a Chamber
+of Commerce expert.</p>
+<p>Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the
+Calcutta district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with
+the most efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5
+illustrates one of these huge presses with a number of natives in
+close proximity. Two or three distinct operations are conducted
+simultaneously by different groups of operatives, and ingenious
+mechanism is essential for the successful prosecution of the
+work. Two such presses as that illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable,
+under efficient administration, of turning out 130 bales of 400
+lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is compressed into comparatively
+small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal to 6,000 lbs. per square
+inch, and no packed bale must exceed in cubical capacity 11 cubic
+feet after it leaves the press; it is usual for freight purposes
+to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton. (Now changed to 50
+cubic feet.)</p>
+<p>The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river
+from barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000
+to 46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel
+brought 70,000 bales.</p>
+<p>As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to
+quality, and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.
+Although this is the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for
+quantities of jute to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may
+be disposed of on the "Spot." It is a common practice to sell a
+number of bales to sample, such number depending generally upon
+the extent of the quantity, or "parcel," as it is often called.
+The contract forms are very complete, and enable the business to
+be conducted to the satisfaction of all concerned in the
+trade.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._5"></a>
+<a href="images/f5.PNG"><img src="images/f5.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE
+PRESS</h3>
+<p>It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a
+large quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained
+from plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it
+should be stated that there is such a wide range of goods
+manufactured, and additional varieties occasionally introduced,
+that it appears possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any
+year; indeed, it seems as if the available types of fibre each
+season create demands for a corresponding type of manufactured
+product.</p>
+<p>The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value
+annually, but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in
+some degree the extent of the industry and its development in
+various parts of the world.</p>
+<pre>
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+<br/>
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+<br/>
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+</pre>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._6"></a>
+<a href="images/f6.PNG"><img src="images/f6.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE<br/>
+ADJOINING JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR</h3>
+<pre>
+
+                    JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+<br/>
+              Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+<br/>
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+</pre>
+<p>A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the
+quay-side adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are
+raised quickly from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine,
+scarcely visible in Fig. 6 since it is at the far end of the
+vessel, but seen clearly in Fig. 7. When the bales are raised
+sufficiently high, they are guided to the comparatively steep
+part of a chute from which they descend to the more horizontal
+part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then removed by means of
+hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and piled or stored in
+some suitable arrangement with or without the aid of a crane.
+Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales to the
+various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are
+stored in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as
+stated.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._7"></a>
+<a href="images/f7.PNG"><img src="images/f7.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE<br/>
+FROM THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6</h3>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gMILL" href="#MILLg">CHAPTER V. MILL
+OPERATIONS</a></h2>
+<p><b>Bale Opening</b>. Each spinner, as already indicated,
+stores his bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a
+convenient manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any
+required number of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to
+the preparing department of the mill.</p>
+<p>In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to
+indicate the mixing of different varieties of material (as well
+as different kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a
+mixture suitable for the preparing and spinning of a definite
+quality and colour of material. In much the same way, the term
+"batching" is used in the jute industry, although it will be seen
+shortly that a more extensive use is made of the word. A "batch,"
+in its simplest definition, therefore indicates a number of bales
+which is suitable for subsequent handling in the Batching
+Department. This number may include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute
+according to the amount of accommodation in the preparing
+department.</p>
+<p>All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same
+standard quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It
+must be remembered that although the marks have a distinct
+reference to quality and colour, they actually represent some
+particular firm or firms of balers or merchants. At other times,
+the batch of 5 to 10 bales may be composed of different qualities
+of jute, the number of each kind depending partly upon the
+finished price of the yarn, partly upon the colour, and partly
+upon the spinning properties of the combination.</p>
+<p>It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished
+yarn is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales
+for any particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple
+differentiation, the yarn which is to be used for the warp
+threads in the weaving of cloth must, in nearly every case, have
+properties which differ in some respects from the yarn which is
+to be used as weft for the same cloth.</p>
+<p>On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same
+grade of jute is required, to select a batch from different
+balers' marks so that throughout the various seasons an average
+quality may be produced. The same class of yarn is expected at
+all times of the year, but it is well known that the properties
+of any one mark may vary from time to time owing to the slight
+variations in the manipulation of the fibre at the farms, and to
+the variations of the weather during the time of growth, and
+during the season generally.</p>
+<p>A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching
+department, this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales
+are, of course, defined by their marks, and those mentioned on
+the batch-ticket must be rigidly adhered to for one particular
+class of yarn; if there is any chance of one kind running short,
+the condition should be notified in time so that a suitable mark
+may be selected to take its place without effecting any great
+change in the character or quality of the yarn.</p>
+<p>When the number and kind of bales have been selected and
+removed from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse,
+they are conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a
+suitable position near the first machine in the series. It need
+hardly be mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of
+baling, is subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale
+presents a very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the
+various so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together
+and forced into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are
+quite unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to
+be opened out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less
+separated from each other. This operation is termed "opening" and
+the process is conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one
+type of which is illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee.</p>
+<p>The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable
+manner near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the
+view, so that they can be handled to the best advantage. The
+bands or ropes, see Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order
+that the heads or large pieces of jute can be separated. If any
+irregularity in the selection of the heads from the different
+bales of the batch takes place in this first selection of the
+heads of jute, the faulty handling may affect subsequent
+operations in such a way that no chance of correcting the defect
+can occur; it should be noted at this stage that if there are
+slight variations of any kind in the fibres, it is advisable to
+make special efforts to obtain a good average mixture; as a
+matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a judicious selection
+in every case. The usual variations are--the colour of the fibre,
+its strength, and the presence of certain impurities such as
+stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute, which are
+affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully mixed with
+the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may disappear as
+the fibre proceeds on its way through the different machines.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._8"></a>
+<a href="images/f8.PNG"><img src="images/f8.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 8 BALE OPENER" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 8 BALE OPENER<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge
+hammer in hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener
+is used, and this operation constitutes the preliminary opening.
+As already indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine
+from the left in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling
+feed cloth which carries the heads of jute successively between a
+pair of feed rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs
+of very deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair
+of deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the
+figure. These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the
+compressed heads of jute and deliver them in a much softer
+condition to the delivery sheet on the right. The delivery sheet
+is an endless cloth which has a continuous motion, and thus the
+softened heads are carried to the extreme right, at which
+position they are taken from the sheet by the operatives. The
+upper rollers in the machine may rise in their bearings against
+the downward pressure of the volute springs on the bearings; this
+provision is essential because of the thick and thin places of
+the heads.</p>
+<p>A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, &amp; Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart
+patent is illustrated in Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in the shape of the crushing or
+opening rollers.</p>
+<p>It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there
+are three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top
+and situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller
+has a series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings.
+The knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the
+hard layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads
+of jute have to bend partially round the larger roller as they
+are passing between the rollers. This double action naturally
+aids in opening up the material, and the machine, which is both
+novel and effective, gives excellent results in practice. The
+degree of pressure provided for the top roller may be varied to
+suit different conditions of heads of jute by the number of
+weights which are shown clearly in the highest part of the
+machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._9"></a>
+<a href="images/f9.PNG"><img src="images/f9.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 9 BALE OPENER " /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 9 BALE OPENER<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in
+this machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of
+the machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives
+good results in practice.</p>
+<p>In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a
+condition that the operatives can split them up into pieces of a
+suitable size quite freely.</p>
+<p>The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a
+position near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the
+heads of jute as the latter approach the end of the table, and
+then pass them to the batchers, who split them. The most suitable
+size of pieces are 2-1/2 to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8
+feet in length, but the size of the pieces is regulated somewhat
+by the system of feeding which is to be adopted at the
+breaker-card, as well as by the manager's opinion of what will
+give the best overall result.</p>
+<p>After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable
+smaller pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for
+the batcher or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could
+watch the above operation of separating the heads of jute into
+suitable sizes, it would perhaps be much easier to understand the
+process of unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of
+fibre. As the loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8
+or 9, it is placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the
+head hanging, and by a sort of intuition acquired by great
+experience, she or he grips the correct amount of fibre between
+the fingers, and by a dexterous movement, and a simultaneous
+shake of the whole piece, the handful just comes clear of the
+bulk and in much less time than it takes to describe the
+operation.</p>
+<p>As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid
+on stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the
+method by means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is
+to be added for the essential process of lubrication; this
+lubrication enables the fibre to work freely in the various
+machines.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gBATC" href="#BATCg">CHAPTER VI. BATCHING</a></h2>
+<p><b>Softening and Softening Machines</b>. Two distinct courses
+are followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves
+the bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card.
+These courses are designated as--</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">1. Hand Batching.</p>
+<p class="i6">2. Machine Batching.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>In the former process, which is not largely practised, the
+pieces of jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight
+twist, to facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in
+large carts which can be wheeled from place to place; if this
+method is not convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and
+deposited in large stalls such as those illustrated in Fig.
+10.</p>
+<p>On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over
+the pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated
+outlets--usually long tubes. After the oil has been added, water,
+from a similar sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is
+added until the attendant has applied what he or she considers is
+the proper quantity. The ratio between a measured amount of oil
+and an unmeasured amount of water is thus somewhat varied, and
+for this reason the above method is not to be commended. A
+conscientious worker can, however, with judgment, introduce
+satisfactory proportions which are, of course, supplied by the
+person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on the right is where the
+oil is stored, while the oil can, and the spray-pipe and tube for
+water, are shown near the second post or partition on the
+right.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._10"></a>
+<a href="images/f10.PNG"><img src="images/f10.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT<br/>
+WITH UNPREPARED AND PREPARED FIBRE</h3>
+<p>The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is
+filled with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to
+remain there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the
+material may be more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned.
+At the end of this time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to
+and fed into the softening machines where the fibres undergo a
+further process of bending and crushing.</p>
+<p>All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are
+often called, are similar in construction, but the number of
+pairs of rollers varies according to circumstances and to the
+opinions of managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11,
+which, in the form shown, is intended to treat jute from the
+above-mentioned stalls, is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of
+rollers or any other number which, minus 1, is a measure of 8.
+The sections are made in 8's. The illustration shows only 31
+pairs.</p>
+<p>The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as
+clearly shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with
+oblique flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the
+horizontal. What is often considered as a standard softening
+machine contains 63 pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual
+feed and delivery rollers. As mentioned above, this number is
+varied according to circumstances.</p>
+<p>The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller
+sheet, and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in
+different ways before they emerge from the delivery rollers at
+the other end of the machine.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._11"></a>
+<a href="images/f11.PNG"><img src="images/f11.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig. 11 SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS</h3>
+<p>Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the
+application of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are
+much more uniform than they are by the above mentioned process of
+hand batching. On the other hand, there is no time for
+conditioning the fibre because the lubrication and the softening
+are proceeding simultaneously, although conditioning may proceed
+while the fibre remains in the cart after it has left the
+softener.</p>
+<p>The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay
+&amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the
+pieces or "stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual
+lubricating equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular
+frame in the centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to
+the side frames of the softening machine proper, say that shown
+in Fig. 11. Its exact position, with respect to its distance from
+the feed, is a matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged
+to fall on to the material at any point between the second and
+twelfth rollers.</p>
+<p>In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen
+clearly, and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with
+the stricks or pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs
+shown immediately above the roller bearings and partially
+enclosed in bell-jars.</p>
+<p>Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one
+vertical and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is
+attached by suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at
+each end of the machine and to the valve of the water pipe near
+the top of the frame, while the upper end of the inclined or
+oblique rod is fulcrumed on a rod projecting from the frame. The
+lower or curved end of the oblique rod rests against the boss of
+one of the upper rollers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._12"></a>
+<a href="images/f12.PNG"><img src="images/f12.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 12 Hand-Batching Department" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 12 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT<br/>
+WITH UNPREPARED AND AND PREPARED FIBRE</h3>
+<p>The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and
+stopping of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when
+irregular feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise
+slightly against the pressure of the springs when thick stricks
+appear; hence, when a thick place passes under the roller which
+is in contact with the curved end of the oblique rod, the end
+moves slightly clockwise, and thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this
+results in an increased quantity of oil being liberated from the
+source of supply, and the mechanism is so arranged that the oil
+reaches the thick part of the strick. When the above-mentioned
+upper roller descends, due to a decrease in the thickness of the
+strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is moved slightly
+counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the thin part of
+the strick. It will be understood that all makers of softening
+machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching apparatus
+when desired.</p>
+<p>A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel
+wheels at the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a
+protection against accidents. In many machines safety appliances
+are fitted at the feed end so that the machine may be
+automatically stopped if the operative is in danger. The batching
+apparatus for this machine is of a different kind from that
+illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it is placed nearer the feed
+rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed pipes for the oil and the
+water are shown coming from a high plane, and the supply is under
+the influence of chain gearing as shown on the right near the
+large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.</p>
+<p>The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and
+the nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The
+barrow of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from
+stricks which have passed through the machine, and these stricks
+are now ready for conditioning, and will be stored in a
+convenient position for future treatment.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._13"></a>
+<a href="images/f13.PNG"><img src="images/f13.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig. 13 SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS</h3>
+<p>While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is
+graded in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of
+yarn without any further selection or treatment, it may be
+possible to utilize the material to better advantage by a
+judicious selection and treatment after it has undergone the
+operation of batching.</p>
+<p>What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special
+machine known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into
+the machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins
+in order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter
+drops through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre
+is delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet
+of the softener.</p>
+<p>The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special
+machine termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the
+comparatively hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a
+teazer may also be used for somewhat similar purposes, and for
+opening out ropes and similar close textures.</p>
+<p>The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from
+a heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and
+then the material is built up with room left for expansion, and
+allowed to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain
+quantity of this material may then be used along with other marks
+of jute to form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.</p>
+<p>A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by
+means of a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends
+of the stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two
+parts are severed when it is desired to utilize only the best
+part of the strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour
+than the remainder, and hence the above process is one of
+selection with the object of securing a yarn which will be
+uniform in colour and in strength.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gCARD" href="#CARDg">CHAPTER VII. CARDING</a></h2>
+<p><b>Breaker and Finisher Cards</b>. After the fibre from the
+softening machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it
+is ready for one of the most important processes in the cycle of
+jute manufacture; this process is termed carding, and is
+conducted in two distinct types of machines--</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i8">1. The breaker card.</li>
+<li class="i8">2. The finisher card.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The functions of the two machines are almost identical;
+indeed, one might say that the work of carding should be looked
+upon as one continuous operation.</p>
+<p>The main difference between the two types of machines is in
+the method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of
+the small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the
+action on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing
+and splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a
+slowly-moving roller allow the strick or stricks (because there
+are several side by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end
+to end, the pins of another but quickly-moving roller perform the
+splitting and the combing of the fibre. The pins of the
+slowly-moving roller hold, so to speak, the strick, while the
+pins of the quickly-moving roller comb out the fibres and split
+adhering parts asunder so as to make a comparatively fine
+division.</p>
+<p>The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A
+receptacle, very similar to that used at the breaker card,
+appears near the far end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.</p>
+<p>A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or
+back of the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front
+of the card on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card
+is facing the observer. The protecting cages were removed so that
+the wheels would be seen as clearly as possible.</p>
+<p>Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed
+side of the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a
+channel-shaped stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet,
+or feed cloth, which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the
+grip of the feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a
+"shell" feed because the upper contour of the guiding feed
+bracket is shaped somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually
+decreasing and suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the
+shell and the pins of the feed roller.</p>
+<p>The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks
+of fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and
+simultaneously carried into the machine where they come into
+contact with the points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving
+large roller, termed a cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and
+splitting action takes place at this point as well as for a
+distance of, say, 24 inches to 30 inches below. The fibres which
+are separated at this stage are carried a little further round
+until they come into contact with the points of the pins in the
+above-mentioned slowly-moving roller, termed a "worker," and
+while the fibres are moving slowly forward under the restraining
+influence of the worker, they are further combed and split. A
+portion of the fibres is carried round by the pins of the worker
+from which such fibres are removed by the quicker moving pins of
+the second roller of the pair, termed a "stripper," and in turn
+these fibres are removed from the pins of the stripper by the
+much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._14"></a>
+<a href="images/f4.PNG"><img src="images/f14.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG.14 MODERN BREAKER CARD" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD</h3>
+<p>The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers
+(worker and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are
+repeated by a second and similar pair of rollers (worker and
+stripper), and ultimately the thin sheet of combed and split
+fibres comes into contact with the pins of the doffer from which
+it is removed by the drawing and pressing rollers. The sheet of
+fibres finally emerges from these rollers into the broad and
+upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly of tin
+and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in Fig.
+14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width
+and, of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously
+guided and delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to
+the sliver can, distinctly seen immediately below the delivery
+rollers. The sliver is seen emerging from the above rollers and
+entering the sliver can.</p>
+<p>The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn
+forward relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged
+more or less parallel to each other. The technical term "draft"
+is used to indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip
+on each other, and in future we shall speak about this
+attenuation or drawing out of the fibres by this special term
+"draft."</p>
+<p>It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into
+the can at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant
+flow will soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a
+sliver can, although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs.
+The machine must, of course, deliver its quota to enable
+succeeding machines to be kept in practically constant work. As a
+matter of fact, the machines are arranged in what are termed
+"systems," so that this desirable condition of a constant and
+sufficient feed to all may be satisfactorily fulfilled.</p>
+<p>The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar
+to that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the
+pulley side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are
+fed by slivers which have been made as explained in connection
+with the breaker card, but there are two distinct methods of
+feeding the slivers, or rather of arranging the slivers at the
+feed side. In both cases, however, the full width of the card is
+fed by slivers laid side by side, with, however, a thin guide
+plate between each pair, and one at each extreme end.</p>
+<p>One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full
+sliver cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the
+floor and to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The
+sliver from each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver
+guide, and thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The
+slivers are guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or
+"feed sheet" which, in turn, conveys them continuously between
+the feed rollers. The feed apparatus in such machines is
+invariably of the roller type, and sometimes it involves what is
+known as a "porcupine" roller. It will be understood that the
+feeding of level slivers is a different problem from that which
+necessitates the feeding of comparatively uneven stricks.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._15"></a>
+<a href="images/f15.PNG"><img src="images/f15.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp;Sons,
+Ltd.</i></h3>
+<p>The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter
+the machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus
+form, as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance,
+and this sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the
+various pairs of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much
+the same way as already described in connection with the breaker
+card. There are, however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher
+card than there are in the breaker card, for while the latter is
+provided with two pairs of rollers, the former may be arranged
+with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs of rollers (6 workers and 6
+strippers). The number of pairs of rollers depends upon the
+degree of work required, and upon the opinions of the various
+managers.</p>
+<p>There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i8">1. Half-circular finisher cards.</li>
+<li class="i8">2. Full-circular finisher cards.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and
+such machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers
+are so disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a
+complete circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from
+pair to pair to undergo the combing and splitting action before
+coming into contact with the doffer. There are five pairs of
+rollers in the machine in Fig. 15, and all the rollers are
+securely boxed in, and the wheels fenced. The arrangement of the
+wheels on the gear side is very similar to that shown in
+connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14, and therefore
+requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes the covers,
+shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and adapted
+to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to examine the
+rollers and other parts.</p>
+<p>The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the
+various rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of
+draft, are ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the
+pins of the cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the
+conductor. The conductor of a finisher card is made in two
+widths, so that half the width of the film enters one section and
+the other half enters the other section. These two parallel
+sheets, split from one common sheet, traverse the two conductors
+and are ultimately delivered as two slivers about 6 inches above
+the point or plane in which the 10 or 12 slivers entered, and on
+to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two slivers are then
+guided by horns projecting from the upper surface of the sliver
+plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction of
+delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver
+can.</p>
+<p>In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine
+illustrated in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism
+which is supported by the small supplementary frame on the
+extreme right. This special mechanism is termed a "Patent Push
+Bar Drawing Head," and the function which it performs will be
+described shortly; in the meantime it is sufficient to say that
+it is used only when the slivers from the finisher card require
+extra or special treatment. A very desirable condition in
+connection with the combination of a finisher card and a
+draw-head is that the two distinct parts should work in unison.
+In the machine under consideration, the feed and delivery rollers
+of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage of the
+draw-head mechanism.</p>
+<p>One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a
+uniform thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other
+respects. A so-called level thread refers, in general, to a
+uniform diameter, but there are other equally, if not more,
+important phases connected with the full sense of the word
+uniform.</p>
+<p>It has already been stated that in the batching department
+various qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in
+order to obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different
+grades and marks vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter,
+length and suppleness; it is of the utmost importance that these
+fibres of diverse qualities should be distributed as early as
+possible in the process so as to facilitate the subsequent
+operations.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._16"></a>
+<a href="images/f16.PNG"><img src="images/f16.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. James F. Low &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></h3>
+<p>However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed
+in the batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves
+something to be desired; further improvement is still desirable
+and indeed necessary. It need hardly be said, however, that the
+extent of the improvement, and the general final result, are
+influenced greatly by the care which is exercised in the
+preliminary processes.</p>
+<p>The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new
+length, and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of
+each individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the
+new length of sliver is identical with each of the individual
+lengths and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting
+takes place in the finisher card, so that the fibres which
+compose the combined 10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a
+draft of 8 to 16 or even more; this means that for every yard of
+the group of slivers which passes into the machine there is drawn
+out a length of 8 to 16 yards or whatever the draft happens to
+be. The resulting sliver will therefore be approximately
+two-thirds the bulk of each of the original individual slivers.
+The actual ratio between them will obviously depend upon the
+actual draft which is imparted to the material by the relative
+velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.</p>
+<p>It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the
+fibrous material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is
+known as card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is
+produced, in spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed
+into the machine which is not delivered as perfect material. All
+this waste from various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste,
+card waste, ropes, dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately
+utilized to produce sliver for heavy sacking weft.</p>
+<p>The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from
+the valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products
+are passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J.
+F. Low &amp; Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16.
+The resulting mass is then re-carded, perhaps along with other
+more valuable material, and made into a sliver which is used, as
+stated above, in the production of a cheap and comparatively
+thick weft such as that used for sacking.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gDRAW" href="#DRAWg">CHAPTER VIII. DRAWING AND
+DRAWING FRAMES</a></h2>
+<p>The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both
+the breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular
+movement of the pins since all these (with the single exception
+of those in the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards)
+are carried on the peripheries of rotating rollers. In the
+draw-head mechanism, the pins move, while in contact with the
+fibres, in a rectilinear or straight path. In the machines which
+fall to be discussed in this chapter, viz., the "drawing frames,"
+the action of the pins on the slivers from the finisher card is
+also in a straight path; as a matter of fact, the draw-head of a
+finisher card is really a small drawing frame, as its name
+implies. Moreover, each row or rather double row, of pins is
+carried separately by what is termed a "faller." The faller as a
+whole consists of three parts:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for
+being</p>
+<p class="i10">moved in a closed circuit.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or</p>
+<p class="i10">"stocks," fixed to the rod.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes
+about</p>
+<p class="i10">1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill
+or</p>
+<p class="i10">hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the
+above</p>
+<p class="i10">gills.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the
+particular method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the
+length of the fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to
+restrain the movements of the fibres between two important pairs
+of rollers. There are actually about four sets of rollers from
+front to back of a drawing frame; one set of three rollers
+constitute the "retaining" rollers; then comes the drawing roller
+and its large pressing roller; immediately after this pair is the
+"slicking" rollers, and the last pair is the delivery rollers.
+The delivery rollers of one type of drawing frame, called the
+"push-bar" drawing frame, and made by Messsrs. Douglas Fraser
+&amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly in Fig. 17, and
+the can or cans into which the slivers are ultimately delivered
+are placed immediately below one or more sections of these
+rollers and in the foreground of the illustration. The large
+pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing roller,
+occupy the highest position in the machine and near the centre of
+same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of
+gill pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.</p>
+<p>Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a
+set, is led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to
+the sliver guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately
+the slivers leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by
+the gill pins of a faller which is rising from the lower part of
+its circuit to the upper and active position. Each short length
+of slivers is penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these
+coming up successively as the preceding one moves along at
+approximately the same surface speed as that of the retaining
+rollers. The sheet of pins and their fallers are thus
+continuously moving towards the drawing rollers and supporting
+the slivers at the same time. As each faller in succession
+approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is made to descend so
+that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this point the
+faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until it
+reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch
+between the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there
+is always one faller leaving the upper set at the front and
+another joining the set at the back.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._17"></a>
+<a href="images/f17.PNG"><img src="images/f17.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig. 17 PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME</h3>
+<p>The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the
+drawing rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and
+must in all cases be a little greater than the longest fibre.
+This condition is necessary because the surface speed of the
+drawing roller is much greater than that of the retaining
+rollers; indeed, the difference between the surface speeds of the
+two pairs of rollers is the actual draft.</p>
+<p>Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are
+embedded in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward,
+as mentioned, to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the
+latter to the nip of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward
+ends of the fibres are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing
+rollers, the fibres affected slide on those which have not yet
+reached the drawing rollers, and, incidentally, help to
+parallelize the fibres. It will be clear that if any fibre
+happened to be in the grip of the two pairs of rollers having
+different surface speeds, such fibre would be snapped. It is to
+avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance between the two
+sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres under
+treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."</p>
+<p>On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate
+which bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the
+delivery rollers, and by means of which plate two or more
+individual slivers are diverted at right angles, first to join
+each other, and then again diverted at right angles to join
+another sliver which passes straight from the drawing rollers and
+over the sliver plate to the guide of the delivery rollers. It
+will thus be seen that a number of slivers, each having been
+drawn out according to the degree of draft, are ultimately joined
+to pass through a common sliver guide or conductor to the nip of
+the delivery rollers, and thence into a sliver can.</p>
+<p>The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of
+the same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set.
+With the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels
+are at the far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in
+dust-proof casing. The set-on handles, for moving the belt from
+the loose pulley to the fast pulley, or <i>vice versa</i>, are
+conveniently situated, as shown, and in a place which is
+calculated to offer the least obstruction to the operative. The
+machines are made with what are known as "two heads" or "three
+heads." It will be seen from the large pressing rollers that
+there are two pairs; hence the machine is a "two-head" drawing
+frame.</p>
+<p>The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to
+a further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar
+machine termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills
+for this frame are rather finer and more closely set than those
+in the first drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the
+machines, and the operations conducted therein, are practically
+identical, and therefore need no further description. It should
+be mentioned, however, that there are different types of drawing
+frames, and their designation is invariably due to the particular
+manner in which the fallers are operated while traversing the
+closed circuit. The names of other drawing frames appear
+below.</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i2">Spiral or screw gill;</li>
+<li class="i2">Open link chain;</li>
+<li class="i2">Rotary;</li>
+<li class="i2">Ring Carrier</li>
+<li class="i2">Circular.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation
+in a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are
+considered sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gTHER" href="#THERg">CHAPTER IX. THE ROVING
+FRAME</a></h2>
+<p>The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but
+there still remains a process by means of which the drafting of
+the slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued.
+And, in addition to these important functions, two other equally
+important operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of
+imparting to the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is
+known as a "rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a
+large rove bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.</p>
+<p>The machine in which this multiple process is performed is
+termed a "roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes,
+and with different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is
+provided for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of
+course, with two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of
+spindles, flyers, and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in
+Fig. 18, which represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.</p>
+<p>Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from
+the upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes
+in the flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The
+discs or bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter
+rail" or "builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical
+spindles pass through the centre of the discs, each spindle being
+provided with a "flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon
+the tops of the spindles.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._18"></a>
+<a href="images/f18.PNG"><img src="images/f18.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME<br/>
+<i>By Permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons,
+Ltd</i></h3>
+<p>A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be
+seen that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing
+rollers passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a
+guide eye, then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part
+of the flyer, round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme
+end of either of the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin.
+Each bobbin has its own sliver can (occasionally two), and the
+sliver passes from this can between the sides of the sliver
+guide, between the retaining rollers, then amongst the gill pins
+of the fallers and between the drawing (also the delivery)
+rollers. Here the sliver terminates because the rotary action of
+the flyer imparts a little twist and causes the material to
+assume a somewhat circular sectional form. From this point, the
+path followed to the bobbin is that described above.</p>
+<p>As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the
+sliver is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the
+periphery of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to
+about 20 yards per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also
+driven at a constant speed, because in all cases we have--</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i2">spindle speed = delivery x twist.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the
+rove bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is
+driven independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for
+any one series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the
+bobbin differs, however, for each complete layer of rove, simply
+because the effective diameter of the material on the bobbin
+changes with the beginning of each new layer.</p>
+<p>The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal
+plane, and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the
+same height from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are
+raised gradually by the builder during the formation of each
+layer from the top of the bobbin to the bottom, and lowered
+gradually by the builder during the formation of each layer from
+bottom to top. In other words, the travel of the builder is
+represented by the distance between the inner faces of the
+flanges of the rove bobbin.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._19"></a>
+<a href="images/f19.PNG"><img src="images/f19.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME<br/>
+ FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK</h3>
+<p>Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in
+virtue of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating
+bobbin, and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter
+increases the combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by
+two diameters of the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an
+intermittent and variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by
+means of which this desirable and necessary speed is given to the
+bobbin constitutes one of the most elegant groups of mechanical
+parts which obtains in textile machinery. Some idea of the
+intricacy of the mechanism, as well as its value and importance
+to the industry, may be gathered from the fact that a
+considerable number of textile and mechanical experts struggled
+with the problem for years; indeed 50 years elapsed before an
+efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts was evolved for
+performing the function.</p>
+<p>The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the
+differential motion," and the difficulties in constructing its
+suitable gearing arose from the fact that the speed of the rove
+passing on to the various diameters must be maintained
+throughout, and must coincide with the delivery of yarn from the
+rollers, so that the attenuated but slightly twisted sliver can
+be wound on to the bobbin without strain or stretch. The varying
+motion is regulated and obtained by a drive, either from friction
+plates or from cones, and the whole gear is interesting,
+instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct motions, a
+constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the bobbins from
+the driving shaft of the machine.</p>
+<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and
+the whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of
+wheels to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that
+nearest the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently
+guarded, and provision is made to start or stop the machine from
+any position on both sides. The machine is adapted for building
+10 in. X 5 in. bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in.
+outside diameter, and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the
+illustration showing part of a machine and approximately 48
+spindles.</p>
+<p>The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the
+size of the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5
+in. frame, and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin
+are 10 in. apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of
+the builder would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the
+standard size for the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2
+in. bobbins are used for the roves from which finer yarns are
+spun. When the finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often
+termed spinning direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or
+thick yarns, 8 in. x 4 in. bobbins are largely used.</p>
+<p>Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size
+of rove so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of
+spinning and according to the count of the required yarn; the
+parts involved in these changes are those which affect the draft
+gearing, the twist gearing, and the builder gearing in
+conjunction with the automatic index wheel which acts on the
+whole of the regulating motion.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gSPIN" href="#SPINg">CHAPTER X. SPINNING</a></h2>
+<p>The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size
+of yarn required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process
+of spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be
+done before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The
+nomenclature is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times
+when the conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much
+simpler apparatus than it is at present; the established name to
+denote this conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of
+a large number of important processes, each one of which is as
+important and necessary as the actual operation of spinning.</p>
+<p>A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one
+of the Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly
+the wide "pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the
+method adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft.
+Spinning frames are usually double-sided, and each side may
+contain any practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per
+side are common numbers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._20"></a>
+<a href="images/f20.PNG"><img src="images/f20.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT</h3>
+<p>The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig.
+20, are brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs
+of a creel (often called a hake) near the top of the spinning
+frame-actually above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove
+bobbin is free to rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is
+drawn downwards by the retaining rollers. The final drafting of
+the material takes place in this frame, and a considerable amount
+of twist is imparted to the drawn out material; the latter, now
+in the desired form and size of yarn, is wound simultaneously on
+to a suitable size and form of spinning bobbin.</p>
+<p>When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed
+over a "breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of
+the conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor
+by means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the
+drawing rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out
+between the retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft
+required, and the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed
+in a slot of the "thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer,
+round one of the arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at
+the end of the flyer arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The
+latter is raised and lowered as in the roving frame by a builder
+motion, so that the yarn may be distributed over the full range
+between the ends or flanges.</p>
+<p>Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band
+which passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven
+whorl of the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the
+delivery of the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the
+operation of spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this
+connection, the parts resemble those in the roving frame, but
+from this point the functions of the two frames differ. The yarn
+has certainly to be wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as
+it is delivered from the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the
+spinning frame the bobbin, which rotates on the spindle, is not
+driven positively, as in the roving frame, by wheel gearing; each
+spinning bobbin is actually driven by the yarn being pulled round
+by the arm of the flyer and just sufficient resistance is offered
+by the pressure or tension of the "temper band" and weight. The
+temper band is simply a piece of leather or hemp twine to which
+is attached a weight, and the other end of the leather or twine
+is attached to the builder rail.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._21"></a>
+<a href="images/f21.PNG"><img src="images/f21.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES</h3>
+<p>The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves
+into one of which the temper-band is placed so that the band
+itself is in contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin
+flange. A varying amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin
+is required in virtue of the varying size of the partially-filled
+bobbin, and this is obtained by placing the temper-band
+successively in different groves in the builder so that it will
+embrace a gradually increasing arc of the spinning bobbin, and
+thus impart a heavier drag or tension.</p>
+<p>The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of
+the frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21
+are at right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of
+the chief parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen
+distinctly on the pegs of the creel in the upper part of the
+figure, and the rove yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as
+already described, until they ultimately enter the eyes of the
+flyer arms to be directed to and wound upon the spinning bobbins.
+The flyers--at one time termed throstles--are clearly visible a
+little above the row of temper weights. The chief parts for
+raising the builder--cam lever, adjustable rod, chain and
+wheel--are illustrated at the end of the frame nearest the
+observer.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gTWIS" href="#TWISg">CHAPTER XI. TWISTING AND
+REELING</a></h2>
+<p>In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the
+form they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On
+the other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving
+included, it is necessary to take two, three, or more of these
+single yarns and to combine them by a process technically termed
+twisting, and sometimes "doubling" when two single yarns only are
+combined.</p>
+<p>Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements
+go, is to twist two single yarns together to make a compound
+yarn, it is not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed,
+sixteen or more single yarns are often united for special
+purposes, but, when this number is exceeded, the operation comes
+under the heading of twines, ropes and the like. The twist or
+twine thus formed will have the number of yarns regulated by the
+levelness and strength required for the finished product. The
+same operation is conducted in the making of strands for cordage,
+but when a number of these twines are laid-up or twisted
+together, the name cord or rope is used to distinguish
+them.[1]</p>
+<p>[Footnote 1: See <i>Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres</i>,
+by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]</p>
+<p>When two or three threads are united by twisting, the
+operation can be conducted in a twisting frame which differs
+little from a ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be
+described. There may be, however, appliances embodying some
+system of automatic stop motion to bring the individual spindles
+to rest if one thread out of any group which are being combined
+happens to break. When several threads have to be twisted
+together, special types of twisting frames are employed; these
+special machines are termed "tube twisters," and the individual
+threads pass through holes suitably placed in a plate or disc
+before they reach the tube.</p>
+<p>More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are
+occasionally adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the
+above-mentioned work on Cordage and similar literature for
+detailed information.</p>
+<p>When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting
+frame, it is made up according to requirements, and the general
+operations which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling,
+cop-winding, roll or spool winding, mill warping or link warping.
+The type or class of yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to
+be used, or the equipment of the manufacturer, determines which
+of these methods should be used previous to despatching the
+yarn.</p>
+<p><b>Reeling</b>. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation,
+consisting solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or
+twisting bobbins on to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width
+and of a fixed diameter, or rather circumference. Indeed, the
+circumference of the reel was fixed by an Act of Convention of
+Estates, dating as far back as 1665 and as under:</p>
+<p><em>"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of
+confiscation, half to the King and half to the
+attacher."</em></p>
+<p><em>"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be
+shorter than <b>ten quarters</b>."</em></p>
+<p>The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All
+such yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated
+must be reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the
+threads which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems
+of dyeing and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but
+these are not employed much in the jute industry. Large
+quantities of jute yarns intended for export are reeled, partly
+because bundles form suitable bales for transport, and partly
+because of the varied operations and sizes of apparatus which
+obtain in foreign countries.</p>
+<pre>
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+<br/>
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference
+                                         of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+</pre>
+<p>Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very
+finest yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn
+is made up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick,
+even 6 cuts are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of
+4 cuts, 3 cuts, 2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any
+group less than 12 cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used
+is simply one of convenience to enable the mill-hank to be
+satisfactorily placed on the swift in the winding frame.</p>
+<p>The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to
+measure the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling,
+or forming the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as
+the method of designating the count, grist or number of the yarn.
+We have already seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by
+the weight in lbs. of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).</p>
+<p>For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the
+same count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins
+on the reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins
+is wound round, say,</p>
+<p>6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or
+120 threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24
+separate cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been
+reeled as mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the
+cuts are complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band"
+is tied round each group of 120 threads.</p>
+<p>A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may
+be in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and
+this movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to
+accommodate the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.</p>
+<p>Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell
+rings, the reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that
+when the mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be
+distinct. In some case, the two threads of the lease-band instead
+of being tied, are simply crossed and recrossed at each cut,
+without of course breaking the yarn which is being reeled,
+although effectively separating the cuts. At the end of the
+operation (when the quantity of cuts for the mill-hank has been
+reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.</p>
+<p>The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation
+of winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with
+approximate correctness.</p>
+<p>When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut
+hanks, there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel.
+The 24 mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and
+the hanks taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along
+with others of the same count, are made up into bundles which
+weigh from 54 lb. to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn.
+Each bundle contains a number of complete hanks, and it is
+unusual to split a hank for the purpose of maintaining an
+absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed, the bundles contain an
+even number of hanks, so that while there would be exactly 56 lb.
+per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn, there would be 60 lb in
+a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb. in a bundle of 9 lb.
+yarn.</p>
+<p>The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct
+number of threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct
+tell"; this ideal condition may be impracticable in actual work,
+but it is wise to approach it as closely as possible. Careless
+workers allow the reel to run on after one or more spinning
+bobbins are empty, and this yields what is known as "short tell."
+It is not uncommon to introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or
+124 teeth, instead of the nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for
+this defect in reeling.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gWIND" href="#WINDg">CHAPTER XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND
+COPS</a></h2>
+<p>The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus
+completed, the yarns are ready to be combined either for more
+elaborate types of twist, or for the processes of cloth
+manufacture. In its simplest definition, a fabric consists of two
+series of threads interlaced in such way as to form a more or
+less solid and compact structure. The two series of threads which
+are interlaced receive the technical terms of warp and weft--in
+poetical language, warp and woof. The threads which form the
+length of the cloth constitute the warp, while the transverse
+threads are the weft.</p>
+<p>The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to
+a large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has
+to be prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two
+distinct conditions necessitate two general types of winding:</p>
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp
+yarns.</p>
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.</p>
+<p>For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from
+the spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain
+from 7 to 8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning
+bobbin into cops which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.</p>
+<p>Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged
+bobbins very similar to, but larger than, those which are at
+present used for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding
+machine marked a great advance in the method of winding warp
+yarns as compared with the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the
+jute trade, the latter are used only for winding from hank those
+yarns which have been bleached, dyed or similarly treated. Fig.
+22 illustrates one of the modern bobbin winding machines for jute
+made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Dundee. The
+finished product is illustrated by two full bobbins on the stand
+and close to a single empty bobbin. There are also two full
+bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of yarn on the
+swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and since
+the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the bobbin,
+an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout the
+process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the
+bobbin is filled as exemplified in the illustration.</p>
+<p>The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously,
+a fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths
+and any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb.
+of yarn, a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7
+to 8 lb. Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in.
+diameter; hence for 8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400
+yards.</p>
+<p>Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special
+machines adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It
+is built specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of
+15 in. diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is
+used mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll
+only is shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material
+from a 10 in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by
+surface or frictional contact between the roll itself and a
+rapidly rotating drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side
+to side by means of the grooved cam on the left, the upright
+lever fulcrumed near the floor, and the horizontal rod which
+passes in front of the rolls and upon which are fixed the actual
+yarn guides. This rapid traverse, combined with the rotation of
+the rolls, enables the yarn to be securely built upon a paper or
+wooden tube; no flanges are required, and hence the initial cost
+as well as the upkeep of the foundations for rolls is much below
+that for bobbins.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._22"></a>
+<a href="images/f22.PNG"><img src="images/f22.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS</h3>
+<p>Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the
+ordinary 9 in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and
+dressing departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn
+on spinning bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided,
+each side having two tiers; a common number of spools for one
+machine is 80.</p>
+<p>The double tier on each side is practicable because of the
+small space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however,
+rolls are wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as
+practised in several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one
+row only at each side is possible. Both types are made by each
+machine maker, the one illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product
+of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Dundee.</p>
+<p>In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed
+it looks highly probable that the use of these articles will
+still further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle
+form.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._23"></a>
+<a href="images/f23.PNG"><img src="images/f23.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other
+makers, is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different
+sizes of rolls, can be run at a high speed, and possesses
+automatic stop motions, one for each roll.</p>
+<p>A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A
+recent improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an
+automatic stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is
+exhausted, has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour
+frame.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._24"></a>
+<a href="images/f24.PNG"><img src="images/f24.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the
+spinning bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority
+of manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The
+cops are almost invariably wound direct from the spinning
+bobbins, the exception being coloured yarn which is wound from
+hank. There are different types of machines used for cop winding,
+but in every case the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the
+yarn guide has a rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known
+cross-wind so necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition
+of the cops in the winding operation is vertical, but while in
+some machines the tapered nose of the cop is in the high position
+and the spinning bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in
+the low position, in other machines these conditions are
+opposite. Thus, in the cop winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas
+Fraser &amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, and illustrated in Fig. 25,
+the spinning bobbins are below the cops, the tapered noses of the
+latter are upwards in their cones or shapers, and the yarn guides
+are near the top of the machine. This view shows about
+three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the
+above-mentioned opposite type, and the one most generally
+adopted, with the spinning bobbins as shown near the top of the
+frame, the yarn guides in the low position, and the point or
+tapered nose of the cop pointing downwards. Six spindles only
+appear in this view, which represents the machine made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, but it will be
+understood that all machines are made as long as desired within
+practicable and economic limits.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._25"></a>
+<a href="images/f25.PNG"><img src="images/f25.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly
+in Fig. 26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main
+shaft, while the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their
+respective spindles. The upper face of each small skew bevel
+wheel forms one part of a clutch; the other part of the clutch is
+slidably mounted on the spindle. When the two parts of the clutch
+are separated, as they are when the yarn breaks or runs slack,
+when it is exhausted, or when the cop reaches a predetermined
+length, the spindle stops; but when the two parts of the clutch
+are in contact, the small skew bevel wheel drives the clutch, the
+latter rotates the spindle, and the spindle in turn draws forward
+the yarn from the bobbin, and in conjunction with the rapidly
+moving yarn guide and the inner surface of the cone imparts in
+rapid succession new layers on the nose of the cop, and thus the
+formed layers of the latter increase the length proportionately
+to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the partially completed cop
+moves slowly away from its cup or cone until the desired length
+is obtained when the spindle is automatically stopped and the
+winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may be made of
+any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for jute
+shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the angle
+formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30
+degrees.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._26"></a>
+<a href="images/f26.PNG"><img src="images/f26.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 26 COP WINDING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 26 COP WINDING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gWARP" href="#WARPg">CHAPTER XIII. WARPING, BEAMING
+AND DRESSING</a></h2>
+<p>There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on
+the weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a
+warping mill,</p>
+<p class="i6">and when the completed chain is removed from the
+mill it is</p>
+<p class="i6">transferred on to the weaver's beam.</p>
+</div>
+<br/>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a
+linking</p>
+<p class="i6">machine, and then beamed on to a weaver's beam.</p>
+</div>
+<br/>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from
+the large</p>
+<p class="i6">cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's
+beam.</p>
+</div>
+<br/>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and
+beamed</p>
+<p class="i6">simultaneously on to a weaver's beam.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order
+mentioned.</p>
+<p>For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full
+spinning bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated
+to the right of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The
+ends of the threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes
+of two leaves of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The
+heck, or apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's
+lease, drawer's lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown
+clearly between the bobbin bank and the female warper in the
+foreground of the illustration. The heck is suspended by means of
+cords, or chains, and so ranged that when the warping mill is
+rotated in one direction the heck is lowered gradually between
+suitable slides, while when the mill is rotated in the opposite
+direction the heck is raised gradually between the same slides.
+These movements are necessary in order that the threads from the
+bobbins may be arranged spirally round the mill and as
+illustrated clearly on all the mills in the figure. The
+particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing if
+chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about 42
+spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length
+of the warp.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._27"></a>
+<a href="images/f27.PNG"><img src="images/f27.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILL" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS</h3>
+<p>At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the
+weaver's lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of
+the mill with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is
+rotated by means of the handle and its connections shown near the
+bottom of the mill. As the mill rotates, the heck with the
+threads descends gradually and thus the group of threads is
+disposed spirally on the vertical spokes of the mill until the
+desired length of the warp is reached. A beamer's lease or "pin
+lease" is now made on the two lower pegs; there may be two,
+three, four or more threads in each group of the pin lease; a
+common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been formed, one
+section of the warp has been made, the proportion finished being
+(50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads required for
+the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on the same
+two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next section of
+50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite direction
+in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second group of 50
+to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch with the
+threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of the
+mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has
+been introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to
+accommodate all the threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp
+is made in two or more parts or chains. It will be noticed that
+the heck for the nearest mill is opposite about the 12th round of
+threads from the bobbin, whereas the heck for the second mill is
+about the same distance from the top. A completed warp or chain
+is being bundled up opposite the third mill. When the warp is
+completed it is pulled off the mill and simultaneously linked
+into a chain.</p>
+<p>A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and
+often better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in
+No. 2 method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the
+full equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of
+apparatus--a bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a
+frame for forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease,
+machine for drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and
+for measuring the length and marking the warp at predetermined
+intervals, and finally the actual machine which links the group
+of threads in the form of a chain.</p>
+<p>In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools,
+is shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from
+the two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine
+or frame immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds
+of lease are made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the
+end of the warp. Between this leasing frame and the linking
+machine proper, shown in the foreground, is the drawing,
+measuring and marking machine. Only part of this machine is
+seen--the driving pulleys and part of the frame adjoining them.
+All these frames and machines are necessary, but the movements
+embodied in them, or the functions which they perform, are really
+subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the foreground of Fig.
+28.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._28"></a>
+<a href="images/f28.PNG"><img src="images/f28.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" IG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE</h3>
+<p>Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts,
+it is a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these
+parts convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a
+linked chain, and the latter is shown distinctly descending from
+the chute on to the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind
+of link is made by the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in
+Fig. 27 are being withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains
+are shown tied up in Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools
+appear against the wall near the bank.</p>
+<p>The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking
+machine is now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads,
+or rather the small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been
+disposed in a kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or
+radial, and arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer,
+they are attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The
+chain is held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the
+beam while the latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact
+beam of yarn is obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes
+on to the beam last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the
+completed beam is removed from the beaming or winding-on frame,
+this single-thread lease enables the next operative to select the
+threads individually and to draw the threads, usually single, but
+sometimes in pairs, in which case the lease would be in pairs,
+through the eyes of the camas or HEALDS, or to select them for
+the purpose of tying them to the ends of the warp in the loom,
+that is to the "thrum" of a cloth which has been completed.</p>
+<p>Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill,
+or on the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the
+weaver's beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise
+distinct processes of warping and beaming may be conducted
+simultaneously. Thus, the total number of threads required for
+the manufacture of any particular kind of cloth--unless the
+number of threads happens to be very high--may be wound on to the
+loom beam direct from the spools. Say, for example, a warp was
+required to be 600 yards long, and that there should be 500
+threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn would be placed
+in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads from these
+spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the splits or
+openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position in
+regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple,
+while others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam
+rotates at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in
+others the beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of
+revolutions per minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig.
+29, and the mechanism displayed is identical with that employed
+for No. 4 method of preparing warps.</p>
+<p>The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our
+example) would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig.
+29. The threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight
+wide sheet between the pair of rollers, these parts being
+contained in the supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame
+appears on the extreme right of the figure, and this would be
+used in conjunction with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but
+which would occupy a position further to the right, i.e. if one
+bank was not large enough to hold the required number of spools.
+The part on the extreme right can be ignored at present.</p>
+<p>The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated
+in Fig. 28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in
+Fig. 29, and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken
+across the stretch between the supplementary frame and the main
+central frame, and attached to the weavers beam just below the
+pressing rollers. It may be advisable to have another reed just
+before the beam, so that the width occupied by the threads in the
+beam may be exactly the same as the width between the two flanges
+of the loom beam.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._29"></a>
+<a href="images/f29.PNG"><img src="images/f29.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of
+the two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller
+being positively driven from the central part through the long
+horizontal shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The
+loom beam, which is seen clearly immediately below the pressing
+rollers, is driven by friction because the surface speed of the
+yarn must be constant; hence, as the diameter over the yarn on
+the beam increases, the revolutions per minute of the beam must
+decrease, and a varying amount of slip takes place between the
+friction-discs and their flannels.</p>
+<p>As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers
+between the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would
+be arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in.,
+and bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter
+is thus, to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon
+which 500 threads are wound at the same time, instead of one
+thread as in the ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be
+understood that in the latter case the same thread moves from
+side to side in order to bridge the gap, whereas in the former
+case each thread maintains a fixed position in the width.</p>
+<p>The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4
+method, for the weaver is that where, in addition to the
+simultaneous processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in
+the last example, all the threads are coated with some suitable
+kind of starch or size immediately they reach the two rollers
+shown in the supplementary frame in Fig. 29. The moistened
+threads must, however, be dried before they reach the loom beam.
+When a warp is starched, dried and beamed simultaneously, it is
+said to be "dressed."</p>
+<p>In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in
+Fig. 30, there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched
+yarns before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or
+rather part of both, can be seen in this view, from which some
+idea will be formed of the great length occupied. Several of the
+threads from the spools in the left bank are seen converging
+towards the back reed, then they pass between the two
+rollers--the bottom one of which is partially immersed in the
+starch trough--and forward to the second reed. After the sheet of
+threads leaves the second reed, it passes partially round a small
+guide roller, then almost wholly round each of three cylinders
+arranged &deg;o&deg;, and finally on to the loom beam. Each
+cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a position
+between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame in
+Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.</p>
+<p>The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter,
+depend somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the
+speed which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._30"></a>
+<a href="images/f30.PNG"><img src="images/f30.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED
+CYLINDERS</h3>
+<p>A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in
+Fig. 31. This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs.
+Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Dundee, has been introduced to
+show that if the warps under preparation contain a comparatively
+few threads, or if the banks are made larger than usual, two
+warps may be dressed at the same time. In such a case, three
+cylinders only would be used for each warp, and the arrangement
+would be equivalent to two single dressing machines. The two
+weaver's beams, with their pressing rollers, are shown plainly in
+the centre of the illustration. Some machines have four
+cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight. A very
+similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks,
+and all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns
+may be wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if
+the number of threads is too many for one bank.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._31"></a>
+<a href="images/f31.PNG"><img src="images/f31.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of
+500, as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in
+each of the two banks, the threads disposed as already described
+to use as much of the heating surface of the cylinder as
+possible, and one sheet of threads passed partially round what is
+known as a measuring roller. Both sheets of threads unite into
+one sheet at the centre of the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in
+this form on to one of the loom beams.</p>
+<p>It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch
+box is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central
+part of the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig.
+30, is a pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a
+flannel type. Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads
+passes, becomes impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by
+the surface of the lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is
+squeezed out and returns to the trough, or joins that which is
+already moving upwards towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn
+emerges from the rollers and over the cylinders at a constant
+speed, which may be chosen to suit existing conditions, and it
+must also be wound on to the loom beam at the same rate. But
+since the diameter of the beam increases each revolution by
+approximately twice the diameter of the thread, it is necessary
+to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.</p>
+<p>The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive
+the beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A
+certain amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is
+designed for this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted
+by the yarn dresser during the operation of dressing to enable
+them to draw forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal
+sections, so that the yarn is drawn forward continuously and at
+uniform speed.</p>
+<p>During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent
+train of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has
+passed over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired
+length; in addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism
+uses an ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such
+mark to act as a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length
+of warp which has been woven. Thus if the above warp were
+intended to be five cuts, each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all,
+the above apparatus would measure and indicate the yards and
+cuts, and would introduce a mark at intervals of 120 yards on
+some of the threads. And all this is done without stopping the
+machine. At the time of marking, or immediately before or after,
+just as desired, a bell is made to ring automatically so that the
+attendant is warned when the mark on the warp is about to
+approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig. 29, near the
+right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.</p>
+<p>As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is
+made at the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is
+known as a pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of
+warp threads.</p>
+<p>After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed
+from the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes
+or mails of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other
+districts) and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to
+the ends of the threads of the previous warp which, with the
+weft, has been woven into cloth. These latter threads are still
+intact in the cambs and reed in the loom.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gTYIN" href="#TYINg">CHAPTER XIV. TYING-ON,
+DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING</a></h2>
+<p>If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to
+the ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary,
+when the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam
+slowly, and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all
+the knots have passed through the cambs and the reed, and
+sufficiently far forward to be clear of the latter when it
+approaches its full forward, or beating up, position during the
+operation of weaving.</p>
+<p>If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these
+operations would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding
+department, and, when completed, the loom beam with its attached
+warp threads, cambs and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom
+where the "tenter," "tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts
+preparatory to the actual operation of weaving. The latter work
+is often termed "gaiting a web."</p>
+<p>There is a great similarity in many of the operations of
+weaving the simpler types of cloth, although there may be a
+considerable difference in the appearance of the cloths
+themselves. In nearly all the various branches of the textile
+industry the bulk of the work in the weaving departments of such
+branches consists of the manufacture of comparatively simple
+fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there are four distinct
+types of cloth which predominate over all others; these types are
+known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling and sacking.
+In addition to these main types, there are several other simple
+types the structure of which is identical with one or other of
+the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate types
+of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of carpets
+and the like.</p>
+<p>It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a
+work of this kind; the commoner types are described in <i>Jute
+and Linen Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics</i>; and
+the more elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones,
+appear in <i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>, both by T.
+Woodhouse and T. Milne.</p>
+<p>Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32.
+The technical characteristics of each are as follows--</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._32"></a>
+<a href="images/f32.PNG"><img src="images/f32.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS</h3>
+<p>H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine
+single warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the
+simplest order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is
+made from the scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely
+woven than that illustrated.</p>
+<p>B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp
+arranged in pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is
+thick, and the weave is also plain.</p>
+<p>T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in
+bagging, although there is a much wider range in the thickness of
+the weft. It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but
+otherwise the structures are identical.</p>
+<p>S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp
+yarns, usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single,
+with medium or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill
+order. The weaves are shown in Fig. 33.</p>
+<p>C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply
+or two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft
+yarns. The threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down
+twill, directed to right and then to left, and thus forming a
+herring-bone pattern, or arrow-head pattern.</p>
+<p>P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring
+warp is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an
+indefinite pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp
+and weft. The weave is again plain, although the structure of the
+fabric is quite different from the other plain cloths
+illustrated. The cloth is reversible, the two sides being similar
+structure but differing slightly in colour ornamentation.</p>
+<p>As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H,
+B, T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one
+group is constant and as stated.</p>
+<p>All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner
+in Fig. 33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves
+and the yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33,
+the unit weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid
+squares, while the repetitions of the units in each case are
+represented by the dots.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._33"></a>
+<a href="images/f33.PNG"><img src="images/f33.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS
+CLOTHS</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._34"></a>
+<a href="images/f34.PNG"><img src="images/f34.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" IG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH</h3>
+<p>A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H
+and P, Fig. 32.</p>
+<p>B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the
+method of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When
+the warp is made double as indicated in weave <i>B</i>, the
+effect in the cloth can be produced by using the mechanical
+arrangements employed for weave <i>A</i>. Hence, the cloths
+<i>H</i>, <i>B</i> and <i>T</i> can be woven without any
+mechanical alteration in the loom.</p>
+<p><i>C</i> is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4
+units; since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists
+of two identical single rows, they may be represented as at
+<i>D</i>. The actual structure of the cloth <i>S</i> in Fig. 32
+is represented on design paper at <i>C</i>, Fig. 33.</p>
+<p><i>D</i> is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units
+shown, but the mechanical parts for weaving both <i>C</i> and
+<i>D</i> remain constant.</p>
+<p><i>E</i> is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown,
+while</p>
+<p><i>F</i> is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.</p>
+<p>The patterns or cloths for <i>E</i> and <i>F</i> are not
+illustrated.</p>
+<p><i>G</i> is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks,
+two units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at
+<i>C</i>, Fig. 32, and involves the use of 4 leaves in the
+loom.</p>
+<p>The solid squares in weave <i>A</i>, Fig. 33, are reproduced
+in the left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of
+a plain cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is
+exhibited in the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and
+four black picks of weft (the difference is for distinction
+only). The left-hand intersection shows one thread interweaving
+with all the four picks, while the bottom intersection shows all
+the four threads interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from
+the weave or design to the thread and pick respectively show the
+connection, and it will be seen that a mark (solid) on the design
+represents a warp thread on the surface of the cloth, while a
+blank square represents a weft shot on the surface, and <i>vice
+versa</i>.</p>
+<p>A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven
+by belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The
+loom in the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to
+that illustrated at <i>S</i>, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a
+full weaver's warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in
+Fig. 35. There are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving
+shed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._35"></a>
+<a href="images/f35.PNG"><img src="images/f35.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS</h3>
+<p>During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is
+placed a cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine
+in Fig. 25, and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye
+of the shuttle, is driven alternately from side to side of the
+cloth through the opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the
+warp. The positions of the threads in these two layers are
+represented by the designs, see Fig. 33, and while one layer
+occupies a high position in the loom the other layer occupies a
+low position. The threads of the warp are placed in these two
+positions by the leaves of the camb (termed healds and also gears
+in other districts) and it is between these two layers that the
+shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each time it makes a
+journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft each
+journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels moves
+back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus
+pushes successively the shots of weft into close proximity with
+the ones which preceded.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._36"></a>
+<a href="images/f36.PNG"><img src="images/f36.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS<br/>
+<i>By permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd.</i></h3>
+<p>The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp
+is, as already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig.
+33, and the selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the
+pattern on the surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns
+are of the same colour. A great diversity of pattern can be
+obtained by the method of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a
+still greater variety of pattern is possible when
+differently-coloured threads are added to the mode of
+interlacing.</p>
+<p>To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a
+weaving shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from
+overhead shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which
+all the looms are individually driven by small motors made by the
+English Electric Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular
+illustration shows cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same
+principle of driving is being adopted in many jute factories.</p>
+<p>A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4
+leaves are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom,
+of the nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine
+is made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee.
+The dobby itself, or the apparatus which lifts the leaves
+according to the requirements of the design, is fixed on the
+upper part of the frame-work, and is designed to control 12
+leaves, that is, it operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts
+differently from the others.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._37"></a>
+<a href="images/f37.PNG"><img src="images/f37.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made
+from jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at
+the back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton
+carpet) and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through
+the reed. The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended
+in the cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate
+on the needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of
+yarn which e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth
+t correspond with the colour effect on the design paper made by
+the designer. This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton
+fabrics, and these cloths are quite different from that
+illustrated at <i>P</i>, Fig. 32. In both fabrics, however,
+ground or foundation warps are required. It need hardly be said
+that there is a considerable difference between the two types of
+cloth, as well as between the designs and the looms in which they
+are woven.[2]</p>
+<p>[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, <i>see</i> pp. 394-114,
+<i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>, by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.]</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._38"></a>
+<a href="images/f38.PNG"><img src="images/f38.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM</h3>
+<p>In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be
+placed in the looms, and in the finishing department there are
+often heavy rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to
+the despatch room. Accidents often happen when these heavy
+packages, especially the warp beams, are being placed in
+position. In order to minimize the danger to workpeople and to
+execute the work more quickly and with fewer hands, some firms
+have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with suitable Lifting
+Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from the dressing
+and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and then lowered
+quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of transport are
+exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to each other
+and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are valuable for
+all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct from the
+looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the old
+wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place to
+place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._39"></a>
+<a href="images/f39.PNG"><img src="images/f39.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._40"></a>
+<a href="images/f40.PNG"><img src="images/f40.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gFINI" href="#FINIg">CHAPTER XV. FINISHING</a></h2>
+<p>The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter
+leaves the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the
+cloth, removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as
+repairing any damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth
+is passed through a cropping machine the function of which is to
+remove all projecting fibres from the surface of the cloth, and
+so impart a clean, smart appearance. It is usual to crop both
+sides of the cloth, although there are some cloths which require
+only one side to be treated, while others again miss this
+operation entirely.</p>
+<p>A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and
+in this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or
+cut at the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which
+have been woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in
+Fig. 38. The fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton
+carpets. The illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the
+upper part of the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually
+with either two or four of such spirals with their corresponding
+fixed blades.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._41"></a>
+<a href="images/f41.PNG"><img src="images/f41.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK</h3>
+<p>The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially
+adjustable arrangement by means of which the tension may be
+varied by rotating slightly the two rails so as to alter the
+angle formed by the cloth in contact with them. This is, of
+course, at the feed side; the cloth is pulled through the machine
+by three rollers shown distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This
+view illustrates a double cropper in which both the spirals are
+controlled by one belt. As the cloth is pulled through, both
+sides of it are cropped by the two spirals.[3] When four spirals
+are required, the frame is much wider, and the second set of
+spirals is identical with those in the machines illustrated.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._42"></a>
+<a href="images/f42.PNG"><img src="images/f42.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing
+processes, see <i>The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics</i>, by
+T. Woodhouse. (Published by Messrs. Emmott &amp; Co., Ltd.,
+Manchester.)]</p>
+<p>The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and
+placed on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in
+Fig. 43, which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons &amp;, Co., Dundee. The cloth is passed below a
+roller near to the floor, then upwards and over the middle
+roller, backwards to be passed under and over the roller on the
+left, and then forwards to the nip of the pulling rollers, the
+bottom one of which is driven positively by means of a belt on
+the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled rapidly through this
+machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on to the two sides
+of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes in which
+heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process. At
+other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating
+in a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of
+the fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The
+damped fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to
+condition, that is, to enable the moisture to spread, and then it
+is taken to the calender.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._43"></a>
+<a href="images/f43.PNG"><img src="images/f43.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five
+different rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of
+these bowls, the smallest diameter one, is often heated with
+steam. A five-bowl calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig.
+41, and in the background, while a complete illustration of a
+modern 5-bowl calender, with full equipment, and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, appears in Fig.
+44.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._44"></a>
+<a href="images/f44.PNG"><img src="images/f44.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 44 CALENDAR" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 44 CALENDAR</h3>
+<p>The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct
+parts of the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near
+the bottom roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of
+the bowls according to the type of finish desired. For calender
+finish, the bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads
+and picks, so that all the interstices which appear in most
+cloths as they leave the loom, and which are exaggerated in the
+plan view in Fig. 34, are eliminated by this calendering action.
+The cloth is then delivered at the far side of the machine in
+Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface speed of the middle or
+steam-heated roller may differ from the others so that a glazed
+effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by ordinary ironing--is
+imparted to the surface of the fabric. The faster moving roller
+is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender finish, the
+surface speed of all the rollers is the same.</p>
+<p>Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest
+finish" or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length
+of cloth is wound either on to the top roller, or the second top
+one, Fig. 44, and while there is subjected to the degree of
+pressure required; the amount of pressure can be regulated by the
+number of weights and the way in which the tension belt is
+attached to its pulley. The two sets of weights are seen clearly
+on the left in Fig. 44, and these act on the long horizontal
+levers, usually to add pressure to the dead weight of the top
+roller, but occasionally, for very light finishes, to decrease
+the effective weight of the top bowl. After the cloth has been
+chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it is stripped from
+the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with its belt pulley
+in Fig. 41.</p>
+<p>There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44;
+one is driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt.
+Provision is thus made for driving the calender in both
+directions. The pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both
+of which are inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in
+the figure. Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the
+handle to a oblique position.</p>
+<p>The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top
+bowl, and the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the
+necessary pressure, and this pressure may be varied according to
+the number of small weights used. The heaviest finish on the
+calender, i.e. the chest-finish on the second top roller,
+imitates more or less the "mangle finish."</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._45"></a>
+<a href="images/f45.PNG"><img src="images/f45.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE.<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by
+Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated
+in Fig. 45. The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the
+front on to what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick
+iron bowl; when the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved
+between two huge rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four
+narrow pieces are shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the
+two rollers. There are other four narrow pieces, already beamed
+on another pin, in the beaming position, and there is still
+another pin at the delivery side with a similar number of cloths
+ready for being stripped. The three pins are arranged thus
+o&deg;o, and since all three are moved simultaneously, when the
+mangling operation is finished, each roller or pin is moved
+through 120&deg;. Thus, the stripped pin will be placed in the
+beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the mangling
+position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.</p>
+<p>While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers
+move first in one direction and then in the other direction, and
+this change of direction is accomplished automatically by
+mechanism situated between the accumulator and the
+helical-toothed gearing seen at the far end of the mangle. And
+while this mangling is taking place, the operatives are beaming a
+fresh set, while the previously mangles pieces are being stripped
+by the plaiting-down apparatus which deposits the cloth in folds.
+This operation is also known as "cuttling" or "faking." It will
+be, understood that a wide mangle, such as that illustrated in
+Fig. 45. is constructed specially for treating wide fabrics, and
+narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply because circumstances and
+change of trade from time to time demand it.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._46"></a>
+<a href="images/f46.PNG"><img src="images/f46.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the
+manipulation of this and the number of wide weights which are
+ingeniously brought into action to act on the plunger determine
+the pressure which is applied to the fabrics between the bowls or
+rollers.</p>
+<p>Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through
+a measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers
+on the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one
+circle of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20,
+30, up to 100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually
+one yard in circumference.</p>
+<p>If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the
+backing or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a
+wooden centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender,
+measured as well, and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction
+drive somewhat similar to that mentioned in connection with the
+dressing machine. Cloths for this purpose are often made up to
+600 yards in length; indeed, special looms, with winding
+appliances, have been constructed to weave cloths up to 2,000
+yards in length. Special dressing machines and loom beams have to
+be made for the latter kind. When the linoleum backing is
+finished at the calender, both cloth and centre are forwarded
+direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are returned
+periodically.</p>
+<p>Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of
+a simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar
+cloth, and several types of cloths of much wider width, are
+lapped or folded by special machines such as that illustrated in
+Fig. 46. The cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by
+the discs shown, to the upper part of the carrier where it passes
+between the two bars. As the carrier is oscillated from side to
+side (it is the right hand side in the illustration) the cloth is
+piled neatly in folds on the convex table. The carriers may be
+adjusted to move through different distances, so that any width
+or length of fold, between limits, may be made.</p>
+<p>Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine,
+but some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise,
+and this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases,
+however, the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute
+fabrics. Thus, Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for
+this purpose, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Ca.,
+Ltd., Dundee. The full-width cloth on the right has obviously two
+prominent stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth
+passes upwards obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth
+reaches the apex it is doubled and passed between two bars also
+set obliquely on the left. The doubled piece now passes between a
+pair of positively driven drawing rollers, and is then "faked,"
+"cuttled," or pleated as indicated. The machine thus
+automatically, doubles the piece, and delivers it as exemplified
+in folds of half width. In other industries, this operation is
+termed creasing and, rigging. Some of the later types of crisping
+or creasing machines double the cloth lengthwise as illustrated
+in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at the same time instead of
+delivering it in loose folds.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._47"></a>
+<a href="images/f47.PNG"><img src="images/f47.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for
+the making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags
+are made annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either
+by hand, semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the
+lengths are sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in
+various ways according to requirements.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._48"></a>
+<a href="images/f48.PNG"><img src="images/f48.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i></h3>
+<p>Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for
+this purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine
+different cloths are arranged in frames behind the cutting
+machine, and the ends of these cloths passed between the
+horizontal bars at the back of the machine. They are then led
+between the rollers, under the cutting knife, and on to the
+table. The length of cloth is measured as it passes between the
+rollers, and different change pinions are supplied so that
+practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine lengths are thus
+passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and when the
+required length has been delivered, the operative inserts the
+knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and
+table. He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a
+further length is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means
+are provided for registering the number passed through; from
+36,000 yards to 40,000 yards can be treated per day.</p>
+<p>The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first
+four in Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the
+sewing is usually done by quick-running small machines, such as
+the Yankee or Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing
+more than 2,000 bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth,
+such as sacking, <i>S</i>, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost
+invariably done by the Laing or overhead sewing machine, the
+general type of which is illustrated in Fig. 49, and made by Mr.
+D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works, Dundee. This is an
+absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000 bags can be sewn
+in one day.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._49"></a>
+<a href="images/f49.PNG"><img src="images/f49.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald</i></h3>
+<p>The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take
+the form of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as
+illustrated at <i>S</i>, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a
+considerable variety can be made by altering the number of the
+stripes, their position, and their width, while if different
+coloured threads appear in the same cloth, the variety is still
+further increased.</p>
+<p>Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks,
+and other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these
+cases, the necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise
+completed bag by a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or
+circular roller type. The latter type, which is most largely
+used, is illustrated in Fig. 50. It is termed a two-colour
+machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, Dundee; it will be
+observed that there are two rollers for the two distinct colours,
+say red and black. Occasionally three and four-colour machines
+are used, but the one-colour type is probably the most
+common.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._50"></a>
+<a href="images/f50.PNG"><img src="images/f50.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 50 SACK PRINTING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 50 SACK PRINTING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald</i>.</h3>
+<p>The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one
+of the many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires
+to number their bags consecutively in order to provide a record
+of their stock, or for any other purpose, the bags may be so
+numbered by means of a special numbering machine, also made by
+Mr. D. J. Macdonald.</p>
+<p>The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the
+goods, is that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by
+means of a hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower
+moving table upon a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth;
+when the requisite quantity has been placed thereon, the top and
+side wrappers are placed in position, and the pumps started in
+order to raise the bottom table and to squeeze the content
+between it and the top fixed table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per
+square inch is applied according to the nature of the goods and
+their destination. While the goods are thus held securely in
+position between the two plates, the wrappers a sewn together.
+Then specially prepared hoops or metal bands are placed round the
+bale, and an ingenious and simple system, involving a buckle and
+two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The ends of the hoop or
+band are bent in a small press, and these bent ends are passed
+through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the pins inserted in
+the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is removed, the bale
+expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the bale
+securely.</p>
+<p>Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the
+fibre, the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and
+then into cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the
+function of the world's common carrier.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<ul>
+<li><a name="gINDE" href="#INDEg">INDEX</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><br/>
+</li>
+<li>ACCUMULATOR</li>
+<li>Assorting jute fibre.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>BAG-MAKING</li>
+<li>Bale opener</li>
+<li class="i4">opening</li>
+<li>Baling cloth</li>
+<li class="i4">house</li>
+<li class="i4">press</li>
+<li class="i4">station</li>
+<li>Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)</li>
+<li>Batch</li>
+<li>Batchers</li>
+<li>Batching</li>
+<li class="i4">apparatus</li>
+<li class="i4">carts or stalls</li>
+<li>Batch-ticket</li>
+<li>Beamer's lease</li>
+<li>Beaming</li>
+<li class="i4">(dry) direct from bank,</li>
+<li>Blending</li>
+<li>Bobbin winding</li>
+<li>Bojah</li>
+<li>Botanical features of jute plants</li>
+<li>Breaker card</li>
+<li>Brussels carpet</li>
+<li>Bundle of jute.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into</li>
+<li>Calender</li>
+<li class="i4">finish</li>
+<li>Calenderoy</li>
+<li>Carding</li>
+<li>Card waste</li>
+<li>Cargoes of jute</li>
+<li>Chest finish</li>
+<li>Clasp-rods</li>
+<li>Conditioning fibre</li>
+<li>Cops</li>
+<li>Cop winding</li>
+<li>Corchorus capsularis</li>
+<li class="i4">clitorius</li>
+<li>Crisping and crisping machines</li>
+<li>Cropping machine</li>
+<li>Cultivation of jute</li>
+<li>Cutting knife for jute fibre</li>
+<li>Cuttings.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>DAMPING machine</li>
+<li>Defects in fibre and in handling</li>
+<li>Designs or weaves</li>
+<li>Differential motion</li>
+<li>Dobby loom</li>
+<li>Draft</li>
+<li>Drafting</li>
+<li>Drawing</li>
+<li class="i2">frames</li>
+<li class="i4">different kinds of</li>
+<li>Drawing-in</li>
+<li>Dressing and dressing machine</li>
+<li>Drum</li>
+<li>Drying jute fibre</li>
+<li>Dust shaker.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>EAST India Co.</li>
+<li>Exports of jute from India.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>FABRICS</li>
+<li>Faller</li>
+<li>Farming operations</li>
+<li>Fibres,</li>
+<li class="i2">the five main</li>
+<li class="i4">imports of jute.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Fibrous layer</li>
+<li>Finisher card</li>
+<li>Finishing</li>
+<li>folding machine.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Gaiting</li>
+<li>Glazed finish</li>
+<li>Grading jute fibre</li>
+<li>Gunny bags.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Hand batching</li>
+<li>Harvesting the plants</li>
+<li>Height of jute plants</li>
+<li>Hydraulic mangle</li>
+<li class="i2">press.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Identification marks on bags</li>
+<li>Imports of jute.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Jacquard loom</li>
+<li>Jute crop</li>
+<li class="i2">exports from India</li>
+<li class="i2">fabrics</li>
+<li class="i2">fibre, imports of</li>
+<li class="i2">industry</li>
+<li class="i2">knife</li>
+<li class="i2">plants, botanical and physical features of</li>
+<li class="i2">cultivation of</li>
+<li class="i2">height of</li>
+<li class="i2">marks.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Laddering</li>
+<li>Ladders</li>
+<li>Lapping machine</li>
+<li>Linking machine</li>
+<li>Linoleum</li>
+<li>Looms</li>
+<li>Lubrication of fibre.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Machine batching</li>
+<li>Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta</li>
+<li>Mangle finish</li>
+<li class="i2">(hydraulic)</li>
+<li>Marks of jute (<i>see</i> jute marks)</li>
+<li>Maund</li>
+<li>Measuring and marking machine</li>
+<li class="i2">machine for cloth</li>
+<li class="i2">the warp</li>
+<li>Methods of preparing warps</li>
+<li>Multiple-colour printing machines.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Numbering machine for bags.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Opening jute heads</li>
+<li>Overhead runway systems</li>
+<li class="i2">sewing machine (Laing's).</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Packing goods</li>
+<li>Physical features of jute plants</li>
+<li>Pin-lease</li>
+<li>Plaiting machine</li>
+<li>Plants, thinning of</li>
+<li class="i2">weeding of</li>
+<li>Ploughs for jute cultivation</li>
+<li>Point-paper designs</li>
+<li>Porcupine feed</li>
+<li>Printing machine.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Reach</li>
+<li>Reeling</li>
+<li>Retting</li>
+<li>Roller-feed</li>
+<li>Rolls</li>
+<li>Root-comber</li>
+<li class="i2">opener</li>
+<li>Round-thread finish</li>
+<li>Rove</li>
+<li>Roving frame</li>
+<li>Roxburgh, Dr.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical</li>
+<li>Sack making</li>
+<li class="i2">printing machine</li>
+<li>Sand bags</li>
+<li>Seed</li>
+<li class="i2">per acre, amount of</li>
+<li class="i2">sowing of</li>
+<li>Sewing machines</li>
+<li>Shell-feed</li>
+<li>Short-tell</li>
+<li>Snipping machine</li>
+<li>Softening machines</li>
+<li>Spinning</li>
+<li>Spool or roll winding</li>
+<li>Spools (<i>see</i> Rolls)</li>
+<li>Standard bale</li>
+<li>Starching (<i>see</i> Dressing)</li>
+<li>Steeping (<i>see</i> Retting)</li>
+<li>Striker-up (<i>see</i> Batcher)</li>
+<li>Stripping</li>
+<li>Systems.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Teazer</li>
+<li>Tell (of yarn)</li>
+<li>Thinning of plants</li>
+<li>Thrum</li>
+<li>Time for harvesting the plants</li>
+<li>Tube-twisters</li>
+<li>Twist</li>
+<li>Twisting</li>
+<li>Two-colour printing machine</li>
+<li>Tying-on</li>
+<li>Typical jute fabrics.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Union Or Yankee sewing machine</li>
+<li>Unloading bales of jute from ship.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Variations in jute</li>
+<li>Varieties of jute fibre</li>
+<li class="i2">plants.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Warp</li>
+<li>Warp dressing (<i>see</i> Dressing)</li>
+<li>Warping, beaming and dressing</li>
+<li class="i2">mill</li>
+<li>Washing</li>
+<li>Waste</li>
+<li class="i2">teazer</li>
+<li>Weaves or designs</li>
+<li>Weaving</li>
+<li>Weaver's lease</li>
+<li>Weeding of plants</li>
+<li>Weft</li>
+<li class="i2">winding</li>
+<li>Wilton carpet</li>
+<li>Winding (bobbin) machine</li>
+<li class="i2">from hank</li>
+<li class="i2">(large roll) machine</li>
+<li class="i2">(ordinary size from hanks) machine</li>
+<li class="i2">rolls and cops</li>
+<li>World's great war.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Yankee or Union sewing machine</li>
+<li>Yarn table</li>
+<li>Yield of fibre.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><i>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman &amp; Sons, Ltd., Bath,
+England</i></h4>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a15.PNG"><img src="images/a15.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY &amp; LESLIE" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY &amp;
+LESLIE"</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a16.PNG"><img src="images/a16.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: ROYLES LIMITED." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: ROYLES LIMITED.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a17.PNG"><img src="images/a17.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a18.PNG"><img src="images/a18.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: ROBERTSON &amp; ORCHAR, LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: ROBERTSON &amp; ORCHAR, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a19.PNG"><img src="images/a19.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: WHITE, CHILD &amp; BENEY, LIMITED" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: WHITE, CHILD &amp; BENEY, LIMITED</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a20.PNG"><img src="images/a20.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.</b></p>
+<h4><b>NORTHROP AUTOMATIC LOOM as used in the jute trade</b><br/>
+<i>Models for Cotton, Woolen, and Worsted, jute, linen, silk,
+etc.<br/>
+All sizes from 28" to 120"</i></h4>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a21.PNG"><img src="images/a21.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: FREDERICK SMITH &amp; CO." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: FREDERICK SMITH &amp; CO.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a22.PNG"><img src="images/a22.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a23.PNG"><img src="images/a23.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a24.PNG"><img src="images/a24.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING &amp; ACCOUNTANCY" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING &amp;
+ACCOUNTANCY</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a25.PNG"><img src="images/a25.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a26.PNG"><img src="images/a26.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a27.PNG"><img src="images/a27.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a28.PNG"><img src="images/a28.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a29.PNG"><img src="images/a29.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME
+TAX</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a30.PNG"><img src="images/a30.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION,
+ADVERTISING</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a31.PNG"><img src="images/a31.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a32.PNG"><img src="images/a32.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a33.PNG"><img src="images/a33.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a34.PNG"><img src="images/a34.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a35.PNG"><img src="images/a35.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a36.PNG"><img src="images/a36.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES,
+PHRASES</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a37.PNG"><img src="images/a37.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE, READING" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE,
+READING</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a38.PNG"><img src="images/a38.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING, PERIODICALS" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING,
+PERIODICALS</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a39.PNG"><img src="images/a39.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: HENRY TAYLOR &amp; SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S BOOKS" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: HENRY TAYLOR &amp; SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S
+BOOKS</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a40.PNG"><img src="images/a40.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: THOS. BROADBENT &amp; SONS, LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: THOS. BROADBENT &amp; SONS, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>The End</h2>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***</div>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #12443 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12443)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: The Jute Industry:
+       From Seed to Finished Cloth
+
+Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+Release Date: May 26, 2004 [eBook #12443]
+[Most recently updated: March 29, 2023]
+
+Language: English
+
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 1: David Bridge & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 2: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 3: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 4: Robert Hall & Sons]
+
+[Advertisement 5: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 6: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 7: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 8: White, Milne & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 9: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 10: Robert Stiven & Co.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 11: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series
+(Book List)]
+
+
+
+PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+BY T. WOODHOUSE
+
+  HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE
+  TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+
+  FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS,
+  BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH.
+  AUTHOR   OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS,"
+  "HEALDS AND   REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND PORTERS,"
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"
+    "TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"
+    "TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"
+    "TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,
+
+AND
+
+P. KILGOUR
+
+  HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,
+    DUNDEE TECHNICAL   COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+  FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.
+
+
+
+1921
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 12: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.,]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+  The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+  all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants,
+  the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre
+  into useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+  important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+  and the   description, although not severely technical, is
+  sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+  knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+  and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine
+  of jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium
+  of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+  more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects.
+
+              T. WOODHOUSE.
+              P. KILGOUR.
+
+     March, 1921.
+
+
+[Advertisement 13: J. M. Adam & Co.]
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  CHAP.
+        PREFACE
+     I. INTRODUCTORY
+    II. CULTIVATION
+   III. RETTING
+    IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE.
+     V. MILL OPERATIONS
+    VI. BATCHING
+   VII. CARDING
+  VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+    IX. THE ROVING FRAME
+     X. SPINNING
+    XI. TWISTING AND REELING.
+   XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+  XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING.
+   XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING
+    XV. FINISHING
+        INDEX
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: James F. Low & Co., LTD.]
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.
+   1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND
+   2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"
+   3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT
+   4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+        FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE
+   5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A
+        WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS
+   6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE
+        ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR
+   7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE
+        FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6
+   8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+   9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD)
+  10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED
+        AND PREPARED FIBRE
+  11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS
+  12. BATCHING APPARATUS
+  13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS
+  14. MODERN BREAKER CARD
+  15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD
+  16. WASTE TEAZER
+  17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME
+  18. ROVING FRAME
+  19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK
+  20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT
+  21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES
+  22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS
+  24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.)
+  26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+  27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.
+  28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE
+  29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE
+  30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS
+  31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY
+  32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS
+  33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.
+  34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH
+  35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.
+  36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS
+  37. BOBBY LOOM
+  38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM
+  39. THE OLD WAY
+  40. THE NEW WAY
+  41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK
+  42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE
+  43. DAMPING MACHINE
+  44. CALENDER
+  45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE
+  46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE
+  47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE
+  48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE
+  49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.
+  50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTORY
+
+The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton,
+flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in
+general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price,
+but also in regard to utility. It is only under phenomenal
+conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took
+place during the world's great war from 1914 onwards that, from a
+commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre
+and its products are fully realized. Millions of sand bags were made
+from the year 1914 to the year 1918 solely for military purposes,
+while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering
+material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other
+textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. It is on
+record that in one short period of fourteen days, 150,000,000
+sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from Dundee to be
+used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict.
+
+A glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the
+fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a
+hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to
+import the fibre into Great Britain in the latter part of the 18th
+century, and it has been used in India for centuries in the making
+of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous
+to that country. And since all the manufacturing methods there, for
+a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could
+be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the
+needs of a small section of the community on the Eastern shores.
+
+The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of
+Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it was only after
+repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples
+of jute for practical experiments The fibre was so unlike any of the
+existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious
+to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so;
+these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was
+finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute
+industry.
+
+Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute
+fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when the first
+small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home of the jute
+industry. This quantity was imported into this country with the
+special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the
+same way as flax fibre was being treated. At this period Dundee was
+a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning
+and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural
+that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute
+fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the
+preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we
+mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax,
+and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to
+be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated.
+These modifications shall be discussed at a later stage.
+
+It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, the
+imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns which were
+made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for
+the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of
+cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized.
+About the year 1838, representatives of the Dutch Government placed
+comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to
+be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their West Indian
+possessions. The subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the
+demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above
+fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance.
+
+By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute fibre had
+increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 tons in the
+season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed to the
+possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in India--the
+seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At least such a
+probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a small
+consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an attempt
+made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the Indian
+native industry.
+
+The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories
+soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to
+induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of
+training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives
+constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to leave the
+mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the
+country.
+
+In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in
+India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, the
+quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other British ports
+amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period preceding the war,
+nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various countries, while the
+Indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the
+mills in the vicinity of Calcutta--reached the same huge total of
+one million tons.
+
+The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and
+consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the
+production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be
+ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and
+one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the
+near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. As a
+matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are
+contemplated and actually taking place in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  CULTIVATION
+
+_Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant_. Jute fibre is
+obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in
+the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the fruit of the
+variety _Corchorus Capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of
+approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety
+_Corchorus Olitorius_ is contained in a pod. Both belong to the
+order _Tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in Bengal and
+Assam.
+
+Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _Corchorus Japonicus_ of Japan,
+and the _Corchorus Mompoxensis_ used in Panama for making a kind of
+tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of
+job as the Jew's Mallow; this variety _C. Olitorius_, has been used
+in the East from time immemorial as a pot herb.
+
+The two main varieties _C. Capsularis_ and _C. Olilorius_ are
+cultivated in Bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed
+purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in Assam, and the
+seeds exported for use principally in Mymensingh and Dacca.
+
+The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from 5 to
+15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four
+months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems of jute
+plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are
+green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. The leaves
+are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in length, and about 1-1/2
+inches in breadth with serrated edges. Pale yellow flowers spring
+from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of
+small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of
+the variety.
+
+While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the geographical
+position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions.
+On referring to a map of India, it will be seen that Bengal is
+directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north
+by the great Himalayan mountains.
+
+During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north,
+large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but
+when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly
+during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general
+temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts.
+The rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and
+west of Bengal--the Patna and the Brahmaputra--and the tremendous
+volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter
+which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial
+deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the
+propagation of the jute plants.
+
+The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the
+rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and Pabna,
+and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, Orissa
+and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these areas.
+
+The _Corchorus Capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the
+higher and richer soils, while the _Corchorus Olitorius_ variety is
+most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts
+where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _C. Olitorius_ may be
+grown in certain other districts of India which appear quite
+unsuitable for the _C. Capsularis_.
+
+The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with
+the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not
+the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there
+is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern
+methods may be the absence of horses.
+
+The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in teams
+of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where
+a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute
+cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as
+horses do in this country.
+
+The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods
+may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece
+of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks.
+
+The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process
+which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are
+made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting
+pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the
+previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be
+used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine
+tilth may be produced.
+
+When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but
+other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at
+similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure is preferred, but
+castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good
+substitutes.
+
+
+After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by
+hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular
+district. The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May,
+and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND]
+
+There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully
+judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for
+the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for
+easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of
+seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ.
+
+
+It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform
+a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used depends partly
+upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre
+are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2
+lbs.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"]
+
+Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in
+order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants.
+Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from
+plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants;
+they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. The fibres
+obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining
+seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when
+succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to.
+
+If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in
+8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. The heat and
+showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should
+be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with
+long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the operation in process. This
+second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture
+and heat to enter. The young plants are now thinned, and the ground
+weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or
+strength to prevent the words from spreading.
+
+The space between the growing plants will vary according to the
+region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance
+of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants
+show prospects of growing thick and tall.
+
+In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 1/2 to
+4 months from the time of sowing. Although different opinions are
+held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are
+setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage
+usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly
+cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality.
+
+The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general,
+these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite
+suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants ready for cutting
+will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the
+operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it
+requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green crop to produce about 10 to
+15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  RETTING
+
+The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are
+embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water,
+since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a
+period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is dependent upon the
+period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is
+performed.
+
+The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is
+technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the
+water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the
+plants are under treatment.
+
+The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a
+bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. The
+farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making
+by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the
+formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to
+see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous
+layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. The stems are
+tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast
+layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. When the ryot
+considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently
+easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is
+commenced immediately. This latter process is conducted in various
+ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district.
+
+
+In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody
+structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails
+fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand;
+while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women
+who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core
+or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. The strips of fibre
+are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable
+impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it
+over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun.
+
+If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants
+are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to
+some other place provided with a better supply of water for the
+final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to
+create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or
+difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry.
+
+Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant.
+The lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a
+complete cross section. The central part of the stem or pith is
+lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; the outer
+covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual fibrous layer
+appears between the parts B and C, and some of the fibres are
+indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding parts in the three
+distinct views. The middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a
+small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a
+further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. It will
+be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT]
+
+Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks,
+and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of
+preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say
+one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the
+tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus
+loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the
+fibrous layer free. The straws are collected for future use, while the
+fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE
+
+The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. The
+method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some
+districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a
+number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in
+the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to
+sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. A
+maund is approximately equal to 8 lbs., and this quantity forms a
+comparatively small bundle. In other cases, the fibre is made up into
+what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2
+to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in
+India.
+
+Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 million
+bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the remaining half is
+baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over
+one million bales are exported annually to Great Britain, the bulk
+of this fibre comes to Dundee.
+
+It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of
+assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea
+of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for
+special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of selecting and
+grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large
+amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark."
+A mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol,
+name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or
+more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the
+origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant.
+
+In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better
+quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality
+is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality
+of which is below these good ones. Since there are hundreds of
+different marks which are of value only to those connected directly
+with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. The
+following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is
+taken from the Market Report of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920.
+The price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date
+very high, so in order to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal
+prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first
+marks, for the same month in the years 1915 onwards.
+
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+
+           £. s. d.      £. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+
+It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract,
+and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre.
+
+After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is
+made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of these
+200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the
+weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a permitted
+quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while the
+dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X 1'6" X 1'
+4".
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE]
+
+Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large establishments,
+and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and
+efficiently with the large number of bales. In Fig. 4 scores of
+natives, superintended by a European, are seen carrying the smaller
+bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. It is,
+of course, unnecessary to make the solid 400 lb. bales for Indian
+consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which
+is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at
+the baling station by a Chamber of Commerce expert.
+
+Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the Calcutta
+district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with the most
+efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 illustrates one
+of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity.
+Two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by
+different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential
+for the successful prosecution of the work. Two such presses as that
+illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, under efficient administration, of
+turning out 130 bales of 400 lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is
+compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal
+to 6,000 lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in
+cubical capacity 11 cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is
+usual for freight purposes to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton.
+(Now changed to 50 cubic feet.)
+
+The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from
+barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 to
+46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel brought
+70,000 bales.
+
+As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality,
+and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.  Although this is
+the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute
+to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the
+"Spot." It is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample,
+such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or
+"parcel," as it is often called. The contract forms are very complete,
+and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all
+concerned in the trade.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT
+CYCLONE PRESS]
+
+It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large
+quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from
+plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it should
+be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and
+additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears
+possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it
+seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands
+for a corresponding type of manufactured product.
+
+The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually,
+but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree
+the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of
+the world.
+
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING
+JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR]
+
+              JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+
+             Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+
+A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side
+adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are raised quickly
+from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in Fig.
+6 since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in Fig.
+7. When the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to
+the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to
+the more horizontal part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then
+removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and
+piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid
+of a crane. Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales
+to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are stored
+in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM
+THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  MILL OPERATIONS
+
+_Bale Opening_. Each spinner, as already indicated, stores his
+bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient
+manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number
+of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing
+department of the mill.
+
+In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the
+mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different
+kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for
+the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of
+material. In much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the
+jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more
+extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," in its simplest
+definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable
+for subsequent handling in the Batching Department. This number may
+include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute according to the amount of
+accommodation in the preparing department.
+
+All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard
+quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It must be
+remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to
+quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or
+firms of balers or merchants. At other times, the batch of 5 to 10
+bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of
+each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn,
+partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of
+the combination.
+
+It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn
+is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any
+particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple differentiation,
+the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of
+cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in
+some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same
+cloth.
+
+On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of
+jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so
+that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be
+produced. The same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year,
+but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary
+from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation
+of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather
+during the time of growth, and during the season generally.
+
+A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department,
+this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales are, of course,
+defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must
+be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is
+any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be
+notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its
+place without effecting any great change in the character or quality
+of the yarn.
+
+When the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed
+from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are
+conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable
+position near the first machine in the series. It need hardly be
+mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is
+subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a
+very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the various
+so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced
+into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are quite
+unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened
+out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from
+each other. This operation is termed "opening" and the process is
+conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is
+illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee.
+
+The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner
+near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that
+they can be handled to the best advantage. The bands or ropes, see
+Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large
+pieces of jute can be separated. If any irregularity in the
+selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes
+place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty
+handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no
+chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at
+this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the
+fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good
+average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a
+judicious selection in every case. The usual variations are--the
+colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain
+impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute,
+which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully
+mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may
+disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different
+machines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in
+hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and
+this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. As already
+indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left
+in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which
+carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed
+rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very
+deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair of
+deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure.
+These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads
+of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery
+sheet on the right. The delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has
+a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the
+extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by
+the operatives. The upper rollers in the machine may rise in their
+bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the
+bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin
+places of the heads.
+
+A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &
+Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart patent is illustrated in
+Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in
+the shape of the crushing or opening rollers.
+
+It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are
+three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and
+situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller has a
+series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. The
+knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard
+layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute
+have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing
+between the rollers. This double action naturally aids in opening up
+the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective,
+gives excellent results in practice. The degree of pressure provided
+for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads
+of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the
+highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, & Co_.]
+
+The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this
+machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives good
+results in practice.
+
+In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that
+the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size
+quite freely.
+
+The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position
+near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as
+the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the
+batchers, who split them. The most suitable size of pieces are 2-1/2
+to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 feet in length, but the size of
+the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is
+to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's
+opinion of what will give the best overall result.
+
+After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller
+pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher
+or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could watch the above
+operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it
+would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of
+unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. As the
+loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 or 9, it is
+placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging,
+and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he
+grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a
+dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the
+handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it
+takes to describe the operation.
+
+As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on
+stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by
+means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added
+for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables
+the fibre to work freely in the various machines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  BATCHING
+
+_Softening and Softening Machines_. Two distinct courses are
+followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the
+bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. These
+courses are designated as--
+
+      1. Hand Batching.
+      2. Machine Batching.
+
+In the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of
+jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to
+facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts
+which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not
+convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large
+stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. 10.
+
+On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the
+pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually
+long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, from a similar
+sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the
+attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity.
+The ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount
+of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above
+method is not to be commended. A conscientious worker can, however,
+with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of
+course, supplied by the person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on
+the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the
+spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or
+partition on the right.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED AND
+PREPARED FIBRE]
+
+The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is filled
+with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain
+there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the material may be
+more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. At the end of this
+time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the
+softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of
+bending and crushing.
+
+All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often
+called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of
+rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of
+managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, which, in the
+form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls,
+is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of rollers or any other number
+which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. The sections are made in 8's. The
+illustration shows only 31 pairs.
+
+The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as clearly
+shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique
+flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. What
+is often considered as a standard softening machine contains 63
+pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers.
+As mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances.
+
+The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet,
+and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways
+before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the
+machine.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus]
+
+Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application
+of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform
+than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. On the
+other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the
+lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously,
+although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the
+cart after it has left the softener.
+
+The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or
+"stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual lubricating
+equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the
+centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to the side frames
+of the softening machine proper, say that shown in Fig. 11. Its
+exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a
+matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the
+material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers.
+
+In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen clearly,
+and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or
+pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately
+above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars.
+
+Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one vertical
+and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is attached by
+suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the
+machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame,
+while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a
+rod projecting from the frame. The lower or curved end of the
+oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping
+of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular
+feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against
+the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a
+thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the
+curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and
+thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity
+of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism
+is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick.
+When the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in
+the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is
+moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the
+thin part of the strick. It will be understood that all makers of
+softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching
+apparatus when desired.
+
+A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel wheels at
+the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against
+accidents. In many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed
+end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the
+operative is in danger. The batching apparatus for this machine is
+of a different kind from that illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it
+is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed
+pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane,
+and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on
+the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.
+
+The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the
+nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The barrow
+of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which
+have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for
+conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future
+treatment.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus]
+
+While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is graded
+in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn
+without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to
+utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection
+and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching.
+
+What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine
+known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into the
+machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in
+order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter drops
+through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is
+delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the
+softener.
+
+The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine
+termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively
+hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a teazer may also be
+used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and
+similar close textures.
+
+The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a
+heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then
+the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed
+to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain quantity of
+this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to
+form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.
+
+A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of
+a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends of the
+stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two parts are
+severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the
+strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder,
+and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of
+securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  CARDING
+
+_Breaker and Finisher Cards_. After the fibre from the softening
+machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for
+one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture;
+this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct
+types of machines--
+
+
+        1. The breaker card.
+        2. The finisher card.
+
+
+The functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one
+might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one
+continuous operation.
+
+The main difference between the two types of machines is in the
+method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the
+small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the action
+on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and
+splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving
+roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side
+by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of
+another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the
+combing of the fibre. The pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so
+to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller
+comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a
+comparatively fine division.
+
+The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A receptacle,
+very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far
+end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.
+
+A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or back of
+the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card
+on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the
+observer. The protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would
+be seen as clearly as possible.
+
+Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of
+the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped
+stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth,
+which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the
+feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a "shell" feed
+because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped
+somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually decreasing and
+suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins
+of the feed roller.
+
+The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of
+fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously
+carried into the machine where they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a
+cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes
+place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, 24 inches to
+30 inches below. The fibres which are separated at this stage are
+carried a little further round until they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller,
+termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward
+under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further
+combed and split. A portion of the fibres is carried round by the
+pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the
+quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a
+"stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of
+the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD]
+
+The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker
+and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a
+second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately
+the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the
+pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing
+rollers. The sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into
+the broad and upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly
+of tin and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in
+Fig. 14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and,
+of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and
+delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can,
+distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. The sliver is
+seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can.
+
+The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward
+relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less
+parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" is used to
+indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other,
+and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out
+of the fibres by this special term "draft."
+
+It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can
+at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant flow will
+soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can,
+although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. The machine must,
+of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be
+kept in practically constant work. As a matter of fact, the machines
+are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable
+condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be
+satisfactorily fulfilled.
+
+The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to
+that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the pulley
+side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are fed by slivers which
+have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but
+there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of
+arranging the slivers at the feed side. In both cases, however, the
+full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with,
+however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each
+extreme end.
+
+One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full sliver
+cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and
+to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The sliver from
+each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and
+thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The slivers are
+guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet"
+which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers.
+The feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type,
+and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. It
+will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different
+problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively
+uneven stricks.
+
+[Illustration: By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd.
+FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD]
+
+The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the
+machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus form,
+as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this
+sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs
+of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as
+already described in connection with the breaker card. There are,
+however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are
+in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs
+of rollers, the former may be arranged with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs
+of rollers (6 workers and 6 strippers). The number of pairs of
+rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the
+opinions of the various managers.
+
+There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--
+
+         1. Half-circular finisher cards.
+
+         2. Full-circular finisher cards.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and such
+machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so
+disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete
+circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to
+undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact
+with the doffer. There are five pairs of rollers in the machine in
+Fig. 15, and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels
+fenced. The arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very
+similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14,
+and therefore requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes
+the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and
+adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to
+examine the rollers and other parts.
+
+The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various
+rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are
+ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the
+cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. The
+conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the
+width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the
+other section. These two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet,
+traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two
+slivers about 6 inches above the point or plane in which the 10 or 12
+slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two
+slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface
+of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction
+of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can.
+
+In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine illustrated
+in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported
+by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. This special
+mechanism is termed a "Patent Push Bar Drawing Head," and the
+function which it performs will be described shortly; in the
+meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the
+slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. A
+very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a
+finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should
+work in unison. In the machine under consideration, the feed and
+delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage
+of the draw-head mechanism.
+
+One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform
+thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. A
+so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter,
+but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected
+with the full sense of the word uniform.
+
+It has already been stated that in the batching department various
+qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to
+obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different grades and marks
+vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness;
+it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse
+qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process
+so as to facilitate the subsequent operations.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd. _
+FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER]
+
+However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the
+batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be
+desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary.
+It need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement,
+and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care
+which is exercised in the preliminary processes.
+
+The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new length,
+and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each
+individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the new
+length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths
+and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting takes place
+in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined
+10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of 8 to 16 or even
+more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which
+passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of 8 to 16 yards
+or whatever the draft happens to be. The resulting sliver will
+therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the
+original individual slivers. The actual ratio between them will
+obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the
+material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.
+
+It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous
+material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as
+card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is produced, in
+spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine
+which is not delivered as perfect material. All this waste from
+various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes,
+dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver
+for heavy sacking weft.
+
+The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the
+valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are
+passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. F. Low &
+Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. The resulting mass
+is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material,
+and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the
+production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used
+for sacking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+
+The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the
+breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement
+of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in
+the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the
+peripheries of rotating rollers. In the draw-head mechanism, the
+pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or
+straight path. In the machines which fall to be discussed in this
+chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the
+slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a
+matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small
+drawing frame, as its name implies. Moreover, each row or rather
+double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a
+"faller." The faller as a whole consists of three parts:
+
+        1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for being
+        moved in a closed circuit.
+
+        2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or
+        "stocks," fixed to the rod.
+
+        3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes about
+        1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or
+        hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above
+        gills.
+
+The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular
+method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the
+fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the
+movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers.
+There are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of
+a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining"
+rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller;
+immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last
+pair is the delivery rollers. The delivery rollers of one type of
+drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by
+Messsrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly
+in Fig. 17, and the can or cans into which the slivers are
+ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more
+sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration.
+The large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing
+roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the
+centre of same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill
+pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.
+
+Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is
+led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver
+guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately the slivers
+leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of
+a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the
+upper and active position. Each short length of slivers is
+penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up
+successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the
+same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. The sheet of
+pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the
+drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. As each
+faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is
+made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this
+point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until
+it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between
+the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always
+one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining
+the set at the back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame]
+
+The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing
+rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all
+cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. This condition is
+necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much
+greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference
+between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual
+draft.
+
+Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded
+in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned,
+to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip
+of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward ends of the fibres
+are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres
+affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing
+rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. It will
+be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two
+pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be
+snapped. It is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance
+between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres
+under treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."
+
+On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which
+bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers,
+and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are
+diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again
+diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes
+straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the
+guide of the delivery rollers. It will thus be seen that a number of
+slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft,
+are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or
+conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a
+sliver can.
+
+The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of the
+same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. With
+the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the
+far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. The
+set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the
+fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown,
+and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to
+the operative. The machines are made with what are known as
+"two heads" or "three heads." It will be seen from the large
+pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a
+"two-head" drawing frame.
+
+The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a
+further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine
+termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills for this
+frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first
+drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and
+the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and
+therefore need no further description. It should be mentioned,
+however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their
+designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the
+fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. The names
+of other drawing frames appear below.
+
+  Spiral or screw gill;
+  Open link chain;
+  Rotary;
+  Ring Carrier
+  Circular.
+
+For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in
+a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered
+sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE ROVING FRAME
+
+The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there
+still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the
+slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. And, in
+addition to these important functions, two other equally important
+operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to
+the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a
+"rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove
+bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.
+
+The machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a
+"roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, and with
+different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided
+for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with
+two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of spindles, flyers,
+and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in Fig. 18, which
+represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.
+
+Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the
+upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the
+flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The discs or
+bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or
+"builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass
+through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a
+"flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the
+spindles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME _By Permission of Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be seen
+that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers
+passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye,
+then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer,
+round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of
+the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. Each bobbin has its
+own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this
+can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining
+rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the
+drawing (also the delivery) rollers. Here the sliver terminates
+because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and
+causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form.
+From this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described
+above.
+
+As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver
+is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery
+of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about 20 yards
+per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also driven at a
+constant speed, because in all cases we have--
+
+  spindle speed = delivery x twist.
+
+There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove
+bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven
+independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one
+series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the bobbin differs,
+however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the
+effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the
+beginning of each new layer.
+
+The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane,
+and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height
+from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are raised gradually by
+the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the
+bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during
+the formation of each layer from bottom to top. In other words, the
+travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the
+inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK]
+
+Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue
+of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin,
+and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the
+combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of
+the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and
+variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by means of which this
+desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one
+of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in
+textile machinery. Some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as
+well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered
+from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical
+experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed 50 years
+elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts
+was evolved for performing the function.
+
+The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential
+motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing
+arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the
+various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide
+with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated
+but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without
+strain or stretch. The varying motion is regulated and obtained by a
+drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear
+is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct
+motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the
+bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and the
+whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels
+to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest
+the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded,
+and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position
+on both sides. The machine is adapted for building 10 in. X 5 in.
+bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. outside diameter,
+and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the illustration showing
+part of a machine and approximately 48 spindles.
+
+The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of
+the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 in. frame,
+and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are 10 in.
+apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder
+would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the standard size for
+the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. bobbins are
+used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. When the
+finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning
+direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, 8 in. x 4
+in. bobbins are largely used.
+
+Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove
+so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and
+according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in
+these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist
+gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic
+index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.  SPINNING
+
+The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn
+required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process of
+spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done
+before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The nomenclature
+is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the
+conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus
+than it is at present; the established name to denote this
+conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number
+of important processes, each one of which is as important and
+necessary as the actual operation of spinning.
+
+A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the
+Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly the wide
+"pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method
+adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. Spinning
+frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any
+practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per side are
+common numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT]
+
+The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. 20, are
+brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel
+(often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually
+above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove bobbin is free to
+rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the
+retaining rollers. The final drafting of the material takes place in
+this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the
+drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of
+yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of
+spinning bobbin.
+
+When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a
+"breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the
+conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by
+means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing
+rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the
+retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and
+the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the
+"thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the
+arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer
+arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The latter is raised and lowered
+as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be
+distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges.
+
+Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which
+passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of
+the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of
+the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of
+spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this connection, the
+parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the
+functions of the two frames differ. The yarn has certainly to be
+wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from
+the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin,
+which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the
+roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually
+driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and
+just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of
+the "temper band" and weight. The temper band is simply a piece of
+leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other
+end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES]
+
+The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one
+of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in
+contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. A varying
+amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue
+of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is
+obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves
+in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of
+the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension.
+
+The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of the
+frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 are at
+right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief
+parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the
+pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove
+yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until
+they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to
+and wound upon the spinning bobbins. The flyers--at one time termed
+throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper
+weights. The chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever,
+adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the
+frame nearest the observer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  TWISTING AND REELING
+
+In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form
+they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On the
+other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it
+is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to
+combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes
+"doubling" when two single yarns only are combined.
+
+Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is
+to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is
+not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or
+more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when
+this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of
+twines, ropes and the like. The twist or twine thus formed will have
+the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required
+for the finished product. The same operation is conducted in the
+making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are
+laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to
+distinguish them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres_, by T.
+Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]
+
+When two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can
+be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a
+ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. There may
+be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop
+motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of
+any group which are being combined happens to break. When several
+threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting
+frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters,"
+and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a
+plate or disc before they reach the tube.
+
+More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally
+adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned
+work on Cordage and similar literature for detailed information.
+
+When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it
+is made up according to requirements, and the general operations
+which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll
+or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. The type or class of
+yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment
+of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be
+used previous to despatching the yarn.
+
+_Reeling_. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting
+solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on
+to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter,
+or rather circumference. Indeed, the circumference of the reel was
+fixed by an Act of Convention of Estates, dating as far back as 1665
+and as under:
+
+"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half
+to the King and half to the attacher."
+
+"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than
+_ten quarters_."
+
+The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All such
+yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be
+reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads
+which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems of dyeing
+and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not
+employed much in the jute industry. Large quantities of jute yarns
+intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable
+bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and
+sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries.
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+
+Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest
+yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn is made
+up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, even 6 cuts
+are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of 4 cuts, 3 cuts,
+2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any group less than 12
+cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of
+convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on
+the swift in the winding frame.
+
+The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure
+the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming
+the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of
+designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. We have already
+seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs.
+of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).
+
+For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same
+count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins on the
+reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins is wound
+round, say,
+
+6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or 120
+threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 separate
+cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been reeled as
+mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are
+complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round
+each group of 120 threads.
+
+A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be
+in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this
+movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to accommodate
+the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.
+
+Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell rings, the
+reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the
+mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. In some
+case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are
+simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking
+the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the
+cuts. At the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the
+mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.
+
+The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of
+winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate
+correctness.
+
+When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut hanks,
+there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. The 24
+mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks
+taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along with others
+of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from 54 lb.
+to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. Each bundle contains a
+number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the
+purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed,
+the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there
+would be exactly 56 lb. per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn,
+there would be 60 lb in a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb.
+in a bundle of 9 lb. yarn.
+
+The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of
+threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal
+condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to
+approach it as closely as possible. Careless workers allow the reel
+to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this
+yields what is known as "short tell." It is not uncommon to
+introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or 124 teeth, instead of the
+nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+
+The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed,
+the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types
+of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. In its simplest
+definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in
+such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. The
+two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical
+terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. The
+threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp,
+while the transverse threads are the weft.
+
+The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a
+large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be
+prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two distinct
+conditions necessitate two general types of winding:
+
+(_a_) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns.
+
+(_b_) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.
+
+For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the
+spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from 7 to
+8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops
+which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.
+
+Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins
+very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used
+for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding machine marked a
+great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with
+the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are
+used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached,
+dyed or similarly treated. Fig. 22 illustrates one of the modern
+bobbin winding machines for jute made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee. The finished product is illustrated by two full
+bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. There are
+also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of
+yarn on the swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and
+since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the
+bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout
+the process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin
+is filled as exemplified in the illustration.
+
+The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a
+fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and
+any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. of yarn,
+a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 to 8 lb.
+Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. diameter; hence for
+8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 yards.
+
+Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines
+adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It is built
+specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of 15 in.
+diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is used
+mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll only is
+shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a 10
+in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by surface or
+frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating
+drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of
+the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the
+floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and
+upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. This rapid traverse,
+combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be
+securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required,
+and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations
+for rolls is much below that for bobbins.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS]
+
+Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary 9
+in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and dressing
+departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning
+bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having
+two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is 80.
+
+The double tier on each side is practicable because of the small
+space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, rolls are
+wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as practised in
+several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each
+side is possible. Both types are made by each machine maker, the one
+illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product of Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee.
+
+In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it
+looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still
+further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS _By permission of
+Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other makers,
+is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls,
+can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions,
+one for each roll.
+
+A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A recent
+improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic
+stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted,
+has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) _By
+permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning
+bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority of
+manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The cops are
+almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the
+exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. There are
+different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case
+the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a
+rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so
+necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition of the cops in
+the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the
+tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning
+bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in
+other machines these conditions are opposite. Thus, in the cop
+winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath,
+and illustrated in Fig. 25, the spinning bobbins are below the cops,
+the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers,
+and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. This view shows
+about three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the above-mentioned
+opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning
+bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the
+low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing
+downwards. Six spindles only appear in this view, which represents
+the machine made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee,
+but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as
+desired within practicable and economic limits.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.
+FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE]
+
+The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in Fig.
+26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while
+the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles.
+The upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a
+clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the
+spindle. When the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are
+when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when
+the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when
+the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel
+wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the
+spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in
+conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface
+of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of
+the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the
+length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the
+partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until
+the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically
+stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may
+be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for
+jute shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the
+angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 26 COP WINDING MACHINE _By permission of Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING
+
+There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the
+weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--
+
+1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and
+when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred
+on to the weaver's beam.
+
+2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and
+then beamed on to a weaver's beam.
+
+3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large
+cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam.
+
+4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on
+to a weaver's beam.
+
+The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned.
+
+For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full spinning
+bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right
+of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The ends of the
+threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves
+of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The heck, or
+apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's
+lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the
+bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the
+illustration. The heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains,
+and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction
+the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when
+the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised
+gradually between the same slides. These movements are necessary in
+order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally
+round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the
+figure. The particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing
+if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about
+42 spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of
+the warp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS]
+
+At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's
+lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill
+with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is rotated by means
+of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill.
+As the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually
+and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical
+spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached.
+A beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs;
+there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the
+pin lease; a common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been
+formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion
+finished being (50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads
+required for the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on
+the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next
+section of 50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite
+direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second
+group of 50 to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch
+with the threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of
+the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been
+introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to accommodate all the
+threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more
+parts or chains. It will be noticed that the heck for the nearest
+mill is opposite about the 12th round of threads from the bobbin,
+whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from
+the top. A completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the
+third mill. When the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and
+simultaneously linked into a chain.
+
+A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often
+better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in No. 2
+method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the full
+equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a
+bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a frame for
+forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for
+drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring
+the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and
+finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the
+form of a chain.
+
+In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is
+shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from the
+two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame
+immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are
+made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp.
+Between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in
+the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. Only
+part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the
+frame adjoining them. All these frames and machines are necessary,
+but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they
+perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the
+foreground of Fig. 28.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE]
+
+Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is
+a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts
+convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a linked chain,
+and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to
+the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind of link is made by
+the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in Fig. 27 are being
+withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains are shown tied up in
+Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near
+the bank.
+
+The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is
+now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the
+small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a
+kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and
+arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are
+attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The chain is
+held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the
+latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact beam of yarn is
+obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam
+last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is
+removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread
+lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually
+and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in
+which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the
+camas or HEALDS, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to
+the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth
+which has been completed.
+
+Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on
+the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's
+beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct
+processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously.
+Thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any
+particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be
+very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools.
+Say, for example, a warp was required to be 600 yards long, and that
+there should be 500 threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn
+would be placed in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads
+from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the
+splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position
+in regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while
+others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam rotates
+at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the
+beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per
+minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 29, and the mechanism displayed
+is identical with that employed for No. 4 method of preparing warps.
+
+The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our example)
+would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. 29. The
+threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet
+between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the
+supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame appears on the
+extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction
+with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a
+position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough
+to hold the required number of spools. The part on the extreme right
+can be ignored at present.
+
+The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in Fig.
+28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in Fig. 29,
+and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the
+stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame,
+and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. It
+may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that
+the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the
+same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE _By
+permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.]
+
+The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the
+two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being
+positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal
+shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The loom beam, which
+is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by
+friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant;
+hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the
+revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying
+amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their
+flannels.
+
+As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between
+the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would be
+arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., and
+bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus,
+to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which 500
+threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the
+ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be understood that in
+the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to
+bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a
+fixed position in the width.
+
+The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 method,
+for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous
+processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example,
+all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size
+immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary
+frame in Fig. 29. The moistened threads must, however, be dried
+before they reach the loom beam. When a warp is starched, dried and
+beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed."
+
+In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in Fig. 30,
+there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns
+before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or rather part
+of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be
+formed of the great length occupied. Several of the threads from the
+spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed,
+then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is
+partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second
+reed. After the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes
+partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each
+of three cylinders arranged °o°, and finally on to the loom beam.
+Each cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a
+position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame
+in Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.
+
+The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend
+somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed
+which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX
+STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS]
+
+A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in Fig. 31.
+This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps
+under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the
+banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the
+same time. In such a case, three cylinders only would be used for
+each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single
+dressing machines. The two weaver's beams, with their pressing
+rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. Some
+machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight.
+A very similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and
+all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be
+wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if the number
+of threads is too many for one bank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of 500,
+as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in each of
+the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as
+much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one
+sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring
+roller. Both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of
+the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in this form on to one of the loom
+beams.
+
+It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box
+is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of
+the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. 30, is a
+pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type.
+Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads passes, becomes
+impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the
+lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and
+returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards
+towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn emerges from the rollers
+and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to
+suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom
+beam at the same rate. But since the diameter of the beam increases
+each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread,
+it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.
+
+The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the
+beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A certain
+amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for
+this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn
+dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw
+forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the
+yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed.
+
+During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train
+of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed
+over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in
+addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an
+ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as
+a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has
+been woven. Thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts,
+each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, the above apparatus would
+measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark
+at intervals of 120 yards on some of the threads. And all this is
+done without stopping the machine. At the time of marking, or
+immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring
+automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the
+warp is about to approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig.
+29, near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.
+
+As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at
+the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a
+pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads.
+
+After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from
+the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails
+of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts)
+and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of
+the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been
+woven into cloth. These latter threads are still intact in the cambs
+and reed in the loom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING
+
+If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the
+ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when
+the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly,
+and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots
+have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far
+forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward,
+or beating up, position during the operation of weaving.
+
+If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations
+would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and,
+when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs
+and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter,"
+"tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual
+operation of weaving. The latter work is often termed "gaiting a web."
+
+There is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the
+simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable
+difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. In nearly all
+the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in
+the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture
+of comparatively simple fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there
+are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others;
+these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling
+and sacking. In addition to these main types, there are several
+other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or
+other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate
+types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of
+carpets and the like.
+
+It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of
+this kind; the commoner types are described in _Jute and Linen
+Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics_; and the more
+elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in
+_Textile Design: Pure and Applied_, both by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.
+
+Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. The
+technical characteristics of each are as follows--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS]
+
+H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine single
+  warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest
+  order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is made from the
+  scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that
+  illustrated.
+
+B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in
+  pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is thick, and the
+  weave is also plain.
+
+T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in bagging,
+  although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft.
+  It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the
+  structures are identical.
+
+S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp yarns,
+  usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium
+  or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill order. The weaves
+  are shown in Fig. 33.
+
+C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or
+  two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. The
+  threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed
+  to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern,
+  or arrow-head pattern.
+
+P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring warp
+  is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite
+  pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. The
+  weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite
+  different from the other plain cloths illustrated. The cloth is
+  reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing
+  slightly in colour ornamentation.
+
+As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, B,
+T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is
+constant and as stated.
+
+All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in Fig.
+33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the
+yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, the unit
+weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid squares, while the
+repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVERS FOR
+VARIOUS CLOTHS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH]
+
+A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H and P,
+Fig. 32.
+
+B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the method
+of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When the warp
+is made double as indicated in weave _B_, the effect in the cloth
+can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for
+weave _A_. Hence, the cloths _H_, _B_ and _T_ can be woven without
+any mechanical alteration in the loom.
+
+_C_ is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 units;
+since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two
+identical single rows, they may be represented as at _D_. The actual
+structure of the cloth _S_ in Fig. 32 is represented on design paper
+at _C_, Fig. 33.
+
+_D_ is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units shown, but
+the mechanical parts for weaving both _C_ and _D_ remain constant.
+
+_E_ is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, while
+
+_F_ is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.
+
+The patterns or cloths for _E_ and _F_ are not illustrated.
+
+_G_ is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, two
+units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at _C_, Fig. 32,
+and involves the use of 4 leaves in the loom.
+
+The solid squares in weave _A_, Fig. 33, are reproduced in the
+left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of a plain
+cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in
+the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks
+of weft (the difference is for distinction only). The left-hand
+intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks,
+while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads
+interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from the weave or design
+to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will
+be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread
+on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft
+shot on the surface, and _vice versa_.
+
+A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by
+belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The loom in
+the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to that
+illustrated at _S_, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a full weaver's
+warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in Fig. 35. There
+are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS]
+
+During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a
+cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in Fig. 25,
+and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle,
+is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the
+opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. The positions of
+the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see
+Fig. 33, and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom
+the other layer occupies a low position. The threads of the warp are
+placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed
+healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these
+two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each
+time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft
+each journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels
+moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes
+successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones
+which preceded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS _By
+permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd._]
+
+The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as
+already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. 33, and the
+selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the
+surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same
+colour. A great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method
+of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of
+pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to
+the mode of interlacing.
+
+To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving
+shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead
+shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which all the looms
+are individually driven by small motors made by the English Electric
+Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular illustration shows
+cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is
+being adopted in many jute factories.
+
+A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 leaves
+are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the
+nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine is made
+by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. The dobby itself,
+or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the
+requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the
+frame-work, and is designed to control 12 leaves, that is, it
+operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM]
+
+A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made from
+jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the
+back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton carpet)
+and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed.
+The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the
+cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the
+needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which
+e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond
+with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer.
+This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton fabrics, and
+these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _P_, Fig.
+32. In both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are
+required. It need hardly be said that there is a considerable
+difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the
+designs and the looms in which they are woven.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, _see_ pp. 394-114, _Textile
+Design: Pure and Applied_, by T. Woodhouse and T. Milne.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM]
+
+In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in
+the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy
+rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room.
+Accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the
+warp beams, are being placed in position. In order to minimize the
+danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with
+fewer hands, some firms have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with
+suitable Lifting Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from
+the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and
+then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of
+transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to
+each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are
+valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct
+from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the
+old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place
+to place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY _By permission of Messrs.
+Herbert Morris, Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  FINISHING
+
+The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves
+the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the cloth,
+removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any
+damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth is passed through
+a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting
+fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart
+appearance. It is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although
+there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated,
+while others again miss this operation entirely.
+
+A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and in
+this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at
+the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been
+woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in Fig. 38. The
+fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton carpets. The
+illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of
+the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually with either two or
+four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK]
+
+The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable
+arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating
+slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth
+in contact with them. This is, of course, at the feed side; the
+cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown
+distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This view illustrates a double
+cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. As the
+cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two
+spirals.[3] When four spirals are required, the frame is much wider,
+and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the
+machines illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE _By permission of
+Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing processes,
+see _The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics_, by T. Woodhouse.
+(Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., Manchester.)]
+
+The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed
+on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in Fig. 43,
+which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &, Co.,
+Dundee. The cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then
+upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and
+over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the
+pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by
+means of a belt on the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled
+rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on
+to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes
+in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process.
+At other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in
+a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of the
+fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The damped
+fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is,
+to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the
+calender.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.,
+Ltd_. FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE]
+
+The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different
+rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls,
+the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. A five-bowl
+calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. 41, and in the
+background, while a complete illustration of a modern 5-bowl calender,
+with full equipment, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd.,
+Dundee, appears in Fig. 44.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 44 CALENDAR]
+
+The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of
+the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom
+roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls
+according to the type of finish desired. For calender finish, the
+bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so
+that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave
+the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in Fig. 34, are
+eliminated by this calendering action. The cloth is then delivered
+at the far side of the machine in Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface
+speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the
+others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by
+ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. The
+faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender
+finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same.
+
+Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish"
+or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length of cloth is
+wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, Fig. 44,
+and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the
+amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the
+way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. The two
+sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in Fig. 44, and these
+act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the
+dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light
+finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. After
+the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it
+is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with
+its belt pulley in Fig. 41.
+
+There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; one is
+driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. Provision
+is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. The
+pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are
+inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure.
+Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a
+oblique position.
+
+The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and
+the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure,
+and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small
+weights used. The heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the
+chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the
+"mangle finish."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE]
+
+A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 45.
+The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to
+what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when
+the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge
+rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four narrow pieces are
+shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the two rollers. There are
+other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the
+beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery
+side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. The
+three pins are arranged thus o°o, and since all three are
+moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each
+roller or pin is moved through 120°. Thus, the stripped pin will be
+placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the
+mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.
+
+While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move
+first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this
+change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism
+situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing
+seen at the far end of the mangle. And while this mangling is taking
+place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously
+mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus
+which deposits the cloth in folds. This operation is also known as
+"cuttling" or "faking." It will be, understood that a wide mangle,
+such as that illustrated in Fig. 45. is constructed specially for
+treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply
+because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.
+Ltd_. Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE]
+
+The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation
+of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought
+into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is
+applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers.
+
+Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a
+measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on
+the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one circle
+of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, 30, up to
+100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in
+circumference.
+
+If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing
+or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden
+centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well,
+and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar
+to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. Cloths
+for this purpose are often made up to 600 yards in length; indeed,
+special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to
+weave cloths up to 2,000 yards in length. Special dressing machines
+and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. When the
+linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre
+are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are
+returned periodically.
+
+Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a
+simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth,
+and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or
+folded by special machines such as that illustrated in Fig. 46. The
+cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown,
+to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars.
+As the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand
+side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the
+convex table. The carriers may be adjusted to move through different
+distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may
+be made.
+
+Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but
+some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and
+this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, however,
+the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. Thus,
+Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and
+made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., Ltd., Dundee. The
+full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent
+stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth passes upwards
+obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it
+is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left.
+The doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven
+drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as
+indicated. The machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and
+delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. In other
+industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging.  Some of
+the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth
+lengthwise as illustrated in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at
+the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.
+FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE]
+
+If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the
+making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made
+annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand,
+semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are
+sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways
+according to requirements.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_
+FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE]
+
+Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this
+purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine different cloths
+are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of
+these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the
+machine. They are then led between the rollers, under the cutting
+knife, and on to the table. The length of cloth is measured as it
+passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are
+supplied so that practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine
+lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and
+when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts
+the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table.
+He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length
+is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means are provided for
+registering the number passed through; from 36,000 yards to 40,000
+yards can be treated per day.
+
+The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in
+Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the sewing is
+usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the Yankee or
+Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than 2,000
+bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking,
+_S_, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost invariably done by the Laing or
+overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in
+Fig. 49, and made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works,
+Dundee. This is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000
+bags can be sewn in one day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE _By
+permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_]
+
+The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form
+of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at
+_S_, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a considerable variety can be
+made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and
+their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same
+cloth, the variety is still further increased.
+
+Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and
+other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the
+necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by
+a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. The
+latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in Fig. 50.
+It is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald,
+Dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two
+distinct colours, say red and black. Occasionally three and
+four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably
+the most common.
+
+[Illustration: _By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_. FIG 50 SACK
+PRINTING MACHINE]
+
+The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the
+many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number
+their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock,
+or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a
+special numbering machine, also made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald.
+
+The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is
+that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a
+hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower moving table upon
+a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite
+quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are
+placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the
+bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed
+table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per square inch is applied
+according to the nature of the goods and their destination. While
+the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates,
+the wrappers a sewn together. Then specially prepared hoops or metal
+bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system,
+involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The
+ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent
+ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the
+pins inserted in the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is
+removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the
+bale securely.
+
+Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre,
+the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into
+cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the
+world's common carrier.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+ACCUMULATOR
+Assorting jute fibre.
+
+BAG-MAKING
+Bale opener
+     opening
+Baling cloth
+     house
+     press
+     station
+Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)
+Batch
+Batchers
+Batching
+     apparatus
+     carts or stalls
+Batch-ticket
+Beamer's lease
+Beaming
+     (dry) direct from bank,
+Blending
+Bobbin winding
+Bojah
+Botanical features of jute plants
+Breaker card
+Brussels carpet
+Bundle of jute.
+
+CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into
+Calender
+     finish
+Calenderoy
+Carding
+Card waste
+Cargoes of jute
+Chest finish
+Clasp-rods
+Conditioning fibre
+Cops
+Cop winding
+Corchorus capsularis
+     clitorius
+Crisping and crisping machines
+Cropping machine
+Cultivation of jute
+Cutting knife for jute fibre
+Cuttings.
+
+DAMPING machine
+Defects in fibre and in handling
+Designs or weaves
+Differential motion
+Dobby loom
+Draft
+Drafting
+Drawing
+  frames
+    different kinds of
+Drawing-in
+Dressing and dressing machine
+Drum
+Drying jute fibre
+Dust shaker.
+
+EAST India Co.
+Exports of jute from India.
+
+FABRICS
+Faller
+Farming operations
+Fibres,
+  the five main
+    imports of jute.
+
+
+Fibrous layer
+Finisher card
+Finishing
+folding machine.
+
+Gaiting
+Glazed finish
+Grading jute fibre
+Gunny bags.
+
+Hand batching
+Harvesting the plants
+Height of jute plants
+Hydraulic mangle
+  press.
+
+Identification marks on bags
+Imports of jute.
+
+Jacquard loom
+Jute crop
+  exports from India
+  fabrics
+  fibre, imports of
+  industry
+  knife
+  plants, botanical and physical features of
+  cultivation of
+  height of
+  marks.
+
+Laddering
+Ladders
+Lapping machine
+Linking machine
+Linoleum
+Looms
+Lubrication of fibre.
+
+Machine batching
+Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta
+Mangle finish
+  (hydraulic)
+Marks of jute (_see_ jute marks)
+Maund
+Measuring and marking machine
+  machine for cloth
+  the warp
+Methods of preparing warps
+Multiple-colour printing machines.
+
+Numbering machine for bags.
+
+Opening jute heads
+Overhead runway systems
+  sewing machine (Laing's).
+
+Packing goods
+Physical features of jute plants
+Pin-lease
+Plaiting machine
+Plants, thinning of
+  weeding of
+Ploughs for jute cultivation
+Point-paper designs
+Porcupine feed
+Printing machine.
+
+Reach
+Reeling
+Retting
+Roller-feed
+Rolls
+Root-comber
+  opener
+Round-thread finish
+Rove
+Roving frame
+Roxburgh, Dr.
+
+Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical
+Sack making
+  printing machine
+Sand bags
+Seed
+  per acre, amount of
+  sowing of
+Sewing machines
+Shell-feed
+Short-tell
+Snipping machine
+Softening machines
+Spinning
+Spool or roll winding
+Spools (_see_ Rolls)
+Standard bale
+Starching (_see_ Dressing)
+Steeping (_see_ Retting)
+Striker-up (_see_ Batcher)
+Stripping
+Systems.
+
+Teazer
+Tell (of yarn)
+Thinning of plants
+Thrum
+Time for harvesting the plants
+Tube-twisters
+Twist
+Twisting
+Two-colour printing machine
+Tying-on
+Typical jute fabrics.
+
+Union Or Yankee sewing machine
+Unloading bales of jute from ship.
+
+Variations in jute
+Varieties of jute fibre
+  plants.
+
+Warp
+Warp dressing (_see_ Dressing)
+Warping, beaming and dressing
+  mill
+Washing
+Waste
+  teazer
+Weaves or designs
+Weaving
+Weaver's lease
+Weeding of plants
+Weft
+  winding
+Wilton carpet
+Winding (bobbin) machine
+  from hank
+  (large roll) machine
+  (ordinary size from hanks) machine
+  rolls and cops
+World's great war.
+
+Yankee or Union sewing machine
+Yarn table
+Yield of fibre.
+
+
+
+_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE]
+
+[Advertisement 15: ROYLES LIMITED.]
+
+[Advertisement 16: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.]
+
+[Advertisement 17: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 18: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED]
+
+[Advertisement 19: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 20: FREDERICK SMITH & CO.]
+
+[Advertisement 21: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 22: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC]
+
+[Advertisement 23: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING & ACCOUNTANCY]
+
+[Advertisement 24: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING]
+
+[Advertisement 25: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING]
+
+[Advertisement 27: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX]
+
+[Advertisement 28: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING]
+
+[Advertisement 29: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE]
+
+[Advertisement 30: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW]
+
+[Advertisement 31: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH]
+
+[Advertisement 32: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH]
+
+[Advertisement 33: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND]
+
+[Advertisement 34: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES]
+
+[Advertisement 35: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE, READING]
+
+[Advertisement 36: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING, PERIODICALS]
+
+[Advertisement 36: HENRY TAYLOR & SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S BOOKS]
+
+[Advertisement 37: THOS. BROADBENT & SONS, LTD.]
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
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diff --git a/old/12443-0.zip b/old/12443-0.zip
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished
+Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth
+
+Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+Release Date: May 26, 2004 [EBook #12443]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 1: David Bridge & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 2: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 3: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 4: Robert Hall & Sons]
+
+[Advertisement 5: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 6: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 7: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 8: White, Milne & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 9: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 10: Robert Stiven & Co.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 11: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series
+(Book List)]
+
+
+
+PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+BY T. WOODHOUSE
+
+  HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE
+  TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+
+  FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS,
+  BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH.
+  AUTHOR   OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS,"
+  "HEALDS AND   REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND PORTERS,"
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"
+    "TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"
+    "TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"
+    "TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,
+
+AND
+
+P. KILGOUR
+
+  HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,
+    DUNDEE TECHNICAL   COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+  FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.
+
+
+
+1921
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 12: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.,]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+  The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+  all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants,
+  the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre
+  into useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+  important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+  and the   description, although not severely technical, is
+  sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+  knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+  and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine
+  of jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium
+  of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+  more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects.
+
+              T. WOODHOUSE.
+              P. KILGOUR.
+
+     March, 1921.
+
+
+[Advertisement 13: J. M. Adam & Co.]
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  CHAP.
+        PREFACE
+     I. INTRODUCTORY
+    II. CULTIVATION
+   III. RETTING
+    IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE.
+     V. MILL OPERATIONS
+    VI. BATCHING
+   VII. CARDING
+  VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+    IX. THE ROVING FRAME
+     X. SPINNING
+    XI. TWISTING AND REELING.
+   XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+  XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING.
+   XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING
+    XV. FINISHING
+        INDEX
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: James F. Low & Co., LTD.]
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.
+   1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND
+   2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"
+   3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT
+   4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+        FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE
+   5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A
+        WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS
+   6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE
+        ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR
+   7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE
+        FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6
+   8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+   9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD)
+  10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED
+        AND PREPARED FIBRE
+  11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS
+  12. BATCHING APPARATUS
+  13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS
+  14. MODERN BREAKER CARD
+  15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD
+  16. WASTE TEAZER
+  17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME
+  18. ROVING FRAME
+  19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK
+  20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT
+  21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES
+  22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS
+  24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.)
+  26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+  27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.
+  28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE
+  29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE
+  30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS
+  31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY
+  32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS
+  33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.
+  34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH
+  35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.
+  36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS
+  37. BOBBY LOOM
+  38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM
+  39. THE OLD WAY
+  40. THE NEW WAY
+  41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK
+  42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE
+  43. DAMPING MACHINE
+  44. CALENDER
+  45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE
+  46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE
+  47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE
+  48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE
+  49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.
+  50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTORY
+
+The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton,
+flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in
+general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price,
+but also in regard to utility. It is only under phenomenal
+conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took
+place during the world's great war from 1914 onwards that, from a
+commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre
+and its products are fully realized. Millions of sand bags were made
+from the year 1914 to the year 1918 solely for military purposes,
+while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering
+material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other
+textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. It is on
+record that in one short period of fourteen days, 150,000,000
+sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from Dundee to be
+used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict.
+
+A glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the
+fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a
+hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to
+import the fibre into Great Britain in the latter part of the 18th
+century, and it has been used in India for centuries in the making
+of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous
+to that country. And since all the manufacturing methods there, for
+a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could
+be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the
+needs of a small section of the community on the Eastern shores.
+
+The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of
+Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it was only after
+repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples
+of jute for practical experiments The fibre was so unlike any of the
+existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious
+to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so;
+these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was
+finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute
+industry.
+
+Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute
+fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when the first
+small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home of the jute
+industry. This quantity was imported into this country with the
+special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the
+same way as flax fibre was being treated. At this period Dundee was
+a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning
+and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural
+that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute
+fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the
+preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we
+mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax,
+and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to
+be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated.
+These modifications shall be discussed at a later stage.
+
+It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, the
+imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns which were
+made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for
+the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of
+cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized.
+About the year 1838, representatives of the Dutch Government placed
+comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to
+be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their West Indian
+possessions. The subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the
+demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above
+fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance.
+
+By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute fibre had
+increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 tons in the
+season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed to the
+possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in India--the
+seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At least such a
+probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a small
+consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an attempt
+made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the Indian
+native industry.
+
+The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories
+soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to
+induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of
+training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives
+constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to leave the
+mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the
+country.
+
+In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in
+India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, the
+quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other British ports
+amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period preceding the war,
+nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various countries, while the
+Indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the
+mills in the vicinity of Calcutta--reached the same huge total of
+one million tons.
+
+The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and
+consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the
+production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be
+ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and
+one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the
+near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. As a
+matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are
+contemplated and actually taking place in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  CULTIVATION
+
+_Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant_. Jute fibre is
+obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in
+the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the fruit of the
+variety _Corchorus Capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of
+approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety
+_Corchorus Olitorius_ is contained in a pod. Both belong to the
+order _Tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in Bengal and
+Assam.
+
+Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _Corchorus Japonicus_ of Japan,
+and the _Corchorus Mompoxensis_ used in Panama for making a kind of
+tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of
+job as the Jew's Mallow; this variety _C. Olitorius_, has been used
+in the East from time immemorial as a pot herb.
+
+The two main varieties _C. Capsularis_ and _C. Olilorius_ are
+cultivated in Bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed
+purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in Assam, and the
+seeds exported for use principally in Mymensingh and Dacca.
+
+The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from 5 to
+15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four
+months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems of jute
+plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are
+green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. The leaves
+are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in length, and about 1-1/2
+inches in breadth with serrated edges. Pale yellow flowers spring
+from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of
+small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of
+the variety.
+
+While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the geographical
+position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions.
+On referring to a map of India, it will be seen that Bengal is
+directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north
+by the great Himalayan mountains.
+
+During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north,
+large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but
+when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly
+during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general
+temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts.
+The rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and
+west of Bengal--the Patna and the Brahmaputra--and the tremendous
+volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter
+which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial
+deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the
+propagation of the jute plants.
+
+The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the
+rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and Pabna,
+and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, Orissa
+and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these areas.
+
+The _Corchorus Capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the
+higher and richer soils, while the _Corchorus Olitorius_ variety is
+most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts
+where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _C. Olitorius_ may be
+grown in certain other districts of India which appear quite
+unsuitable for the _C. Capsularis_.
+
+The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with
+the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not
+the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there
+is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern
+methods may be the absence of horses.
+
+The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in teams
+of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where
+a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute
+cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as
+horses do in this country.
+
+The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods
+may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece
+of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks.
+
+The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process
+which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are
+made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting
+pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the
+previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be
+used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine
+tilth may be produced.
+
+When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but
+other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at
+similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure is preferred, but
+castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good
+substitutes.
+
+
+After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by
+hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular
+district. The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May,
+and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND]
+
+There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully
+judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for
+the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for
+easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of
+seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ.
+
+
+It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform
+a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used depends partly
+upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre
+are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2
+lbs.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"]
+
+Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in
+order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants.
+Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from
+plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants;
+they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. The fibres
+obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining
+seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when
+succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to.
+
+If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in
+8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. The heat and
+showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should
+be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with
+long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the operation in process. This
+second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture
+and heat to enter. The young plants are now thinned, and the ground
+weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or
+strength to prevent the words from spreading.
+
+The space between the growing plants will vary according to the
+region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance
+of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants
+show prospects of growing thick and tall.
+
+In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 1/2 to
+4 months from the time of sowing. Although different opinions are
+held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are
+setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage
+usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly
+cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality.
+
+The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general,
+these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite
+suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants ready for cutting
+will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the
+operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it
+requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green crop to produce about 10 to
+15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  RETTING
+
+The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are
+embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water,
+since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a
+period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is dependent upon the
+period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is
+performed.
+
+The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is
+technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the
+water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the
+plants are under treatment.
+
+The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a
+bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. The
+farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making
+by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the
+formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to
+see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous
+layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. The stems are
+tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast
+layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. When the ryot
+considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently
+easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is
+commenced immediately. This latter process is conducted in various
+ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district.
+
+
+In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody
+structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails
+fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand;
+while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women
+who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core
+or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. The strips of fibre
+are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable
+impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it
+over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun.
+
+If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants
+are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to
+some other place provided with a better supply of water for the
+final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to
+create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or
+difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry.
+
+Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant.
+The lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a
+complete cross section. The central part of the stem or pith is
+lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; the outer
+covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual fibrous layer
+appears between the parts B and C, and some of the fibres are
+indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding parts in the three
+distinct views. The middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a
+small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a
+further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. It will
+be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT]
+
+Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks,
+and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of
+preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say
+one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the
+tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus
+loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the
+fibrous layer free. The straws are collected for future use, while the
+fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE
+
+The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. The
+method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some
+districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a
+number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in
+the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to
+sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. A
+maund is approximately equal to 8 lbs., and this quantity forms a
+comparatively small bundle. In other cases, the fibre is made up into
+what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2
+to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in
+India.
+
+Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 million
+bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the remaining half is
+baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over
+one million bales are exported annually to Great Britain, the bulk
+of this fibre comes to Dundee.
+
+It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of
+assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea
+of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for
+special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of selecting and
+grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large
+amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark."
+A mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol,
+name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or
+more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the
+origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant.
+
+In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better
+quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality
+is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality
+of which is below these good ones. Since there are hundreds of
+different marks which are of value only to those connected directly
+with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. The
+following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is
+taken from the Market Report of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920.
+The price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date
+very high, so in order to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal
+prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first
+marks, for the same month in the years 1915 onwards.
+
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+
+           �. s. d.      �. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+
+It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract,
+and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre.
+
+After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is
+made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of these
+200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the
+weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a permitted
+quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while the
+dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X 1'6" X 1'
+4".
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE]
+
+Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large establishments,
+and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and
+efficiently with the large number of bales. In Fig. 4 scores of
+natives, superintended by a European, are seen carrying the smaller
+bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. It is,
+of course, unnecessary to make the solid 400 lb. bales for Indian
+consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which
+is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at
+the baling station by a Chamber of Commerce expert.
+
+Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the Calcutta
+district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with the most
+efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 illustrates one
+of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity.
+Two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by
+different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential
+for the successful prosecution of the work. Two such presses as that
+illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, under efficient administration, of
+turning out 130 bales of 400 lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is
+compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal
+to 6,000 lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in
+cubical capacity 11 cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is
+usual for freight purposes to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton.
+(Now changed to 50 cubic feet.)
+
+The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from
+barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 to
+46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel brought
+70,000 bales.
+
+As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality,
+and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.  Although this is
+the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute
+to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the
+"Spot." It is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample,
+such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or
+"parcel," as it is often called. The contract forms are very complete,
+and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all
+concerned in the trade.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT
+CYCLONE PRESS]
+
+It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large
+quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from
+plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it should
+be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and
+additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears
+possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it
+seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands
+for a corresponding type of manufactured product.
+
+The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually,
+but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree
+the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of
+the world.
+
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING
+JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR]
+
+              JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+
+             Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+
+A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side
+adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are raised quickly
+from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in Fig.
+6 since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in Fig.
+7. When the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to
+the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to
+the more horizontal part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then
+removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and
+piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid
+of a crane. Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales
+to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are stored
+in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM
+THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  MILL OPERATIONS
+
+_Bale Opening_. Each spinner, as already indicated, stores his
+bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient
+manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number
+of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing
+department of the mill.
+
+In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the
+mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different
+kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for
+the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of
+material. In much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the
+jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more
+extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," in its simplest
+definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable
+for subsequent handling in the Batching Department. This number may
+include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute according to the amount of
+accommodation in the preparing department.
+
+All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard
+quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It must be
+remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to
+quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or
+firms of balers or merchants. At other times, the batch of 5 to 10
+bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of
+each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn,
+partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of
+the combination.
+
+It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn
+is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any
+particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple differentiation,
+the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of
+cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in
+some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same
+cloth.
+
+On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of
+jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so
+that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be
+produced. The same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year,
+but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary
+from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation
+of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather
+during the time of growth, and during the season generally.
+
+A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department,
+this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales are, of course,
+defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must
+be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is
+any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be
+notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its
+place without effecting any great change in the character or quality
+of the yarn.
+
+When the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed
+from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are
+conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable
+position near the first machine in the series. It need hardly be
+mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is
+subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a
+very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the various
+so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced
+into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are quite
+unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened
+out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from
+each other. This operation is termed "opening" and the process is
+conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is
+illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee.
+
+The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner
+near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that
+they can be handled to the best advantage. The bands or ropes, see
+Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large
+pieces of jute can be separated. If any irregularity in the
+selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes
+place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty
+handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no
+chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at
+this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the
+fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good
+average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a
+judicious selection in every case. The usual variations are--the
+colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain
+impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute,
+which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully
+mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may
+disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different
+machines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in
+hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and
+this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. As already
+indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left
+in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which
+carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed
+rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very
+deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair of
+deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure.
+These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads
+of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery
+sheet on the right. The delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has
+a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the
+extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by
+the operatives. The upper rollers in the machine may rise in their
+bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the
+bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin
+places of the heads.
+
+A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &
+Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart patent is illustrated in
+Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in
+the shape of the crushing or opening rollers.
+
+It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are
+three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and
+situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller has a
+series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. The
+knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard
+layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute
+have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing
+between the rollers. This double action naturally aids in opening up
+the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective,
+gives excellent results in practice. The degree of pressure provided
+for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads
+of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the
+highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, & Co_.]
+
+The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this
+machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives good
+results in practice.
+
+In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that
+the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size
+quite freely.
+
+The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position
+near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as
+the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the
+batchers, who split them. The most suitable size of pieces are 2-1/2
+to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 feet in length, but the size of
+the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is
+to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's
+opinion of what will give the best overall result.
+
+After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller
+pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher
+or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could watch the above
+operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it
+would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of
+unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. As the
+loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 or 9, it is
+placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging,
+and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he
+grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a
+dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the
+handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it
+takes to describe the operation.
+
+As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on
+stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by
+means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added
+for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables
+the fibre to work freely in the various machines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  BATCHING
+
+_Softening and Softening Machines_. Two distinct courses are
+followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the
+bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. These
+courses are designated as--
+
+      1. Hand Batching.
+      2. Machine Batching.
+
+In the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of
+jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to
+facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts
+which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not
+convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large
+stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. 10.
+
+On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the
+pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually
+long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, from a similar
+sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the
+attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity.
+The ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount
+of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above
+method is not to be commended. A conscientious worker can, however,
+with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of
+course, supplied by the person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on
+the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the
+spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or
+partition on the right.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED AND
+PREPARED FIBRE]
+
+The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is filled
+with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain
+there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the material may be
+more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. At the end of this
+time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the
+softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of
+bending and crushing.
+
+All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often
+called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of
+rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of
+managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, which, in the
+form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls,
+is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of rollers or any other number
+which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. The sections are made in 8's. The
+illustration shows only 31 pairs.
+
+The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as clearly
+shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique
+flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. What
+is often considered as a standard softening machine contains 63
+pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers.
+As mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances.
+
+The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet,
+and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways
+before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the
+machine.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus]
+
+Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application
+of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform
+than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. On the
+other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the
+lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously,
+although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the
+cart after it has left the softener.
+
+The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or
+"stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual lubricating
+equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the
+centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to the side frames
+of the softening machine proper, say that shown in Fig. 11. Its
+exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a
+matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the
+material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers.
+
+In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen clearly,
+and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or
+pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately
+above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars.
+
+Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one vertical
+and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is attached by
+suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the
+machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame,
+while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a
+rod projecting from the frame. The lower or curved end of the
+oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping
+of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular
+feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against
+the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a
+thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the
+curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and
+thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity
+of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism
+is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick.
+When the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in
+the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is
+moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the
+thin part of the strick. It will be understood that all makers of
+softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching
+apparatus when desired.
+
+A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel wheels at
+the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against
+accidents. In many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed
+end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the
+operative is in danger. The batching apparatus for this machine is
+of a different kind from that illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it
+is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed
+pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane,
+and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on
+the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.
+
+The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the
+nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The barrow
+of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which
+have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for
+conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future
+treatment.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus]
+
+While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is graded
+in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn
+without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to
+utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection
+and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching.
+
+What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine
+known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into the
+machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in
+order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter drops
+through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is
+delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the
+softener.
+
+The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine
+termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively
+hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a teazer may also be
+used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and
+similar close textures.
+
+The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a
+heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then
+the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed
+to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain quantity of
+this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to
+form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.
+
+A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of
+a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends of the
+stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two parts are
+severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the
+strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder,
+and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of
+securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  CARDING
+
+_Breaker and Finisher Cards_. After the fibre from the softening
+machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for
+one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture;
+this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct
+types of machines--
+
+
+        1. The breaker card.
+        2. The finisher card.
+
+
+The functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one
+might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one
+continuous operation.
+
+The main difference between the two types of machines is in the
+method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the
+small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the action
+on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and
+splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving
+roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side
+by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of
+another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the
+combing of the fibre. The pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so
+to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller
+comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a
+comparatively fine division.
+
+The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A receptacle,
+very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far
+end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.
+
+A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or back of
+the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card
+on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the
+observer. The protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would
+be seen as clearly as possible.
+
+Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of
+the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped
+stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth,
+which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the
+feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a "shell" feed
+because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped
+somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually decreasing and
+suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins
+of the feed roller.
+
+The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of
+fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously
+carried into the machine where they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a
+cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes
+place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, 24 inches to
+30 inches below. The fibres which are separated at this stage are
+carried a little further round until they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller,
+termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward
+under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further
+combed and split. A portion of the fibres is carried round by the
+pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the
+quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a
+"stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of
+the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD]
+
+The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker
+and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a
+second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately
+the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the
+pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing
+rollers. The sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into
+the broad and upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly
+of tin and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in
+Fig. 14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and,
+of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and
+delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can,
+distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. The sliver is
+seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can.
+
+The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward
+relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less
+parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" is used to
+indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other,
+and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out
+of the fibres by this special term "draft."
+
+It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can
+at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant flow will
+soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can,
+although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. The machine must,
+of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be
+kept in practically constant work. As a matter of fact, the machines
+are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable
+condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be
+satisfactorily fulfilled.
+
+The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to
+that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the pulley
+side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are fed by slivers which
+have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but
+there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of
+arranging the slivers at the feed side. In both cases, however, the
+full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with,
+however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each
+extreme end.
+
+One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full sliver
+cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and
+to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The sliver from
+each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and
+thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The slivers are
+guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet"
+which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers.
+The feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type,
+and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. It
+will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different
+problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively
+uneven stricks.
+
+[Illustration: By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd.
+FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD]
+
+The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the
+machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus form,
+as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this
+sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs
+of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as
+already described in connection with the breaker card. There are,
+however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are
+in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs
+of rollers, the former may be arranged with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs
+of rollers (6 workers and 6 strippers). The number of pairs of
+rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the
+opinions of the various managers.
+
+There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--
+
+         1. Half-circular finisher cards.
+
+         2. Full-circular finisher cards.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and such
+machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so
+disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete
+circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to
+undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact
+with the doffer. There are five pairs of rollers in the machine in
+Fig. 15, and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels
+fenced. The arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very
+similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14,
+and therefore requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes
+the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and
+adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to
+examine the rollers and other parts.
+
+The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various
+rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are
+ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the
+cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. The
+conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the
+width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the
+other section. These two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet,
+traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two
+slivers about 6 inches above the point or plane in which the 10 or 12
+slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two
+slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface
+of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction
+of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can.
+
+In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine illustrated
+in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported
+by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. This special
+mechanism is termed a "Patent Push Bar Drawing Head," and the
+function which it performs will be described shortly; in the
+meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the
+slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. A
+very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a
+finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should
+work in unison. In the machine under consideration, the feed and
+delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage
+of the draw-head mechanism.
+
+One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform
+thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. A
+so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter,
+but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected
+with the full sense of the word uniform.
+
+It has already been stated that in the batching department various
+qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to
+obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different grades and marks
+vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness;
+it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse
+qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process
+so as to facilitate the subsequent operations.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd. _
+FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER]
+
+However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the
+batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be
+desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary.
+It need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement,
+and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care
+which is exercised in the preliminary processes.
+
+The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new length,
+and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each
+individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the new
+length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths
+and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting takes place
+in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined
+10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of 8 to 16 or even
+more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which
+passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of 8 to 16 yards
+or whatever the draft happens to be. The resulting sliver will
+therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the
+original individual slivers. The actual ratio between them will
+obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the
+material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.
+
+It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous
+material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as
+card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is produced, in
+spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine
+which is not delivered as perfect material. All this waste from
+various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes,
+dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver
+for heavy sacking weft.
+
+The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the
+valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are
+passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. F. Low &
+Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. The resulting mass
+is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material,
+and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the
+production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used
+for sacking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+
+The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the
+breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement
+of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in
+the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the
+peripheries of rotating rollers. In the draw-head mechanism, the
+pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or
+straight path. In the machines which fall to be discussed in this
+chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the
+slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a
+matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small
+drawing frame, as its name implies. Moreover, each row or rather
+double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a
+"faller." The faller as a whole consists of three parts:
+
+        1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for being
+        moved in a closed circuit.
+
+        2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or
+        "stocks," fixed to the rod.
+
+        3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes about
+        1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or
+        hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above
+        gills.
+
+The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular
+method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the
+fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the
+movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers.
+There are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of
+a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining"
+rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller;
+immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last
+pair is the delivery rollers. The delivery rollers of one type of
+drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by
+Messsrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly
+in Fig. 17, and the can or cans into which the slivers are
+ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more
+sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration.
+The large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing
+roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the
+centre of same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill
+pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.
+
+Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is
+led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver
+guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately the slivers
+leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of
+a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the
+upper and active position. Each short length of slivers is
+penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up
+successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the
+same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. The sheet of
+pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the
+drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. As each
+faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is
+made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this
+point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until
+it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between
+the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always
+one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining
+the set at the back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame]
+
+The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing
+rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all
+cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. This condition is
+necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much
+greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference
+between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual
+draft.
+
+Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded
+in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned,
+to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip
+of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward ends of the fibres
+are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres
+affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing
+rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. It will
+be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two
+pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be
+snapped. It is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance
+between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres
+under treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."
+
+On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which
+bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers,
+and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are
+diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again
+diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes
+straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the
+guide of the delivery rollers. It will thus be seen that a number of
+slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft,
+are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or
+conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a
+sliver can.
+
+The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of the
+same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. With
+the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the
+far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. The
+set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the
+fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown,
+and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to
+the operative. The machines are made with what are known as
+"two heads" or "three heads." It will be seen from the large
+pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a
+"two-head" drawing frame.
+
+The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a
+further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine
+termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills for this
+frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first
+drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and
+the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and
+therefore need no further description. It should be mentioned,
+however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their
+designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the
+fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. The names
+of other drawing frames appear below.
+
+  Spiral or screw gill;
+  Open link chain;
+  Rotary;
+  Ring Carrier
+  Circular.
+
+For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in
+a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered
+sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE ROVING FRAME
+
+The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there
+still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the
+slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. And, in
+addition to these important functions, two other equally important
+operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to
+the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a
+"rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove
+bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.
+
+The machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a
+"roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, and with
+different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided
+for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with
+two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of spindles, flyers,
+and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in Fig. 18, which
+represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.
+
+Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the
+upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the
+flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The discs or
+bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or
+"builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass
+through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a
+"flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the
+spindles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME _By Permission of Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be seen
+that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers
+passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye,
+then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer,
+round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of
+the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. Each bobbin has its
+own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this
+can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining
+rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the
+drawing (also the delivery) rollers. Here the sliver terminates
+because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and
+causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form.
+From this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described
+above.
+
+As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver
+is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery
+of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about 20 yards
+per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also driven at a
+constant speed, because in all cases we have--
+
+  spindle speed = delivery x twist.
+
+There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove
+bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven
+independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one
+series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the bobbin differs,
+however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the
+effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the
+beginning of each new layer.
+
+The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane,
+and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height
+from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are raised gradually by
+the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the
+bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during
+the formation of each layer from bottom to top. In other words, the
+travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the
+inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK]
+
+Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue
+of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin,
+and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the
+combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of
+the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and
+variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by means of which this
+desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one
+of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in
+textile machinery. Some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as
+well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered
+from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical
+experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed 50 years
+elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts
+was evolved for performing the function.
+
+The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential
+motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing
+arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the
+various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide
+with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated
+but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without
+strain or stretch. The varying motion is regulated and obtained by a
+drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear
+is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct
+motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the
+bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and the
+whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels
+to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest
+the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded,
+and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position
+on both sides. The machine is adapted for building 10 in. X 5 in.
+bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. outside diameter,
+and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the illustration showing
+part of a machine and approximately 48 spindles.
+
+The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of
+the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 in. frame,
+and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are 10 in.
+apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder
+would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the standard size for
+the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. bobbins are
+used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. When the
+finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning
+direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, 8 in. x 4
+in. bobbins are largely used.
+
+Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove
+so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and
+according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in
+these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist
+gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic
+index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.  SPINNING
+
+The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn
+required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process of
+spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done
+before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The nomenclature
+is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the
+conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus
+than it is at present; the established name to denote this
+conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number
+of important processes, each one of which is as important and
+necessary as the actual operation of spinning.
+
+A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the
+Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly the wide
+"pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method
+adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. Spinning
+frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any
+practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per side are
+common numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT]
+
+The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. 20, are
+brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel
+(often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually
+above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove bobbin is free to
+rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the
+retaining rollers. The final drafting of the material takes place in
+this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the
+drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of
+yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of
+spinning bobbin.
+
+When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a
+"breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the
+conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by
+means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing
+rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the
+retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and
+the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the
+"thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the
+arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer
+arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The latter is raised and lowered
+as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be
+distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges.
+
+Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which
+passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of
+the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of
+the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of
+spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this connection, the
+parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the
+functions of the two frames differ. The yarn has certainly to be
+wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from
+the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin,
+which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the
+roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually
+driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and
+just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of
+the "temper band" and weight. The temper band is simply a piece of
+leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other
+end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES]
+
+The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one
+of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in
+contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. A varying
+amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue
+of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is
+obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves
+in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of
+the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension.
+
+The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of the
+frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 are at
+right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief
+parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the
+pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove
+yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until
+they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to
+and wound upon the spinning bobbins. The flyers--at one time termed
+throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper
+weights. The chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever,
+adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the
+frame nearest the observer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  TWISTING AND REELING
+
+In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form
+they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On the
+other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it
+is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to
+combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes
+"doubling" when two single yarns only are combined.
+
+Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is
+to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is
+not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or
+more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when
+this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of
+twines, ropes and the like. The twist or twine thus formed will have
+the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required
+for the finished product. The same operation is conducted in the
+making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are
+laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to
+distinguish them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres_, by T.
+Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]
+
+When two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can
+be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a
+ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. There may
+be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop
+motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of
+any group which are being combined happens to break. When several
+threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting
+frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters,"
+and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a
+plate or disc before they reach the tube.
+
+More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally
+adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned
+work on Cordage and similar literature for detailed information.
+
+When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it
+is made up according to requirements, and the general operations
+which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll
+or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. The type or class of
+yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment
+of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be
+used previous to despatching the yarn.
+
+_Reeling_. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting
+solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on
+to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter,
+or rather circumference. Indeed, the circumference of the reel was
+fixed by an Act of Convention of Estates, dating as far back as 1665
+and as under:
+
+"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half
+to the King and half to the attacher."
+
+"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than
+_ten quarters_."
+
+The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All such
+yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be
+reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads
+which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems of dyeing
+and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not
+employed much in the jute industry. Large quantities of jute yarns
+intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable
+bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and
+sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries.
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+
+Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest
+yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn is made
+up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, even 6 cuts
+are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of 4 cuts, 3 cuts,
+2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any group less than 12
+cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of
+convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on
+the swift in the winding frame.
+
+The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure
+the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming
+the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of
+designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. We have already
+seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs.
+of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).
+
+For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same
+count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins on the
+reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins is wound
+round, say,
+
+6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or 120
+threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 separate
+cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been reeled as
+mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are
+complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round
+each group of 120 threads.
+
+A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be
+in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this
+movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to accommodate
+the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.
+
+Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell rings, the
+reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the
+mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. In some
+case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are
+simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking
+the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the
+cuts. At the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the
+mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.
+
+The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of
+winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate
+correctness.
+
+When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut hanks,
+there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. The 24
+mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks
+taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along with others
+of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from 54 lb.
+to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. Each bundle contains a
+number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the
+purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed,
+the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there
+would be exactly 56 lb. per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn,
+there would be 60 lb in a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb.
+in a bundle of 9 lb. yarn.
+
+The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of
+threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal
+condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to
+approach it as closely as possible. Careless workers allow the reel
+to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this
+yields what is known as "short tell." It is not uncommon to
+introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or 124 teeth, instead of the
+nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+
+The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed,
+the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types
+of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. In its simplest
+definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in
+such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. The
+two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical
+terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. The
+threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp,
+while the transverse threads are the weft.
+
+The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a
+large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be
+prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two distinct
+conditions necessitate two general types of winding:
+
+(_a_) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns.
+
+(_b_) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.
+
+For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the
+spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from 7 to
+8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops
+which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.
+
+Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins
+very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used
+for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding machine marked a
+great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with
+the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are
+used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached,
+dyed or similarly treated. Fig. 22 illustrates one of the modern
+bobbin winding machines for jute made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee. The finished product is illustrated by two full
+bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. There are
+also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of
+yarn on the swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and
+since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the
+bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout
+the process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin
+is filled as exemplified in the illustration.
+
+The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a
+fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and
+any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. of yarn,
+a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 to 8 lb.
+Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. diameter; hence for
+8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 yards.
+
+Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines
+adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It is built
+specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of 15 in.
+diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is used
+mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll only is
+shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a 10
+in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by surface or
+frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating
+drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of
+the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the
+floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and
+upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. This rapid traverse,
+combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be
+securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required,
+and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations
+for rolls is much below that for bobbins.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS]
+
+Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary 9
+in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and dressing
+departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning
+bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having
+two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is 80.
+
+The double tier on each side is practicable because of the small
+space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, rolls are
+wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as practised in
+several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each
+side is possible. Both types are made by each machine maker, the one
+illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product of Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee.
+
+In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it
+looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still
+further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS _By permission of
+Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other makers,
+is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls,
+can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions,
+one for each roll.
+
+A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A recent
+improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic
+stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted,
+has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) _By
+permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning
+bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority of
+manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The cops are
+almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the
+exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. There are
+different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case
+the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a
+rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so
+necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition of the cops in
+the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the
+tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning
+bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in
+other machines these conditions are opposite. Thus, in the cop
+winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath,
+and illustrated in Fig. 25, the spinning bobbins are below the cops,
+the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers,
+and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. This view shows
+about three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the above-mentioned
+opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning
+bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the
+low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing
+downwards. Six spindles only appear in this view, which represents
+the machine made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee,
+but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as
+desired within practicable and economic limits.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.
+FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE]
+
+The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in Fig.
+26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while
+the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles.
+The upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a
+clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the
+spindle. When the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are
+when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when
+the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when
+the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel
+wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the
+spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in
+conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface
+of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of
+the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the
+length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the
+partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until
+the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically
+stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may
+be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for
+jute shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the
+angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 26 COP WINDING MACHINE _By permission of Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING
+
+There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the
+weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--
+
+1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and
+when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred
+on to the weaver's beam.
+
+2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and
+then beamed on to a weaver's beam.
+
+3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large
+cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam.
+
+4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on
+to a weaver's beam.
+
+The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned.
+
+For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full spinning
+bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right
+of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The ends of the
+threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves
+of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The heck, or
+apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's
+lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the
+bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the
+illustration. The heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains,
+and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction
+the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when
+the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised
+gradually between the same slides. These movements are necessary in
+order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally
+round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the
+figure. The particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing
+if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about
+42 spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of
+the warp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS]
+
+At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's
+lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill
+with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is rotated by means
+of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill.
+As the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually
+and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical
+spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached.
+A beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs;
+there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the
+pin lease; a common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been
+formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion
+finished being (50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads
+required for the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on
+the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next
+section of 50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite
+direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second
+group of 50 to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch
+with the threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of
+the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been
+introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to accommodate all the
+threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more
+parts or chains. It will be noticed that the heck for the nearest
+mill is opposite about the 12th round of threads from the bobbin,
+whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from
+the top. A completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the
+third mill. When the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and
+simultaneously linked into a chain.
+
+A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often
+better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in No. 2
+method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the full
+equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a
+bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a frame for
+forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for
+drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring
+the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and
+finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the
+form of a chain.
+
+In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is
+shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from the
+two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame
+immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are
+made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp.
+Between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in
+the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. Only
+part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the
+frame adjoining them. All these frames and machines are necessary,
+but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they
+perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the
+foreground of Fig. 28.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE]
+
+Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is
+a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts
+convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a linked chain,
+and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to
+the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind of link is made by
+the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in Fig. 27 are being
+withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains are shown tied up in
+Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near
+the bank.
+
+The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is
+now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the
+small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a
+kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and
+arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are
+attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The chain is
+held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the
+latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact beam of yarn is
+obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam
+last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is
+removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread
+lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually
+and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in
+which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the
+camas or HEALDS, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to
+the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth
+which has been completed.
+
+Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on
+the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's
+beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct
+processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously.
+Thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any
+particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be
+very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools.
+Say, for example, a warp was required to be 600 yards long, and that
+there should be 500 threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn
+would be placed in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads
+from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the
+splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position
+in regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while
+others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam rotates
+at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the
+beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per
+minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 29, and the mechanism displayed
+is identical with that employed for No. 4 method of preparing warps.
+
+The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our example)
+would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. 29. The
+threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet
+between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the
+supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame appears on the
+extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction
+with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a
+position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough
+to hold the required number of spools. The part on the extreme right
+can be ignored at present.
+
+The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in Fig.
+28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in Fig. 29,
+and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the
+stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame,
+and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. It
+may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that
+the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the
+same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE _By
+permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.]
+
+The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the
+two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being
+positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal
+shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The loom beam, which
+is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by
+friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant;
+hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the
+revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying
+amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their
+flannels.
+
+As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between
+the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would be
+arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., and
+bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus,
+to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which 500
+threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the
+ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be understood that in
+the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to
+bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a
+fixed position in the width.
+
+The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 method,
+for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous
+processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example,
+all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size
+immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary
+frame in Fig. 29. The moistened threads must, however, be dried
+before they reach the loom beam. When a warp is starched, dried and
+beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed."
+
+In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in Fig. 30,
+there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns
+before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or rather part
+of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be
+formed of the great length occupied. Several of the threads from the
+spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed,
+then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is
+partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second
+reed. After the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes
+partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each
+of three cylinders arranged �o�, and finally on to the loom beam.
+Each cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a
+position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame
+in Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.
+
+The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend
+somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed
+which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX
+STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS]
+
+A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in Fig. 31.
+This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps
+under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the
+banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the
+same time. In such a case, three cylinders only would be used for
+each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single
+dressing machines. The two weaver's beams, with their pressing
+rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. Some
+machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight.
+A very similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and
+all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be
+wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if the number
+of threads is too many for one bank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of 500,
+as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in each of
+the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as
+much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one
+sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring
+roller. Both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of
+the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in this form on to one of the loom
+beams.
+
+It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box
+is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of
+the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. 30, is a
+pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type.
+Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads passes, becomes
+impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the
+lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and
+returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards
+towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn emerges from the rollers
+and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to
+suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom
+beam at the same rate. But since the diameter of the beam increases
+each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread,
+it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.
+
+The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the
+beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A certain
+amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for
+this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn
+dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw
+forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the
+yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed.
+
+During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train
+of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed
+over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in
+addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an
+ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as
+a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has
+been woven. Thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts,
+each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, the above apparatus would
+measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark
+at intervals of 120 yards on some of the threads. And all this is
+done without stopping the machine. At the time of marking, or
+immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring
+automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the
+warp is about to approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig.
+29, near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.
+
+As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at
+the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a
+pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads.
+
+After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from
+the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails
+of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts)
+and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of
+the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been
+woven into cloth. These latter threads are still intact in the cambs
+and reed in the loom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING
+
+If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the
+ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when
+the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly,
+and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots
+have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far
+forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward,
+or beating up, position during the operation of weaving.
+
+If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations
+would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and,
+when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs
+and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter,"
+"tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual
+operation of weaving. The latter work is often termed "gaiting a web."
+
+There is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the
+simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable
+difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. In nearly all
+the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in
+the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture
+of comparatively simple fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there
+are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others;
+these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling
+and sacking. In addition to these main types, there are several
+other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or
+other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate
+types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of
+carpets and the like.
+
+It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of
+this kind; the commoner types are described in _Jute and Linen
+Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics_; and the more
+elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in
+_Textile Design: Pure and Applied_, both by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.
+
+Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. The
+technical characteristics of each are as follows--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS]
+
+H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine single
+  warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest
+  order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is made from the
+  scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that
+  illustrated.
+
+B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in
+  pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is thick, and the
+  weave is also plain.
+
+T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in bagging,
+  although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft.
+  It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the
+  structures are identical.
+
+S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp yarns,
+  usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium
+  or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill order. The weaves
+  are shown in Fig. 33.
+
+C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or
+  two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. The
+  threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed
+  to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern,
+  or arrow-head pattern.
+
+P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring warp
+  is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite
+  pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. The
+  weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite
+  different from the other plain cloths illustrated. The cloth is
+  reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing
+  slightly in colour ornamentation.
+
+As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, B,
+T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is
+constant and as stated.
+
+All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in Fig.
+33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the
+yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, the unit
+weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid squares, while the
+repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVERS FOR
+VARIOUS CLOTHS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH]
+
+A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H and P,
+Fig. 32.
+
+B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the method
+of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When the warp
+is made double as indicated in weave _B_, the effect in the cloth
+can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for
+weave _A_. Hence, the cloths _H_, _B_ and _T_ can be woven without
+any mechanical alteration in the loom.
+
+_C_ is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 units;
+since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two
+identical single rows, they may be represented as at _D_. The actual
+structure of the cloth _S_ in Fig. 32 is represented on design paper
+at _C_, Fig. 33.
+
+_D_ is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units shown, but
+the mechanical parts for weaving both _C_ and _D_ remain constant.
+
+_E_ is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, while
+
+_F_ is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.
+
+The patterns or cloths for _E_ and _F_ are not illustrated.
+
+_G_ is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, two
+units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at _C_, Fig. 32,
+and involves the use of 4 leaves in the loom.
+
+The solid squares in weave _A_, Fig. 33, are reproduced in the
+left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of a plain
+cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in
+the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks
+of weft (the difference is for distinction only). The left-hand
+intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks,
+while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads
+interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from the weave or design
+to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will
+be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread
+on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft
+shot on the surface, and _vice versa_.
+
+A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by
+belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The loom in
+the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to that
+illustrated at _S_, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a full weaver's
+warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in Fig. 35. There
+are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS]
+
+During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a
+cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in Fig. 25,
+and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle,
+is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the
+opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. The positions of
+the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see
+Fig. 33, and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom
+the other layer occupies a low position. The threads of the warp are
+placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed
+healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these
+two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each
+time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft
+each journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels
+moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes
+successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones
+which preceded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS _By
+permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd._]
+
+The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as
+already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. 33, and the
+selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the
+surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same
+colour. A great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method
+of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of
+pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to
+the mode of interlacing.
+
+To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving
+shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead
+shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which all the looms
+are individually driven by small motors made by the English Electric
+Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular illustration shows
+cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is
+being adopted in many jute factories.
+
+A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 leaves
+are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the
+nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine is made
+by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. The dobby itself,
+or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the
+requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the
+frame-work, and is designed to control 12 leaves, that is, it
+operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM]
+
+A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made from
+jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the
+back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton carpet)
+and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed.
+The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the
+cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the
+needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which
+e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond
+with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer.
+This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton fabrics, and
+these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _P_, Fig.
+32. In both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are
+required. It need hardly be said that there is a considerable
+difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the
+designs and the looms in which they are woven.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, _see_ pp. 394-114, _Textile
+Design: Pure and Applied_, by T. Woodhouse and T. Milne.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM]
+
+In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in
+the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy
+rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room.
+Accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the
+warp beams, are being placed in position. In order to minimize the
+danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with
+fewer hands, some firms have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with
+suitable Lifting Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from
+the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and
+then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of
+transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to
+each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are
+valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct
+from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the
+old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place
+to place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY _By permission of Messrs.
+Herbert Morris, Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  FINISHING
+
+The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves
+the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the cloth,
+removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any
+damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth is passed through
+a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting
+fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart
+appearance. It is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although
+there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated,
+while others again miss this operation entirely.
+
+A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and in
+this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at
+the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been
+woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in Fig. 38. The
+fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton carpets. The
+illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of
+the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually with either two or
+four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK]
+
+The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable
+arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating
+slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth
+in contact with them. This is, of course, at the feed side; the
+cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown
+distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This view illustrates a double
+cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. As the
+cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two
+spirals.[3] When four spirals are required, the frame is much wider,
+and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the
+machines illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE _By permission of
+Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing processes,
+see _The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics_, by T. Woodhouse.
+(Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., Manchester.)]
+
+The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed
+on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in Fig. 43,
+which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &, Co.,
+Dundee. The cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then
+upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and
+over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the
+pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by
+means of a belt on the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled
+rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on
+to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes
+in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process.
+At other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in
+a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of the
+fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The damped
+fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is,
+to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the
+calender.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.,
+Ltd_. FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE]
+
+The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different
+rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls,
+the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. A five-bowl
+calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. 41, and in the
+background, while a complete illustration of a modern 5-bowl calender,
+with full equipment, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd.,
+Dundee, appears in Fig. 44.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 44 CALENDAR]
+
+The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of
+the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom
+roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls
+according to the type of finish desired. For calender finish, the
+bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so
+that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave
+the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in Fig. 34, are
+eliminated by this calendering action. The cloth is then delivered
+at the far side of the machine in Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface
+speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the
+others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by
+ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. The
+faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender
+finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same.
+
+Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish"
+or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length of cloth is
+wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, Fig. 44,
+and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the
+amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the
+way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. The two
+sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in Fig. 44, and these
+act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the
+dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light
+finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. After
+the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it
+is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with
+its belt pulley in Fig. 41.
+
+There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; one is
+driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. Provision
+is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. The
+pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are
+inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure.
+Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a
+oblique position.
+
+The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and
+the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure,
+and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small
+weights used. The heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the
+chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the
+"mangle finish."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE]
+
+A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 45.
+The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to
+what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when
+the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge
+rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four narrow pieces are
+shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the two rollers. There are
+other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the
+beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery
+side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. The
+three pins are arranged thus o�o, and since all three are
+moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each
+roller or pin is moved through 120�. Thus, the stripped pin will be
+placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the
+mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.
+
+While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move
+first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this
+change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism
+situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing
+seen at the far end of the mangle. And while this mangling is taking
+place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously
+mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus
+which deposits the cloth in folds. This operation is also known as
+"cuttling" or "faking." It will be, understood that a wide mangle,
+such as that illustrated in Fig. 45. is constructed specially for
+treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply
+because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.
+Ltd_. Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE]
+
+The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation
+of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought
+into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is
+applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers.
+
+Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a
+measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on
+the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one circle
+of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, 30, up to
+100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in
+circumference.
+
+If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing
+or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden
+centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well,
+and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar
+to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. Cloths
+for this purpose are often made up to 600 yards in length; indeed,
+special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to
+weave cloths up to 2,000 yards in length. Special dressing machines
+and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. When the
+linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre
+are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are
+returned periodically.
+
+Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a
+simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth,
+and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or
+folded by special machines such as that illustrated in Fig. 46. The
+cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown,
+to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars.
+As the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand
+side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the
+convex table. The carriers may be adjusted to move through different
+distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may
+be made.
+
+Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but
+some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and
+this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, however,
+the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. Thus,
+Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and
+made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., Ltd., Dundee. The
+full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent
+stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth passes upwards
+obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it
+is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left.
+The doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven
+drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as
+indicated. The machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and
+delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. In other
+industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging.  Some of
+the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth
+lengthwise as illustrated in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at
+the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.
+FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE]
+
+If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the
+making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made
+annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand,
+semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are
+sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways
+according to requirements.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_
+FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE]
+
+Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this
+purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine different cloths
+are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of
+these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the
+machine. They are then led between the rollers, under the cutting
+knife, and on to the table. The length of cloth is measured as it
+passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are
+supplied so that practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine
+lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and
+when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts
+the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table.
+He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length
+is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means are provided for
+registering the number passed through; from 36,000 yards to 40,000
+yards can be treated per day.
+
+The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in
+Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the sewing is
+usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the Yankee or
+Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than 2,000
+bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking,
+_S_, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost invariably done by the Laing or
+overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in
+Fig. 49, and made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works,
+Dundee. This is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000
+bags can be sewn in one day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE _By
+permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_]
+
+The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form
+of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at
+_S_, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a considerable variety can be
+made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and
+their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same
+cloth, the variety is still further increased.
+
+Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and
+other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the
+necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by
+a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. The
+latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in Fig. 50.
+It is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald,
+Dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two
+distinct colours, say red and black. Occasionally three and
+four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably
+the most common.
+
+[Illustration: _By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_. FIG 50 SACK
+PRINTING MACHINE]
+
+The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the
+many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number
+their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock,
+or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a
+special numbering machine, also made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald.
+
+The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is
+that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a
+hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower moving table upon
+a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite
+quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are
+placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the
+bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed
+table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per square inch is applied
+according to the nature of the goods and their destination. While
+the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates,
+the wrappers a sewn together. Then specially prepared hoops or metal
+bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system,
+involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The
+ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent
+ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the
+pins inserted in the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is
+removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the
+bale securely.
+
+Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre,
+the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into
+cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the
+world's common carrier.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+ACCUMULATOR
+Assorting jute fibre.
+
+BAG-MAKING
+Bale opener
+     opening
+Baling cloth
+     house
+     press
+     station
+Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)
+Batch
+Batchers
+Batching
+     apparatus
+     carts or stalls
+Batch-ticket
+Beamer's lease
+Beaming
+     (dry) direct from bank,
+Blending
+Bobbin winding
+Bojah
+Botanical features of jute plants
+Breaker card
+Brussels carpet
+Bundle of jute.
+
+CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into
+Calender
+     finish
+Calenderoy
+Carding
+Card waste
+Cargoes of jute
+Chest finish
+Clasp-rods
+Conditioning fibre
+Cops
+Cop winding
+Corchorus capsularis
+     clitorius
+Crisping and crisping machines
+Cropping machine
+Cultivation of jute
+Cutting knife for jute fibre
+Cuttings.
+
+DAMPING machine
+Defects in fibre and in handling
+Designs or weaves
+Differential motion
+Dobby loom
+Draft
+Drafting
+Drawing
+  frames
+    different kinds of
+Drawing-in
+Dressing and dressing machine
+Drum
+Drying jute fibre
+Dust shaker.
+
+EAST India Co.
+Exports of jute from India.
+
+FABRICS
+Faller
+Farming operations
+Fibres,
+  the five main
+    imports of jute.
+
+
+Fibrous layer
+Finisher card
+Finishing
+folding machine.
+
+Gaiting
+Glazed finish
+Grading jute fibre
+Gunny bags.
+
+Hand batching
+Harvesting the plants
+Height of jute plants
+Hydraulic mangle
+  press.
+
+Identification marks on bags
+Imports of jute.
+
+Jacquard loom
+Jute crop
+  exports from India
+  fabrics
+  fibre, imports of
+  industry
+  knife
+  plants, botanical and physical features of
+  cultivation of
+  height of
+  marks.
+
+Laddering
+Ladders
+Lapping machine
+Linking machine
+Linoleum
+Looms
+Lubrication of fibre.
+
+Machine batching
+Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta
+Mangle finish
+  (hydraulic)
+Marks of jute (_see_ jute marks)
+Maund
+Measuring and marking machine
+  machine for cloth
+  the warp
+Methods of preparing warps
+Multiple-colour printing machines.
+
+Numbering machine for bags.
+
+Opening jute heads
+Overhead runway systems
+  sewing machine (Laing's).
+
+Packing goods
+Physical features of jute plants
+Pin-lease
+Plaiting machine
+Plants, thinning of
+  weeding of
+Ploughs for jute cultivation
+Point-paper designs
+Porcupine feed
+Printing machine.
+
+Reach
+Reeling
+Retting
+Roller-feed
+Rolls
+Root-comber
+  opener
+Round-thread finish
+Rove
+Roving frame
+Roxburgh, Dr.
+
+Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical
+Sack making
+  printing machine
+Sand bags
+Seed
+  per acre, amount of
+  sowing of
+Sewing machines
+Shell-feed
+Short-tell
+Snipping machine
+Softening machines
+Spinning
+Spool or roll winding
+Spools (_see_ Rolls)
+Standard bale
+Starching (_see_ Dressing)
+Steeping (_see_ Retting)
+Striker-up (_see_ Batcher)
+Stripping
+Systems.
+
+Teazer
+Tell (of yarn)
+Thinning of plants
+Thrum
+Time for harvesting the plants
+Tube-twisters
+Twist
+Twisting
+Two-colour printing machine
+Tying-on
+Typical jute fabrics.
+
+Union Or Yankee sewing machine
+Unloading bales of jute from ship.
+
+Variations in jute
+Varieties of jute fibre
+  plants.
+
+Warp
+Warp dressing (_see_ Dressing)
+Warping, beaming and dressing
+  mill
+Washing
+Waste
+  teazer
+Weaves or designs
+Weaving
+Weaver's lease
+Weeding of plants
+Weft
+  winding
+Wilton carpet
+Winding (bobbin) machine
+  from hank
+  (large roll) machine
+  (ordinary size from hanks) machine
+  rolls and cops
+World's great war.
+
+Yankee or Union sewing machine
+Yarn table
+Yield of fibre.
+
+
+
+_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE]
+
+[Advertisement 15: ROYLES LIMITED.]
+
+[Advertisement 16: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.]
+
+[Advertisement 17: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 18: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED]
+
+[Advertisement 19: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 20: FREDERICK SMITH & CO.]
+
+[Advertisement 21: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 22: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC]
+
+[Advertisement 23: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING & ACCOUNTANCY]
+
+[Advertisement 24: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING]
+
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+
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+
+[Advertisement 37: THOS. BROADBENT & SONS, LTD.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to
+Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 12443-8.txt or 12443-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/4/4/12443/
+
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+<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
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+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Jute Industry:<br />
+  From Seed to Finished Cloth</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 26, 2004 [eBook #12443]<br />
+[Most recently updated: March 29, 2023]</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***</div>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a1.PNG"><img src="images/a1.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: David Bridge &amp; Co., LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: David Bridge &amp; Co., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a2.PNG"><img src="images/a2.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Chas. Parker, Sons &amp; Co." />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Advertisement: Chas. Parker, Sons &amp; Co.</h3>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a3.PNG"><img src="images/a3.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD." /></a><br/>
+ <b>Advertisement: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a4.PNG"><img src="images/a4.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Robert Hall &amp; Sons" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Robert Hall &amp; Sons</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a5.PNG"><img src="images/a5.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: A. F. Craig &amp; Co., LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: A. F. Craig &amp; Co., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a6.PNG"><img src="images/a6.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a7.PNG"><img src="images/a7.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: H. Smethurst &amp; Sons, LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: H. Smethurst &amp; Sons, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a8.PNG"><img src="images/a8.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: White, Milne &amp; Co." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: White, Milne &amp; Co.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a9.PNG"><img src="images/a9.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Thomas C. Keay, LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a10.PNG"><img src="images/a10.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Robert Stiven &amp; Co." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Robert Stiven &amp; Co.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>THE JUTE INDUSTRY</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a11.PNG"><img src="images/a11.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>PITMAN'S<br/>
+COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES<br/>
+SERIES</h2>
+<h1>THE JUTE INDUSTRY<br/>
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH</h1>
+
+<h2>by T. WOODHOUSE</h2>
+
+<ul class="persona">
+<li class="i0">HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT,</li>
+<li class="i2">DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART</li>
+<li>FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON &amp; CO., LINEN</li>
+<li class="i4">MANUFACTURERS, BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS,
+KNARESBOROUGH.</li>
+<li class="i2">AUTHOR OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN
+FABRICS,"</li>
+<li class="i2">"HEALDS AND REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND
+PORTERS,"</li>
+<li class="i0"><br/>
+</li>
+<li class="i0">JOINT AUTHOR OF</li>
+<li class="i0">"JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"</li>
+<li class="i0">"TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>AND</h3>
+<h2>P. KILGOUR</h2>
+
+<ul class="persona">
+<li class="i2">HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,</li>
+<li class="i4">DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART</li>
+<li class="i2">FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.</li>
+<li class="i2">JOINT AUTHOR OF</li>
+<li class="i4">"JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"</li>
+<li class="i4">"CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5>LONDON<br/>
+SIR ISAAC PITMAN &amp; SONS, LTD.<br/>
+PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2<br/>
+BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK<br/>
+1921<br/>
+</h5>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a12.PNG"><img src="images/a12.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: George Hattersley &amp; Sons, LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: George Hattersley &amp; Sons, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="gPREF" href="#PREFg">PREFACE</a></h2>
+<p>The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants, the
+extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre into
+useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+and the description, although not severely technical, is
+sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine of
+jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium of
+study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+more detailed literature by the authors on these textile
+subjects.</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i10">T. WOODHOUSE.</p>
+<p class="i10">P. KILGOUR.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i4">March, 1921.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a13.PNG"><img src="images/a13.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: J. M. Adam &amp; Co." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: J. M. Adam &amp; Co.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a14.PNG"><img src="images/a14.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: James F. Low &amp; Co., LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Advertisement: James F. Low &amp; Co.,
+LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="i6"><a name="PREFg" href="#gPREF">PREFACE</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="INTRg" href="#gINTR">I.
+INTRODUCTORY</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="CULTg" href="#gCULT">II.
+CULTIVATION</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="RETTg" href="#gRETT">III.
+RETTING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="ASSOg" href="#gASSO">IV. ASSORTING AND
+BALING JUTE FIBRE.</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="MILLg" href="#gMILL">V. MILL
+OPERATIONS</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="BATCg" href="#gBATC">VI.
+BATCHING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="CARDg" href="#gCARD">VII.
+CARDING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="DRAWg" href="#gDRAW">VIII. DRAWING AND
+DRAWING FRAMES</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="THERg" href="#gTHER">IX. THE ROVING
+FRAME</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="SPINg" href="#gSPIN">X. SPINNING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="TWISg" href="#gTWIS">XI. TWISTING AND
+REELING.</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="WINDg" href="#gWIND">XII. WINDING: ROLLS
+AND COPS</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="WARPg" href="#gWARP">XIII. WARPING,
+BEAMING AND DRESSING.</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="TYINg" href="#gTYIN">XIV. TYING-ON,
+DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="FINIg" href="#gFINI">XV.
+FINISHING</a></li>
+<li class="i6"><a name="INDEg" href="#gINDE">INDEX</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="i2">FIG.</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._1">1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._2">2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._3">3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._4">4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE</a></li>
+<li class="i8">FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._5">5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A</a></li>
+<li class="i8">WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._6">6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE</a></li>
+<li class="i8">ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._7">7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE</a></li>
+<li class="i8">FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._8">8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY &amp; CO., LTD.)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._9">9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS &amp; CO., LTD)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._10">10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED</a></li>
+<li class="i8">AND PREPARED FIBRE</li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._11">11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._12">12. BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._13">13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._14">14. MODERN BREAKER CARD</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._15">15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._16">16. WASTE TEAZER</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._17">17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._18">18. ROVING FRAME</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._19">19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._20">20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._21">21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._22">22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._23">23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._24">24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._25">25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER &amp; SONS, LTD.)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._26">26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY &amp; CO., LTD.)</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._27">27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._28">28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._29">29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._30">30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._31">31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._32">32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._33">33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._34">34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._35">35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._36">36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._37">37. BOBBY LOOM</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._38">38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._39">39. THE OLD WAY</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._40">40. THE NEW WAY</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._41">41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._42">42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._43">43. DAMPING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._44">44. CALENDER</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._45">45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._46">46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._47">47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._48">48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._49">49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><a href="#FIG._50">50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>THE JUTE INDUSTRY</h2>
+<h3>FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH</h3>
+
+<h2><a name="gINTR" href="#INTRg">CHAPTER I.
+INTRODUCTORY</a></h2>
+<p>The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are
+cotton, flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been
+considered in general as being of the least value, not only in
+regard to price, but also in regard to utility. It is only under
+phenomenal conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as
+that which took place during the world's great war from 1914
+onwards that, from a commercial point of view, the extreme
+importance of the jute fibre and its products are fully realized.
+Millions of sand bags were made from the year 1914 to the year
+1918 solely for military purposes, while huge quantities of jute
+cloth were utilized as the covering material for food stuffs of
+various kinds, thus liberating the other textile fibres and cloth
+for equally important purposes. It is on record that in one short
+period of fourteen days, 150,000,000 sand-bags were collected,
+packed and despatched from Dundee to be used as protective
+elements in various ways and seats of conflict.</p>
+<p>A glance into the records of the textile industries will
+reveal the fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in
+these islands a hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were
+certainly made to import the fibre into Great Britain in the
+latter part of the 18th century, and it has been used in India
+for centuries in the making of cord, twine and coarse fabrics,
+because the fibre is indigenous to that country. And since all
+the manufacturing methods there, for a considerable time were
+manual ones, the industry--if such it could be called--moved
+along slowly, providing employment only for the needs of a small
+section of the community on the Eastern shores.</p>
+<p>The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the
+instigation of Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it
+was only after repeated requests that any attempt was made to
+utilize the samples of jute for practical experiments The fibre
+was so unlike any of the existing staples that those interested
+in textiles were not anxious to experiment with it, but
+ultimately they were persuaded to do so; these persistent
+requests for trials, and the interest which was finally aroused,
+formed the nucleus of the existing important jute industry.</p>
+<p>Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of
+the jute fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when
+the first small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home
+of the jute industry. This quantity was imported into this
+country with the special object of having it treated by
+mechanical means, much in the same way as flax fibre was being
+treated. At this period Dundee was a comparatively important
+textile centre in regard to the spinning and weaving of flax and
+hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural that the longer, but
+otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute fibre should be
+submitted to the machinery in vogue for the preparation and
+spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we mean in
+general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and
+flax, and hence the modifications in preparation which had
+ultimately to be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be
+successfully treated. These modifications shall be discussed at a
+later stage.</p>
+<p>It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828,
+the imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns
+which were made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those
+in demand for the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that
+other types of cloth should be introduced so that these yarns
+could be utilized. About the year 1838, representatives of the
+Dutch Government placed comparatively large orders with the
+manufacturers for jute bags to be used for carrying the crop of
+coffee beans from their West Indian possessions. The subsequent
+rapid growth of the industry, and the demand for newer types of
+cloth, are perhaps due more to the above fortunate experiment
+than to any other circumstance.</p>
+<p>By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute
+fibre had increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000
+tons in the season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed
+to the possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in
+India--the seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At
+least such a probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a
+small consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an
+attempt made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the
+Indian native industry.</p>
+<p>The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and
+factories soon became apparent, for in the first place it was
+difficult to induce the natives to remain inside the works during
+the period of training, and equally difficult to keep the trained
+operatives constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to
+leave the mills and factories for their more usual mode of living
+in the country.</p>
+<p>In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew
+in India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war,
+the quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other
+British ports amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period
+preceding the war, nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various
+countries, while the Indian annual consumption--due jointly to
+the home industry and the mills in the vicinity of
+Calcutta--reached the same huge total of one million tons.</p>
+<p>The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world,
+and consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to
+the production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables
+it to be ranked as one of the important industries in the textile
+group, and one which may perhaps attain a much more important
+position in the near future amongst our national manufacturing
+processes. As a matter of fact, at the present time, huge
+extensions are contemplated and actually taking place in
+India.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gCULT" href="#CULTg">CHAPTER II.
+CULTIVATION</a></h2>
+<p><b>Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant</b>. Jute
+fibre is obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to
+differ only in the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the
+fruit of the variety <i>Corchorus Capsularis</i> is enclosed in a
+capsule of approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of
+the variety <i>Corchorus Olitorius</i> is contained in a pod.
+Both belong to the order <i>Tiliacea</i>, and are annuals
+cultivated mostly in Bengal and Assam.</p>
+<p>Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the <i>Corchorus
+Japonicus</i> of Japan, and the <i>Corchorus Mompoxensis</i> used
+in Panama for making a kind of tea, while one variety of jute
+plant is referred to in the book of job as the Jew's Mallow; this
+variety <i>C. Olitorius</i>, has been used in the East from time
+immemorial as a pot herb.</p>
+<p>The two main varieties <i>C. Capsularis</i> and <i>C.
+Olilorius</i> are cultivated in Bengal for the production of
+fibre, while for seed purposes, large tracts of land are
+cultivated in Assam, and the seeds exported for use principally
+in Mymensingh and Dacca.</p>
+<p>The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from
+5 to 15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about
+four months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems
+of jute plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in
+general, they are green or pink, and straight with a tendency to
+branch. The leaves are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in
+length, and about 1-1/2 inches in breadth with serrated edges.
+Pale yellow flowers spring from the axil (axilla) of the leaves,
+and there is an abundance of small seeds in the fruit which, as
+mentioned, is characteristic of the variety.</p>
+<p>While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the
+geographical position of this province is mainly responsible for
+these conditions. On referring to a map of India, it will be seen
+that Bengal is directly north of the bay of that name, and is
+bounded on the north by the great Himalayan mountains.</p>
+<p>During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from
+the north, large areas of the mountainous regions are covered
+with snow, but when the winds change and come from the south, and
+particularly during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises
+the general temperature and also melts much of the snow on the
+mountain tracts. The rain and melted snow swell the two great
+rivers on the east and west of Bengal--the Patna and the
+Brahmaputra--and the tremendous volume of water carries down
+decayed vegetable and animal matter which is ultimately spread on
+the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial deposits, and thus provides
+an ideal layer of soil for the propagation of the jute
+plants.</p>
+<p>The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of
+the rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and
+Pabna, and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal,
+Orissa and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these
+areas.</p>
+<p>The <i>Corchorus Capsularis</i> variety is usually cultivated
+in the higher and richer soils, while the <i>Corchorus
+Olitorius</i> variety is most suited for the lower-lying alluvial
+soils, and to the districts where the rainfall is irregular;
+indeed, the <i>C. Olitorius</i> may be grown in certain other
+districts of India which appear quite unsuitable for the <i>C.
+Capsularis</i>.</p>
+<p>The farming operations in India are rather simple when
+compared with the corresponding operations in this country; there
+is evidently not the same necessity for extensive working of the
+Indian soil as there is for the heavier lands; another reason for
+the primitive Eastern methods may be the absence of horses.</p>
+<p>The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in
+teams of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in
+Fig. 1 where a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process
+in jute cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the
+same way as horses do in this country.</p>
+<p>The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough
+clods may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the
+"hengha"--a piece of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of
+bullocks.</p>
+<p>The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning
+process which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these
+ladders are made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided
+with projecting pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect
+the roots of the previous crop; they are the equivalent of our
+harrows, and may be used repeatedly during the winter and spring
+seasons so that a fine tilth may be produced.</p>
+<p>When manure is essential, it is applied in the later
+ploughings, but other large areas have artificial or chemical
+manures added at similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure
+is preferred, but castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a
+weed--constitute good substitutes.</p>
+<p>After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is
+sown by hand at the period which appears most suitable for the
+particular district. The usual sowing time is from February to
+the end of May, and even in June in some districts where late
+crops can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._1"></a>
+<a href="images/f1.PNG"><img src="images/f1.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND</h3>
+<p>There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a
+carefully judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the
+districts for the growing period will not only yield a succession
+of crops for easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in
+the selection of seeds for other areas where atmospheric
+conditions differ.</p>
+<p>It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as
+uniform a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used
+depends partly upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to
+30 lbs. per acre are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or
+more per ser (about 2 lbs.).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._2"></a>
+<a href="images/f2.PNG"><img src="images/f2.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR 'LADDERING'" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"</h3>
+<p>Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of
+seed in order to obtain the best results from these seeds for
+fibre plants. Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been
+collected from plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and
+often poor plants; they also grow plants year after year on the
+same soil. The fibres obtained, as a rule, and as a result of
+this method of obtaining seeds, gradually deteriorate; much
+better results accrue when succession of crops and change of seed
+are carefully attended to.</p>
+<p>If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will
+germinate in 8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly.
+The heat and showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the
+soil which should be broken; this is done by means of another
+ladder provided with long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the
+operation in process. This second laddering process opens up the
+soil and allows the moisture and heat to enter. The young plants
+are now thinned, and the ground weeded periodically, until the
+plants reach a sufficient height or strength to prevent the words
+from spreading.</p>
+<p>The space between the growing plants will vary according to
+the region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an
+abundance of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where
+the plants show prospects of growing thick and tall.</p>
+<p>In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3
+1/2 to 4 months from the time of sowing. Although different
+opinions are held as to the best time for harvesting, that when
+the fruits are setting appears to be most in favour; plants
+harvested at this stage usually yield a large quantity of good
+fibre which can be perfectly cleaned, and which is of good
+spinning quality.</p>
+<p>The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in
+general, these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear
+to be quite suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants
+ready for cutting will certainly form a delightful picture, but
+the prospect of the operation of cutting indicates a formidable
+piece of work since it requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green
+crop to produce about 10 to 15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gRETT" href="#RETTg">CHAPTER III. RETTING</a></h2>
+<p>The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres
+are embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply
+of water, since the plants must be completely submerged in the
+water for a period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is
+dependent upon the period of the year and upon the district in
+which the operation is performed.</p>
+<p>The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem
+is technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where
+the water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time
+the plants are under treatment.</p>
+<p>The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due
+to a bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation.
+The farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is
+making by the presence of the air bells which rise to the
+surface; when the formation of air bells ceases, the men examine
+the plants daily to see that the operation does not go too far,
+otherwise the fibrous layer would be injured, and the resulting
+fibre weak. The stems are tested in these examinations to see if
+the fibrous layer, or bast layer, will strip off clean from the
+wood or stem. When the ryot considers that the layers are
+separated from the core sufficiently easy, the work of steeping
+ceases, and the process of stripping is commenced immediately.
+This latter process is conducted in various ways depending upon
+the practice in vogue in the district.</p>
+<p>In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the
+woody structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and
+cross rails fixed to uprights in the water; others break the
+stems by hand; while in other cases the stems are handed out of
+the water to women who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve
+intact the central core or straw to be used ultimately for
+thatching. The strips of fibre are all cleaned and rubbed in the
+water to remove all the vegetable impurities, and finally the
+fibre is dried, usually by hanging it over poles and protecting
+it from the direct rays of the sun.</p>
+<p>If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the
+plants are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous
+layers to some other place provided with a better supply of water
+for the final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning
+are apt to create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable
+trouble or difficulties in subsequent branches of the
+industry.</p>
+<p>Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a
+jute plant. The lower illustration represents approximately one
+quarter of a complete cross section. The central part of the stem
+or pith is lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter;
+the outer covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual
+fibrous layer appears between the parts B and C, and some of the
+fibres are indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding
+parts in the three distinct views. The middle illustration shows
+an enlarged view of a small part of the lowest view, while the
+upper illustration is a further enlarged view of a small section
+of the middle view. It will be seen that each group of fibres is
+surrounded by vegetable matter.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._3"></a>
+<a href="images/f3.PNG"><img src="images/f3.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT</h3>
+<p>Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or
+stalks, and one which is practised in certain districts with the
+object of preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small
+portion, say one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative
+then grasps the tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro
+in the water, thus loosening the parts, after which the straws
+float out, leaving the fibrous layer free. The straws are
+collected for future use, while the fibre is cleaned and washed
+in the usual way.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gASSO" href="#ASSOg">CHAPTER IV. ASSORTING AND
+BALING JUTE FIBRE</a></h2>
+<p>The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various
+conditions. The method of marketing may be of such a nature that
+the farmers in some districts may have to make a rough assortment
+of the fibre into a number of qualities or grades, and these
+grades are well known in the particular areas; on the other hand,
+the farmers may prefer to sell the total yield of fibre at an
+overhead price per maund. A maund is approximately equal to 8
+lbs., and this quantity forms a comparatively small bundle. In
+other cases, the fibre is made up into what is known as a "drum";
+this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2 to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it
+is a very convenient size for transit in India.</p>
+<p>Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10
+million bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the
+remaining half is baled for export to the various parts of the
+world; a little over one million bales are exported annually to
+Great Britain, the bulk of this fibre comes to Dundee.</p>
+<p>It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method
+of assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good
+idea of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or
+otherwise for special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of
+selecting and grading has been established on a basis that
+provides a very large amount of jute each year of a quality which
+is known as "a first mark." A mark, in general, in reference to
+fibre, is simply some symbol, name, letter, monogram or the like,
+or a combination of two or more, oft-times with reference to some
+colour, to distinguish the origin of the fibre, the baler, or the
+merchant.</p>
+<p>In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a
+better quality than what is known as "first mark," and this
+better quality is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a
+further lot, the quality of which is below these good ones. Since
+there are hundreds of different marks which are of value only to
+those connected directly with the trade, it is unnecessary to
+dwell on the subject. The following list, however, shows
+quotations of various kinds, and is taken from the Market Report
+of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920. The price of jute, like
+almost everything else, was at this date very high, so in order
+to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal prices, we introduce
+the prices for the corresponding grade, first marks, for the same
+month in the years 1915 onwards.</p>
+<pre>
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+<br/>
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+<br/>
+          &pound;. s. d.      &pound;. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+</pre>
+<p>It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under
+contract, and guarantees regarding the properties of the
+fibre.</p>
+<p>After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre
+is made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of
+these 200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard
+bale, the weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a
+permitted quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while
+the dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X
+1'6" X 1' 4".</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._4"></a>
+<a href="images/f4.PNG"><img src="images/f4.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE<br/>
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE</h3>
+<p>Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large
+establishments, and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to
+deal rapidly and efficiently with the large number of bales. In
+Fig. 4 scores of natives, superintended by a European, are seen
+carrying the smaller bales on their heads from the river boat to
+the press house. It is, of course, unnecessary to make the solid
+400 lb. bales for Indian consumption; this practice is usually
+observed only for jute which is to be exported, and all such
+bales are weighed and measured at the baling station by a Chamber
+of Commerce expert.</p>
+<p>Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the
+Calcutta district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with
+the most efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5
+illustrates one of these huge presses with a number of natives in
+close proximity. Two or three distinct operations are conducted
+simultaneously by different groups of operatives, and ingenious
+mechanism is essential for the successful prosecution of the
+work. Two such presses as that illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable,
+under efficient administration, of turning out 130 bales of 400
+lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is compressed into comparatively
+small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal to 6,000 lbs. per square
+inch, and no packed bale must exceed in cubical capacity 11 cubic
+feet after it leaves the press; it is usual for freight purposes
+to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton. (Now changed to 50
+cubic feet.)</p>
+<p>The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river
+from barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000
+to 46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel
+brought 70,000 bales.</p>
+<p>As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to
+quality, and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.
+Although this is the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for
+quantities of jute to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may
+be disposed of on the "Spot." It is a common practice to sell a
+number of bales to sample, such number depending generally upon
+the extent of the quantity, or "parcel," as it is often called.
+The contract forms are very complete, and enable the business to
+be conducted to the satisfaction of all concerned in the
+trade.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._5"></a>
+<a href="images/f5.PNG"><img src="images/f5.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE
+PRESS</h3>
+<p>It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a
+large quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained
+from plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it
+should be stated that there is such a wide range of goods
+manufactured, and additional varieties occasionally introduced,
+that it appears possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any
+year; indeed, it seems as if the available types of fibre each
+season create demands for a corresponding type of manufactured
+product.</p>
+<p>The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value
+annually, but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in
+some degree the extent of the industry and its development in
+various parts of the world.</p>
+<pre>
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+<br/>
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+<br/>
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+</pre>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._6"></a>
+<a href="images/f6.PNG"><img src="images/f6.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE<br/>
+ADJOINING JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR</h3>
+<pre>
+
+                    JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+<br/>
+              Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+<br/>
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+</pre>
+<p>A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the
+quay-side adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are
+raised quickly from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine,
+scarcely visible in Fig. 6 since it is at the far end of the
+vessel, but seen clearly in Fig. 7. When the bales are raised
+sufficiently high, they are guided to the comparatively steep
+part of a chute from which they descend to the more horizontal
+part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then removed by means of
+hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and piled or stored in
+some suitable arrangement with or without the aid of a crane.
+Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales to the
+various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are
+stored in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as
+stated.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._7"></a>
+<a href="images/f7.PNG"><img src="images/f7.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE<br/>
+FROM THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6</h3>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gMILL" href="#MILLg">CHAPTER V. MILL
+OPERATIONS</a></h2>
+<p><b>Bale Opening</b>. Each spinner, as already indicated,
+stores his bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a
+convenient manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any
+required number of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to
+the preparing department of the mill.</p>
+<p>In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to
+indicate the mixing of different varieties of material (as well
+as different kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a
+mixture suitable for the preparing and spinning of a definite
+quality and colour of material. In much the same way, the term
+"batching" is used in the jute industry, although it will be seen
+shortly that a more extensive use is made of the word. A "batch,"
+in its simplest definition, therefore indicates a number of bales
+which is suitable for subsequent handling in the Batching
+Department. This number may include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute
+according to the amount of accommodation in the preparing
+department.</p>
+<p>All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same
+standard quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It
+must be remembered that although the marks have a distinct
+reference to quality and colour, they actually represent some
+particular firm or firms of balers or merchants. At other times,
+the batch of 5 to 10 bales may be composed of different qualities
+of jute, the number of each kind depending partly upon the
+finished price of the yarn, partly upon the colour, and partly
+upon the spinning properties of the combination.</p>
+<p>It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished
+yarn is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales
+for any particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple
+differentiation, the yarn which is to be used for the warp
+threads in the weaving of cloth must, in nearly every case, have
+properties which differ in some respects from the yarn which is
+to be used as weft for the same cloth.</p>
+<p>On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same
+grade of jute is required, to select a batch from different
+balers' marks so that throughout the various seasons an average
+quality may be produced. The same class of yarn is expected at
+all times of the year, but it is well known that the properties
+of any one mark may vary from time to time owing to the slight
+variations in the manipulation of the fibre at the farms, and to
+the variations of the weather during the time of growth, and
+during the season generally.</p>
+<p>A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching
+department, this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales
+are, of course, defined by their marks, and those mentioned on
+the batch-ticket must be rigidly adhered to for one particular
+class of yarn; if there is any chance of one kind running short,
+the condition should be notified in time so that a suitable mark
+may be selected to take its place without effecting any great
+change in the character or quality of the yarn.</p>
+<p>When the number and kind of bales have been selected and
+removed from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse,
+they are conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a
+suitable position near the first machine in the series. It need
+hardly be mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of
+baling, is subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale
+presents a very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the
+various so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together
+and forced into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are
+quite unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to
+be opened out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less
+separated from each other. This operation is termed "opening" and
+the process is conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one
+type of which is illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee.</p>
+<p>The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable
+manner near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the
+view, so that they can be handled to the best advantage. The
+bands or ropes, see Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order
+that the heads or large pieces of jute can be separated. If any
+irregularity in the selection of the heads from the different
+bales of the batch takes place in this first selection of the
+heads of jute, the faulty handling may affect subsequent
+operations in such a way that no chance of correcting the defect
+can occur; it should be noted at this stage that if there are
+slight variations of any kind in the fibres, it is advisable to
+make special efforts to obtain a good average mixture; as a
+matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a judicious selection
+in every case. The usual variations are--the colour of the fibre,
+its strength, and the presence of certain impurities such as
+stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute, which are
+affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully mixed with
+the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may disappear as
+the fibre proceeds on its way through the different machines.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._8"></a>
+<a href="images/f8.PNG"><img src="images/f8.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 8 BALE OPENER" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 8 BALE OPENER<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge
+hammer in hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener
+is used, and this operation constitutes the preliminary opening.
+As already indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine
+from the left in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling
+feed cloth which carries the heads of jute successively between a
+pair of feed rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs
+of very deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair
+of deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the
+figure. These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the
+compressed heads of jute and deliver them in a much softer
+condition to the delivery sheet on the right. The delivery sheet
+is an endless cloth which has a continuous motion, and thus the
+softened heads are carried to the extreme right, at which
+position they are taken from the sheet by the operatives. The
+upper rollers in the machine may rise in their bearings against
+the downward pressure of the volute springs on the bearings; this
+provision is essential because of the thick and thin places of
+the heads.</p>
+<p>A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, &amp; Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart
+patent is illustrated in Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in the shape of the crushing or
+opening rollers.</p>
+<p>It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there
+are three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top
+and situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller
+has a series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings.
+The knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the
+hard layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads
+of jute have to bend partially round the larger roller as they
+are passing between the rollers. This double action naturally
+aids in opening up the material, and the machine, which is both
+novel and effective, gives excellent results in practice. The
+degree of pressure provided for the top roller may be varied to
+suit different conditions of heads of jute by the number of
+weights which are shown clearly in the highest part of the
+machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._9"></a>
+<a href="images/f9.PNG"><img src="images/f9.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 9 BALE OPENER " /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 9 BALE OPENER<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in
+this machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of
+the machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives
+good results in practice.</p>
+<p>In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a
+condition that the operatives can split them up into pieces of a
+suitable size quite freely.</p>
+<p>The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a
+position near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the
+heads of jute as the latter approach the end of the table, and
+then pass them to the batchers, who split them. The most suitable
+size of pieces are 2-1/2 to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8
+feet in length, but the size of the pieces is regulated somewhat
+by the system of feeding which is to be adopted at the
+breaker-card, as well as by the manager's opinion of what will
+give the best overall result.</p>
+<p>After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable
+smaller pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for
+the batcher or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could
+watch the above operation of separating the heads of jute into
+suitable sizes, it would perhaps be much easier to understand the
+process of unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of
+fibre. As the loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8
+or 9, it is placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the
+head hanging, and by a sort of intuition acquired by great
+experience, she or he grips the correct amount of fibre between
+the fingers, and by a dexterous movement, and a simultaneous
+shake of the whole piece, the handful just comes clear of the
+bulk and in much less time than it takes to describe the
+operation.</p>
+<p>As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid
+on stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the
+method by means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is
+to be added for the essential process of lubrication; this
+lubrication enables the fibre to work freely in the various
+machines.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gBATC" href="#BATCg">CHAPTER VI. BATCHING</a></h2>
+<p><b>Softening and Softening Machines</b>. Two distinct courses
+are followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves
+the bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card.
+These courses are designated as--</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">1. Hand Batching.</p>
+<p class="i6">2. Machine Batching.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>In the former process, which is not largely practised, the
+pieces of jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight
+twist, to facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in
+large carts which can be wheeled from place to place; if this
+method is not convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and
+deposited in large stalls such as those illustrated in Fig.
+10.</p>
+<p>On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over
+the pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated
+outlets--usually long tubes. After the oil has been added, water,
+from a similar sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is
+added until the attendant has applied what he or she considers is
+the proper quantity. The ratio between a measured amount of oil
+and an unmeasured amount of water is thus somewhat varied, and
+for this reason the above method is not to be commended. A
+conscientious worker can, however, with judgment, introduce
+satisfactory proportions which are, of course, supplied by the
+person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on the right is where the
+oil is stored, while the oil can, and the spray-pipe and tube for
+water, are shown near the second post or partition on the
+right.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._10"></a>
+<a href="images/f10.PNG"><img src="images/f10.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT<br/>
+WITH UNPREPARED AND PREPARED FIBRE</h3>
+<p>The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is
+filled with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to
+remain there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the
+material may be more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned.
+At the end of this time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to
+and fed into the softening machines where the fibres undergo a
+further process of bending and crushing.</p>
+<p>All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are
+often called, are similar in construction, but the number of
+pairs of rollers varies according to circumstances and to the
+opinions of managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11,
+which, in the form shown, is intended to treat jute from the
+above-mentioned stalls, is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of
+rollers or any other number which, minus 1, is a measure of 8.
+The sections are made in 8's. The illustration shows only 31
+pairs.</p>
+<p>The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as
+clearly shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with
+oblique flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the
+horizontal. What is often considered as a standard softening
+machine contains 63 pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual
+feed and delivery rollers. As mentioned above, this number is
+varied according to circumstances.</p>
+<p>The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller
+sheet, and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in
+different ways before they emerge from the delivery rollers at
+the other end of the machine.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._11"></a>
+<a href="images/f11.PNG"><img src="images/f11.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig. 11 SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS</h3>
+<p>Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the
+application of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are
+much more uniform than they are by the above mentioned process of
+hand batching. On the other hand, there is no time for
+conditioning the fibre because the lubrication and the softening
+are proceeding simultaneously, although conditioning may proceed
+while the fibre remains in the cart after it has left the
+softener.</p>
+<p>The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay
+&amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the
+pieces or "stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual
+lubricating equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular
+frame in the centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to
+the side frames of the softening machine proper, say that shown
+in Fig. 11. Its exact position, with respect to its distance from
+the feed, is a matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged
+to fall on to the material at any point between the second and
+twelfth rollers.</p>
+<p>In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen
+clearly, and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with
+the stricks or pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs
+shown immediately above the roller bearings and partially
+enclosed in bell-jars.</p>
+<p>Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one
+vertical and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is
+attached by suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at
+each end of the machine and to the valve of the water pipe near
+the top of the frame, while the upper end of the inclined or
+oblique rod is fulcrumed on a rod projecting from the frame. The
+lower or curved end of the oblique rod rests against the boss of
+one of the upper rollers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._12"></a>
+<a href="images/f12.PNG"><img src="images/f12.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 12 Hand-Batching Department" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 12 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT<br/>
+WITH UNPREPARED AND AND PREPARED FIBRE</h3>
+<p>The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and
+stopping of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when
+irregular feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise
+slightly against the pressure of the springs when thick stricks
+appear; hence, when a thick place passes under the roller which
+is in contact with the curved end of the oblique rod, the end
+moves slightly clockwise, and thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this
+results in an increased quantity of oil being liberated from the
+source of supply, and the mechanism is so arranged that the oil
+reaches the thick part of the strick. When the above-mentioned
+upper roller descends, due to a decrease in the thickness of the
+strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is moved slightly
+counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the thin part of
+the strick. It will be understood that all makers of softening
+machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching apparatus
+when desired.</p>
+<p>A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel
+wheels at the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a
+protection against accidents. In many machines safety appliances
+are fitted at the feed end so that the machine may be
+automatically stopped if the operative is in danger. The batching
+apparatus for this machine is of a different kind from that
+illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it is placed nearer the feed
+rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed pipes for the oil and the
+water are shown coming from a high plane, and the supply is under
+the influence of chain gearing as shown on the right near the
+large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.</p>
+<p>The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and
+the nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The
+barrow of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from
+stricks which have passed through the machine, and these stricks
+are now ready for conditioning, and will be stored in a
+convenient position for future treatment.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._13"></a>
+<a href="images/f13.PNG"><img src="images/f13.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig. 13 SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS</h3>
+<p>While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is
+graded in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of
+yarn without any further selection or treatment, it may be
+possible to utilize the material to better advantage by a
+judicious selection and treatment after it has undergone the
+operation of batching.</p>
+<p>What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special
+machine known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into
+the machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins
+in order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter
+drops through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre
+is delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet
+of the softener.</p>
+<p>The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special
+machine termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the
+comparatively hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a
+teazer may also be used for somewhat similar purposes, and for
+opening out ropes and similar close textures.</p>
+<p>The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from
+a heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and
+then the material is built up with room left for expansion, and
+allowed to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain
+quantity of this material may then be used along with other marks
+of jute to form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.</p>
+<p>A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by
+means of a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends
+of the stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two
+parts are severed when it is desired to utilize only the best
+part of the strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour
+than the remainder, and hence the above process is one of
+selection with the object of securing a yarn which will be
+uniform in colour and in strength.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gCARD" href="#CARDg">CHAPTER VII. CARDING</a></h2>
+<p><b>Breaker and Finisher Cards</b>. After the fibre from the
+softening machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it
+is ready for one of the most important processes in the cycle of
+jute manufacture; this process is termed carding, and is
+conducted in two distinct types of machines--</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i8">1. The breaker card.</li>
+<li class="i8">2. The finisher card.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The functions of the two machines are almost identical;
+indeed, one might say that the work of carding should be looked
+upon as one continuous operation.</p>
+<p>The main difference between the two types of machines is in
+the method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of
+the small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the
+action on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing
+and splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a
+slowly-moving roller allow the strick or stricks (because there
+are several side by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end
+to end, the pins of another but quickly-moving roller perform the
+splitting and the combing of the fibre. The pins of the
+slowly-moving roller hold, so to speak, the strick, while the
+pins of the quickly-moving roller comb out the fibres and split
+adhering parts asunder so as to make a comparatively fine
+division.</p>
+<p>The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A
+receptacle, very similar to that used at the breaker card,
+appears near the far end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.</p>
+<p>A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or
+back of the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front
+of the card on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card
+is facing the observer. The protecting cages were removed so that
+the wheels would be seen as clearly as possible.</p>
+<p>Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed
+side of the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a
+channel-shaped stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet,
+or feed cloth, which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the
+grip of the feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a
+"shell" feed because the upper contour of the guiding feed
+bracket is shaped somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually
+decreasing and suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the
+shell and the pins of the feed roller.</p>
+<p>The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks
+of fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and
+simultaneously carried into the machine where they come into
+contact with the points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving
+large roller, termed a cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and
+splitting action takes place at this point as well as for a
+distance of, say, 24 inches to 30 inches below. The fibres which
+are separated at this stage are carried a little further round
+until they come into contact with the points of the pins in the
+above-mentioned slowly-moving roller, termed a "worker," and
+while the fibres are moving slowly forward under the restraining
+influence of the worker, they are further combed and split. A
+portion of the fibres is carried round by the pins of the worker
+from which such fibres are removed by the quicker moving pins of
+the second roller of the pair, termed a "stripper," and in turn
+these fibres are removed from the pins of the stripper by the
+much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._14"></a>
+<a href="images/f4.PNG"><img src="images/f14.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG.14 MODERN BREAKER CARD" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD</h3>
+<p>The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers
+(worker and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are
+repeated by a second and similar pair of rollers (worker and
+stripper), and ultimately the thin sheet of combed and split
+fibres comes into contact with the pins of the doffer from which
+it is removed by the drawing and pressing rollers. The sheet of
+fibres finally emerges from these rollers into the broad and
+upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly of tin
+and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in Fig.
+14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width
+and, of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously
+guided and delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to
+the sliver can, distinctly seen immediately below the delivery
+rollers. The sliver is seen emerging from the above rollers and
+entering the sliver can.</p>
+<p>The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn
+forward relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged
+more or less parallel to each other. The technical term "draft"
+is used to indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip
+on each other, and in future we shall speak about this
+attenuation or drawing out of the fibres by this special term
+"draft."</p>
+<p>It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into
+the can at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant
+flow will soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a
+sliver can, although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs.
+The machine must, of course, deliver its quota to enable
+succeeding machines to be kept in practically constant work. As a
+matter of fact, the machines are arranged in what are termed
+"systems," so that this desirable condition of a constant and
+sufficient feed to all may be satisfactorily fulfilled.</p>
+<p>The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar
+to that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the
+pulley side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are
+fed by slivers which have been made as explained in connection
+with the breaker card, but there are two distinct methods of
+feeding the slivers, or rather of arranging the slivers at the
+feed side. In both cases, however, the full width of the card is
+fed by slivers laid side by side, with, however, a thin guide
+plate between each pair, and one at each extreme end.</p>
+<p>One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full
+sliver cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the
+floor and to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The
+sliver from each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver
+guide, and thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The
+slivers are guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or
+"feed sheet" which, in turn, conveys them continuously between
+the feed rollers. The feed apparatus in such machines is
+invariably of the roller type, and sometimes it involves what is
+known as a "porcupine" roller. It will be understood that the
+feeding of level slivers is a different problem from that which
+necessitates the feeding of comparatively uneven stricks.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._15"></a>
+<a href="images/f15.PNG"><img src="images/f15.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp;Sons,
+Ltd.</i></h3>
+<p>The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter
+the machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus
+form, as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance,
+and this sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the
+various pairs of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much
+the same way as already described in connection with the breaker
+card. There are, however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher
+card than there are in the breaker card, for while the latter is
+provided with two pairs of rollers, the former may be arranged
+with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs of rollers (6 workers and 6
+strippers). The number of pairs of rollers depends upon the
+degree of work required, and upon the opinions of the various
+managers.</p>
+<p>There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i8">1. Half-circular finisher cards.</li>
+<li class="i8">2. Full-circular finisher cards.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and
+such machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers
+are so disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a
+complete circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from
+pair to pair to undergo the combing and splitting action before
+coming into contact with the doffer. There are five pairs of
+rollers in the machine in Fig. 15, and all the rollers are
+securely boxed in, and the wheels fenced. The arrangement of the
+wheels on the gear side is very similar to that shown in
+connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14, and therefore
+requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes the covers,
+shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and adapted
+to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to examine the
+rollers and other parts.</p>
+<p>The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the
+various rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of
+draft, are ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the
+pins of the cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the
+conductor. The conductor of a finisher card is made in two
+widths, so that half the width of the film enters one section and
+the other half enters the other section. These two parallel
+sheets, split from one common sheet, traverse the two conductors
+and are ultimately delivered as two slivers about 6 inches above
+the point or plane in which the 10 or 12 slivers entered, and on
+to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two slivers are then
+guided by horns projecting from the upper surface of the sliver
+plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction of
+delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver
+can.</p>
+<p>In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine
+illustrated in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism
+which is supported by the small supplementary frame on the
+extreme right. This special mechanism is termed a "Patent Push
+Bar Drawing Head," and the function which it performs will be
+described shortly; in the meantime it is sufficient to say that
+it is used only when the slivers from the finisher card require
+extra or special treatment. A very desirable condition in
+connection with the combination of a finisher card and a
+draw-head is that the two distinct parts should work in unison.
+In the machine under consideration, the feed and delivery rollers
+of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage of the
+draw-head mechanism.</p>
+<p>One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a
+uniform thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other
+respects. A so-called level thread refers, in general, to a
+uniform diameter, but there are other equally, if not more,
+important phases connected with the full sense of the word
+uniform.</p>
+<p>It has already been stated that in the batching department
+various qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in
+order to obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different
+grades and marks vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter,
+length and suppleness; it is of the utmost importance that these
+fibres of diverse qualities should be distributed as early as
+possible in the process so as to facilitate the subsequent
+operations.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._16"></a>
+<a href="images/f16.PNG"><img src="images/f16.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. James F. Low &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></h3>
+<p>However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed
+in the batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves
+something to be desired; further improvement is still desirable
+and indeed necessary. It need hardly be said, however, that the
+extent of the improvement, and the general final result, are
+influenced greatly by the care which is exercised in the
+preliminary processes.</p>
+<p>The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new
+length, and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of
+each individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the
+new length of sliver is identical with each of the individual
+lengths and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting
+takes place in the finisher card, so that the fibres which
+compose the combined 10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a
+draft of 8 to 16 or even more; this means that for every yard of
+the group of slivers which passes into the machine there is drawn
+out a length of 8 to 16 yards or whatever the draft happens to
+be. The resulting sliver will therefore be approximately
+two-thirds the bulk of each of the original individual slivers.
+The actual ratio between them will obviously depend upon the
+actual draft which is imparted to the material by the relative
+velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.</p>
+<p>It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the
+fibrous material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is
+known as card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is
+produced, in spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed
+into the machine which is not delivered as perfect material. All
+this waste from various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste,
+card waste, ropes, dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately
+utilized to produce sliver for heavy sacking weft.</p>
+<p>The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from
+the valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products
+are passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J.
+F. Low &amp; Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16.
+The resulting mass is then re-carded, perhaps along with other
+more valuable material, and made into a sliver which is used, as
+stated above, in the production of a cheap and comparatively
+thick weft such as that used for sacking.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gDRAW" href="#DRAWg">CHAPTER VIII. DRAWING AND
+DRAWING FRAMES</a></h2>
+<p>The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both
+the breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular
+movement of the pins since all these (with the single exception
+of those in the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards)
+are carried on the peripheries of rotating rollers. In the
+draw-head mechanism, the pins move, while in contact with the
+fibres, in a rectilinear or straight path. In the machines which
+fall to be discussed in this chapter, viz., the "drawing frames,"
+the action of the pins on the slivers from the finisher card is
+also in a straight path; as a matter of fact, the draw-head of a
+finisher card is really a small drawing frame, as its name
+implies. Moreover, each row or rather double row, of pins is
+carried separately by what is termed a "faller." The faller as a
+whole consists of three parts:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for
+being</p>
+<p class="i10">moved in a closed circuit.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or</p>
+<p class="i10">"stocks," fixed to the rod.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i6">3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes
+about</p>
+<p class="i10">1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill
+or</p>
+<p class="i10">hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the
+above</p>
+<p class="i10">gills.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the
+particular method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the
+length of the fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to
+restrain the movements of the fibres between two important pairs
+of rollers. There are actually about four sets of rollers from
+front to back of a drawing frame; one set of three rollers
+constitute the "retaining" rollers; then comes the drawing roller
+and its large pressing roller; immediately after this pair is the
+"slicking" rollers, and the last pair is the delivery rollers.
+The delivery rollers of one type of drawing frame, called the
+"push-bar" drawing frame, and made by Messsrs. Douglas Fraser
+&amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly in Fig. 17, and
+the can or cans into which the slivers are ultimately delivered
+are placed immediately below one or more sections of these
+rollers and in the foreground of the illustration. The large
+pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing roller,
+occupy the highest position in the machine and near the centre of
+same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of
+gill pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.</p>
+<p>Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a
+set, is led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to
+the sliver guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately
+the slivers leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by
+the gill pins of a faller which is rising from the lower part of
+its circuit to the upper and active position. Each short length
+of slivers is penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these
+coming up successively as the preceding one moves along at
+approximately the same surface speed as that of the retaining
+rollers. The sheet of pins and their fallers are thus
+continuously moving towards the drawing rollers and supporting
+the slivers at the same time. As each faller in succession
+approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is made to descend so
+that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this point the
+faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until it
+reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch
+between the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there
+is always one faller leaving the upper set at the front and
+another joining the set at the back.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._17"></a>
+<a href="images/f17.PNG"><img src="images/f17.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig. 17 PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME</h3>
+<p>The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the
+drawing rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and
+must in all cases be a little greater than the longest fibre.
+This condition is necessary because the surface speed of the
+drawing roller is much greater than that of the retaining
+rollers; indeed, the difference between the surface speeds of the
+two pairs of rollers is the actual draft.</p>
+<p>Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are
+embedded in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward,
+as mentioned, to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the
+latter to the nip of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward
+ends of the fibres are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing
+rollers, the fibres affected slide on those which have not yet
+reached the drawing rollers, and, incidentally, help to
+parallelize the fibres. It will be clear that if any fibre
+happened to be in the grip of the two pairs of rollers having
+different surface speeds, such fibre would be snapped. It is to
+avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance between the two
+sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres under
+treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."</p>
+<p>On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate
+which bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the
+delivery rollers, and by means of which plate two or more
+individual slivers are diverted at right angles, first to join
+each other, and then again diverted at right angles to join
+another sliver which passes straight from the drawing rollers and
+over the sliver plate to the guide of the delivery rollers. It
+will thus be seen that a number of slivers, each having been
+drawn out according to the degree of draft, are ultimately joined
+to pass through a common sliver guide or conductor to the nip of
+the delivery rollers, and thence into a sliver can.</p>
+<p>The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of
+the same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set.
+With the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels
+are at the far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in
+dust-proof casing. The set-on handles, for moving the belt from
+the loose pulley to the fast pulley, or <i>vice versa</i>, are
+conveniently situated, as shown, and in a place which is
+calculated to offer the least obstruction to the operative. The
+machines are made with what are known as "two heads" or "three
+heads." It will be seen from the large pressing rollers that
+there are two pairs; hence the machine is a "two-head" drawing
+frame.</p>
+<p>The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to
+a further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar
+machine termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills
+for this frame are rather finer and more closely set than those
+in the first drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the
+machines, and the operations conducted therein, are practically
+identical, and therefore need no further description. It should
+be mentioned, however, that there are different types of drawing
+frames, and their designation is invariably due to the particular
+manner in which the fallers are operated while traversing the
+closed circuit. The names of other drawing frames appear
+below.</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i2">Spiral or screw gill;</li>
+<li class="i2">Open link chain;</li>
+<li class="i2">Rotary;</li>
+<li class="i2">Ring Carrier</li>
+<li class="i2">Circular.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation
+in a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are
+considered sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gTHER" href="#THERg">CHAPTER IX. THE ROVING
+FRAME</a></h2>
+<p>The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but
+there still remains a process by means of which the drafting of
+the slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued.
+And, in addition to these important functions, two other equally
+important operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of
+imparting to the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is
+known as a "rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a
+large rove bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.</p>
+<p>The machine in which this multiple process is performed is
+termed a "roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes,
+and with different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is
+provided for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of
+course, with two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of
+spindles, flyers, and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in
+Fig. 18, which represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.</p>
+<p>Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from
+the upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes
+in the flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The
+discs or bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter
+rail" or "builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical
+spindles pass through the centre of the discs, each spindle being
+provided with a "flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon
+the tops of the spindles.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._18"></a>
+<a href="images/f18.PNG"><img src="images/f18.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME<br/>
+<i>By Permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons,
+Ltd</i></h3>
+<p>A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be
+seen that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing
+rollers passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a
+guide eye, then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part
+of the flyer, round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme
+end of either of the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin.
+Each bobbin has its own sliver can (occasionally two), and the
+sliver passes from this can between the sides of the sliver
+guide, between the retaining rollers, then amongst the gill pins
+of the fallers and between the drawing (also the delivery)
+rollers. Here the sliver terminates because the rotary action of
+the flyer imparts a little twist and causes the material to
+assume a somewhat circular sectional form. From this point, the
+path followed to the bobbin is that described above.</p>
+<p>As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the
+sliver is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the
+periphery of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to
+about 20 yards per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also
+driven at a constant speed, because in all cases we have--</p>
+<ul>
+<li class="i2">spindle speed = delivery x twist.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the
+rove bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is
+driven independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for
+any one series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the
+bobbin differs, however, for each complete layer of rove, simply
+because the effective diameter of the material on the bobbin
+changes with the beginning of each new layer.</p>
+<p>The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal
+plane, and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the
+same height from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are
+raised gradually by the builder during the formation of each
+layer from the top of the bobbin to the bottom, and lowered
+gradually by the builder during the formation of each layer from
+bottom to top. In other words, the travel of the builder is
+represented by the distance between the inner faces of the
+flanges of the rove bobbin.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._19"></a>
+<a href="images/f19.PNG"><img src="images/f19.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME<br/>
+ FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK</h3>
+<p>Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in
+virtue of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating
+bobbin, and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter
+increases the combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by
+two diameters of the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an
+intermittent and variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by
+means of which this desirable and necessary speed is given to the
+bobbin constitutes one of the most elegant groups of mechanical
+parts which obtains in textile machinery. Some idea of the
+intricacy of the mechanism, as well as its value and importance
+to the industry, may be gathered from the fact that a
+considerable number of textile and mechanical experts struggled
+with the problem for years; indeed 50 years elapsed before an
+efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts was evolved for
+performing the function.</p>
+<p>The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the
+differential motion," and the difficulties in constructing its
+suitable gearing arose from the fact that the speed of the rove
+passing on to the various diameters must be maintained
+throughout, and must coincide with the delivery of yarn from the
+rollers, so that the attenuated but slightly twisted sliver can
+be wound on to the bobbin without strain or stretch. The varying
+motion is regulated and obtained by a drive, either from friction
+plates or from cones, and the whole gear is interesting,
+instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct motions, a
+constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the bobbins from
+the driving shaft of the machine.</p>
+<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and
+the whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of
+wheels to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that
+nearest the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently
+guarded, and provision is made to start or stop the machine from
+any position on both sides. The machine is adapted for building
+10 in. X 5 in. bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in.
+outside diameter, and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the
+illustration showing part of a machine and approximately 48
+spindles.</p>
+<p>The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the
+size of the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5
+in. frame, and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin
+are 10 in. apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of
+the builder would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the
+standard size for the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2
+in. bobbins are used for the roves from which finer yarns are
+spun. When the finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often
+termed spinning direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or
+thick yarns, 8 in. x 4 in. bobbins are largely used.</p>
+<p>Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size
+of rove so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of
+spinning and according to the count of the required yarn; the
+parts involved in these changes are those which affect the draft
+gearing, the twist gearing, and the builder gearing in
+conjunction with the automatic index wheel which acts on the
+whole of the regulating motion.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gSPIN" href="#SPINg">CHAPTER X. SPINNING</a></h2>
+<p>The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size
+of yarn required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process
+of spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be
+done before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The
+nomenclature is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times
+when the conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much
+simpler apparatus than it is at present; the established name to
+denote this conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of
+a large number of important processes, each one of which is as
+important and necessary as the actual operation of spinning.</p>
+<p>A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one
+of the Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly
+the wide "pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the
+method adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft.
+Spinning frames are usually double-sided, and each side may
+contain any practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per
+side are common numbers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._20"></a>
+<a href="images/f20.PNG"><img src="images/f20.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT</h3>
+<p>The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig.
+20, are brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs
+of a creel (often called a hake) near the top of the spinning
+frame-actually above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove
+bobbin is free to rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is
+drawn downwards by the retaining rollers. The final drafting of
+the material takes place in this frame, and a considerable amount
+of twist is imparted to the drawn out material; the latter, now
+in the desired form and size of yarn, is wound simultaneously on
+to a suitable size and form of spinning bobbin.</p>
+<p>When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed
+over a "breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of
+the conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor
+by means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the
+drawing rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out
+between the retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft
+required, and the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed
+in a slot of the "thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer,
+round one of the arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at
+the end of the flyer arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The
+latter is raised and lowered as in the roving frame by a builder
+motion, so that the yarn may be distributed over the full range
+between the ends or flanges.</p>
+<p>Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band
+which passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven
+whorl of the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the
+delivery of the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the
+operation of spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this
+connection, the parts resemble those in the roving frame, but
+from this point the functions of the two frames differ. The yarn
+has certainly to be wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as
+it is delivered from the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the
+spinning frame the bobbin, which rotates on the spindle, is not
+driven positively, as in the roving frame, by wheel gearing; each
+spinning bobbin is actually driven by the yarn being pulled round
+by the arm of the flyer and just sufficient resistance is offered
+by the pressure or tension of the "temper band" and weight. The
+temper band is simply a piece of leather or hemp twine to which
+is attached a weight, and the other end of the leather or twine
+is attached to the builder rail.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._21"></a>
+<a href="images/f21.PNG"><img src="images/f21.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES</h3>
+<p>The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves
+into one of which the temper-band is placed so that the band
+itself is in contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin
+flange. A varying amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin
+is required in virtue of the varying size of the partially-filled
+bobbin, and this is obtained by placing the temper-band
+successively in different groves in the builder so that it will
+embrace a gradually increasing arc of the spinning bobbin, and
+thus impart a heavier drag or tension.</p>
+<p>The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of
+the frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21
+are at right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of
+the chief parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen
+distinctly on the pegs of the creel in the upper part of the
+figure, and the rove yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as
+already described, until they ultimately enter the eyes of the
+flyer arms to be directed to and wound upon the spinning bobbins.
+The flyers--at one time termed throstles--are clearly visible a
+little above the row of temper weights. The chief parts for
+raising the builder--cam lever, adjustable rod, chain and
+wheel--are illustrated at the end of the frame nearest the
+observer.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gTWIS" href="#TWISg">CHAPTER XI. TWISTING AND
+REELING</a></h2>
+<p>In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the
+form they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On
+the other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving
+included, it is necessary to take two, three, or more of these
+single yarns and to combine them by a process technically termed
+twisting, and sometimes "doubling" when two single yarns only are
+combined.</p>
+<p>Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements
+go, is to twist two single yarns together to make a compound
+yarn, it is not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed,
+sixteen or more single yarns are often united for special
+purposes, but, when this number is exceeded, the operation comes
+under the heading of twines, ropes and the like. The twist or
+twine thus formed will have the number of yarns regulated by the
+levelness and strength required for the finished product. The
+same operation is conducted in the making of strands for cordage,
+but when a number of these twines are laid-up or twisted
+together, the name cord or rope is used to distinguish
+them.[1]</p>
+<p>[Footnote 1: See <i>Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres</i>,
+by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]</p>
+<p>When two or three threads are united by twisting, the
+operation can be conducted in a twisting frame which differs
+little from a ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be
+described. There may be, however, appliances embodying some
+system of automatic stop motion to bring the individual spindles
+to rest if one thread out of any group which are being combined
+happens to break. When several threads have to be twisted
+together, special types of twisting frames are employed; these
+special machines are termed "tube twisters," and the individual
+threads pass through holes suitably placed in a plate or disc
+before they reach the tube.</p>
+<p>More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are
+occasionally adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the
+above-mentioned work on Cordage and similar literature for
+detailed information.</p>
+<p>When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting
+frame, it is made up according to requirements, and the general
+operations which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling,
+cop-winding, roll or spool winding, mill warping or link warping.
+The type or class of yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to
+be used, or the equipment of the manufacturer, determines which
+of these methods should be used previous to despatching the
+yarn.</p>
+<p><b>Reeling</b>. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation,
+consisting solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or
+twisting bobbins on to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width
+and of a fixed diameter, or rather circumference. Indeed, the
+circumference of the reel was fixed by an Act of Convention of
+Estates, dating as far back as 1665 and as under:</p>
+<p><em>"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of
+confiscation, half to the King and half to the
+attacher."</em></p>
+<p><em>"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be
+shorter than <b>ten quarters</b>."</em></p>
+<p>The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All
+such yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated
+must be reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the
+threads which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems
+of dyeing and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but
+these are not employed much in the jute industry. Large
+quantities of jute yarns intended for export are reeled, partly
+because bundles form suitable bales for transport, and partly
+because of the varied operations and sizes of apparatus which
+obtain in foreign countries.</p>
+<pre>
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+<br/>
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference
+                                         of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+</pre>
+<p>Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very
+finest yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn
+is made up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick,
+even 6 cuts are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of
+4 cuts, 3 cuts, 2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any
+group less than 12 cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used
+is simply one of convenience to enable the mill-hank to be
+satisfactorily placed on the swift in the winding frame.</p>
+<p>The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to
+measure the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling,
+or forming the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as
+the method of designating the count, grist or number of the yarn.
+We have already seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by
+the weight in lbs. of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).</p>
+<p>For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the
+same count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins
+on the reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins
+is wound round, say,</p>
+<p>6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or
+120 threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24
+separate cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been
+reeled as mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the
+cuts are complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band"
+is tied round each group of 120 threads.</p>
+<p>A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may
+be in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and
+this movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to
+accommodate the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.</p>
+<p>Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell
+rings, the reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that
+when the mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be
+distinct. In some case, the two threads of the lease-band instead
+of being tied, are simply crossed and recrossed at each cut,
+without of course breaking the yarn which is being reeled,
+although effectively separating the cuts. At the end of the
+operation (when the quantity of cuts for the mill-hank has been
+reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.</p>
+<p>The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation
+of winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with
+approximate correctness.</p>
+<p>When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut
+hanks, there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel.
+The 24 mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and
+the hanks taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along
+with others of the same count, are made up into bundles which
+weigh from 54 lb. to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn.
+Each bundle contains a number of complete hanks, and it is
+unusual to split a hank for the purpose of maintaining an
+absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed, the bundles contain an
+even number of hanks, so that while there would be exactly 56 lb.
+per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn, there would be 60 lb in
+a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb. in a bundle of 9 lb.
+yarn.</p>
+<p>The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct
+number of threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct
+tell"; this ideal condition may be impracticable in actual work,
+but it is wise to approach it as closely as possible. Careless
+workers allow the reel to run on after one or more spinning
+bobbins are empty, and this yields what is known as "short tell."
+It is not uncommon to introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or
+124 teeth, instead of the nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for
+this defect in reeling.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gWIND" href="#WINDg">CHAPTER XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND
+COPS</a></h2>
+<p>The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus
+completed, the yarns are ready to be combined either for more
+elaborate types of twist, or for the processes of cloth
+manufacture. In its simplest definition, a fabric consists of two
+series of threads interlaced in such way as to form a more or
+less solid and compact structure. The two series of threads which
+are interlaced receive the technical terms of warp and weft--in
+poetical language, warp and woof. The threads which form the
+length of the cloth constitute the warp, while the transverse
+threads are the weft.</p>
+<p>The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to
+a large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has
+to be prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two
+distinct conditions necessitate two general types of winding:</p>
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp
+yarns.</p>
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.</p>
+<p>For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from
+the spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain
+from 7 to 8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning
+bobbin into cops which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.</p>
+<p>Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged
+bobbins very similar to, but larger than, those which are at
+present used for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding
+machine marked a great advance in the method of winding warp
+yarns as compared with the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the
+jute trade, the latter are used only for winding from hank those
+yarns which have been bleached, dyed or similarly treated. Fig.
+22 illustrates one of the modern bobbin winding machines for jute
+made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Dundee. The
+finished product is illustrated by two full bobbins on the stand
+and close to a single empty bobbin. There are also two full
+bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of yarn on the
+swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and since
+the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the bobbin,
+an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout the
+process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the
+bobbin is filled as exemplified in the illustration.</p>
+<p>The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously,
+a fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths
+and any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb.
+of yarn, a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7
+to 8 lb. Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in.
+diameter; hence for 8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400
+yards.</p>
+<p>Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special
+machines adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It
+is built specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of
+15 in. diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is
+used mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll
+only is shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material
+from a 10 in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by
+surface or frictional contact between the roll itself and a
+rapidly rotating drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side
+to side by means of the grooved cam on the left, the upright
+lever fulcrumed near the floor, and the horizontal rod which
+passes in front of the rolls and upon which are fixed the actual
+yarn guides. This rapid traverse, combined with the rotation of
+the rolls, enables the yarn to be securely built upon a paper or
+wooden tube; no flanges are required, and hence the initial cost
+as well as the upkeep of the foundations for rolls is much below
+that for bobbins.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._22"></a>
+<a href="images/f22.PNG"><img src="images/f22.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS</h3>
+<p>Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the
+ordinary 9 in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and
+dressing departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn
+on spinning bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided,
+each side having two tiers; a common number of spools for one
+machine is 80.</p>
+<p>The double tier on each side is practicable because of the
+small space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however,
+rolls are wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as
+practised in several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one
+row only at each side is possible. Both types are made by each
+machine maker, the one illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product
+of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Dundee.</p>
+<p>In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed
+it looks highly probable that the use of these articles will
+still further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle
+form.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._23"></a>
+<a href="images/f23.PNG"><img src="images/f23.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other
+makers, is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different
+sizes of rolls, can be run at a high speed, and possesses
+automatic stop motions, one for each roll.</p>
+<p>A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A
+recent improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an
+automatic stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is
+exhausted, has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour
+frame.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._24"></a>
+<a href="images/f24.PNG"><img src="images/f24.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the
+spinning bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority
+of manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The
+cops are almost invariably wound direct from the spinning
+bobbins, the exception being coloured yarn which is wound from
+hank. There are different types of machines used for cop winding,
+but in every case the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the
+yarn guide has a rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known
+cross-wind so necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition
+of the cops in the winding operation is vertical, but while in
+some machines the tapered nose of the cop is in the high position
+and the spinning bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in
+the low position, in other machines these conditions are
+opposite. Thus, in the cop winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas
+Fraser &amp; Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, and illustrated in Fig. 25,
+the spinning bobbins are below the cops, the tapered noses of the
+latter are upwards in their cones or shapers, and the yarn guides
+are near the top of the machine. This view shows about
+three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the
+above-mentioned opposite type, and the one most generally
+adopted, with the spinning bobbins as shown near the top of the
+frame, the yarn guides in the low position, and the point or
+tapered nose of the cop pointing downwards. Six spindles only
+appear in this view, which represents the machine made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, but it will be
+understood that all machines are made as long as desired within
+practicable and economic limits.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._25"></a>
+<a href="images/f25.PNG"><img src="images/f25.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser &amp; Sons,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly
+in Fig. 26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main
+shaft, while the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their
+respective spindles. The upper face of each small skew bevel
+wheel forms one part of a clutch; the other part of the clutch is
+slidably mounted on the spindle. When the two parts of the clutch
+are separated, as they are when the yarn breaks or runs slack,
+when it is exhausted, or when the cop reaches a predetermined
+length, the spindle stops; but when the two parts of the clutch
+are in contact, the small skew bevel wheel drives the clutch, the
+latter rotates the spindle, and the spindle in turn draws forward
+the yarn from the bobbin, and in conjunction with the rapidly
+moving yarn guide and the inner surface of the cone imparts in
+rapid succession new layers on the nose of the cop, and thus the
+formed layers of the latter increase the length proportionately
+to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the partially completed cop
+moves slowly away from its cup or cone until the desired length
+is obtained when the spindle is automatically stopped and the
+winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may be made of
+any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for jute
+shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the angle
+formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30
+degrees.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._26"></a>
+<a href="images/f26.PNG"><img src="images/f26.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 26 COP WINDING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 26 COP WINDING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gWARP" href="#WARPg">CHAPTER XIII. WARPING, BEAMING
+AND DRESSING</a></h2>
+<p>There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on
+the weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a
+warping mill,</p>
+<p class="i6">and when the completed chain is removed from the
+mill it is</p>
+<p class="i6">transferred on to the weaver's beam.</p>
+</div>
+<br/>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a
+linking</p>
+<p class="i6">machine, and then beamed on to a weaver's beam.</p>
+</div>
+<br/>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from
+the large</p>
+<p class="i6">cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's
+beam.</p>
+</div>
+<br/>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and
+beamed</p>
+<p class="i6">simultaneously on to a weaver's beam.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order
+mentioned.</p>
+<p>For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full
+spinning bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated
+to the right of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The
+ends of the threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes
+of two leaves of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The
+heck, or apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's
+lease, drawer's lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown
+clearly between the bobbin bank and the female warper in the
+foreground of the illustration. The heck is suspended by means of
+cords, or chains, and so ranged that when the warping mill is
+rotated in one direction the heck is lowered gradually between
+suitable slides, while when the mill is rotated in the opposite
+direction the heck is raised gradually between the same slides.
+These movements are necessary in order that the threads from the
+bobbins may be arranged spirally round the mill and as
+illustrated clearly on all the mills in the figure. The
+particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing if
+chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about 42
+spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length
+of the warp.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._27"></a>
+<a href="images/f27.PNG"><img src="images/f27.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILL" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS</h3>
+<p>At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the
+weaver's lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of
+the mill with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is
+rotated by means of the handle and its connections shown near the
+bottom of the mill. As the mill rotates, the heck with the
+threads descends gradually and thus the group of threads is
+disposed spirally on the vertical spokes of the mill until the
+desired length of the warp is reached. A beamer's lease or "pin
+lease" is now made on the two lower pegs; there may be two,
+three, four or more threads in each group of the pin lease; a
+common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been formed, one
+section of the warp has been made, the proportion finished being
+(50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads required for
+the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on the same
+two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next section of
+50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite direction
+in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second group of 50
+to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch with the
+threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of the
+mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has
+been introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to
+accommodate all the threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp
+is made in two or more parts or chains. It will be noticed that
+the heck for the nearest mill is opposite about the 12th round of
+threads from the bobbin, whereas the heck for the second mill is
+about the same distance from the top. A completed warp or chain
+is being bundled up opposite the third mill. When the warp is
+completed it is pulled off the mill and simultaneously linked
+into a chain.</p>
+<p>A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and
+often better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in
+No. 2 method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the
+full equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of
+apparatus--a bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a
+frame for forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease,
+machine for drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and
+for measuring the length and marking the warp at predetermined
+intervals, and finally the actual machine which links the group
+of threads in the form of a chain.</p>
+<p>In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools,
+is shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from
+the two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine
+or frame immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds
+of lease are made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the
+end of the warp. Between this leasing frame and the linking
+machine proper, shown in the foreground, is the drawing,
+measuring and marking machine. Only part of this machine is
+seen--the driving pulleys and part of the frame adjoining them.
+All these frames and machines are necessary, but the movements
+embodied in them, or the functions which they perform, are really
+subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the foreground of Fig.
+28.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._28"></a>
+<a href="images/f28.PNG"><img src="images/f28.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" IG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE</h3>
+<p>Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts,
+it is a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these
+parts convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a
+linked chain, and the latter is shown distinctly descending from
+the chute on to the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind
+of link is made by the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in
+Fig. 27 are being withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains
+are shown tied up in Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools
+appear against the wall near the bank.</p>
+<p>The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking
+machine is now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads,
+or rather the small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been
+disposed in a kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or
+radial, and arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer,
+they are attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The
+chain is held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the
+beam while the latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact
+beam of yarn is obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes
+on to the beam last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the
+completed beam is removed from the beaming or winding-on frame,
+this single-thread lease enables the next operative to select the
+threads individually and to draw the threads, usually single, but
+sometimes in pairs, in which case the lease would be in pairs,
+through the eyes of the camas or HEALDS, or to select them for
+the purpose of tying them to the ends of the warp in the loom,
+that is to the "thrum" of a cloth which has been completed.</p>
+<p>Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill,
+or on the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the
+weaver's beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise
+distinct processes of warping and beaming may be conducted
+simultaneously. Thus, the total number of threads required for
+the manufacture of any particular kind of cloth--unless the
+number of threads happens to be very high--may be wound on to the
+loom beam direct from the spools. Say, for example, a warp was
+required to be 600 yards long, and that there should be 500
+threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn would be placed
+in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads from these
+spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the splits or
+openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position in
+regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple,
+while others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam
+rotates at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in
+others the beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of
+revolutions per minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig.
+29, and the mechanism displayed is identical with that employed
+for No. 4 method of preparing warps.</p>
+<p>The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our
+example) would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig.
+29. The threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight
+wide sheet between the pair of rollers, these parts being
+contained in the supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame
+appears on the extreme right of the figure, and this would be
+used in conjunction with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but
+which would occupy a position further to the right, i.e. if one
+bank was not large enough to hold the required number of spools.
+The part on the extreme right can be ignored at present.</p>
+<p>The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated
+in Fig. 28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in
+Fig. 29, and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken
+across the stretch between the supplementary frame and the main
+central frame, and attached to the weavers beam just below the
+pressing rollers. It may be advisable to have another reed just
+before the beam, so that the width occupied by the threads in the
+beam may be exactly the same as the width between the two flanges
+of the loom beam.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._29"></a>
+<a href="images/f29.PNG"><img src="images/f29.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of
+the two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller
+being positively driven from the central part through the long
+horizontal shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The
+loom beam, which is seen clearly immediately below the pressing
+rollers, is driven by friction because the surface speed of the
+yarn must be constant; hence, as the diameter over the yarn on
+the beam increases, the revolutions per minute of the beam must
+decrease, and a varying amount of slip takes place between the
+friction-discs and their flannels.</p>
+<p>As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers
+between the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would
+be arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in.,
+and bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter
+is thus, to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon
+which 500 threads are wound at the same time, instead of one
+thread as in the ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be
+understood that in the latter case the same thread moves from
+side to side in order to bridge the gap, whereas in the former
+case each thread maintains a fixed position in the width.</p>
+<p>The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4
+method, for the weaver is that where, in addition to the
+simultaneous processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in
+the last example, all the threads are coated with some suitable
+kind of starch or size immediately they reach the two rollers
+shown in the supplementary frame in Fig. 29. The moistened
+threads must, however, be dried before they reach the loom beam.
+When a warp is starched, dried and beamed simultaneously, it is
+said to be "dressed."</p>
+<p>In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in
+Fig. 30, there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched
+yarns before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or
+rather part of both, can be seen in this view, from which some
+idea will be formed of the great length occupied. Several of the
+threads from the spools in the left bank are seen converging
+towards the back reed, then they pass between the two
+rollers--the bottom one of which is partially immersed in the
+starch trough--and forward to the second reed. After the sheet of
+threads leaves the second reed, it passes partially round a small
+guide roller, then almost wholly round each of three cylinders
+arranged &deg;o&deg;, and finally on to the loom beam. Each
+cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a position
+between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame in
+Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.</p>
+<p>The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter,
+depend somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the
+speed which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._30"></a>
+<a href="images/f30.PNG"><img src="images/f30.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED
+CYLINDERS</h3>
+<p>A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in
+Fig. 31. This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs.
+Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Dundee, has been introduced to
+show that if the warps under preparation contain a comparatively
+few threads, or if the banks are made larger than usual, two
+warps may be dressed at the same time. In such a case, three
+cylinders only would be used for each warp, and the arrangement
+would be equivalent to two single dressing machines. The two
+weaver's beams, with their pressing rollers, are shown plainly in
+the centre of the illustration. Some machines have four
+cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight. A very
+similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks,
+and all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns
+may be wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if
+the number of threads is too many for one bank.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._31"></a>
+<a href="images/f31.PNG"><img src="images/f31.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of
+500, as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in
+each of the two banks, the threads disposed as already described
+to use as much of the heating surface of the cylinder as
+possible, and one sheet of threads passed partially round what is
+known as a measuring roller. Both sheets of threads unite into
+one sheet at the centre of the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in
+this form on to one of the loom beams.</p>
+<p>It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch
+box is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central
+part of the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig.
+30, is a pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a
+flannel type. Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads
+passes, becomes impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by
+the surface of the lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is
+squeezed out and returns to the trough, or joins that which is
+already moving upwards towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn
+emerges from the rollers and over the cylinders at a constant
+speed, which may be chosen to suit existing conditions, and it
+must also be wound on to the loom beam at the same rate. But
+since the diameter of the beam increases each revolution by
+approximately twice the diameter of the thread, it is necessary
+to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.</p>
+<p>The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive
+the beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A
+certain amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is
+designed for this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted
+by the yarn dresser during the operation of dressing to enable
+them to draw forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal
+sections, so that the yarn is drawn forward continuously and at
+uniform speed.</p>
+<p>During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent
+train of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has
+passed over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired
+length; in addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism
+uses an ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such
+mark to act as a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length
+of warp which has been woven. Thus if the above warp were
+intended to be five cuts, each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all,
+the above apparatus would measure and indicate the yards and
+cuts, and would introduce a mark at intervals of 120 yards on
+some of the threads. And all this is done without stopping the
+machine. At the time of marking, or immediately before or after,
+just as desired, a bell is made to ring automatically so that the
+attendant is warned when the mark on the warp is about to
+approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig. 29, near the
+right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.</p>
+<p>As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is
+made at the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is
+known as a pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of
+warp threads.</p>
+<p>After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed
+from the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes
+or mails of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other
+districts) and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to
+the ends of the threads of the previous warp which, with the
+weft, has been woven into cloth. These latter threads are still
+intact in the cambs and reed in the loom.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gTYIN" href="#TYINg">CHAPTER XIV. TYING-ON,
+DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING</a></h2>
+<p>If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to
+the ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary,
+when the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam
+slowly, and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all
+the knots have passed through the cambs and the reed, and
+sufficiently far forward to be clear of the latter when it
+approaches its full forward, or beating up, position during the
+operation of weaving.</p>
+<p>If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these
+operations would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding
+department, and, when completed, the loom beam with its attached
+warp threads, cambs and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom
+where the "tenter," "tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts
+preparatory to the actual operation of weaving. The latter work
+is often termed "gaiting a web."</p>
+<p>There is a great similarity in many of the operations of
+weaving the simpler types of cloth, although there may be a
+considerable difference in the appearance of the cloths
+themselves. In nearly all the various branches of the textile
+industry the bulk of the work in the weaving departments of such
+branches consists of the manufacture of comparatively simple
+fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there are four distinct
+types of cloth which predominate over all others; these types are
+known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling and sacking.
+In addition to these main types, there are several other simple
+types the structure of which is identical with one or other of
+the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate types
+of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of carpets
+and the like.</p>
+<p>It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a
+work of this kind; the commoner types are described in <i>Jute
+and Linen Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics</i>; and
+the more elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones,
+appear in <i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>, both by T.
+Woodhouse and T. Milne.</p>
+<p>Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32.
+The technical characteristics of each are as follows--</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._32"></a>
+<a href="images/f32.PNG"><img src="images/f32.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS</h3>
+<p>H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine
+single warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the
+simplest order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is
+made from the scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely
+woven than that illustrated.</p>
+<p>B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp
+arranged in pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is
+thick, and the weave is also plain.</p>
+<p>T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in
+bagging, although there is a much wider range in the thickness of
+the weft. It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but
+otherwise the structures are identical.</p>
+<p>S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp
+yarns, usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single,
+with medium or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill
+order. The weaves are shown in Fig. 33.</p>
+<p>C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply
+or two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft
+yarns. The threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down
+twill, directed to right and then to left, and thus forming a
+herring-bone pattern, or arrow-head pattern.</p>
+<p>P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring
+warp is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an
+indefinite pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp
+and weft. The weave is again plain, although the structure of the
+fabric is quite different from the other plain cloths
+illustrated. The cloth is reversible, the two sides being similar
+structure but differing slightly in colour ornamentation.</p>
+<p>As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H,
+B, T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one
+group is constant and as stated.</p>
+<p>All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner
+in Fig. 33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves
+and the yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33,
+the unit weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid
+squares, while the repetitions of the units in each case are
+represented by the dots.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._33"></a>
+<a href="images/f33.PNG"><img src="images/f33.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS
+CLOTHS</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._34"></a>
+<a href="images/f34.PNG"><img src="images/f34.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" IG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH</h3>
+<p>A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H
+and P, Fig. 32.</p>
+<p>B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the
+method of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When
+the warp is made double as indicated in weave <i>B</i>, the
+effect in the cloth can be produced by using the mechanical
+arrangements employed for weave <i>A</i>. Hence, the cloths
+<i>H</i>, <i>B</i> and <i>T</i> can be woven without any
+mechanical alteration in the loom.</p>
+<p><i>C</i> is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4
+units; since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists
+of two identical single rows, they may be represented as at
+<i>D</i>. The actual structure of the cloth <i>S</i> in Fig. 32
+is represented on design paper at <i>C</i>, Fig. 33.</p>
+<p><i>D</i> is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units
+shown, but the mechanical parts for weaving both <i>C</i> and
+<i>D</i> remain constant.</p>
+<p><i>E</i> is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown,
+while</p>
+<p><i>F</i> is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.</p>
+<p>The patterns or cloths for <i>E</i> and <i>F</i> are not
+illustrated.</p>
+<p><i>G</i> is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks,
+two units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at
+<i>C</i>, Fig. 32, and involves the use of 4 leaves in the
+loom.</p>
+<p>The solid squares in weave <i>A</i>, Fig. 33, are reproduced
+in the left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of
+a plain cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is
+exhibited in the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and
+four black picks of weft (the difference is for distinction
+only). The left-hand intersection shows one thread interweaving
+with all the four picks, while the bottom intersection shows all
+the four threads interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from
+the weave or design to the thread and pick respectively show the
+connection, and it will be seen that a mark (solid) on the design
+represents a warp thread on the surface of the cloth, while a
+blank square represents a weft shot on the surface, and <i>vice
+versa</i>.</p>
+<p>A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven
+by belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The
+loom in the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to
+that illustrated at <i>S</i>, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a
+full weaver's warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in
+Fig. 35. There are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving
+shed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._35"></a>
+<a href="images/f35.PNG"><img src="images/f35.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS</h3>
+<p>During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is
+placed a cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine
+in Fig. 25, and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye
+of the shuttle, is driven alternately from side to side of the
+cloth through the opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the
+warp. The positions of the threads in these two layers are
+represented by the designs, see Fig. 33, and while one layer
+occupies a high position in the loom the other layer occupies a
+low position. The threads of the warp are placed in these two
+positions by the leaves of the camb (termed healds and also gears
+in other districts) and it is between these two layers that the
+shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each time it makes a
+journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft each
+journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels moves
+back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus
+pushes successively the shots of weft into close proximity with
+the ones which preceded.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._36"></a>
+<a href="images/f36.PNG"><img src="images/f36.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS<br/>
+<i>By permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd.</i></h3>
+<p>The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp
+is, as already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig.
+33, and the selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the
+pattern on the surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns
+are of the same colour. A great diversity of pattern can be
+obtained by the method of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a
+still greater variety of pattern is possible when
+differently-coloured threads are added to the mode of
+interlacing.</p>
+<p>To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a
+weaving shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from
+overhead shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which
+all the looms are individually driven by small motors made by the
+English Electric Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular
+illustration shows cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same
+principle of driving is being adopted in many jute factories.</p>
+<p>A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4
+leaves are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom,
+of the nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine
+is made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee.
+The dobby itself, or the apparatus which lifts the leaves
+according to the requirements of the design, is fixed on the
+upper part of the frame-work, and is designed to control 12
+leaves, that is, it operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts
+differently from the others.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._37"></a>
+<a href="images/f37.PNG"><img src="images/f37.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp;
+Co</i>.</h3>
+<p>A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made
+from jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at
+the back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton
+carpet) and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through
+the reed. The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended
+in the cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate
+on the needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of
+yarn which e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth
+t correspond with the colour effect on the design paper made by
+the designer. This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton
+fabrics, and these cloths are quite different from that
+illustrated at <i>P</i>, Fig. 32. In both fabrics, however,
+ground or foundation warps are required. It need hardly be said
+that there is a considerable difference between the two types of
+cloth, as well as between the designs and the looms in which they
+are woven.[2]</p>
+<p>[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, <i>see</i> pp. 394-114,
+<i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>, by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.]</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._38"></a>
+<a href="images/f38.PNG"><img src="images/f38.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM</h3>
+<p>In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be
+placed in the looms, and in the finishing department there are
+often heavy rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to
+the despatch room. Accidents often happen when these heavy
+packages, especially the warp beams, are being placed in
+position. In order to minimize the danger to workpeople and to
+execute the work more quickly and with fewer hands, some firms
+have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with suitable Lifting
+Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from the dressing
+and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and then lowered
+quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of transport are
+exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to each other
+and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are valuable for
+all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct from the
+looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the old
+wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place to
+place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._39"></a>
+<a href="images/f39.PNG"><img src="images/f39.PNG"
+width="40%" alt=" FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._40"></a>
+<a href="images/f40.PNG"><img src="images/f40.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="gFINI" href="#FINIg">CHAPTER XV. FINISHING</a></h2>
+<p>The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter
+leaves the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the
+cloth, removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as
+repairing any damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth
+is passed through a cropping machine the function of which is to
+remove all projecting fibres from the surface of the cloth, and
+so impart a clean, smart appearance. It is usual to crop both
+sides of the cloth, although there are some cloths which require
+only one side to be treated, while others again miss this
+operation entirely.</p>
+<p>A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and
+in this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or
+cut at the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which
+have been woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in
+Fig. 38. The fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton
+carpets. The illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the
+upper part of the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually
+with either two or four of such spirals with their corresponding
+fixed blades.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._41"></a>
+<a href="images/f41.PNG"><img src="images/f41.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK</h3>
+<p>The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially
+adjustable arrangement by means of which the tension may be
+varied by rotating slightly the two rails so as to alter the
+angle formed by the cloth in contact with them. This is, of
+course, at the feed side; the cloth is pulled through the machine
+by three rollers shown distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This
+view illustrates a double cropper in which both the spirals are
+controlled by one belt. As the cloth is pulled through, both
+sides of it are cropped by the two spirals.[3] When four spirals
+are required, the frame is much wider, and the second set of
+spirals is identical with those in the machines illustrated.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._42"></a>
+<a href="images/f42.PNG"><img src="images/f42.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing
+processes, see <i>The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics</i>, by
+T. Woodhouse. (Published by Messrs. Emmott &amp; Co., Ltd.,
+Manchester.)]</p>
+<p>The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and
+placed on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in
+Fig. 43, which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons &amp;, Co., Dundee. The cloth is passed below a
+roller near to the floor, then upwards and over the middle
+roller, backwards to be passed under and over the roller on the
+left, and then forwards to the nip of the pulling rollers, the
+bottom one of which is driven positively by means of a belt on
+the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled rapidly through this
+machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on to the two sides
+of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes in which
+heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process. At
+other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating
+in a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of
+the fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The
+damped fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to
+condition, that is, to enable the moisture to spread, and then it
+is taken to the calender.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._43"></a>
+<a href="images/f43.PNG"><img src="images/f43.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five
+different rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of
+these bowls, the smallest diameter one, is often heated with
+steam. A five-bowl calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig.
+41, and in the background, while a complete illustration of a
+modern 5-bowl calender, with full equipment, and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, appears in Fig.
+44.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._44"></a>
+<a href="images/f44.PNG"><img src="images/f44.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 44 CALENDAR" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 44 CALENDAR</h3>
+<p>The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct
+parts of the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near
+the bottom roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of
+the bowls according to the type of finish desired. For calender
+finish, the bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads
+and picks, so that all the interstices which appear in most
+cloths as they leave the loom, and which are exaggerated in the
+plan view in Fig. 34, are eliminated by this calendering action.
+The cloth is then delivered at the far side of the machine in
+Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface speed of the middle or
+steam-heated roller may differ from the others so that a glazed
+effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by ordinary ironing--is
+imparted to the surface of the fabric. The faster moving roller
+is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender finish, the
+surface speed of all the rollers is the same.</p>
+<p>Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest
+finish" or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length
+of cloth is wound either on to the top roller, or the second top
+one, Fig. 44, and while there is subjected to the degree of
+pressure required; the amount of pressure can be regulated by the
+number of weights and the way in which the tension belt is
+attached to its pulley. The two sets of weights are seen clearly
+on the left in Fig. 44, and these act on the long horizontal
+levers, usually to add pressure to the dead weight of the top
+roller, but occasionally, for very light finishes, to decrease
+the effective weight of the top bowl. After the cloth has been
+chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it is stripped from
+the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with its belt pulley
+in Fig. 41.</p>
+<p>There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44;
+one is driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt.
+Provision is thus made for driving the calender in both
+directions. The pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both
+of which are inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in
+the figure. Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the
+handle to a oblique position.</p>
+<p>The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top
+bowl, and the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the
+necessary pressure, and this pressure may be varied according to
+the number of small weights used. The heaviest finish on the
+calender, i.e. the chest-finish on the second top roller,
+imitates more or less the "mangle finish."</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._45"></a>
+<a href="images/f45.PNG"><img src="images/f45.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE.<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.,
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by
+Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated
+in Fig. 45. The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the
+front on to what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick
+iron bowl; when the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved
+between two huge rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four
+narrow pieces are shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the
+two rollers. There are other four narrow pieces, already beamed
+on another pin, in the beaming position, and there is still
+another pin at the delivery side with a similar number of cloths
+ready for being stripped. The three pins are arranged thus
+o&deg;o, and since all three are moved simultaneously, when the
+mangling operation is finished, each roller or pin is moved
+through 120&deg;. Thus, the stripped pin will be placed in the
+beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the mangling
+position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.</p>
+<p>While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers
+move first in one direction and then in the other direction, and
+this change of direction is accomplished automatically by
+mechanism situated between the accumulator and the
+helical-toothed gearing seen at the far end of the mangle. And
+while this mangling is taking place, the operatives are beaming a
+fresh set, while the previously mangles pieces are being stripped
+by the plaiting-down apparatus which deposits the cloth in folds.
+This operation is also known as "cuttling" or "faking." It will
+be, understood that a wide mangle, such as that illustrated in
+Fig. 45. is constructed specially for treating wide fabrics, and
+narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply because circumstances and
+change of trade from time to time demand it.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._46"></a>
+<a href="images/f46.PNG"><img src="images/f46.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the
+manipulation of this and the number of wide weights which are
+ingeniously brought into action to act on the plunger determine
+the pressure which is applied to the fabrics between the bowls or
+rollers.</p>
+<p>Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through
+a measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers
+on the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one
+circle of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20,
+30, up to 100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually
+one yard in circumference.</p>
+<p>If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the
+backing or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a
+wooden centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender,
+measured as well, and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction
+drive somewhat similar to that mentioned in connection with the
+dressing machine. Cloths for this purpose are often made up to
+600 yards in length; indeed, special looms, with winding
+appliances, have been constructed to weave cloths up to 2,000
+yards in length. Special dressing machines and loom beams have to
+be made for the latter kind. When the linoleum backing is
+finished at the calender, both cloth and centre are forwarded
+direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are returned
+periodically.</p>
+<p>Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of
+a simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar
+cloth, and several types of cloths of much wider width, are
+lapped or folded by special machines such as that illustrated in
+Fig. 46. The cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by
+the discs shown, to the upper part of the carrier where it passes
+between the two bars. As the carrier is oscillated from side to
+side (it is the right hand side in the illustration) the cloth is
+piled neatly in folds on the convex table. The carriers may be
+adjusted to move through different distances, so that any width
+or length of fold, between limits, may be made.</p>
+<p>Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine,
+but some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise,
+and this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases,
+however, the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute
+fabrics. Thus, Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for
+this purpose, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Ca.,
+Ltd., Dundee. The full-width cloth on the right has obviously two
+prominent stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth
+passes upwards obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth
+reaches the apex it is doubled and passed between two bars also
+set obliquely on the left. The doubled piece now passes between a
+pair of positively driven drawing rollers, and is then "faked,"
+"cuttled," or pleated as indicated. The machine thus
+automatically, doubles the piece, and delivers it as exemplified
+in folds of half width. In other industries, this operation is
+termed creasing and, rigging. Some of the later types of crisping
+or creasing machines double the cloth lengthwise as illustrated
+in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at the same time instead of
+delivering it in loose folds.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._47"></a>
+<a href="images/f47.PNG"><img src="images/f47.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i>.</h3>
+<p>If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for
+the making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags
+are made annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either
+by hand, semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the
+lengths are sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in
+various ways according to requirements.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._48"></a>
+<a href="images/f48.PNG"><img src="images/f48.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co.
+Ltd</i></h3>
+<p>Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for
+this purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay &amp; Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine
+different cloths are arranged in frames behind the cutting
+machine, and the ends of these cloths passed between the
+horizontal bars at the back of the machine. They are then led
+between the rollers, under the cutting knife, and on to the
+table. The length of cloth is measured as it passes between the
+rollers, and different change pinions are supplied so that
+practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine lengths are thus
+passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and when the
+required length has been delivered, the operative inserts the
+knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and
+table. He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a
+further length is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means
+are provided for registering the number passed through; from
+36,000 yards to 40,000 yards can be treated per day.</p>
+<p>The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first
+four in Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the
+sewing is usually done by quick-running small machines, such as
+the Yankee or Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing
+more than 2,000 bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth,
+such as sacking, <i>S</i>, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost
+invariably done by the Laing or overhead sewing machine, the
+general type of which is illustrated in Fig. 49, and made by Mr.
+D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works, Dundee. This is an
+absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000 bags can be sewn
+in one day.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._49"></a>
+<a href="images/f49.PNG"><img src="images/f49.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE" />
+</a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald</i></h3>
+<p>The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take
+the form of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as
+illustrated at <i>S</i>, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a
+considerable variety can be made by altering the number of the
+stripes, their position, and their width, while if different
+coloured threads appear in the same cloth, the variety is still
+further increased.</p>
+<p>Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks,
+and other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these
+cases, the necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise
+completed bag by a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or
+circular roller type. The latter type, which is most largely
+used, is illustrated in Fig. 50. It is termed a two-colour
+machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, Dundee; it will be
+observed that there are two rollers for the two distinct colours,
+say red and black. Occasionally three and four-colour machines
+are used, but the one-colour type is probably the most
+common.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+<a name="FIG._50"></a>
+<a href="images/f50.PNG"><img src="images/f50.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="FIG. 50 SACK PRINTING MACHINE" /></a><br/>
+</p>
+<h3>FIG. 50 SACK PRINTING MACHINE<br/>
+<i>By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald</i>.</h3>
+<p>The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one
+of the many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires
+to number their bags consecutively in order to provide a record
+of their stock, or for any other purpose, the bags may be so
+numbered by means of a special numbering machine, also made by
+Mr. D. J. Macdonald.</p>
+<p>The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the
+goods, is that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by
+means of a hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower
+moving table upon a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth;
+when the requisite quantity has been placed thereon, the top and
+side wrappers are placed in position, and the pumps started in
+order to raise the bottom table and to squeeze the content
+between it and the top fixed table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per
+square inch is applied according to the nature of the goods and
+their destination. While the goods are thus held securely in
+position between the two plates, the wrappers a sewn together.
+Then specially prepared hoops or metal bands are placed round the
+bale, and an ingenious and simple system, involving a buckle and
+two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The ends of the hoop or
+band are bent in a small press, and these bent ends are passed
+through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the pins inserted in
+the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is removed, the bale
+expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the bale
+securely.</p>
+<p>Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the
+fibre, the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and
+then into cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the
+function of the world's common carrier.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<ul>
+<li><a name="gINDE" href="#INDEg">INDEX</a></li>
+<li class="i2"><br/>
+</li>
+<li>ACCUMULATOR</li>
+<li>Assorting jute fibre.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>BAG-MAKING</li>
+<li>Bale opener</li>
+<li class="i4">opening</li>
+<li>Baling cloth</li>
+<li class="i4">house</li>
+<li class="i4">press</li>
+<li class="i4">station</li>
+<li>Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)</li>
+<li>Batch</li>
+<li>Batchers</li>
+<li>Batching</li>
+<li class="i4">apparatus</li>
+<li class="i4">carts or stalls</li>
+<li>Batch-ticket</li>
+<li>Beamer's lease</li>
+<li>Beaming</li>
+<li class="i4">(dry) direct from bank,</li>
+<li>Blending</li>
+<li>Bobbin winding</li>
+<li>Bojah</li>
+<li>Botanical features of jute plants</li>
+<li>Breaker card</li>
+<li>Brussels carpet</li>
+<li>Bundle of jute.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into</li>
+<li>Calender</li>
+<li class="i4">finish</li>
+<li>Calenderoy</li>
+<li>Carding</li>
+<li>Card waste</li>
+<li>Cargoes of jute</li>
+<li>Chest finish</li>
+<li>Clasp-rods</li>
+<li>Conditioning fibre</li>
+<li>Cops</li>
+<li>Cop winding</li>
+<li>Corchorus capsularis</li>
+<li class="i4">clitorius</li>
+<li>Crisping and crisping machines</li>
+<li>Cropping machine</li>
+<li>Cultivation of jute</li>
+<li>Cutting knife for jute fibre</li>
+<li>Cuttings.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>DAMPING machine</li>
+<li>Defects in fibre and in handling</li>
+<li>Designs or weaves</li>
+<li>Differential motion</li>
+<li>Dobby loom</li>
+<li>Draft</li>
+<li>Drafting</li>
+<li>Drawing</li>
+<li class="i2">frames</li>
+<li class="i4">different kinds of</li>
+<li>Drawing-in</li>
+<li>Dressing and dressing machine</li>
+<li>Drum</li>
+<li>Drying jute fibre</li>
+<li>Dust shaker.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>EAST India Co.</li>
+<li>Exports of jute from India.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>FABRICS</li>
+<li>Faller</li>
+<li>Farming operations</li>
+<li>Fibres,</li>
+<li class="i2">the five main</li>
+<li class="i4">imports of jute.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Fibrous layer</li>
+<li>Finisher card</li>
+<li>Finishing</li>
+<li>folding machine.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Gaiting</li>
+<li>Glazed finish</li>
+<li>Grading jute fibre</li>
+<li>Gunny bags.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Hand batching</li>
+<li>Harvesting the plants</li>
+<li>Height of jute plants</li>
+<li>Hydraulic mangle</li>
+<li class="i2">press.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Identification marks on bags</li>
+<li>Imports of jute.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Jacquard loom</li>
+<li>Jute crop</li>
+<li class="i2">exports from India</li>
+<li class="i2">fabrics</li>
+<li class="i2">fibre, imports of</li>
+<li class="i2">industry</li>
+<li class="i2">knife</li>
+<li class="i2">plants, botanical and physical features of</li>
+<li class="i2">cultivation of</li>
+<li class="i2">height of</li>
+<li class="i2">marks.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Laddering</li>
+<li>Ladders</li>
+<li>Lapping machine</li>
+<li>Linking machine</li>
+<li>Linoleum</li>
+<li>Looms</li>
+<li>Lubrication of fibre.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Machine batching</li>
+<li>Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta</li>
+<li>Mangle finish</li>
+<li class="i2">(hydraulic)</li>
+<li>Marks of jute (<i>see</i> jute marks)</li>
+<li>Maund</li>
+<li>Measuring and marking machine</li>
+<li class="i2">machine for cloth</li>
+<li class="i2">the warp</li>
+<li>Methods of preparing warps</li>
+<li>Multiple-colour printing machines.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Numbering machine for bags.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Opening jute heads</li>
+<li>Overhead runway systems</li>
+<li class="i2">sewing machine (Laing's).</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Packing goods</li>
+<li>Physical features of jute plants</li>
+<li>Pin-lease</li>
+<li>Plaiting machine</li>
+<li>Plants, thinning of</li>
+<li class="i2">weeding of</li>
+<li>Ploughs for jute cultivation</li>
+<li>Point-paper designs</li>
+<li>Porcupine feed</li>
+<li>Printing machine.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Reach</li>
+<li>Reeling</li>
+<li>Retting</li>
+<li>Roller-feed</li>
+<li>Rolls</li>
+<li>Root-comber</li>
+<li class="i2">opener</li>
+<li>Round-thread finish</li>
+<li>Rove</li>
+<li>Roving frame</li>
+<li>Roxburgh, Dr.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical</li>
+<li>Sack making</li>
+<li class="i2">printing machine</li>
+<li>Sand bags</li>
+<li>Seed</li>
+<li class="i2">per acre, amount of</li>
+<li class="i2">sowing of</li>
+<li>Sewing machines</li>
+<li>Shell-feed</li>
+<li>Short-tell</li>
+<li>Snipping machine</li>
+<li>Softening machines</li>
+<li>Spinning</li>
+<li>Spool or roll winding</li>
+<li>Spools (<i>see</i> Rolls)</li>
+<li>Standard bale</li>
+<li>Starching (<i>see</i> Dressing)</li>
+<li>Steeping (<i>see</i> Retting)</li>
+<li>Striker-up (<i>see</i> Batcher)</li>
+<li>Stripping</li>
+<li>Systems.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Teazer</li>
+<li>Tell (of yarn)</li>
+<li>Thinning of plants</li>
+<li>Thrum</li>
+<li>Time for harvesting the plants</li>
+<li>Tube-twisters</li>
+<li>Twist</li>
+<li>Twisting</li>
+<li>Two-colour printing machine</li>
+<li>Tying-on</li>
+<li>Typical jute fabrics.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Union Or Yankee sewing machine</li>
+<li>Unloading bales of jute from ship.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Variations in jute</li>
+<li>Varieties of jute fibre</li>
+<li class="i2">plants.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Warp</li>
+<li>Warp dressing (<i>see</i> Dressing)</li>
+<li>Warping, beaming and dressing</li>
+<li class="i2">mill</li>
+<li>Washing</li>
+<li>Waste</li>
+<li class="i2">teazer</li>
+<li>Weaves or designs</li>
+<li>Weaving</li>
+<li>Weaver's lease</li>
+<li>Weeding of plants</li>
+<li>Weft</li>
+<li class="i2">winding</li>
+<li>Wilton carpet</li>
+<li>Winding (bobbin) machine</li>
+<li class="i2">from hank</li>
+<li class="i2">(large roll) machine</li>
+<li class="i2">(ordinary size from hanks) machine</li>
+<li class="i2">rolls and cops</li>
+<li>World's great war.</li>
+<li><br/>
+</li>
+<li>Yankee or Union sewing machine</li>
+<li>Yarn table</li>
+<li>Yield of fibre.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><i>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman &amp; Sons, Ltd., Bath,
+England</i></h4>
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a15.PNG"><img src="images/a15.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY &amp; LESLIE" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY &amp;
+LESLIE"</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a16.PNG"><img src="images/a16.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: ROYLES LIMITED." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: ROYLES LIMITED.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a17.PNG"><img src="images/a17.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a18.PNG"><img src="images/a18.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: ROBERTSON &amp; ORCHAR, LTD." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: ROBERTSON &amp; ORCHAR, LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a19.PNG"><img src="images/a19.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: WHITE, CHILD &amp; BENEY, LIMITED" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: WHITE, CHILD &amp; BENEY, LIMITED</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a20.PNG"><img src="images/a20.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.</b></p>
+<h4><b>NORTHROP AUTOMATIC LOOM as used in the jute trade</b><br/>
+<i>Models for Cotton, Woolen, and Worsted, jute, linen, silk,
+etc.<br/>
+All sizes from 28" to 120"</i></h4>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a21.PNG"><img src="images/a21.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: FREDERICK SMITH &amp; CO." />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: FREDERICK SMITH &amp; CO.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a22.PNG"><img src="images/a22.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD." /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a23.PNG"><img src="images/a23.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a24.PNG"><img src="images/a24.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING &amp; ACCOUNTANCY" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING &amp;
+ACCOUNTANCY</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a25.PNG"><img src="images/a25.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a26.PNG"><img src="images/a26.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a27.PNG"><img src="images/a27.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a28.PNG"><img src="images/a28.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a29.PNG"><img src="images/a29.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME
+TAX</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a30.PNG"><img src="images/a30.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION,
+ADVERTISING</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a31.PNG"><img src="images/a31.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a32.PNG"><img src="images/a32.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a33.PNG"><img src="images/a33.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a34.PNG"><img src="images/a34.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/a35.PNG"><img src="images/a35.PNG"
+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND" /></a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND</b></p>
+
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+
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+width="40%" alt="Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES" />
+</a><br/>
+<b>Advertisement: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES,
+PHRASES</b></p>
+
+<hr />
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@@ -0,0 +1,3630 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished
+Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth
+
+Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+Release Date: May 26, 2004 [EBook #12443]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 1: David Bridge & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 2: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 3: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 4: Robert Hall & Sons]
+
+[Advertisement 5: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 6: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 7: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 8: White, Milne & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 9: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 10: Robert Stiven & Co.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 11: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series
+(Book List)]
+
+
+
+PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+BY T. WOODHOUSE
+
+  HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE
+  TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+
+  FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS,
+  BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH.
+  AUTHOR   OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS,"
+  "HEALDS AND   REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND PORTERS,"
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"
+    "TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"
+    "TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"
+    "TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,
+
+AND
+
+P. KILGOUR
+
+  HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,
+    DUNDEE TECHNICAL   COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+  FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.
+
+
+
+1921
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 12: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.,]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+  The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+  all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants,
+  the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre
+  into useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+  important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+  and the   description, although not severely technical, is
+  sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+  knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+  and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine
+  of jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium
+  of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+  more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects.
+
+              T. WOODHOUSE.
+              P. KILGOUR.
+
+     March, 1921.
+
+
+[Advertisement 13: J. M. Adam & Co.]
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  CHAP.
+        PREFACE
+     I. INTRODUCTORY
+    II. CULTIVATION
+   III. RETTING
+    IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE.
+     V. MILL OPERATIONS
+    VI. BATCHING
+   VII. CARDING
+  VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+    IX. THE ROVING FRAME
+     X. SPINNING
+    XI. TWISTING AND REELING.
+   XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+  XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING.
+   XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING
+    XV. FINISHING
+        INDEX
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: James F. Low & Co., LTD.]
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.
+   1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND
+   2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"
+   3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT
+   4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+        FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE
+   5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A
+        WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS
+   6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE
+        ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR
+   7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE
+        FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6
+   8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+   9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD)
+  10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED
+        AND PREPARED FIBRE
+  11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS
+  12. BATCHING APPARATUS
+  13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS
+  14. MODERN BREAKER CARD
+  15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD
+  16. WASTE TEAZER
+  17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME
+  18. ROVING FRAME
+  19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK
+  20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT
+  21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES
+  22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS
+  24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.)
+  26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+  27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.
+  28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE
+  29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE
+  30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS
+  31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY
+  32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS
+  33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.
+  34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH
+  35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.
+  36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS
+  37. BOBBY LOOM
+  38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM
+  39. THE OLD WAY
+  40. THE NEW WAY
+  41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK
+  42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE
+  43. DAMPING MACHINE
+  44. CALENDER
+  45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE
+  46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE
+  47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE
+  48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE
+  49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.
+  50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTORY
+
+The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton,
+flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in
+general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price,
+but also in regard to utility. It is only under phenomenal
+conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took
+place during the world's great war from 1914 onwards that, from a
+commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre
+and its products are fully realized. Millions of sand bags were made
+from the year 1914 to the year 1918 solely for military purposes,
+while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering
+material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other
+textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. It is on
+record that in one short period of fourteen days, 150,000,000
+sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from Dundee to be
+used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict.
+
+A glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the
+fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a
+hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to
+import the fibre into Great Britain in the latter part of the 18th
+century, and it has been used in India for centuries in the making
+of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous
+to that country. And since all the manufacturing methods there, for
+a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could
+be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the
+needs of a small section of the community on the Eastern shores.
+
+The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of
+Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it was only after
+repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples
+of jute for practical experiments The fibre was so unlike any of the
+existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious
+to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so;
+these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was
+finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute
+industry.
+
+Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute
+fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when the first
+small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home of the jute
+industry. This quantity was imported into this country with the
+special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the
+same way as flax fibre was being treated. At this period Dundee was
+a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning
+and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural
+that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute
+fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the
+preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we
+mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax,
+and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to
+be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated.
+These modifications shall be discussed at a later stage.
+
+It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, the
+imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns which were
+made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for
+the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of
+cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized.
+About the year 1838, representatives of the Dutch Government placed
+comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to
+be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their West Indian
+possessions. The subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the
+demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above
+fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance.
+
+By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute fibre had
+increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 tons in the
+season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed to the
+possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in India--the
+seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At least such a
+probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a small
+consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an attempt
+made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the Indian
+native industry.
+
+The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories
+soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to
+induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of
+training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives
+constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to leave the
+mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the
+country.
+
+In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in
+India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, the
+quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other British ports
+amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period preceding the war,
+nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various countries, while the
+Indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the
+mills in the vicinity of Calcutta--reached the same huge total of
+one million tons.
+
+The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and
+consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the
+production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be
+ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and
+one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the
+near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. As a
+matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are
+contemplated and actually taking place in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  CULTIVATION
+
+_Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant_. Jute fibre is
+obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in
+the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the fruit of the
+variety _Corchorus Capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of
+approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety
+_Corchorus Olitorius_ is contained in a pod. Both belong to the
+order _Tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in Bengal and
+Assam.
+
+Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _Corchorus Japonicus_ of Japan,
+and the _Corchorus Mompoxensis_ used in Panama for making a kind of
+tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of
+job as the Jew's Mallow; this variety _C. Olitorius_, has been used
+in the East from time immemorial as a pot herb.
+
+The two main varieties _C. Capsularis_ and _C. Olilorius_ are
+cultivated in Bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed
+purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in Assam, and the
+seeds exported for use principally in Mymensingh and Dacca.
+
+The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from 5 to
+15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four
+months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems of jute
+plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are
+green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. The leaves
+are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in length, and about 1-1/2
+inches in breadth with serrated edges. Pale yellow flowers spring
+from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of
+small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of
+the variety.
+
+While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the geographical
+position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions.
+On referring to a map of India, it will be seen that Bengal is
+directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north
+by the great Himalayan mountains.
+
+During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north,
+large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but
+when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly
+during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general
+temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts.
+The rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and
+west of Bengal--the Patna and the Brahmaputra--and the tremendous
+volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter
+which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial
+deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the
+propagation of the jute plants.
+
+The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the
+rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and Pabna,
+and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, Orissa
+and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these areas.
+
+The _Corchorus Capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the
+higher and richer soils, while the _Corchorus Olitorius_ variety is
+most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts
+where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _C. Olitorius_ may be
+grown in certain other districts of India which appear quite
+unsuitable for the _C. Capsularis_.
+
+The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with
+the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not
+the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there
+is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern
+methods may be the absence of horses.
+
+The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in teams
+of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where
+a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute
+cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as
+horses do in this country.
+
+The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods
+may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece
+of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks.
+
+The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process
+which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are
+made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting
+pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the
+previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be
+used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine
+tilth may be produced.
+
+When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but
+other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at
+similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure is preferred, but
+castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good
+substitutes.
+
+
+After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by
+hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular
+district. The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May,
+and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND]
+
+There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully
+judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for
+the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for
+easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of
+seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ.
+
+
+It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform
+a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used depends partly
+upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre
+are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2
+lbs.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"]
+
+Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in
+order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants.
+Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from
+plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants;
+they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. The fibres
+obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining
+seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when
+succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to.
+
+If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in
+8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. The heat and
+showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should
+be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with
+long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the operation in process. This
+second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture
+and heat to enter. The young plants are now thinned, and the ground
+weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or
+strength to prevent the words from spreading.
+
+The space between the growing plants will vary according to the
+region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance
+of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants
+show prospects of growing thick and tall.
+
+In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 1/2 to
+4 months from the time of sowing. Although different opinions are
+held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are
+setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage
+usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly
+cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality.
+
+The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general,
+these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite
+suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants ready for cutting
+will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the
+operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it
+requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green crop to produce about 10 to
+15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  RETTING
+
+The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are
+embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water,
+since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a
+period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is dependent upon the
+period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is
+performed.
+
+The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is
+technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the
+water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the
+plants are under treatment.
+
+The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a
+bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. The
+farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making
+by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the
+formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to
+see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous
+layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. The stems are
+tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast
+layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. When the ryot
+considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently
+easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is
+commenced immediately. This latter process is conducted in various
+ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district.
+
+
+In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody
+structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails
+fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand;
+while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women
+who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core
+or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. The strips of fibre
+are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable
+impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it
+over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun.
+
+If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants
+are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to
+some other place provided with a better supply of water for the
+final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to
+create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or
+difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry.
+
+Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant.
+The lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a
+complete cross section. The central part of the stem or pith is
+lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; the outer
+covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual fibrous layer
+appears between the parts B and C, and some of the fibres are
+indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding parts in the three
+distinct views. The middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a
+small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a
+further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. It will
+be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT]
+
+Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks,
+and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of
+preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say
+one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the
+tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus
+loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the
+fibrous layer free. The straws are collected for future use, while the
+fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE
+
+The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. The
+method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some
+districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a
+number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in
+the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to
+sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. A
+maund is approximately equal to 8 lbs., and this quantity forms a
+comparatively small bundle. In other cases, the fibre is made up into
+what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2
+to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in
+India.
+
+Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 million
+bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the remaining half is
+baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over
+one million bales are exported annually to Great Britain, the bulk
+of this fibre comes to Dundee.
+
+It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of
+assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea
+of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for
+special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of selecting and
+grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large
+amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark."
+A mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol,
+name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or
+more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the
+origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant.
+
+In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better
+quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality
+is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality
+of which is below these good ones. Since there are hundreds of
+different marks which are of value only to those connected directly
+with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. The
+following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is
+taken from the Market Report of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920.
+The price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date
+very high, so in order to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal
+prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first
+marks, for the same month in the years 1915 onwards.
+
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+
+           L. s. d.      L. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+
+It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract,
+and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre.
+
+After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is
+made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of these
+200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the
+weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a permitted
+quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while the
+dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X 1'6" X 1'
+4".
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE]
+
+Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large establishments,
+and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and
+efficiently with the large number of bales. In Fig. 4 scores of
+natives, superintended by a European, are seen carrying the smaller
+bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. It is,
+of course, unnecessary to make the solid 400 lb. bales for Indian
+consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which
+is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at
+the baling station by a Chamber of Commerce expert.
+
+Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the Calcutta
+district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with the most
+efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 illustrates one
+of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity.
+Two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by
+different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential
+for the successful prosecution of the work. Two such presses as that
+illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, under efficient administration, of
+turning out 130 bales of 400 lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is
+compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal
+to 6,000 lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in
+cubical capacity 11 cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is
+usual for freight purposes to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton.
+(Now changed to 50 cubic feet.)
+
+The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from
+barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 to
+46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel brought
+70,000 bales.
+
+As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality,
+and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.  Although this is
+the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute
+to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the
+"Spot." It is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample,
+such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or
+"parcel," as it is often called. The contract forms are very complete,
+and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all
+concerned in the trade.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT
+CYCLONE PRESS]
+
+It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large
+quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from
+plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it should
+be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and
+additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears
+possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it
+seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands
+for a corresponding type of manufactured product.
+
+The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually,
+but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree
+the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of
+the world.
+
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING
+JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR]
+
+              JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+
+             Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+
+A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side
+adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are raised quickly
+from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in Fig.
+6 since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in Fig.
+7. When the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to
+the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to
+the more horizontal part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then
+removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and
+piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid
+of a crane. Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales
+to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are stored
+in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM
+THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  MILL OPERATIONS
+
+_Bale Opening_. Each spinner, as already indicated, stores his
+bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient
+manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number
+of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing
+department of the mill.
+
+In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the
+mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different
+kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for
+the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of
+material. In much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the
+jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more
+extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," in its simplest
+definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable
+for subsequent handling in the Batching Department. This number may
+include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute according to the amount of
+accommodation in the preparing department.
+
+All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard
+quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It must be
+remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to
+quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or
+firms of balers or merchants. At other times, the batch of 5 to 10
+bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of
+each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn,
+partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of
+the combination.
+
+It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn
+is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any
+particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple differentiation,
+the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of
+cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in
+some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same
+cloth.
+
+On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of
+jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so
+that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be
+produced. The same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year,
+but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary
+from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation
+of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather
+during the time of growth, and during the season generally.
+
+A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department,
+this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales are, of course,
+defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must
+be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is
+any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be
+notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its
+place without effecting any great change in the character or quality
+of the yarn.
+
+When the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed
+from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are
+conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable
+position near the first machine in the series. It need hardly be
+mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is
+subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a
+very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the various
+so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced
+into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are quite
+unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened
+out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from
+each other. This operation is termed "opening" and the process is
+conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is
+illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee.
+
+The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner
+near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that
+they can be handled to the best advantage. The bands or ropes, see
+Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large
+pieces of jute can be separated. If any irregularity in the
+selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes
+place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty
+handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no
+chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at
+this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the
+fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good
+average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a
+judicious selection in every case. The usual variations are--the
+colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain
+impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute,
+which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully
+mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may
+disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different
+machines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in
+hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and
+this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. As already
+indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left
+in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which
+carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed
+rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very
+deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair of
+deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure.
+These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads
+of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery
+sheet on the right. The delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has
+a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the
+extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by
+the operatives. The upper rollers in the machine may rise in their
+bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the
+bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin
+places of the heads.
+
+A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &
+Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart patent is illustrated in
+Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in
+the shape of the crushing or opening rollers.
+
+It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are
+three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and
+situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller has a
+series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. The
+knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard
+layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute
+have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing
+between the rollers. This double action naturally aids in opening up
+the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective,
+gives excellent results in practice. The degree of pressure provided
+for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads
+of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the
+highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, & Co_.]
+
+The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this
+machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives good
+results in practice.
+
+In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that
+the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size
+quite freely.
+
+The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position
+near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as
+the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the
+batchers, who split them. The most suitable size of pieces are 2-1/2
+to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 feet in length, but the size of
+the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is
+to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's
+opinion of what will give the best overall result.
+
+After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller
+pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher
+or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could watch the above
+operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it
+would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of
+unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. As the
+loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 or 9, it is
+placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging,
+and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he
+grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a
+dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the
+handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it
+takes to describe the operation.
+
+As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on
+stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by
+means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added
+for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables
+the fibre to work freely in the various machines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  BATCHING
+
+_Softening and Softening Machines_. Two distinct courses are
+followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the
+bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. These
+courses are designated as--
+
+      1. Hand Batching.
+      2. Machine Batching.
+
+In the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of
+jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to
+facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts
+which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not
+convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large
+stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. 10.
+
+On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the
+pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually
+long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, from a similar
+sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the
+attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity.
+The ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount
+of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above
+method is not to be commended. A conscientious worker can, however,
+with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of
+course, supplied by the person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on
+the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the
+spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or
+partition on the right.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED AND
+PREPARED FIBRE]
+
+The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is filled
+with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain
+there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the material may be
+more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. At the end of this
+time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the
+softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of
+bending and crushing.
+
+All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often
+called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of
+rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of
+managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, which, in the
+form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls,
+is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of rollers or any other number
+which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. The sections are made in 8's. The
+illustration shows only 31 pairs.
+
+The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as clearly
+shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique
+flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. What
+is often considered as a standard softening machine contains 63
+pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers.
+As mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances.
+
+The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet,
+and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways
+before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the
+machine.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus]
+
+Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application
+of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform
+than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. On the
+other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the
+lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously,
+although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the
+cart after it has left the softener.
+
+The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or
+"stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual lubricating
+equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the
+centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to the side frames
+of the softening machine proper, say that shown in Fig. 11. Its
+exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a
+matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the
+material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers.
+
+In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen clearly,
+and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or
+pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately
+above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars.
+
+Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one vertical
+and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is attached by
+suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the
+machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame,
+while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a
+rod projecting from the frame. The lower or curved end of the
+oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping
+of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular
+feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against
+the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a
+thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the
+curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and
+thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity
+of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism
+is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick.
+When the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in
+the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is
+moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the
+thin part of the strick. It will be understood that all makers of
+softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching
+apparatus when desired.
+
+A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel wheels at
+the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against
+accidents. In many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed
+end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the
+operative is in danger. The batching apparatus for this machine is
+of a different kind from that illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it
+is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed
+pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane,
+and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on
+the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.
+
+The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the
+nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The barrow
+of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which
+have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for
+conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future
+treatment.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus]
+
+While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is graded
+in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn
+without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to
+utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection
+and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching.
+
+What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine
+known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into the
+machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in
+order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter drops
+through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is
+delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the
+softener.
+
+The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine
+termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively
+hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a teazer may also be
+used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and
+similar close textures.
+
+The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a
+heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then
+the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed
+to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain quantity of
+this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to
+form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.
+
+A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of
+a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends of the
+stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two parts are
+severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the
+strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder,
+and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of
+securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  CARDING
+
+_Breaker and Finisher Cards_. After the fibre from the softening
+machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for
+one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture;
+this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct
+types of machines--
+
+
+        1. The breaker card.
+        2. The finisher card.
+
+
+The functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one
+might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one
+continuous operation.
+
+The main difference between the two types of machines is in the
+method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the
+small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the action
+on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and
+splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving
+roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side
+by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of
+another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the
+combing of the fibre. The pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so
+to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller
+comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a
+comparatively fine division.
+
+The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A receptacle,
+very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far
+end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.
+
+A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or back of
+the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card
+on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the
+observer. The protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would
+be seen as clearly as possible.
+
+Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of
+the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped
+stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth,
+which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the
+feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a "shell" feed
+because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped
+somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually decreasing and
+suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins
+of the feed roller.
+
+The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of
+fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously
+carried into the machine where they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a
+cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes
+place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, 24 inches to
+30 inches below. The fibres which are separated at this stage are
+carried a little further round until they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller,
+termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward
+under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further
+combed and split. A portion of the fibres is carried round by the
+pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the
+quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a
+"stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of
+the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD]
+
+The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker
+and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a
+second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately
+the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the
+pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing
+rollers. The sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into
+the broad and upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly
+of tin and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in
+Fig. 14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and,
+of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and
+delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can,
+distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. The sliver is
+seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can.
+
+The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward
+relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less
+parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" is used to
+indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other,
+and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out
+of the fibres by this special term "draft."
+
+It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can
+at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant flow will
+soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can,
+although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. The machine must,
+of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be
+kept in practically constant work. As a matter of fact, the machines
+are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable
+condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be
+satisfactorily fulfilled.
+
+The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to
+that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the pulley
+side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are fed by slivers which
+have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but
+there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of
+arranging the slivers at the feed side. In both cases, however, the
+full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with,
+however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each
+extreme end.
+
+One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full sliver
+cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and
+to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The sliver from
+each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and
+thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The slivers are
+guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet"
+which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers.
+The feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type,
+and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. It
+will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different
+problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively
+uneven stricks.
+
+[Illustration: By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd.
+FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD]
+
+The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the
+machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus form,
+as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this
+sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs
+of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as
+already described in connection with the breaker card. There are,
+however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are
+in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs
+of rollers, the former may be arranged with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs
+of rollers (6 workers and 6 strippers). The number of pairs of
+rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the
+opinions of the various managers.
+
+There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--
+
+         1. Half-circular finisher cards.
+
+         2. Full-circular finisher cards.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and such
+machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so
+disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete
+circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to
+undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact
+with the doffer. There are five pairs of rollers in the machine in
+Fig. 15, and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels
+fenced. The arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very
+similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14,
+and therefore requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes
+the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and
+adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to
+examine the rollers and other parts.
+
+The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various
+rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are
+ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the
+cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. The
+conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the
+width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the
+other section. These two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet,
+traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two
+slivers about 6 inches above the point or plane in which the 10 or 12
+slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two
+slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface
+of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction
+of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can.
+
+In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine illustrated
+in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported
+by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. This special
+mechanism is termed a "Patent Push Bar Drawing Head," and the
+function which it performs will be described shortly; in the
+meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the
+slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. A
+very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a
+finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should
+work in unison. In the machine under consideration, the feed and
+delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage
+of the draw-head mechanism.
+
+One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform
+thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. A
+so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter,
+but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected
+with the full sense of the word uniform.
+
+It has already been stated that in the batching department various
+qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to
+obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different grades and marks
+vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness;
+it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse
+qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process
+so as to facilitate the subsequent operations.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd. _
+FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER]
+
+However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the
+batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be
+desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary.
+It need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement,
+and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care
+which is exercised in the preliminary processes.
+
+The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new length,
+and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each
+individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the new
+length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths
+and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting takes place
+in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined
+10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of 8 to 16 or even
+more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which
+passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of 8 to 16 yards
+or whatever the draft happens to be. The resulting sliver will
+therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the
+original individual slivers. The actual ratio between them will
+obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the
+material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.
+
+It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous
+material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as
+card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is produced, in
+spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine
+which is not delivered as perfect material. All this waste from
+various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes,
+dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver
+for heavy sacking weft.
+
+The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the
+valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are
+passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. F. Low &
+Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. The resulting mass
+is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material,
+and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the
+production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used
+for sacking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+
+The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the
+breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement
+of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in
+the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the
+peripheries of rotating rollers. In the draw-head mechanism, the
+pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or
+straight path. In the machines which fall to be discussed in this
+chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the
+slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a
+matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small
+drawing frame, as its name implies. Moreover, each row or rather
+double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a
+"faller." The faller as a whole consists of three parts:
+
+        1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for being
+        moved in a closed circuit.
+
+        2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or
+        "stocks," fixed to the rod.
+
+        3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes about
+        1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or
+        hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above
+        gills.
+
+The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular
+method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the
+fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the
+movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers.
+There are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of
+a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining"
+rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller;
+immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last
+pair is the delivery rollers. The delivery rollers of one type of
+drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by
+Messsrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly
+in Fig. 17, and the can or cans into which the slivers are
+ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more
+sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration.
+The large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing
+roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the
+centre of same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill
+pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.
+
+Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is
+led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver
+guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately the slivers
+leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of
+a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the
+upper and active position. Each short length of slivers is
+penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up
+successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the
+same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. The sheet of
+pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the
+drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. As each
+faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is
+made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this
+point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until
+it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between
+the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always
+one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining
+the set at the back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame]
+
+The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing
+rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all
+cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. This condition is
+necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much
+greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference
+between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual
+draft.
+
+Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded
+in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned,
+to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip
+of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward ends of the fibres
+are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres
+affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing
+rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. It will
+be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two
+pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be
+snapped. It is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance
+between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres
+under treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."
+
+On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which
+bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers,
+and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are
+diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again
+diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes
+straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the
+guide of the delivery rollers. It will thus be seen that a number of
+slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft,
+are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or
+conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a
+sliver can.
+
+The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of the
+same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. With
+the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the
+far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. The
+set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the
+fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown,
+and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to
+the operative. The machines are made with what are known as
+"two heads" or "three heads." It will be seen from the large
+pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a
+"two-head" drawing frame.
+
+The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a
+further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine
+termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills for this
+frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first
+drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and
+the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and
+therefore need no further description. It should be mentioned,
+however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their
+designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the
+fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. The names
+of other drawing frames appear below.
+
+  Spiral or screw gill;
+  Open link chain;
+  Rotary;
+  Ring Carrier
+  Circular.
+
+For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in
+a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered
+sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE ROVING FRAME
+
+The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there
+still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the
+slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. And, in
+addition to these important functions, two other equally important
+operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to
+the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a
+"rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove
+bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.
+
+The machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a
+"roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, and with
+different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided
+for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with
+two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of spindles, flyers,
+and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in Fig. 18, which
+represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.
+
+Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the
+upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the
+flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The discs or
+bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or
+"builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass
+through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a
+"flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the
+spindles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME _By Permission of Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be seen
+that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers
+passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye,
+then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer,
+round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of
+the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. Each bobbin has its
+own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this
+can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining
+rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the
+drawing (also the delivery) rollers. Here the sliver terminates
+because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and
+causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form.
+From this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described
+above.
+
+As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver
+is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery
+of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about 20 yards
+per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also driven at a
+constant speed, because in all cases we have--
+
+  spindle speed = delivery x twist.
+
+There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove
+bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven
+independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one
+series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the bobbin differs,
+however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the
+effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the
+beginning of each new layer.
+
+The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane,
+and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height
+from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are raised gradually by
+the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the
+bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during
+the formation of each layer from bottom to top. In other words, the
+travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the
+inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK]
+
+Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue
+of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin,
+and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the
+combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of
+the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and
+variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by means of which this
+desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one
+of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in
+textile machinery. Some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as
+well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered
+from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical
+experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed 50 years
+elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts
+was evolved for performing the function.
+
+The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential
+motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing
+arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the
+various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide
+with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated
+but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without
+strain or stretch. The varying motion is regulated and obtained by a
+drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear
+is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct
+motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the
+bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and the
+whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels
+to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest
+the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded,
+and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position
+on both sides. The machine is adapted for building 10 in. X 5 in.
+bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. outside diameter,
+and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the illustration showing
+part of a machine and approximately 48 spindles.
+
+The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of
+the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 in. frame,
+and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are 10 in.
+apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder
+would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the standard size for
+the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. bobbins are
+used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. When the
+finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning
+direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, 8 in. x 4
+in. bobbins are largely used.
+
+Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove
+so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and
+according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in
+these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist
+gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic
+index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.  SPINNING
+
+The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn
+required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process of
+spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done
+before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The nomenclature
+is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the
+conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus
+than it is at present; the established name to denote this
+conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number
+of important processes, each one of which is as important and
+necessary as the actual operation of spinning.
+
+A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the
+Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly the wide
+"pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method
+adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. Spinning
+frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any
+practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per side are
+common numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT]
+
+The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. 20, are
+brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel
+(often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually
+above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove bobbin is free to
+rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the
+retaining rollers. The final drafting of the material takes place in
+this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the
+drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of
+yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of
+spinning bobbin.
+
+When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a
+"breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the
+conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by
+means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing
+rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the
+retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and
+the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the
+"thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the
+arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer
+arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The latter is raised and lowered
+as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be
+distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges.
+
+Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which
+passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of
+the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of
+the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of
+spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this connection, the
+parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the
+functions of the two frames differ. The yarn has certainly to be
+wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from
+the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin,
+which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the
+roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually
+driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and
+just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of
+the "temper band" and weight. The temper band is simply a piece of
+leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other
+end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES]
+
+The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one
+of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in
+contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. A varying
+amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue
+of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is
+obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves
+in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of
+the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension.
+
+The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of the
+frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 are at
+right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief
+parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the
+pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove
+yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until
+they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to
+and wound upon the spinning bobbins. The flyers--at one time termed
+throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper
+weights. The chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever,
+adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the
+frame nearest the observer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  TWISTING AND REELING
+
+In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form
+they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On the
+other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it
+is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to
+combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes
+"doubling" when two single yarns only are combined.
+
+Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is
+to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is
+not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or
+more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when
+this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of
+twines, ropes and the like. The twist or twine thus formed will have
+the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required
+for the finished product. The same operation is conducted in the
+making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are
+laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to
+distinguish them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres_, by T.
+Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]
+
+When two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can
+be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a
+ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. There may
+be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop
+motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of
+any group which are being combined happens to break. When several
+threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting
+frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters,"
+and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a
+plate or disc before they reach the tube.
+
+More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally
+adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned
+work on Cordage and similar literature for detailed information.
+
+When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it
+is made up according to requirements, and the general operations
+which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll
+or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. The type or class of
+yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment
+of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be
+used previous to despatching the yarn.
+
+_Reeling_. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting
+solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on
+to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter,
+or rather circumference. Indeed, the circumference of the reel was
+fixed by an Act of Convention of Estates, dating as far back as 1665
+and as under:
+
+"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half
+to the King and half to the attacher."
+
+"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than
+_ten quarters_."
+
+The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All such
+yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be
+reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads
+which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems of dyeing
+and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not
+employed much in the jute industry. Large quantities of jute yarns
+intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable
+bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and
+sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries.
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+
+Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest
+yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn is made
+up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, even 6 cuts
+are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of 4 cuts, 3 cuts,
+2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any group less than 12
+cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of
+convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on
+the swift in the winding frame.
+
+The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure
+the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming
+the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of
+designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. We have already
+seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs.
+of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).
+
+For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same
+count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins on the
+reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins is wound
+round, say,
+
+6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or 120
+threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 separate
+cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been reeled as
+mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are
+complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round
+each group of 120 threads.
+
+A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be
+in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this
+movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to accommodate
+the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.
+
+Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell rings, the
+reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the
+mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. In some
+case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are
+simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking
+the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the
+cuts. At the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the
+mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.
+
+The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of
+winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate
+correctness.
+
+When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut hanks,
+there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. The 24
+mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks
+taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along with others
+of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from 54 lb.
+to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. Each bundle contains a
+number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the
+purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed,
+the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there
+would be exactly 56 lb. per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn,
+there would be 60 lb in a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb.
+in a bundle of 9 lb. yarn.
+
+The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of
+threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal
+condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to
+approach it as closely as possible. Careless workers allow the reel
+to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this
+yields what is known as "short tell." It is not uncommon to
+introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or 124 teeth, instead of the
+nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+
+The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed,
+the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types
+of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. In its simplest
+definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in
+such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. The
+two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical
+terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. The
+threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp,
+while the transverse threads are the weft.
+
+The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a
+large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be
+prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two distinct
+conditions necessitate two general types of winding:
+
+(_a_) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns.
+
+(_b_) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.
+
+For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the
+spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from 7 to
+8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops
+which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.
+
+Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins
+very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used
+for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding machine marked a
+great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with
+the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are
+used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached,
+dyed or similarly treated. Fig. 22 illustrates one of the modern
+bobbin winding machines for jute made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee. The finished product is illustrated by two full
+bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. There are
+also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of
+yarn on the swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and
+since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the
+bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout
+the process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin
+is filled as exemplified in the illustration.
+
+The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a
+fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and
+any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. of yarn,
+a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 to 8 lb.
+Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. diameter; hence for
+8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 yards.
+
+Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines
+adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It is built
+specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of 15 in.
+diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is used
+mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll only is
+shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a 10
+in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by surface or
+frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating
+drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of
+the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the
+floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and
+upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. This rapid traverse,
+combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be
+securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required,
+and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations
+for rolls is much below that for bobbins.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS]
+
+Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary 9
+in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and dressing
+departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning
+bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having
+two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is 80.
+
+The double tier on each side is practicable because of the small
+space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, rolls are
+wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as practised in
+several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each
+side is possible. Both types are made by each machine maker, the one
+illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product of Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee.
+
+In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it
+looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still
+further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS _By permission of
+Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other makers,
+is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls,
+can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions,
+one for each roll.
+
+A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A recent
+improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic
+stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted,
+has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) _By
+permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning
+bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority of
+manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The cops are
+almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the
+exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. There are
+different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case
+the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a
+rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so
+necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition of the cops in
+the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the
+tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning
+bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in
+other machines these conditions are opposite. Thus, in the cop
+winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath,
+and illustrated in Fig. 25, the spinning bobbins are below the cops,
+the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers,
+and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. This view shows
+about three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the above-mentioned
+opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning
+bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the
+low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing
+downwards. Six spindles only appear in this view, which represents
+the machine made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee,
+but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as
+desired within practicable and economic limits.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.
+FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE]
+
+The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in Fig.
+26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while
+the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles.
+The upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a
+clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the
+spindle. When the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are
+when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when
+the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when
+the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel
+wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the
+spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in
+conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface
+of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of
+the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the
+length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the
+partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until
+the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically
+stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may
+be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for
+jute shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the
+angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 26 COP WINDING MACHINE _By permission of Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING
+
+There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the
+weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--
+
+1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and
+when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred
+on to the weaver's beam.
+
+2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and
+then beamed on to a weaver's beam.
+
+3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large
+cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam.
+
+4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on
+to a weaver's beam.
+
+The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned.
+
+For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full spinning
+bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right
+of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The ends of the
+threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves
+of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The heck, or
+apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's
+lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the
+bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the
+illustration. The heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains,
+and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction
+the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when
+the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised
+gradually between the same slides. These movements are necessary in
+order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally
+round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the
+figure. The particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing
+if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about
+42 spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of
+the warp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS]
+
+At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's
+lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill
+with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is rotated by means
+of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill.
+As the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually
+and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical
+spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached.
+A beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs;
+there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the
+pin lease; a common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been
+formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion
+finished being (50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads
+required for the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on
+the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next
+section of 50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite
+direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second
+group of 50 to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch
+with the threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of
+the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been
+introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to accommodate all the
+threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more
+parts or chains. It will be noticed that the heck for the nearest
+mill is opposite about the 12th round of threads from the bobbin,
+whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from
+the top. A completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the
+third mill. When the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and
+simultaneously linked into a chain.
+
+A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often
+better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in No. 2
+method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the full
+equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a
+bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a frame for
+forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for
+drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring
+the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and
+finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the
+form of a chain.
+
+In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is
+shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from the
+two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame
+immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are
+made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp.
+Between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in
+the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. Only
+part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the
+frame adjoining them. All these frames and machines are necessary,
+but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they
+perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the
+foreground of Fig. 28.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE]
+
+Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is
+a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts
+convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a linked chain,
+and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to
+the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind of link is made by
+the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in Fig. 27 are being
+withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains are shown tied up in
+Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near
+the bank.
+
+The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is
+now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the
+small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a
+kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and
+arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are
+attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The chain is
+held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the
+latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact beam of yarn is
+obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam
+last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is
+removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread
+lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually
+and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in
+which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the
+camas or HEALDS, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to
+the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth
+which has been completed.
+
+Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on
+the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's
+beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct
+processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously.
+Thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any
+particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be
+very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools.
+Say, for example, a warp was required to be 600 yards long, and that
+there should be 500 threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn
+would be placed in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads
+from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the
+splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position
+in regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while
+others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam rotates
+at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the
+beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per
+minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 29, and the mechanism displayed
+is identical with that employed for No. 4 method of preparing warps.
+
+The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our example)
+would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. 29. The
+threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet
+between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the
+supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame appears on the
+extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction
+with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a
+position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough
+to hold the required number of spools. The part on the extreme right
+can be ignored at present.
+
+The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in Fig.
+28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in Fig. 29,
+and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the
+stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame,
+and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. It
+may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that
+the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the
+same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE _By
+permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.]
+
+The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the
+two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being
+positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal
+shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The loom beam, which
+is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by
+friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant;
+hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the
+revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying
+amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their
+flannels.
+
+As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between
+the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would be
+arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., and
+bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus,
+to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which 500
+threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the
+ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be understood that in
+the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to
+bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a
+fixed position in the width.
+
+The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 method,
+for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous
+processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example,
+all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size
+immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary
+frame in Fig. 29. The moistened threads must, however, be dried
+before they reach the loom beam. When a warp is starched, dried and
+beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed."
+
+In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in Fig. 30,
+there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns
+before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or rather part
+of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be
+formed of the great length occupied. Several of the threads from the
+spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed,
+then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is
+partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second
+reed. After the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes
+partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each
+of three cylinders arranged  deg.o deg., and finally on to the loom beam.
+Each cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a
+position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame
+in Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.
+
+The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend
+somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed
+which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX
+STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS]
+
+A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in Fig. 31.
+This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps
+under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the
+banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the
+same time. In such a case, three cylinders only would be used for
+each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single
+dressing machines. The two weaver's beams, with their pressing
+rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. Some
+machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight.
+A very similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and
+all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be
+wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if the number
+of threads is too many for one bank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of 500,
+as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in each of
+the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as
+much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one
+sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring
+roller. Both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of
+the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in this form on to one of the loom
+beams.
+
+It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box
+is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of
+the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. 30, is a
+pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type.
+Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads passes, becomes
+impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the
+lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and
+returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards
+towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn emerges from the rollers
+and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to
+suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom
+beam at the same rate. But since the diameter of the beam increases
+each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread,
+it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.
+
+The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the
+beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A certain
+amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for
+this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn
+dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw
+forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the
+yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed.
+
+During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train
+of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed
+over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in
+addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an
+ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as
+a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has
+been woven. Thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts,
+each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, the above apparatus would
+measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark
+at intervals of 120 yards on some of the threads. And all this is
+done without stopping the machine. At the time of marking, or
+immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring
+automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the
+warp is about to approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig.
+29, near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.
+
+As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at
+the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a
+pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads.
+
+After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from
+the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails
+of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts)
+and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of
+the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been
+woven into cloth. These latter threads are still intact in the cambs
+and reed in the loom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING
+
+If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the
+ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when
+the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly,
+and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots
+have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far
+forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward,
+or beating up, position during the operation of weaving.
+
+If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations
+would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and,
+when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs
+and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter,"
+"tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual
+operation of weaving. The latter work is often termed "gaiting a web."
+
+There is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the
+simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable
+difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. In nearly all
+the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in
+the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture
+of comparatively simple fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there
+are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others;
+these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling
+and sacking. In addition to these main types, there are several
+other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or
+other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate
+types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of
+carpets and the like.
+
+It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of
+this kind; the commoner types are described in _Jute and Linen
+Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics_; and the more
+elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in
+_Textile Design: Pure and Applied_, both by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.
+
+Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. The
+technical characteristics of each are as follows--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS]
+
+H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine single
+  warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest
+  order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is made from the
+  scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that
+  illustrated.
+
+B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in
+  pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is thick, and the
+  weave is also plain.
+
+T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in bagging,
+  although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft.
+  It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the
+  structures are identical.
+
+S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp yarns,
+  usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium
+  or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill order. The weaves
+  are shown in Fig. 33.
+
+C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or
+  two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. The
+  threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed
+  to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern,
+  or arrow-head pattern.
+
+P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring warp
+  is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite
+  pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. The
+  weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite
+  different from the other plain cloths illustrated. The cloth is
+  reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing
+  slightly in colour ornamentation.
+
+As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, B,
+T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is
+constant and as stated.
+
+All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in Fig.
+33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the
+yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, the unit
+weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid squares, while the
+repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVERS FOR
+VARIOUS CLOTHS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH]
+
+A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H and P,
+Fig. 32.
+
+B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the method
+of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When the warp
+is made double as indicated in weave _B_, the effect in the cloth
+can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for
+weave _A_. Hence, the cloths _H_, _B_ and _T_ can be woven without
+any mechanical alteration in the loom.
+
+_C_ is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 units;
+since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two
+identical single rows, they may be represented as at _D_. The actual
+structure of the cloth _S_ in Fig. 32 is represented on design paper
+at _C_, Fig. 33.
+
+_D_ is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units shown, but
+the mechanical parts for weaving both _C_ and _D_ remain constant.
+
+_E_ is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, while
+
+_F_ is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.
+
+The patterns or cloths for _E_ and _F_ are not illustrated.
+
+_G_ is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, two
+units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at _C_, Fig. 32,
+and involves the use of 4 leaves in the loom.
+
+The solid squares in weave _A_, Fig. 33, are reproduced in the
+left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of a plain
+cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in
+the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks
+of weft (the difference is for distinction only). The left-hand
+intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks,
+while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads
+interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from the weave or design
+to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will
+be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread
+on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft
+shot on the surface, and _vice versa_.
+
+A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by
+belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The loom in
+the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to that
+illustrated at _S_, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a full weaver's
+warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in Fig. 35. There
+are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS]
+
+During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a
+cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in Fig. 25,
+and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle,
+is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the
+opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. The positions of
+the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see
+Fig. 33, and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom
+the other layer occupies a low position. The threads of the warp are
+placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed
+healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these
+two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each
+time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft
+each journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels
+moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes
+successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones
+which preceded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS _By
+permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd._]
+
+The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as
+already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. 33, and the
+selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the
+surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same
+colour. A great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method
+of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of
+pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to
+the mode of interlacing.
+
+To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving
+shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead
+shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which all the looms
+are individually driven by small motors made by the English Electric
+Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular illustration shows
+cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is
+being adopted in many jute factories.
+
+A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 leaves
+are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the
+nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine is made
+by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. The dobby itself,
+or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the
+requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the
+frame-work, and is designed to control 12 leaves, that is, it
+operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM]
+
+A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made from
+jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the
+back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton carpet)
+and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed.
+The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the
+cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the
+needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which
+e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond
+with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer.
+This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton fabrics, and
+these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _P_, Fig.
+32. In both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are
+required. It need hardly be said that there is a considerable
+difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the
+designs and the looms in which they are woven.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, _see_ pp. 394-114, _Textile
+Design: Pure and Applied_, by T. Woodhouse and T. Milne.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM]
+
+In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in
+the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy
+rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room.
+Accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the
+warp beams, are being placed in position. In order to minimize the
+danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with
+fewer hands, some firms have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with
+suitable Lifting Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from
+the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and
+then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of
+transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to
+each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are
+valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct
+from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the
+old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place
+to place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY _By permission of Messrs.
+Herbert Morris, Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  FINISHING
+
+The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves
+the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the cloth,
+removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any
+damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth is passed through
+a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting
+fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart
+appearance. It is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although
+there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated,
+while others again miss this operation entirely.
+
+A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and in
+this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at
+the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been
+woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in Fig. 38. The
+fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton carpets. The
+illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of
+the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually with either two or
+four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK]
+
+The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable
+arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating
+slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth
+in contact with them. This is, of course, at the feed side; the
+cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown
+distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This view illustrates a double
+cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. As the
+cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two
+spirals.[3] When four spirals are required, the frame is much wider,
+and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the
+machines illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE _By permission of
+Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing processes,
+see _The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics_, by T. Woodhouse.
+(Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., Manchester.)]
+
+The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed
+on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in Fig. 43,
+which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &, Co.,
+Dundee. The cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then
+upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and
+over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the
+pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by
+means of a belt on the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled
+rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on
+to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes
+in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process.
+At other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in
+a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of the
+fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The damped
+fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is,
+to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the
+calender.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.,
+Ltd_. FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE]
+
+The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different
+rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls,
+the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. A five-bowl
+calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. 41, and in the
+background, while a complete illustration of a modern 5-bowl calender,
+with full equipment, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd.,
+Dundee, appears in Fig. 44.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 44 CALENDAR]
+
+The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of
+the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom
+roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls
+according to the type of finish desired. For calender finish, the
+bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so
+that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave
+the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in Fig. 34, are
+eliminated by this calendering action. The cloth is then delivered
+at the far side of the machine in Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface
+speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the
+others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by
+ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. The
+faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender
+finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same.
+
+Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish"
+or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length of cloth is
+wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, Fig. 44,
+and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the
+amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the
+way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. The two
+sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in Fig. 44, and these
+act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the
+dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light
+finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. After
+the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it
+is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with
+its belt pulley in Fig. 41.
+
+There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; one is
+driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. Provision
+is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. The
+pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are
+inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure.
+Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a
+oblique position.
+
+The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and
+the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure,
+and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small
+weights used. The heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the
+chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the
+"mangle finish."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE]
+
+A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 45.
+The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to
+what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when
+the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge
+rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four narrow pieces are
+shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the two rollers. There are
+other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the
+beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery
+side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. The
+three pins are arranged thus o deg.o, and since all three are
+moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each
+roller or pin is moved through 120 deg.. Thus, the stripped pin will be
+placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the
+mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.
+
+While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move
+first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this
+change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism
+situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing
+seen at the far end of the mangle. And while this mangling is taking
+place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously
+mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus
+which deposits the cloth in folds. This operation is also known as
+"cuttling" or "faking." It will be, understood that a wide mangle,
+such as that illustrated in Fig. 45. is constructed specially for
+treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply
+because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.
+Ltd_. Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE]
+
+The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation
+of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought
+into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is
+applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers.
+
+Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a
+measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on
+the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one circle
+of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, 30, up to
+100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in
+circumference.
+
+If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing
+or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden
+centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well,
+and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar
+to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. Cloths
+for this purpose are often made up to 600 yards in length; indeed,
+special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to
+weave cloths up to 2,000 yards in length. Special dressing machines
+and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. When the
+linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre
+are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are
+returned periodically.
+
+Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a
+simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth,
+and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or
+folded by special machines such as that illustrated in Fig. 46. The
+cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown,
+to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars.
+As the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand
+side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the
+convex table. The carriers may be adjusted to move through different
+distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may
+be made.
+
+Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but
+some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and
+this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, however,
+the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. Thus,
+Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and
+made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., Ltd., Dundee. The
+full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent
+stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth passes upwards
+obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it
+is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left.
+The doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven
+drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as
+indicated. The machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and
+delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. In other
+industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging.  Some of
+the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth
+lengthwise as illustrated in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at
+the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.
+FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE]
+
+If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the
+making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made
+annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand,
+semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are
+sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways
+according to requirements.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_
+FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE]
+
+Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this
+purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine different cloths
+are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of
+these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the
+machine. They are then led between the rollers, under the cutting
+knife, and on to the table. The length of cloth is measured as it
+passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are
+supplied so that practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine
+lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and
+when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts
+the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table.
+He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length
+is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means are provided for
+registering the number passed through; from 36,000 yards to 40,000
+yards can be treated per day.
+
+The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in
+Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the sewing is
+usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the Yankee or
+Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than 2,000
+bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking,
+_S_, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost invariably done by the Laing or
+overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in
+Fig. 49, and made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works,
+Dundee. This is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000
+bags can be sewn in one day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE _By
+permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_]
+
+The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form
+of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at
+_S_, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a considerable variety can be
+made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and
+their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same
+cloth, the variety is still further increased.
+
+Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and
+other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the
+necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by
+a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. The
+latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in Fig. 50.
+It is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald,
+Dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two
+distinct colours, say red and black. Occasionally three and
+four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably
+the most common.
+
+[Illustration: _By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_. FIG 50 SACK
+PRINTING MACHINE]
+
+The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the
+many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number
+their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock,
+or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a
+special numbering machine, also made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald.
+
+The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is
+that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a
+hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower moving table upon
+a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite
+quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are
+placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the
+bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed
+table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per square inch is applied
+according to the nature of the goods and their destination. While
+the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates,
+the wrappers a sewn together. Then specially prepared hoops or metal
+bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system,
+involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The
+ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent
+ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the
+pins inserted in the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is
+removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the
+bale securely.
+
+Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre,
+the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into
+cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the
+world's common carrier.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+ACCUMULATOR
+Assorting jute fibre.
+
+BAG-MAKING
+Bale opener
+     opening
+Baling cloth
+     house
+     press
+     station
+Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)
+Batch
+Batchers
+Batching
+     apparatus
+     carts or stalls
+Batch-ticket
+Beamer's lease
+Beaming
+     (dry) direct from bank,
+Blending
+Bobbin winding
+Bojah
+Botanical features of jute plants
+Breaker card
+Brussels carpet
+Bundle of jute.
+
+CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into
+Calender
+     finish
+Calenderoy
+Carding
+Card waste
+Cargoes of jute
+Chest finish
+Clasp-rods
+Conditioning fibre
+Cops
+Cop winding
+Corchorus capsularis
+     clitorius
+Crisping and crisping machines
+Cropping machine
+Cultivation of jute
+Cutting knife for jute fibre
+Cuttings.
+
+DAMPING machine
+Defects in fibre and in handling
+Designs or weaves
+Differential motion
+Dobby loom
+Draft
+Drafting
+Drawing
+  frames
+    different kinds of
+Drawing-in
+Dressing and dressing machine
+Drum
+Drying jute fibre
+Dust shaker.
+
+EAST India Co.
+Exports of jute from India.
+
+FABRICS
+Faller
+Farming operations
+Fibres,
+  the five main
+    imports of jute.
+
+
+Fibrous layer
+Finisher card
+Finishing
+folding machine.
+
+Gaiting
+Glazed finish
+Grading jute fibre
+Gunny bags.
+
+Hand batching
+Harvesting the plants
+Height of jute plants
+Hydraulic mangle
+  press.
+
+Identification marks on bags
+Imports of jute.
+
+Jacquard loom
+Jute crop
+  exports from India
+  fabrics
+  fibre, imports of
+  industry
+  knife
+  plants, botanical and physical features of
+  cultivation of
+  height of
+  marks.
+
+Laddering
+Ladders
+Lapping machine
+Linking machine
+Linoleum
+Looms
+Lubrication of fibre.
+
+Machine batching
+Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta
+Mangle finish
+  (hydraulic)
+Marks of jute (_see_ jute marks)
+Maund
+Measuring and marking machine
+  machine for cloth
+  the warp
+Methods of preparing warps
+Multiple-colour printing machines.
+
+Numbering machine for bags.
+
+Opening jute heads
+Overhead runway systems
+  sewing machine (Laing's).
+
+Packing goods
+Physical features of jute plants
+Pin-lease
+Plaiting machine
+Plants, thinning of
+  weeding of
+Ploughs for jute cultivation
+Point-paper designs
+Porcupine feed
+Printing machine.
+
+Reach
+Reeling
+Retting
+Roller-feed
+Rolls
+Root-comber
+  opener
+Round-thread finish
+Rove
+Roving frame
+Roxburgh, Dr.
+
+Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical
+Sack making
+  printing machine
+Sand bags
+Seed
+  per acre, amount of
+  sowing of
+Sewing machines
+Shell-feed
+Short-tell
+Snipping machine
+Softening machines
+Spinning
+Spool or roll winding
+Spools (_see_ Rolls)
+Standard bale
+Starching (_see_ Dressing)
+Steeping (_see_ Retting)
+Striker-up (_see_ Batcher)
+Stripping
+Systems.
+
+Teazer
+Tell (of yarn)
+Thinning of plants
+Thrum
+Time for harvesting the plants
+Tube-twisters
+Twist
+Twisting
+Two-colour printing machine
+Tying-on
+Typical jute fabrics.
+
+Union Or Yankee sewing machine
+Unloading bales of jute from ship.
+
+Variations in jute
+Varieties of jute fibre
+  plants.
+
+Warp
+Warp dressing (_see_ Dressing)
+Warping, beaming and dressing
+  mill
+Washing
+Waste
+  teazer
+Weaves or designs
+Weaving
+Weaver's lease
+Weeding of plants
+Weft
+  winding
+Wilton carpet
+Winding (bobbin) machine
+  from hank
+  (large roll) machine
+  (ordinary size from hanks) machine
+  rolls and cops
+World's great war.
+
+Yankee or Union sewing machine
+Yarn table
+Yield of fibre.
+
+
+
+_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE]
+
+[Advertisement 15: ROYLES LIMITED.]
+
+[Advertisement 16: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.]
+
+[Advertisement 17: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 18: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED]
+
+[Advertisement 19: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 20: FREDERICK SMITH & CO.]
+
+[Advertisement 21: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 22: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC]
+
+[Advertisement 23: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING & ACCOUNTANCY]
+
+[Advertisement 24: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING]
+
+[Advertisement 25: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING]
+
+[Advertisement 27: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX]
+
+[Advertisement 28: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING]
+
+[Advertisement 29: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE]
+
+[Advertisement 30: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW]
+
+[Advertisement 31: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH]
+
+[Advertisement 32: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH]
+
+[Advertisement 33: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND]
+
+[Advertisement 34: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES]
+
+[Advertisement 35: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE, READING]
+
+[Advertisement 36: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING, PERIODICALS]
+
+[Advertisement 36: HENRY TAYLOR & SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S BOOKS]
+
+[Advertisement 37: THOS. BROADBENT & SONS, LTD.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to
+Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished
+Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth
+
+Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+Release Date: May 26, 2004 [EBook #12443]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 1: David Bridge & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 2: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 3: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 4: Robert Hall & Sons]
+
+[Advertisement 5: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 6: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 7: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 8: White, Milne & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 9: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 10: Robert Stiven & Co.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 11: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series
+(Book List)]
+
+
+
+PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+BY T. WOODHOUSE
+
+  HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE
+  TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+
+  FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS,
+  BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH.
+  AUTHOR   OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS,"
+  "HEALDS AND   REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND PORTERS,"
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"
+    "TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"
+    "TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"
+    "TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,
+
+AND
+
+P. KILGOUR
+
+  HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,
+    DUNDEE TECHNICAL   COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+  FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.
+
+
+
+1921
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 12: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.,]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+  The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+  all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants,
+  the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre
+  into useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+  important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+  and the   description, although not severely technical, is
+  sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+  knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+  and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine
+  of jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium
+  of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+  more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects.
+
+              T. WOODHOUSE.
+              P. KILGOUR.
+
+     March, 1921.
+
+
+[Advertisement 13: J. M. Adam & Co.]
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  CHAP.
+        PREFACE
+     I. INTRODUCTORY
+    II. CULTIVATION
+   III. RETTING
+    IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE.
+     V. MILL OPERATIONS
+    VI. BATCHING
+   VII. CARDING
+  VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+    IX. THE ROVING FRAME
+     X. SPINNING
+    XI. TWISTING AND REELING.
+   XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+  XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING.
+   XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING
+    XV. FINISHING
+        INDEX
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: James F. Low & Co., LTD.]
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.
+   1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND
+   2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"
+   3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT
+   4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+        FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE
+   5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A
+        WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS
+   6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE
+        ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR
+   7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE
+        FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6
+   8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+   9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD)
+  10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED
+        AND PREPARED FIBRE
+  11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS
+  12. BATCHING APPARATUS
+  13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS
+  14. MODERN BREAKER CARD
+  15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD
+  16. WASTE TEAZER
+  17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME
+  18. ROVING FRAME
+  19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK
+  20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT
+  21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES
+  22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS
+  24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.)
+  26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+  27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.
+  28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE
+  29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE
+  30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS
+  31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY
+  32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS
+  33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.
+  34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH
+  35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.
+  36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS
+  37. BOBBY LOOM
+  38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM
+  39. THE OLD WAY
+  40. THE NEW WAY
+  41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK
+  42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE
+  43. DAMPING MACHINE
+  44. CALENDER
+  45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE
+  46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE
+  47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE
+  48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE
+  49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.
+  50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTORY
+
+The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton,
+flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in
+general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price,
+but also in regard to utility. It is only under phenomenal
+conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took
+place during the world's great war from 1914 onwards that, from a
+commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre
+and its products are fully realized. Millions of sand bags were made
+from the year 1914 to the year 1918 solely for military purposes,
+while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering
+material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other
+textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. It is on
+record that in one short period of fourteen days, 150,000,000
+sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from Dundee to be
+used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict.
+
+A glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the
+fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a
+hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to
+import the fibre into Great Britain in the latter part of the 18th
+century, and it has been used in India for centuries in the making
+of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous
+to that country. And since all the manufacturing methods there, for
+a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could
+be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the
+needs of a small section of the community on the Eastern shores.
+
+The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of
+Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it was only after
+repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples
+of jute for practical experiments The fibre was so unlike any of the
+existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious
+to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so;
+these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was
+finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute
+industry.
+
+Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute
+fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when the first
+small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home of the jute
+industry. This quantity was imported into this country with the
+special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the
+same way as flax fibre was being treated. At this period Dundee was
+a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning
+and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural
+that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute
+fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the
+preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we
+mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax,
+and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to
+be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated.
+These modifications shall be discussed at a later stage.
+
+It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, the
+imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns which were
+made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for
+the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of
+cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized.
+About the year 1838, representatives of the Dutch Government placed
+comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to
+be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their West Indian
+possessions. The subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the
+demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above
+fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance.
+
+By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute fibre had
+increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 tons in the
+season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed to the
+possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in India--the
+seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At least such a
+probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a small
+consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an attempt
+made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the Indian
+native industry.
+
+The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories
+soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to
+induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of
+training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives
+constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to leave the
+mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the
+country.
+
+In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in
+India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, the
+quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other British ports
+amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period preceding the war,
+nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various countries, while the
+Indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the
+mills in the vicinity of Calcutta--reached the same huge total of
+one million tons.
+
+The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and
+consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the
+production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be
+ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and
+one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the
+near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. As a
+matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are
+contemplated and actually taking place in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  CULTIVATION
+
+_Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant_. Jute fibre is
+obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in
+the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the fruit of the
+variety _Corchorus Capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of
+approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety
+_Corchorus Olitorius_ is contained in a pod. Both belong to the
+order _Tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in Bengal and
+Assam.
+
+Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _Corchorus Japonicus_ of Japan,
+and the _Corchorus Mompoxensis_ used in Panama for making a kind of
+tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of
+job as the Jew's Mallow; this variety _C. Olitorius_, has been used
+in the East from time immemorial as a pot herb.
+
+The two main varieties _C. Capsularis_ and _C. Olilorius_ are
+cultivated in Bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed
+purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in Assam, and the
+seeds exported for use principally in Mymensingh and Dacca.
+
+The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from 5 to
+15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four
+months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems of jute
+plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are
+green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. The leaves
+are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in length, and about 1-1/2
+inches in breadth with serrated edges. Pale yellow flowers spring
+from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of
+small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of
+the variety.
+
+While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the geographical
+position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions.
+On referring to a map of India, it will be seen that Bengal is
+directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north
+by the great Himalayan mountains.
+
+During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north,
+large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but
+when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly
+during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general
+temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts.
+The rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and
+west of Bengal--the Patna and the Brahmaputra--and the tremendous
+volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter
+which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial
+deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the
+propagation of the jute plants.
+
+The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the
+rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and Pabna,
+and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, Orissa
+and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these areas.
+
+The _Corchorus Capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the
+higher and richer soils, while the _Corchorus Olitorius_ variety is
+most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts
+where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _C. Olitorius_ may be
+grown in certain other districts of India which appear quite
+unsuitable for the _C. Capsularis_.
+
+The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with
+the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not
+the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there
+is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern
+methods may be the absence of horses.
+
+The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in teams
+of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where
+a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute
+cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as
+horses do in this country.
+
+The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods
+may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece
+of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks.
+
+The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process
+which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are
+made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting
+pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the
+previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be
+used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine
+tilth may be produced.
+
+When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but
+other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at
+similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure is preferred, but
+castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good
+substitutes.
+
+
+After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by
+hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular
+district. The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May,
+and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND]
+
+There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully
+judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for
+the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for
+easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of
+seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ.
+
+
+It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform
+a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used depends partly
+upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre
+are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2
+lbs.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"]
+
+Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in
+order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants.
+Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from
+plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants;
+they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. The fibres
+obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining
+seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when
+succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to.
+
+If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in
+8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. The heat and
+showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should
+be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with
+long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the operation in process. This
+second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture
+and heat to enter. The young plants are now thinned, and the ground
+weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or
+strength to prevent the words from spreading.
+
+The space between the growing plants will vary according to the
+region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance
+of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants
+show prospects of growing thick and tall.
+
+In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 1/2 to
+4 months from the time of sowing. Although different opinions are
+held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are
+setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage
+usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly
+cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality.
+
+The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general,
+these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite
+suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants ready for cutting
+will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the
+operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it
+requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green crop to produce about 10 to
+15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  RETTING
+
+The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are
+embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water,
+since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a
+period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is dependent upon the
+period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is
+performed.
+
+The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is
+technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the
+water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the
+plants are under treatment.
+
+The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a
+bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. The
+farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making
+by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the
+formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to
+see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous
+layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. The stems are
+tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast
+layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. When the ryot
+considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently
+easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is
+commenced immediately. This latter process is conducted in various
+ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district.
+
+
+In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody
+structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails
+fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand;
+while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women
+who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core
+or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. The strips of fibre
+are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable
+impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it
+over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun.
+
+If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants
+are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to
+some other place provided with a better supply of water for the
+final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to
+create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or
+difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry.
+
+Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant.
+The lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a
+complete cross section. The central part of the stem or pith is
+lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; the outer
+covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual fibrous layer
+appears between the parts B and C, and some of the fibres are
+indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding parts in the three
+distinct views. The middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a
+small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a
+further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. It will
+be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT]
+
+Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks,
+and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of
+preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say
+one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the
+tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus
+loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the
+fibrous layer free. The straws are collected for future use, while the
+fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE
+
+The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. The
+method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some
+districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a
+number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in
+the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to
+sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. A
+maund is approximately equal to 8 lbs., and this quantity forms a
+comparatively small bundle. In other cases, the fibre is made up into
+what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2
+to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in
+India.
+
+Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 million
+bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the remaining half is
+baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over
+one million bales are exported annually to Great Britain, the bulk
+of this fibre comes to Dundee.
+
+It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of
+assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea
+of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for
+special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of selecting and
+grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large
+amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark."
+A mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol,
+name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or
+more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the
+origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant.
+
+In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better
+quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality
+is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality
+of which is below these good ones. Since there are hundreds of
+different marks which are of value only to those connected directly
+with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. The
+following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is
+taken from the Market Report of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920.
+The price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date
+very high, so in order to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal
+prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first
+marks, for the same month in the years 1915 onwards.
+
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+
+           �. s. d.      �. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+
+It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract,
+and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre.
+
+After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is
+made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of these
+200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the
+weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a permitted
+quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while the
+dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X 1'6" X 1'
+4".
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE]
+
+Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large establishments,
+and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and
+efficiently with the large number of bales. In Fig. 4 scores of
+natives, superintended by a European, are seen carrying the smaller
+bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. It is,
+of course, unnecessary to make the solid 400 lb. bales for Indian
+consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which
+is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at
+the baling station by a Chamber of Commerce expert.
+
+Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the Calcutta
+district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with the most
+efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 illustrates one
+of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity.
+Two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by
+different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential
+for the successful prosecution of the work. Two such presses as that
+illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, under efficient administration, of
+turning out 130 bales of 400 lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is
+compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal
+to 6,000 lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in
+cubical capacity 11 cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is
+usual for freight purposes to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton.
+(Now changed to 50 cubic feet.)
+
+The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from
+barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 to
+46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel brought
+70,000 bales.
+
+As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality,
+and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.  Although this is
+the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute
+to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the
+"Spot." It is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample,
+such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or
+"parcel," as it is often called. The contract forms are very complete,
+and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all
+concerned in the trade.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT
+CYCLONE PRESS]
+
+It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large
+quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from
+plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it should
+be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and
+additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears
+possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it
+seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands
+for a corresponding type of manufactured product.
+
+The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually,
+but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree
+the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of
+the world.
+
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING
+JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR]
+
+              JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+
+             Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+
+A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side
+adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are raised quickly
+from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in Fig.
+6 since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in Fig.
+7. When the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to
+the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to
+the more horizontal part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then
+removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and
+piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid
+of a crane. Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales
+to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are stored
+in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM
+THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  MILL OPERATIONS
+
+_Bale Opening_. Each spinner, as already indicated, stores his
+bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient
+manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number
+of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing
+department of the mill.
+
+In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the
+mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different
+kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for
+the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of
+material. In much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the
+jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more
+extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," in its simplest
+definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable
+for subsequent handling in the Batching Department. This number may
+include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute according to the amount of
+accommodation in the preparing department.
+
+All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard
+quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It must be
+remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to
+quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or
+firms of balers or merchants. At other times, the batch of 5 to 10
+bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of
+each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn,
+partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of
+the combination.
+
+It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn
+is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any
+particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple differentiation,
+the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of
+cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in
+some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same
+cloth.
+
+On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of
+jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so
+that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be
+produced. The same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year,
+but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary
+from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation
+of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather
+during the time of growth, and during the season generally.
+
+A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department,
+this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales are, of course,
+defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must
+be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is
+any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be
+notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its
+place without effecting any great change in the character or quality
+of the yarn.
+
+When the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed
+from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are
+conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable
+position near the first machine in the series. It need hardly be
+mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is
+subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a
+very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the various
+so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced
+into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are quite
+unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened
+out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from
+each other. This operation is termed "opening" and the process is
+conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is
+illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee.
+
+The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner
+near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that
+they can be handled to the best advantage. The bands or ropes, see
+Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large
+pieces of jute can be separated. If any irregularity in the
+selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes
+place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty
+handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no
+chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at
+this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the
+fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good
+average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a
+judicious selection in every case. The usual variations are--the
+colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain
+impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute,
+which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully
+mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may
+disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different
+machines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in
+hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and
+this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. As already
+indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left
+in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which
+carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed
+rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very
+deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair of
+deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure.
+These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads
+of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery
+sheet on the right. The delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has
+a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the
+extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by
+the operatives. The upper rollers in the machine may rise in their
+bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the
+bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin
+places of the heads.
+
+A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &
+Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart patent is illustrated in
+Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in
+the shape of the crushing or opening rollers.
+
+It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are
+three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and
+situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller has a
+series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. The
+knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard
+layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute
+have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing
+between the rollers. This double action naturally aids in opening up
+the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective,
+gives excellent results in practice. The degree of pressure provided
+for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads
+of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the
+highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, & Co_.]
+
+The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this
+machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives good
+results in practice.
+
+In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that
+the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size
+quite freely.
+
+The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position
+near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as
+the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the
+batchers, who split them. The most suitable size of pieces are 2-1/2
+to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 feet in length, but the size of
+the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is
+to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's
+opinion of what will give the best overall result.
+
+After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller
+pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher
+or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could watch the above
+operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it
+would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of
+unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. As the
+loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 or 9, it is
+placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging,
+and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he
+grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a
+dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the
+handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it
+takes to describe the operation.
+
+As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on
+stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by
+means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added
+for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables
+the fibre to work freely in the various machines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  BATCHING
+
+_Softening and Softening Machines_. Two distinct courses are
+followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the
+bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. These
+courses are designated as--
+
+      1. Hand Batching.
+      2. Machine Batching.
+
+In the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of
+jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to
+facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts
+which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not
+convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large
+stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. 10.
+
+On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the
+pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually
+long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, from a similar
+sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the
+attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity.
+The ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount
+of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above
+method is not to be commended. A conscientious worker can, however,
+with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of
+course, supplied by the person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on
+the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the
+spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or
+partition on the right.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED AND
+PREPARED FIBRE]
+
+The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is filled
+with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain
+there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the material may be
+more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. At the end of this
+time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the
+softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of
+bending and crushing.
+
+All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often
+called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of
+rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of
+managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, which, in the
+form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls,
+is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of rollers or any other number
+which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. The sections are made in 8's. The
+illustration shows only 31 pairs.
+
+The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as clearly
+shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique
+flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. What
+is often considered as a standard softening machine contains 63
+pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers.
+As mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances.
+
+The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet,
+and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways
+before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the
+machine.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus]
+
+Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application
+of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform
+than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. On the
+other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the
+lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously,
+although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the
+cart after it has left the softener.
+
+The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or
+"stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual lubricating
+equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the
+centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to the side frames
+of the softening machine proper, say that shown in Fig. 11. Its
+exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a
+matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the
+material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers.
+
+In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen clearly,
+and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or
+pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately
+above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars.
+
+Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one vertical
+and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is attached by
+suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the
+machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame,
+while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a
+rod projecting from the frame. The lower or curved end of the
+oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping
+of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular
+feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against
+the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a
+thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the
+curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and
+thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity
+of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism
+is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick.
+When the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in
+the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is
+moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the
+thin part of the strick. It will be understood that all makers of
+softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching
+apparatus when desired.
+
+A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel wheels at
+the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against
+accidents. In many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed
+end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the
+operative is in danger. The batching apparatus for this machine is
+of a different kind from that illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it
+is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed
+pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane,
+and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on
+the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.
+
+The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the
+nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The barrow
+of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which
+have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for
+conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future
+treatment.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus]
+
+While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is graded
+in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn
+without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to
+utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection
+and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching.
+
+What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine
+known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into the
+machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in
+order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter drops
+through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is
+delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the
+softener.
+
+The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine
+termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively
+hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a teazer may also be
+used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and
+similar close textures.
+
+The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a
+heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then
+the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed
+to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain quantity of
+this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to
+form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.
+
+A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of
+a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends of the
+stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two parts are
+severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the
+strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder,
+and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of
+securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  CARDING
+
+_Breaker and Finisher Cards_. After the fibre from the softening
+machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for
+one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture;
+this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct
+types of machines--
+
+
+        1. The breaker card.
+        2. The finisher card.
+
+
+The functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one
+might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one
+continuous operation.
+
+The main difference between the two types of machines is in the
+method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the
+small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the action
+on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and
+splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving
+roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side
+by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of
+another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the
+combing of the fibre. The pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so
+to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller
+comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a
+comparatively fine division.
+
+The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A receptacle,
+very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far
+end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.
+
+A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or back of
+the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card
+on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the
+observer. The protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would
+be seen as clearly as possible.
+
+Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of
+the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped
+stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth,
+which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the
+feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a "shell" feed
+because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped
+somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually decreasing and
+suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins
+of the feed roller.
+
+The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of
+fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously
+carried into the machine where they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a
+cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes
+place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, 24 inches to
+30 inches below. The fibres which are separated at this stage are
+carried a little further round until they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller,
+termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward
+under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further
+combed and split. A portion of the fibres is carried round by the
+pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the
+quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a
+"stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of
+the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD]
+
+The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker
+and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a
+second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately
+the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the
+pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing
+rollers. The sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into
+the broad and upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly
+of tin and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in
+Fig. 14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and,
+of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and
+delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can,
+distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. The sliver is
+seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can.
+
+The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward
+relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less
+parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" is used to
+indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other,
+and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out
+of the fibres by this special term "draft."
+
+It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can
+at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant flow will
+soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can,
+although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. The machine must,
+of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be
+kept in practically constant work. As a matter of fact, the machines
+are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable
+condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be
+satisfactorily fulfilled.
+
+The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to
+that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the pulley
+side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are fed by slivers which
+have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but
+there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of
+arranging the slivers at the feed side. In both cases, however, the
+full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with,
+however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each
+extreme end.
+
+One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full sliver
+cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and
+to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The sliver from
+each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and
+thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The slivers are
+guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet"
+which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers.
+The feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type,
+and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. It
+will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different
+problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively
+uneven stricks.
+
+[Illustration: By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd.
+FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD]
+
+The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the
+machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus form,
+as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this
+sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs
+of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as
+already described in connection with the breaker card. There are,
+however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are
+in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs
+of rollers, the former may be arranged with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs
+of rollers (6 workers and 6 strippers). The number of pairs of
+rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the
+opinions of the various managers.
+
+There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--
+
+         1. Half-circular finisher cards.
+
+         2. Full-circular finisher cards.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and such
+machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so
+disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete
+circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to
+undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact
+with the doffer. There are five pairs of rollers in the machine in
+Fig. 15, and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels
+fenced. The arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very
+similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14,
+and therefore requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes
+the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and
+adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to
+examine the rollers and other parts.
+
+The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various
+rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are
+ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the
+cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. The
+conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the
+width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the
+other section. These two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet,
+traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two
+slivers about 6 inches above the point or plane in which the 10 or 12
+slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two
+slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface
+of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction
+of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can.
+
+In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine illustrated
+in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported
+by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. This special
+mechanism is termed a "Patent Push Bar Drawing Head," and the
+function which it performs will be described shortly; in the
+meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the
+slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. A
+very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a
+finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should
+work in unison. In the machine under consideration, the feed and
+delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage
+of the draw-head mechanism.
+
+One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform
+thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. A
+so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter,
+but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected
+with the full sense of the word uniform.
+
+It has already been stated that in the batching department various
+qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to
+obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different grades and marks
+vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness;
+it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse
+qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process
+so as to facilitate the subsequent operations.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd. _
+FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER]
+
+However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the
+batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be
+desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary.
+It need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement,
+and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care
+which is exercised in the preliminary processes.
+
+The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new length,
+and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each
+individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the new
+length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths
+and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting takes place
+in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined
+10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of 8 to 16 or even
+more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which
+passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of 8 to 16 yards
+or whatever the draft happens to be. The resulting sliver will
+therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the
+original individual slivers. The actual ratio between them will
+obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the
+material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.
+
+It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous
+material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as
+card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is produced, in
+spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine
+which is not delivered as perfect material. All this waste from
+various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes,
+dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver
+for heavy sacking weft.
+
+The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the
+valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are
+passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. F. Low &
+Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. The resulting mass
+is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material,
+and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the
+production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used
+for sacking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+
+The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the
+breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement
+of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in
+the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the
+peripheries of rotating rollers. In the draw-head mechanism, the
+pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or
+straight path. In the machines which fall to be discussed in this
+chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the
+slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a
+matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small
+drawing frame, as its name implies. Moreover, each row or rather
+double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a
+"faller." The faller as a whole consists of three parts:
+
+        1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for being
+        moved in a closed circuit.
+
+        2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or
+        "stocks," fixed to the rod.
+
+        3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes about
+        1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or
+        hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above
+        gills.
+
+The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular
+method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the
+fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the
+movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers.
+There are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of
+a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining"
+rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller;
+immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last
+pair is the delivery rollers. The delivery rollers of one type of
+drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by
+Messsrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly
+in Fig. 17, and the can or cans into which the slivers are
+ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more
+sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration.
+The large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing
+roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the
+centre of same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill
+pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.
+
+Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is
+led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver
+guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately the slivers
+leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of
+a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the
+upper and active position. Each short length of slivers is
+penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up
+successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the
+same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. The sheet of
+pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the
+drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. As each
+faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is
+made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this
+point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until
+it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between
+the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always
+one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining
+the set at the back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame]
+
+The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing
+rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all
+cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. This condition is
+necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much
+greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference
+between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual
+draft.
+
+Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded
+in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned,
+to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip
+of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward ends of the fibres
+are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres
+affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing
+rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. It will
+be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two
+pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be
+snapped. It is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance
+between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres
+under treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."
+
+On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which
+bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers,
+and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are
+diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again
+diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes
+straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the
+guide of the delivery rollers. It will thus be seen that a number of
+slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft,
+are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or
+conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a
+sliver can.
+
+The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of the
+same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. With
+the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the
+far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. The
+set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the
+fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown,
+and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to
+the operative. The machines are made with what are known as
+"two heads" or "three heads." It will be seen from the large
+pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a
+"two-head" drawing frame.
+
+The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a
+further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine
+termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills for this
+frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first
+drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and
+the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and
+therefore need no further description. It should be mentioned,
+however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their
+designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the
+fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. The names
+of other drawing frames appear below.
+
+  Spiral or screw gill;
+  Open link chain;
+  Rotary;
+  Ring Carrier
+  Circular.
+
+For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in
+a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered
+sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE ROVING FRAME
+
+The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there
+still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the
+slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. And, in
+addition to these important functions, two other equally important
+operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to
+the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a
+"rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove
+bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.
+
+The machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a
+"roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, and with
+different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided
+for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with
+two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of spindles, flyers,
+and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in Fig. 18, which
+represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.
+
+Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the
+upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the
+flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The discs or
+bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or
+"builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass
+through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a
+"flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the
+spindles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME _By Permission of Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be seen
+that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers
+passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye,
+then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer,
+round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of
+the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. Each bobbin has its
+own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this
+can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining
+rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the
+drawing (also the delivery) rollers. Here the sliver terminates
+because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and
+causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form.
+From this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described
+above.
+
+As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver
+is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery
+of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about 20 yards
+per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also driven at a
+constant speed, because in all cases we have--
+
+  spindle speed = delivery x twist.
+
+There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove
+bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven
+independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one
+series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the bobbin differs,
+however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the
+effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the
+beginning of each new layer.
+
+The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane,
+and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height
+from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are raised gradually by
+the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the
+bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during
+the formation of each layer from bottom to top. In other words, the
+travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the
+inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK]
+
+Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue
+of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin,
+and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the
+combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of
+the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and
+variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by means of which this
+desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one
+of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in
+textile machinery. Some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as
+well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered
+from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical
+experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed 50 years
+elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts
+was evolved for performing the function.
+
+The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential
+motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing
+arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the
+various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide
+with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated
+but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without
+strain or stretch. The varying motion is regulated and obtained by a
+drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear
+is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct
+motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the
+bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and the
+whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels
+to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest
+the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded,
+and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position
+on both sides. The machine is adapted for building 10 in. X 5 in.
+bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. outside diameter,
+and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the illustration showing
+part of a machine and approximately 48 spindles.
+
+The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of
+the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 in. frame,
+and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are 10 in.
+apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder
+would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the standard size for
+the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. bobbins are
+used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. When the
+finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning
+direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, 8 in. x 4
+in. bobbins are largely used.
+
+Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove
+so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and
+according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in
+these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist
+gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic
+index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.  SPINNING
+
+The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn
+required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process of
+spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done
+before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The nomenclature
+is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the
+conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus
+than it is at present; the established name to denote this
+conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number
+of important processes, each one of which is as important and
+necessary as the actual operation of spinning.
+
+A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the
+Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly the wide
+"pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method
+adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. Spinning
+frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any
+practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per side are
+common numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT]
+
+The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. 20, are
+brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel
+(often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually
+above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove bobbin is free to
+rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the
+retaining rollers. The final drafting of the material takes place in
+this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the
+drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of
+yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of
+spinning bobbin.
+
+When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a
+"breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the
+conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by
+means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing
+rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the
+retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and
+the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the
+"thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the
+arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer
+arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The latter is raised and lowered
+as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be
+distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges.
+
+Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which
+passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of
+the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of
+the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of
+spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this connection, the
+parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the
+functions of the two frames differ. The yarn has certainly to be
+wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from
+the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin,
+which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the
+roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually
+driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and
+just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of
+the "temper band" and weight. The temper band is simply a piece of
+leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other
+end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES]
+
+The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one
+of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in
+contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. A varying
+amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue
+of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is
+obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves
+in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of
+the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension.
+
+The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of the
+frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 are at
+right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief
+parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the
+pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove
+yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until
+they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to
+and wound upon the spinning bobbins. The flyers--at one time termed
+throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper
+weights. The chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever,
+adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the
+frame nearest the observer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  TWISTING AND REELING
+
+In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form
+they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On the
+other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it
+is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to
+combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes
+"doubling" when two single yarns only are combined.
+
+Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is
+to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is
+not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or
+more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when
+this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of
+twines, ropes and the like. The twist or twine thus formed will have
+the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required
+for the finished product. The same operation is conducted in the
+making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are
+laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to
+distinguish them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres_, by T.
+Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]
+
+When two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can
+be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a
+ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. There may
+be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop
+motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of
+any group which are being combined happens to break. When several
+threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting
+frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters,"
+and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a
+plate or disc before they reach the tube.
+
+More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally
+adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned
+work on Cordage and similar literature for detailed information.
+
+When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it
+is made up according to requirements, and the general operations
+which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll
+or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. The type or class of
+yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment
+of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be
+used previous to despatching the yarn.
+
+_Reeling_. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting
+solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on
+to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter,
+or rather circumference. Indeed, the circumference of the reel was
+fixed by an Act of Convention of Estates, dating as far back as 1665
+and as under:
+
+"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half
+to the King and half to the attacher."
+
+"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than
+_ten quarters_."
+
+The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All such
+yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be
+reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads
+which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems of dyeing
+and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not
+employed much in the jute industry. Large quantities of jute yarns
+intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable
+bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and
+sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries.
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+
+Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest
+yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn is made
+up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, even 6 cuts
+are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of 4 cuts, 3 cuts,
+2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any group less than 12
+cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of
+convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on
+the swift in the winding frame.
+
+The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure
+the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming
+the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of
+designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. We have already
+seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs.
+of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).
+
+For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same
+count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins on the
+reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins is wound
+round, say,
+
+6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or 120
+threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 separate
+cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been reeled as
+mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are
+complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round
+each group of 120 threads.
+
+A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be
+in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this
+movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to accommodate
+the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.
+
+Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell rings, the
+reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the
+mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. In some
+case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are
+simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking
+the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the
+cuts. At the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the
+mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.
+
+The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of
+winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate
+correctness.
+
+When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut hanks,
+there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. The 24
+mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks
+taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along with others
+of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from 54 lb.
+to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. Each bundle contains a
+number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the
+purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed,
+the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there
+would be exactly 56 lb. per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn,
+there would be 60 lb in a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb.
+in a bundle of 9 lb. yarn.
+
+The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of
+threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal
+condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to
+approach it as closely as possible. Careless workers allow the reel
+to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this
+yields what is known as "short tell." It is not uncommon to
+introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or 124 teeth, instead of the
+nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+
+The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed,
+the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types
+of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. In its simplest
+definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in
+such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. The
+two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical
+terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. The
+threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp,
+while the transverse threads are the weft.
+
+The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a
+large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be
+prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two distinct
+conditions necessitate two general types of winding:
+
+(_a_) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns.
+
+(_b_) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.
+
+For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the
+spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from 7 to
+8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops
+which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.
+
+Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins
+very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used
+for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding machine marked a
+great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with
+the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are
+used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached,
+dyed or similarly treated. Fig. 22 illustrates one of the modern
+bobbin winding machines for jute made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee. The finished product is illustrated by two full
+bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. There are
+also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of
+yarn on the swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and
+since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the
+bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout
+the process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin
+is filled as exemplified in the illustration.
+
+The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a
+fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and
+any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. of yarn,
+a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 to 8 lb.
+Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. diameter; hence for
+8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 yards.
+
+Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines
+adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It is built
+specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of 15 in.
+diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is used
+mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll only is
+shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a 10
+in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by surface or
+frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating
+drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of
+the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the
+floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and
+upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. This rapid traverse,
+combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be
+securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required,
+and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations
+for rolls is much below that for bobbins.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS]
+
+Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary 9
+in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and dressing
+departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning
+bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having
+two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is 80.
+
+The double tier on each side is practicable because of the small
+space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, rolls are
+wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as practised in
+several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each
+side is possible. Both types are made by each machine maker, the one
+illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product of Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee.
+
+In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it
+looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still
+further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS _By permission of
+Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other makers,
+is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls,
+can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions,
+one for each roll.
+
+A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A recent
+improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic
+stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted,
+has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) _By
+permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning
+bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority of
+manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The cops are
+almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the
+exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. There are
+different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case
+the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a
+rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so
+necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition of the cops in
+the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the
+tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning
+bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in
+other machines these conditions are opposite. Thus, in the cop
+winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath,
+and illustrated in Fig. 25, the spinning bobbins are below the cops,
+the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers,
+and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. This view shows
+about three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the above-mentioned
+opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning
+bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the
+low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing
+downwards. Six spindles only appear in this view, which represents
+the machine made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee,
+but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as
+desired within practicable and economic limits.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.
+FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE]
+
+The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in Fig.
+26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while
+the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles.
+The upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a
+clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the
+spindle. When the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are
+when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when
+the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when
+the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel
+wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the
+spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in
+conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface
+of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of
+the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the
+length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the
+partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until
+the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically
+stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may
+be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for
+jute shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the
+angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 26 COP WINDING MACHINE _By permission of Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING
+
+There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the
+weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--
+
+1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and
+when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred
+on to the weaver's beam.
+
+2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and
+then beamed on to a weaver's beam.
+
+3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large
+cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam.
+
+4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on
+to a weaver's beam.
+
+The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned.
+
+For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full spinning
+bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right
+of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The ends of the
+threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves
+of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The heck, or
+apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's
+lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the
+bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the
+illustration. The heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains,
+and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction
+the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when
+the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised
+gradually between the same slides. These movements are necessary in
+order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally
+round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the
+figure. The particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing
+if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about
+42 spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of
+the warp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS]
+
+At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's
+lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill
+with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is rotated by means
+of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill.
+As the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually
+and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical
+spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached.
+A beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs;
+there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the
+pin lease; a common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been
+formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion
+finished being (50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads
+required for the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on
+the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next
+section of 50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite
+direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second
+group of 50 to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch
+with the threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of
+the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been
+introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to accommodate all the
+threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more
+parts or chains. It will be noticed that the heck for the nearest
+mill is opposite about the 12th round of threads from the bobbin,
+whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from
+the top. A completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the
+third mill. When the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and
+simultaneously linked into a chain.
+
+A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often
+better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in No. 2
+method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the full
+equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a
+bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a frame for
+forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for
+drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring
+the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and
+finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the
+form of a chain.
+
+In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is
+shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from the
+two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame
+immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are
+made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp.
+Between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in
+the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. Only
+part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the
+frame adjoining them. All these frames and machines are necessary,
+but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they
+perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the
+foreground of Fig. 28.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE]
+
+Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is
+a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts
+convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a linked chain,
+and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to
+the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind of link is made by
+the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in Fig. 27 are being
+withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains are shown tied up in
+Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near
+the bank.
+
+The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is
+now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the
+small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a
+kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and
+arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are
+attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The chain is
+held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the
+latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact beam of yarn is
+obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam
+last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is
+removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread
+lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually
+and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in
+which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the
+camas or HEALDS, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to
+the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth
+which has been completed.
+
+Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on
+the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's
+beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct
+processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously.
+Thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any
+particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be
+very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools.
+Say, for example, a warp was required to be 600 yards long, and that
+there should be 500 threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn
+would be placed in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads
+from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the
+splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position
+in regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while
+others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam rotates
+at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the
+beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per
+minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 29, and the mechanism displayed
+is identical with that employed for No. 4 method of preparing warps.
+
+The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our example)
+would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. 29. The
+threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet
+between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the
+supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame appears on the
+extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction
+with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a
+position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough
+to hold the required number of spools. The part on the extreme right
+can be ignored at present.
+
+The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in Fig.
+28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in Fig. 29,
+and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the
+stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame,
+and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. It
+may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that
+the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the
+same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE _By
+permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.]
+
+The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the
+two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being
+positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal
+shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The loom beam, which
+is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by
+friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant;
+hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the
+revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying
+amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their
+flannels.
+
+As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between
+the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would be
+arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., and
+bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus,
+to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which 500
+threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the
+ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be understood that in
+the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to
+bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a
+fixed position in the width.
+
+The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 method,
+for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous
+processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example,
+all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size
+immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary
+frame in Fig. 29. The moistened threads must, however, be dried
+before they reach the loom beam. When a warp is starched, dried and
+beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed."
+
+In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in Fig. 30,
+there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns
+before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or rather part
+of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be
+formed of the great length occupied. Several of the threads from the
+spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed,
+then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is
+partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second
+reed. After the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes
+partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each
+of three cylinders arranged �o�, and finally on to the loom beam.
+Each cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a
+position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame
+in Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.
+
+The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend
+somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed
+which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX
+STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS]
+
+A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in Fig. 31.
+This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps
+under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the
+banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the
+same time. In such a case, three cylinders only would be used for
+each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single
+dressing machines. The two weaver's beams, with their pressing
+rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. Some
+machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight.
+A very similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and
+all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be
+wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if the number
+of threads is too many for one bank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of 500,
+as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in each of
+the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as
+much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one
+sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring
+roller. Both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of
+the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in this form on to one of the loom
+beams.
+
+It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box
+is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of
+the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. 30, is a
+pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type.
+Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads passes, becomes
+impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the
+lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and
+returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards
+towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn emerges from the rollers
+and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to
+suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom
+beam at the same rate. But since the diameter of the beam increases
+each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread,
+it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.
+
+The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the
+beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A certain
+amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for
+this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn
+dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw
+forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the
+yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed.
+
+During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train
+of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed
+over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in
+addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an
+ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as
+a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has
+been woven. Thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts,
+each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, the above apparatus would
+measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark
+at intervals of 120 yards on some of the threads. And all this is
+done without stopping the machine. At the time of marking, or
+immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring
+automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the
+warp is about to approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig.
+29, near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.
+
+As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at
+the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a
+pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads.
+
+After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from
+the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails
+of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts)
+and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of
+the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been
+woven into cloth. These latter threads are still intact in the cambs
+and reed in the loom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING
+
+If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the
+ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when
+the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly,
+and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots
+have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far
+forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward,
+or beating up, position during the operation of weaving.
+
+If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations
+would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and,
+when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs
+and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter,"
+"tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual
+operation of weaving. The latter work is often termed "gaiting a web."
+
+There is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the
+simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable
+difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. In nearly all
+the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in
+the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture
+of comparatively simple fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there
+are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others;
+these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling
+and sacking. In addition to these main types, there are several
+other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or
+other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate
+types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of
+carpets and the like.
+
+It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of
+this kind; the commoner types are described in _Jute and Linen
+Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics_; and the more
+elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in
+_Textile Design: Pure and Applied_, both by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.
+
+Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. The
+technical characteristics of each are as follows--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS]
+
+H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine single
+  warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest
+  order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is made from the
+  scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that
+  illustrated.
+
+B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in
+  pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is thick, and the
+  weave is also plain.
+
+T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in bagging,
+  although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft.
+  It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the
+  structures are identical.
+
+S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp yarns,
+  usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium
+  or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill order. The weaves
+  are shown in Fig. 33.
+
+C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or
+  two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. The
+  threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed
+  to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern,
+  or arrow-head pattern.
+
+P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring warp
+  is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite
+  pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. The
+  weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite
+  different from the other plain cloths illustrated. The cloth is
+  reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing
+  slightly in colour ornamentation.
+
+As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, B,
+T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is
+constant and as stated.
+
+All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in Fig.
+33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the
+yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, the unit
+weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid squares, while the
+repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVERS FOR
+VARIOUS CLOTHS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH]
+
+A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H and P,
+Fig. 32.
+
+B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the method
+of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When the warp
+is made double as indicated in weave _B_, the effect in the cloth
+can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for
+weave _A_. Hence, the cloths _H_, _B_ and _T_ can be woven without
+any mechanical alteration in the loom.
+
+_C_ is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 units;
+since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two
+identical single rows, they may be represented as at _D_. The actual
+structure of the cloth _S_ in Fig. 32 is represented on design paper
+at _C_, Fig. 33.
+
+_D_ is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units shown, but
+the mechanical parts for weaving both _C_ and _D_ remain constant.
+
+_E_ is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, while
+
+_F_ is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.
+
+The patterns or cloths for _E_ and _F_ are not illustrated.
+
+_G_ is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, two
+units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at _C_, Fig. 32,
+and involves the use of 4 leaves in the loom.
+
+The solid squares in weave _A_, Fig. 33, are reproduced in the
+left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of a plain
+cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in
+the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks
+of weft (the difference is for distinction only). The left-hand
+intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks,
+while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads
+interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from the weave or design
+to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will
+be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread
+on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft
+shot on the surface, and _vice versa_.
+
+A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by
+belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The loom in
+the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to that
+illustrated at _S_, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a full weaver's
+warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in Fig. 35. There
+are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS]
+
+During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a
+cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in Fig. 25,
+and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle,
+is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the
+opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. The positions of
+the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see
+Fig. 33, and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom
+the other layer occupies a low position. The threads of the warp are
+placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed
+healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these
+two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each
+time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft
+each journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels
+moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes
+successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones
+which preceded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS _By
+permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd._]
+
+The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as
+already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. 33, and the
+selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the
+surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same
+colour. A great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method
+of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of
+pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to
+the mode of interlacing.
+
+To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving
+shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead
+shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which all the looms
+are individually driven by small motors made by the English Electric
+Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular illustration shows
+cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is
+being adopted in many jute factories.
+
+A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 leaves
+are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the
+nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine is made
+by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. The dobby itself,
+or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the
+requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the
+frame-work, and is designed to control 12 leaves, that is, it
+operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM]
+
+A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made from
+jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the
+back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton carpet)
+and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed.
+The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the
+cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the
+needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which
+e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond
+with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer.
+This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton fabrics, and
+these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _P_, Fig.
+32. In both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are
+required. It need hardly be said that there is a considerable
+difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the
+designs and the looms in which they are woven.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, _see_ pp. 394-114, _Textile
+Design: Pure and Applied_, by T. Woodhouse and T. Milne.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM]
+
+In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in
+the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy
+rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room.
+Accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the
+warp beams, are being placed in position. In order to minimize the
+danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with
+fewer hands, some firms have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with
+suitable Lifting Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from
+the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and
+then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of
+transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to
+each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are
+valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct
+from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the
+old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place
+to place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY _By permission of Messrs.
+Herbert Morris, Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  FINISHING
+
+The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves
+the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the cloth,
+removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any
+damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth is passed through
+a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting
+fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart
+appearance. It is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although
+there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated,
+while others again miss this operation entirely.
+
+A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and in
+this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at
+the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been
+woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in Fig. 38. The
+fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton carpets. The
+illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of
+the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually with either two or
+four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK]
+
+The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable
+arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating
+slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth
+in contact with them. This is, of course, at the feed side; the
+cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown
+distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This view illustrates a double
+cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. As the
+cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two
+spirals.[3] When four spirals are required, the frame is much wider,
+and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the
+machines illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE _By permission of
+Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing processes,
+see _The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics_, by T. Woodhouse.
+(Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., Manchester.)]
+
+The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed
+on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in Fig. 43,
+which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &, Co.,
+Dundee. The cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then
+upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and
+over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the
+pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by
+means of a belt on the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled
+rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on
+to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes
+in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process.
+At other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in
+a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of the
+fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The damped
+fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is,
+to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the
+calender.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.,
+Ltd_. FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE]
+
+The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different
+rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls,
+the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. A five-bowl
+calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. 41, and in the
+background, while a complete illustration of a modern 5-bowl calender,
+with full equipment, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd.,
+Dundee, appears in Fig. 44.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 44 CALENDAR]
+
+The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of
+the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom
+roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls
+according to the type of finish desired. For calender finish, the
+bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so
+that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave
+the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in Fig. 34, are
+eliminated by this calendering action. The cloth is then delivered
+at the far side of the machine in Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface
+speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the
+others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by
+ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. The
+faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender
+finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same.
+
+Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish"
+or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length of cloth is
+wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, Fig. 44,
+and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the
+amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the
+way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. The two
+sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in Fig. 44, and these
+act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the
+dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light
+finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. After
+the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it
+is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with
+its belt pulley in Fig. 41.
+
+There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; one is
+driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. Provision
+is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. The
+pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are
+inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure.
+Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a
+oblique position.
+
+The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and
+the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure,
+and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small
+weights used. The heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the
+chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the
+"mangle finish."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE]
+
+A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 45.
+The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to
+what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when
+the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge
+rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four narrow pieces are
+shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the two rollers. There are
+other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the
+beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery
+side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. The
+three pins are arranged thus o�o, and since all three are
+moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each
+roller or pin is moved through 120�. Thus, the stripped pin will be
+placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the
+mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.
+
+While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move
+first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this
+change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism
+situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing
+seen at the far end of the mangle. And while this mangling is taking
+place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously
+mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus
+which deposits the cloth in folds. This operation is also known as
+"cuttling" or "faking." It will be, understood that a wide mangle,
+such as that illustrated in Fig. 45. is constructed specially for
+treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply
+because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.
+Ltd_. Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE]
+
+The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation
+of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought
+into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is
+applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers.
+
+Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a
+measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on
+the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one circle
+of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, 30, up to
+100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in
+circumference.
+
+If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing
+or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden
+centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well,
+and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar
+to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. Cloths
+for this purpose are often made up to 600 yards in length; indeed,
+special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to
+weave cloths up to 2,000 yards in length. Special dressing machines
+and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. When the
+linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre
+are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are
+returned periodically.
+
+Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a
+simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth,
+and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or
+folded by special machines such as that illustrated in Fig. 46. The
+cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown,
+to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars.
+As the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand
+side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the
+convex table. The carriers may be adjusted to move through different
+distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may
+be made.
+
+Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but
+some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and
+this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, however,
+the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. Thus,
+Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and
+made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., Ltd., Dundee. The
+full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent
+stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth passes upwards
+obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it
+is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left.
+The doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven
+drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as
+indicated. The machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and
+delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. In other
+industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging.  Some of
+the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth
+lengthwise as illustrated in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at
+the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.
+FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE]
+
+If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the
+making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made
+annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand,
+semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are
+sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways
+according to requirements.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_
+FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE]
+
+Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this
+purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine different cloths
+are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of
+these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the
+machine. They are then led between the rollers, under the cutting
+knife, and on to the table. The length of cloth is measured as it
+passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are
+supplied so that practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine
+lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and
+when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts
+the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table.
+He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length
+is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means are provided for
+registering the number passed through; from 36,000 yards to 40,000
+yards can be treated per day.
+
+The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in
+Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the sewing is
+usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the Yankee or
+Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than 2,000
+bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking,
+_S_, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost invariably done by the Laing or
+overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in
+Fig. 49, and made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works,
+Dundee. This is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000
+bags can be sewn in one day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE _By
+permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_]
+
+The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form
+of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at
+_S_, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a considerable variety can be
+made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and
+their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same
+cloth, the variety is still further increased.
+
+Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and
+other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the
+necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by
+a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. The
+latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in Fig. 50.
+It is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald,
+Dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two
+distinct colours, say red and black. Occasionally three and
+four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably
+the most common.
+
+[Illustration: _By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_. FIG 50 SACK
+PRINTING MACHINE]
+
+The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the
+many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number
+their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock,
+or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a
+special numbering machine, also made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald.
+
+The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is
+that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a
+hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower moving table upon
+a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite
+quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are
+placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the
+bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed
+table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per square inch is applied
+according to the nature of the goods and their destination. While
+the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates,
+the wrappers a sewn together. Then specially prepared hoops or metal
+bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system,
+involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The
+ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent
+ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the
+pins inserted in the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is
+removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the
+bale securely.
+
+Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre,
+the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into
+cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the
+world's common carrier.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+ACCUMULATOR
+Assorting jute fibre.
+
+BAG-MAKING
+Bale opener
+     opening
+Baling cloth
+     house
+     press
+     station
+Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)
+Batch
+Batchers
+Batching
+     apparatus
+     carts or stalls
+Batch-ticket
+Beamer's lease
+Beaming
+     (dry) direct from bank,
+Blending
+Bobbin winding
+Bojah
+Botanical features of jute plants
+Breaker card
+Brussels carpet
+Bundle of jute.
+
+CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into
+Calender
+     finish
+Calenderoy
+Carding
+Card waste
+Cargoes of jute
+Chest finish
+Clasp-rods
+Conditioning fibre
+Cops
+Cop winding
+Corchorus capsularis
+     clitorius
+Crisping and crisping machines
+Cropping machine
+Cultivation of jute
+Cutting knife for jute fibre
+Cuttings.
+
+DAMPING machine
+Defects in fibre and in handling
+Designs or weaves
+Differential motion
+Dobby loom
+Draft
+Drafting
+Drawing
+  frames
+    different kinds of
+Drawing-in
+Dressing and dressing machine
+Drum
+Drying jute fibre
+Dust shaker.
+
+EAST India Co.
+Exports of jute from India.
+
+FABRICS
+Faller
+Farming operations
+Fibres,
+  the five main
+    imports of jute.
+
+
+Fibrous layer
+Finisher card
+Finishing
+folding machine.
+
+Gaiting
+Glazed finish
+Grading jute fibre
+Gunny bags.
+
+Hand batching
+Harvesting the plants
+Height of jute plants
+Hydraulic mangle
+  press.
+
+Identification marks on bags
+Imports of jute.
+
+Jacquard loom
+Jute crop
+  exports from India
+  fabrics
+  fibre, imports of
+  industry
+  knife
+  plants, botanical and physical features of
+  cultivation of
+  height of
+  marks.
+
+Laddering
+Ladders
+Lapping machine
+Linking machine
+Linoleum
+Looms
+Lubrication of fibre.
+
+Machine batching
+Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta
+Mangle finish
+  (hydraulic)
+Marks of jute (_see_ jute marks)
+Maund
+Measuring and marking machine
+  machine for cloth
+  the warp
+Methods of preparing warps
+Multiple-colour printing machines.
+
+Numbering machine for bags.
+
+Opening jute heads
+Overhead runway systems
+  sewing machine (Laing's).
+
+Packing goods
+Physical features of jute plants
+Pin-lease
+Plaiting machine
+Plants, thinning of
+  weeding of
+Ploughs for jute cultivation
+Point-paper designs
+Porcupine feed
+Printing machine.
+
+Reach
+Reeling
+Retting
+Roller-feed
+Rolls
+Root-comber
+  opener
+Round-thread finish
+Rove
+Roving frame
+Roxburgh, Dr.
+
+Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical
+Sack making
+  printing machine
+Sand bags
+Seed
+  per acre, amount of
+  sowing of
+Sewing machines
+Shell-feed
+Short-tell
+Snipping machine
+Softening machines
+Spinning
+Spool or roll winding
+Spools (_see_ Rolls)
+Standard bale
+Starching (_see_ Dressing)
+Steeping (_see_ Retting)
+Striker-up (_see_ Batcher)
+Stripping
+Systems.
+
+Teazer
+Tell (of yarn)
+Thinning of plants
+Thrum
+Time for harvesting the plants
+Tube-twisters
+Twist
+Twisting
+Two-colour printing machine
+Tying-on
+Typical jute fabrics.
+
+Union Or Yankee sewing machine
+Unloading bales of jute from ship.
+
+Variations in jute
+Varieties of jute fibre
+  plants.
+
+Warp
+Warp dressing (_see_ Dressing)
+Warping, beaming and dressing
+  mill
+Washing
+Waste
+  teazer
+Weaves or designs
+Weaving
+Weaver's lease
+Weeding of plants
+Weft
+  winding
+Wilton carpet
+Winding (bobbin) machine
+  from hank
+  (large roll) machine
+  (ordinary size from hanks) machine
+  rolls and cops
+World's great war.
+
+Yankee or Union sewing machine
+Yarn table
+Yield of fibre.
+
+
+
+_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE]
+
+[Advertisement 15: ROYLES LIMITED.]
+
+[Advertisement 16: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.]
+
+[Advertisement 17: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 18: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED]
+
+[Advertisement 19: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 20: FREDERICK SMITH & CO.]
+
+[Advertisement 21: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 22: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC]
+
+[Advertisement 23: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING & ACCOUNTANCY]
+
+[Advertisement 24: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING]
+
+[Advertisement 25: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY]
+
+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING]
+
+[Advertisement 27: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX]
+
+[Advertisement 28: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING]
+
+[Advertisement 29: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE]
+
+[Advertisement 30: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW]
+
+[Advertisement 31: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH]
+
+[Advertisement 32: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH]
+
+[Advertisement 33: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND]
+
+[Advertisement 34: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES]
+
+[Advertisement 35: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE, READING]
+
+[Advertisement 36: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING, PERIODICALS]
+
+[Advertisement 36: HENRY TAYLOR & SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S BOOKS]
+
+[Advertisement 37: THOS. BROADBENT & SONS, LTD.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to
+Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished
+Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Jute Industry: From Seed to Finished Cloth
+
+Author: T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
+Release Date: May 26, 2004 [EBook #12443]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE JUTE INDUSTRY ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 1: David Bridge & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 2: Chas. Parker, Sons & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 3: Fairbairn, Lawson Combe Barbour, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 4: Robert Hall & Sons]
+
+[Advertisement 5: A. F. Craig & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 6: Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 7: H. Smethurst & Sons, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 8: White, Milne & Co.]
+
+[Advertisement 9: Thomas C. Keay, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 10: Robert Stiven & Co.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 11: Pitman's Commodities and Industries Series
+(Book List)]
+
+
+
+PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+BY T. WOODHOUSE
+
+  HEAD OF THE WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE
+  TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+
+  FORMERLY MANAGER MESSRS. WALTON & CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS,
+  BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH.
+  AUTHOR   OF "THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS,"
+  "HEALDS AND   REEDS FOR WEAVING: SETTS AND PORTERS,"
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM,"
+    "TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE AND APPLIED,"
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES,"
+    "TEXTILE MATHEMATICS,"
+    "TEXTILE DRAWING," ETC.,
+
+AND
+
+P. KILGOUR
+
+  HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT,
+    DUNDEE TECHNICAL   COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF ART
+  FORMERLY MANAGER BELFAST ROPE WORKS.
+  JOINT AUTHOR OF
+    "JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,"
+    "CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES," ETC.
+
+
+
+1921
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 12: George Hattersley & Sons, LTD.,]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+  The sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically
+  all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants,
+  the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre
+  into useful commodities, have been considered. In addition, every
+  important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated,
+  and the   description, although not severely technical, is
+  sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous
+  knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently,
+  and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine
+  of jute manufacture. As a matter of fact, the work forms a medium
+  of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the
+  more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects.
+
+              T. WOODHOUSE.
+              P. KILGOUR.
+
+     March, 1921.
+
+
+[Advertisement 13: J. M. Adam & Co.]
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  CHAP.
+        PREFACE
+     I. INTRODUCTORY
+    II. CULTIVATION
+   III. RETTING
+    IV. ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE.
+     V. MILL OPERATIONS
+    VI. BATCHING
+   VII. CARDING
+  VIII. DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+    IX. THE ROVING FRAME
+     X. SPINNING
+    XI. TWISTING AND REELING.
+   XII. WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+  XIII. WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING.
+   XIV. TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN AND WEAVING
+    XV. FINISHING
+        INDEX
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: James F. Low & Co., LTD.]
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.
+   1. NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND
+   2. BREAKING UP THE SOIL OR "LADDERING"
+   3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF A JUTE PLANT
+   4. NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+        FROM BOAT TO PRESS-HOUSE
+   5. NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A
+        WATSON-FAWCETT CYCLONE PRESS
+   6. VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE
+        ADJOINING JUTE SEEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR
+   7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE
+        FROM VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6
+   8. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+   9. BALE OPENER (MESSRS. CHARLES PARKER, SONS & CO., LTD)
+  10. HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED
+        AND PREPARED FIBRE
+  11. SOFTENING MACHINE WITHOUT BATCHING APPARATUS
+  12. BATCHING APPARATUS
+  13. SOFTENING MACHINE WITH BATCHING APPARATUS
+  14. MODERN BREAKER CARD
+  15. FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING HEAD
+  16. WASTE TEAZER
+  17. PUSH-BAR DRAWING FRAME
+  18. ROVING FRAME
+  19. FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK
+  20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT
+  21. A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES
+  22. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  23. ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS
+  24. ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS)
+  25. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS. DOUGLAS FRASER & SONS, LTD.)
+  26. COP WINDING MACHINE (MESSRS URQUHART, LINDSAY & CO., LTD.)
+  27. A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS.
+  28. POWER CHAIN OR WARP LINKING MACHINE
+  29. WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE
+  30. A MODERN YARN--DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS
+  31. DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS SIMULTANEOUSLY
+  32, SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS
+  33. POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVES FOR VARIOUS CLOTHS.
+  34. DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN CLOTH
+  35. WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS.
+  36. LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS
+  37. BOBBY LOOM
+  38. BRUSSELS AND WILTON CARPET LOOM
+  39. THE OLD WAY
+  40. THE NEW WAY
+  41. CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK
+  42. DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE
+  43. DAMPING MACHINE
+  44. CALENDER
+  45. HYDRAULIC MANGLE
+  46. FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE
+  47. CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE
+  48, SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE
+  49. OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE.
+  50. SACK PRINTING MACHINE.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUTE INDUSTRY
+
+FROM SEED TO FINISHED CLOTH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTORY
+
+The five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton,
+flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in
+general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price,
+but also in regard to utility. It is only under phenomenal
+conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took
+place during the world's great war from 1914 onwards that, from a
+commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre
+and its products are fully realized. Millions of sand bags were made
+from the year 1914 to the year 1918 solely for military purposes,
+while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering
+material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other
+textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. It is on
+record that in one short period of fourteen days, 150,000,000
+sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from Dundee to be
+used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict.
+
+A glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the
+fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a
+hundred years ago. Unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to
+import the fibre into Great Britain in the latter part of the 18th
+century, and it has been used in India for centuries in the making
+of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous
+to that country. And since all the manufacturing methods there, for
+a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could
+be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the
+needs of a small section of the community on the Eastern shores.
+
+The first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of
+Dr. Roxburgh and the East India Company, but it was only after
+repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples
+of jute for practical experiments The fibre was so unlike any of the
+existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious
+to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so;
+these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was
+finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute
+industry.
+
+Apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute
+fibre into Great Britain was delayed until 1822, when the first
+small consignment reached Dundee--now the Western home of the jute
+industry. This quantity was imported into this country with the
+special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the
+same way as flax fibre was being treated. At this period Dundee was
+a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning
+and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural
+that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute
+fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the
+preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. When we say similar, we
+mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a
+considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax,
+and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to
+be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated.
+These modifications shall be discussed at a later stage.
+
+It might be stated that while only 368 cwt. of jute fibre was
+reported as being shipped from Calcutta to this country in 1828, the
+imports gradually increased as time passed on. The yarns which were
+made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for
+the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of
+cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized.
+About the year 1838, representatives of the Dutch Government placed
+comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to
+be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their West Indian
+possessions. The subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the
+demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above
+fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance.
+
+By the year or season 1850-51, the British imports of jute fibre had
+increased to over 28,000 tons, and they reached 46,000 tons in the
+season 1860-61. Attention meanwhile had been directed to the
+possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in India--the
+seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. At least such a
+probability was anticipated, for in the year 1858 a small
+consignment of machinery was despatched to Calcutta, and an attempt
+made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the Indian
+native industry.
+
+The great difference between the more or less unorganized hand
+labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories
+soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to
+induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of
+training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives
+constantly employed. Monetary affairs induced them to leave the
+mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the
+country.
+
+In the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in
+India as well as in Dundee. For several years before the war, the
+quantity of raw jute fibre brought to Dundee and other British ports
+amounted to 200,000 tons. During the same period preceding the war,
+nearly 1,000,000 tons were exported to various countries, while the
+Indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the
+mills in the vicinity of Calcutta--reached the same huge total of
+one million tons.
+
+The growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and
+consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the
+production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be
+ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and
+one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the
+near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. As a
+matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are
+contemplated and actually taking place in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  CULTIVATION
+
+_Botanical and Physical Features of the Plant_. Jute fibre is
+obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in
+the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. Thus, the fruit of the
+variety _Corchorus Capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of
+approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety
+_Corchorus Olitorius_ is contained in a pod. Both belong to the
+order _Tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in Bengal and
+Assam.
+
+Other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _Corchorus Japonicus_ of Japan,
+and the _Corchorus Mompoxensis_ used in Panama for making a kind of
+tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of
+job as the Jew's Mallow; this variety _C. Olitorius_, has been used
+in the East from time immemorial as a pot herb.
+
+The two main varieties _C. Capsularis_ and _C. Olilorius_ are
+cultivated in Bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed
+purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in Assam, and the
+seeds exported for use principally in Mymensingh and Dacca.
+
+The above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from 5 to
+15 feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four
+months from the time of sowing. In some districts the stems of jute
+plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are
+green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. The leaves
+are alternate on the stems, 4 to 5 inches in length, and about 1-1/2
+inches in breadth with serrated edges. Pale yellow flowers spring
+from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of
+small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of
+the variety.
+
+While many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in
+various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the
+necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are
+completely fulfilled only in the Bengal area, and the geographical
+position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions.
+On referring to a map of India, it will be seen that Bengal is
+directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north
+by the great Himalayan mountains.
+
+During the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north,
+large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but
+when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly
+during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general
+temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts.
+The rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and
+west of Bengal--the Patna and the Brahmaputra--and the tremendous
+volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter
+which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of Bengal as alluvial
+deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the
+propagation of the jute plants.
+
+The cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most
+extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the
+rivers, and particularly in Mymensingh, Dacca, Hooghly and Pabna,
+and while 90 per cent. of the fibre is produced in Bengal, Orissa
+and Bihar, there is 10 per cent. produced outside these areas.
+
+The _Corchorus Capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the
+higher and richer soils, while the _Corchorus Olitorius_ variety is
+most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts
+where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _C. Olitorius_ may be
+grown in certain other districts of India which appear quite
+unsuitable for the _C. Capsularis_.
+
+The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with
+the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not
+the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there
+is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern
+methods may be the absence of horses.
+
+The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. Bullocks, in teams
+of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where
+a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute
+cultivation. The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as
+horses do in this country.
+
+The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods
+may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece
+of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks.
+
+The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process
+which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are
+made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting
+pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the
+previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be
+used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine
+tilth may be produced.
+
+When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but
+other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at
+similar stages in the process. Farm-yard manure is preferred, but
+castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good
+substitutes.
+
+
+After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by
+hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular
+district. The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May,
+and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND]
+
+There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully
+judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for
+the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for
+easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of
+seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ.
+
+
+It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two
+directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform
+a distribution as possible. The amount of seed used depends partly
+upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre
+are sown. The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2
+lbs.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR "LADDERING"]
+
+Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in
+order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants.
+Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from
+plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants;
+they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. The fibres
+obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining
+seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when
+succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to.
+
+If the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in
+8 to 10 days, after which the plants grow rapidly. The heat and
+showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should
+be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with
+long pins, and Fig. 2 illustrates the operation in process. This
+second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture
+and heat to enter. The young plants are now thinned, and the ground
+weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or
+strength to prevent the words from spreading.
+
+The space between the growing plants will vary according to the
+region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance
+of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants
+show prospects of growing thick and tall.
+
+In a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about 3 1/2 to
+4 months from the time of sowing. Although different opinions are
+held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are
+setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage
+usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly
+cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality.
+
+The plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general,
+these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite
+suitable for the purpose. A field of jute plants ready for cutting
+will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the
+operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it
+requires about 10 to 14 tons of the green crop to produce about 10 to
+15 cwt. of clean dry fibre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  RETTING
+
+The method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are
+embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water,
+since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a
+period varying from 8 to 30 days; such time is dependent upon the
+period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is
+performed.
+
+The above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is
+technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or
+steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the
+water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the
+plants are under treatment.
+
+The disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a
+bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. The
+farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making
+by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the
+formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to
+see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous
+layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. The stems are
+tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast
+layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. When the ryot
+considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently
+easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is
+commenced immediately. This latter process is conducted in various
+ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district.
+
+
+In one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody
+structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails
+fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand;
+while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women
+who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core
+or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. The strips of fibre
+are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable
+impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it
+over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun.
+
+If the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants
+are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to
+some other place provided with a better supply of water for the
+final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to
+create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or
+difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry.
+
+Fig. 3 illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant.
+The lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a
+complete cross section. The central part of the stem or pith is
+lettered A; the next wide ring B is the woody matter; the outer
+covering or cuticle is marked C; while the actual fibrous layer
+appears between the parts B and C, and some of the fibres are
+indicated by D. The arrows show the corresponding parts in the three
+distinct views. The middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a
+small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a
+further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. It will
+be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3 PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS OF A JUTE
+PLANT]
+
+Another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks,
+and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of
+preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say
+one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the
+tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus
+loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the
+fibrous layer free. The straws are collected for future use, while the
+fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  ASSORTING AND BALING JUTE FIBRE
+
+The Indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. The
+method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some
+districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a
+number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in
+the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to
+sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. A
+maund is approximately equal to 8 lbs., and this quantity forms a
+comparatively small bundle. In other cases, the fibre is made up into
+what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from 1 1/2
+to 3 or 3 1/2 maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in
+India.
+
+Practically one half of the total jute crop, of 9 to 10 million
+bales of 400 lbs. each, is used in India, and the remaining half is
+baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over
+one million bales are exported annually to Great Britain, the bulk
+of this fibre comes to Dundee.
+
+It is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the
+material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of
+assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea
+of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for
+special types of yarn and cloth. Thus, a form of selecting and
+grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large
+amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark."
+A mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol,
+name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or
+more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the
+origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant.
+
+In normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better
+quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality
+is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality
+of which is below these good ones. Since there are hundreds of
+different marks which are of value only to those connected directly
+with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. The
+following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is
+taken from the Market Report of the Dundee Advertiser of March, 1920.
+The price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date
+very high, so in order to make comparisons with the 1920 and normal
+prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first
+marks, for the same month in the years 1915 onwards.
+
+
+     JUTE PRICES, IN MARCH
+          First Marks
+
+   Year.       Price per ton.
+
+           L. s. d.      L. s. d.
+  1915    27         to 35 15
+  1916    44
+  1917    42 10
+  1918    51
+  1919    49
+  1920    70        (spot)
+
+
+It is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are
+generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite
+satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract,
+and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre.
+
+After these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is
+made up into bundles or "bojahs" of 200 lbs. each, and two of these
+200 lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the
+weight of which is 400 lbs. This weight includes a permitted
+quantity of binding rope, up to 6 lbs. in weight, while the
+dimensions in the baling press of the 400 lb. bale are 4'1" X 1'6" X 1'
+4".
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4 NATIVES CARRYING SMALL BALES OF JUTE FIBRE
+FROM BOAT TO PRESS HOUSE]
+
+Large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are
+conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or
+press houses as they are termed. These are very large establishments,
+and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and
+efficiently with the large number of bales. In Fig. 4 scores of
+natives, superintended by a European, are seen carrying the smaller
+bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. It is,
+of course, unnecessary to make the solid 400 lb. bales for Indian
+consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which
+is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at
+the baling station by a Chamber of Commerce expert.
+
+Most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the Calcutta
+district are made in Liverpool, and are provided with the most
+efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. Fig. 5 illustrates one
+of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity.
+Two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by
+different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential
+for the successful prosecution of the work. Two such presses as that
+illustrated in Fig. 5 are capable, under efficient administration, of
+turning out 130 bales of 400 lbs. each in one hour. The fibre is
+compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal
+to 6,000 lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in
+cubical capacity 11 cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is
+usual for freight purposes to reckon 5 bales or 55 cubic feet per ton.
+(Now changed to 50 cubic feet.)
+
+The jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from
+barges into large steamers, many of which carry from 30,000 to
+46,000 bales in one cargo to the European ports. One vessel brought
+70,000 bales.
+
+As already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality,
+and all disputes must be settled by arbitration.  Although this is
+the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute
+to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the
+"Spot." It is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample,
+such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or
+"parcel," as it is often called. The contract forms are very complete,
+and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all
+concerned in the trade.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 5 NATIVES BAILING JUTE FIBRE IN A WATSON-FAWCETT
+CYCLONE PRESS]
+
+It will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large
+quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from
+plants which have been grown under variable climatic and
+agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the
+finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very
+indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the
+ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. On the other hand, it should
+be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and
+additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears
+possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it
+seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands
+for a corresponding type of manufactured product.
+
+The crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually,
+but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree
+the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of
+the world.
+
+
+                EXPORTS OF JUTE FROM INDIA
+
+            Year.     Tons.       Bales.
+
+            1828        18      300 lbs/bale
+            1832       182      300 lbs/bale
+            1833       300      300 lbs/bale
+            1834       828      300 lbs/bale
+            1835     1,222      300 lbs/bale
+            1836        16      300 lbs/bale
+            1837       171      300 lbs/bale
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6 VESSEL LADEN WITH JUTE AT QUAY-SIDE ADJOINING
+JUTE SHEDS IN DUNDEE HARBOUR]
+
+              JUTE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
+
+             Season.      Tons.    Bales (400 lbs.).
+
+            1850-51.     28,247       158,183
+            1860-61.     46,182       258,619
+            1862-63.    108,776       609,146
+            1863-64.    125,903       707,056
+            1872-73.    406,335     2,275,476
+            1880-81.    343,596     1,924,137
+            1886-87.    413,664     2,316,518
+            1892-93.    586,258     3,083,023
+            1896-97.    588,141     3,293,591
+            1902-03.    580,967     3,253,414
+            1906-07.    829,273     4,643,929
+            1907-08.  1,761,982     9,867,100
+            1908-09.  1,135,856     6,360,800
+            1909-10.  1,302,782     7,295,580
+            1910-11   1,434,286     8,032,000
+            1911-12.  1,488,339     8,334,700
+            1912-13.  1,718,180     9,621,829
+            1913-14.  1,580,674     8,851,775
+            1914-15.  1,898,483    10,631,505
+            1915-16.  1,344,417     7,528,733
+            1916-17.  1,493,976     8,366,266
+            1917-18.  1,607,922     9,004,364
+            1918-19.  1,278,425     7,159,180
+            1919-20.  1,542,178     8,636,200
+
+
+A large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side
+adjoining the jute sheds in Fig. 6. The bales are raised quickly
+from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in Fig.
+6 since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in Fig.
+7. When the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to
+the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to
+the more horizontal part as exemplified in Fig. 7. They are then
+removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and
+piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid
+of a crane. Motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales
+to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed
+spinning takes place. It will be understood that the bales are stored
+in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARBOUR PORTERS REMOVING BALES OF JUTE FROM
+THE VESSEL SHOWN IN FIG. 6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  MILL OPERATIONS
+
+_Bale Opening_. Each spinner, as already indicated, stores his
+bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient
+manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number
+of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing
+department of the mill.
+
+In the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the
+mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different
+kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for
+the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of
+material. In much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the
+jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more
+extensive use is made of the word. A "batch," in its simplest
+definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable
+for subsequent handling in the Batching Department. This number may
+include 5, 6, 7 or more bales of jute according to the amount of
+accommodation in the preparing department.
+
+All the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard
+quality of jute, although the marks may be different. It must be
+remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to
+quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or
+firms of balers or merchants. At other times, the batch of 5 to 10
+bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of
+each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn,
+partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of
+the combination.
+
+It will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn
+is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any
+particular batch. For example, to refer to a simple differentiation,
+the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of
+cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in
+some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same
+cloth.
+
+On the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of
+jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so
+that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be
+produced. The same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year,
+but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary
+from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation
+of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather
+during the time of growth, and during the season generally.
+
+A list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department,
+this list being known as a "batch-ticket." The bales are, of course,
+defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must
+be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is
+any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be
+notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its
+place without effecting any great change in the character or quality
+of the yarn.
+
+When the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed
+from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are
+conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable
+position near the first machine in the series. It need hardly be
+mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is
+subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a
+very solid and hard appearance, see Fig. 7, for the various
+so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced
+into a very small bulk. In such a state, the heads are quite
+unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened
+out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from
+each other. This operation is termed "opening" and the process is
+conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is
+illustrated in Fig. 8, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee.
+
+The various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner
+near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that
+they can be handled to the best advantage. The bands or ropes, see
+Fig. 7, are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large
+pieces of jute can be separated. If any irregularity in the
+selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes
+place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty
+handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no
+chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at
+this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the
+fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good
+average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a
+judicious selection in every case. The usual variations are--the
+colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain
+impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute,
+which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully
+mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may
+disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different
+machines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+The layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in
+hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and
+this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. As already
+indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left
+in Fig. 8, each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which
+carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed
+rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very
+deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. The last pair of
+deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure.
+These two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads
+of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery
+sheet on the right. The delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has
+a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the
+extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by
+the operatives. The upper rollers in the machine may rise in their
+bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the
+bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin
+places of the heads.
+
+A different type of bale opener, made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons, &
+Co., Dundee, and designed from the Butchart patent is illustrated in
+Fig. 9. It differs mainly from the machine illustrated in Fig. 8 in
+the shape of the crushing or opening rollers.
+
+It will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are
+three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and
+situated between two lower but smaller rollers. Each roller has a
+series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. The
+knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard
+layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute
+have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing
+between the rollers. This double action naturally aids in opening up
+the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective,
+gives excellent results in practice. The degree of pressure provided
+for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads
+of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the
+highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9 BALE OPENER _By permission of Messrs. Charles
+Parker, Sons, & Co_.]
+
+The driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this
+machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the
+machine illustrated in Fig. 8, a machine which also gives good
+results in practice.
+
+In both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that
+the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size
+quite freely.
+
+The men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position
+near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as
+the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the
+batchers, who split them. The most suitable size of pieces are 2-1/2
+to 3 lbs. for a piece of 7 feet to 8 feet in length, but the size of
+the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is
+to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's
+opinion of what will give the best overall result.
+
+After the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller
+pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher
+or "striker-up" to deal with. If the reader could watch the above
+operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it
+would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of
+unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. As the
+loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, Figs. 8 or 9, it is
+placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging,
+and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he
+grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a
+dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the
+handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it
+takes to describe the operation.
+
+As the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on
+stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by
+means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added
+for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables
+the fibre to work freely in the various machines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  BATCHING
+
+_Softening and Softening Machines_. Two distinct courses are
+followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the
+bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. These
+courses are designated as--
+
+      1. Hand Batching.
+      2. Machine Batching.
+
+In the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of
+jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to
+facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts
+which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not
+convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large
+stalls such as those illustrated in Fig. 10.
+
+On the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the
+necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the
+pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually
+long tubes. After the oil has been added, water, from a similar
+sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the
+attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity.
+The ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount
+of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above
+method is not to be commended. A conscientious worker can, however,
+with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of
+course, supplied by the person in charge. In Fig. 10, the tank on
+the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the
+spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or
+partition on the right.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 10 HAND-BATCHING DEPARTMENT WITH UNPREPARED AND
+PREPARED FIBRE]
+
+The first stall--that next to the oil tank--in Fig. 10 is filled
+with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain
+there for some time, say 24 hours, in order that the material may be
+more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. At the end of this
+time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the
+softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of
+bending and crushing.
+
+All softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often
+called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of
+rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of
+managers. Thus, the softener illustrated in Fig. 11, which, in the
+form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls,
+is made with 47, 55, 63 or 71 pairs of rollers or any other number
+which, minus 1, is a measure of 8. The sections are made in 8's. The
+illustration shows only 31 pairs.
+
+The first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the
+foreground of Fig. 11--is provided with straight flutes as clearly
+shown. All the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique
+flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. What
+is often considered as a standard softening machine contains 63
+pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers.
+As mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances.
+
+The lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet,
+and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways
+before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the
+machine.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11 Softening machine without batching apparatus]
+
+Machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application
+of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform
+than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. On the
+other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the
+lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously,
+although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the
+cart after it has left the softener.
+
+The mechanical apparatus as made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or
+"stricks" of jute is illustrated in Fig. 12. The actual lubricating
+equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the
+centre of the illustration. This frame is bolted to the side frames
+of the softening machine proper, say that shown in Fig. 11. Its
+exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a
+matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the
+material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers.
+
+In Fig. 12 the ends of 13 rollers of the upper set are seen clearly,
+and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or
+pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately
+above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars.
+
+Outside the rectangular frame in Fig. 12 are two rods, one vertical
+and the other inclined. The straight or vertical rod is attached by
+suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the
+machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame,
+while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a
+rod projecting from the frame. The lower or curved end of the
+oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+The water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping
+of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular
+feeding takes place. Thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against
+the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a
+thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the
+curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and
+thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity
+of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism
+is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick.
+When the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in
+the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is
+moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the
+thin part of the strick. It will be understood that all makers of
+softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching
+apparatus when desired.
+
+A view of a softener at work appears in Fig. 13. The bevel wheels at
+the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against
+accidents. In many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed
+end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the
+operative is in danger. The batching apparatus for this machine is
+of a different kind from that illustrated in Fig. 12; moreover, it
+is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. The feed
+pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane,
+and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on
+the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting.
+
+The feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the
+nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. The barrow
+of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which
+have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for
+conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future
+treatment.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13 Softening machine with batching apparatus]
+
+While the jute as assorted and baled for export from India is graded
+in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn
+without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to
+utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection
+and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching.
+
+What are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine
+known as a "root-opener." The jute cuttings are fed into the
+machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in
+order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. Foreign matter drops
+through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is
+delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the
+softener.
+
+The root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine
+termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively
+hard end of the strick. A snipping machine or a teazer may also be
+used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and
+similar close textures.
+
+The cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a
+heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then
+the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed
+to remain in this condition for a few days. A certain quantity of
+this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to
+form a batch suitable for the intended yarn.
+
+A very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of
+a large stationary knife. At other times, the thin ends of the
+stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. These two parts are
+severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the
+strick. The root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder,
+and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of
+securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  CARDING
+
+_Breaker and Finisher Cards_. After the fibre from the softening
+machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for
+one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture;
+this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct
+types of machines--
+
+
+        1. The breaker card.
+        2. The finisher card.
+
+
+The functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one
+might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one
+continuous operation.
+
+The main difference between the two types of machines is in the
+method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the
+small tools or pins which perform the work. In both cases the action
+on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and
+splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move
+relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving
+roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side
+by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of
+another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the
+combing of the fibre. The pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so
+to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller
+comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a
+comparatively fine division.
+
+The conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first
+arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the
+operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. A receptacle,
+very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far
+end of the softening machine in Fig. 13.
+
+A modern breaker card is illustrated in Fig. 14. The feed or back of
+the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card
+on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the
+observer. The protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would
+be seen as clearly as possible.
+
+Some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of
+the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped
+stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth,
+which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the
+feeding apparatus. This particular type is termed a "shell" feed
+because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped
+somewhat like a shell. There is a gradually decreasing and
+suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins
+of the feed roller.
+
+The root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of
+fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously
+carried into the machine where they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a
+cylinder. The above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes
+place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, 24 inches to
+30 inches below. The fibres which are separated at this stage are
+carried a little further round until they come into contact with the
+points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller,
+termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward
+under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further
+combed and split. A portion of the fibres is carried round by the
+pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the
+quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a
+"stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of
+the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14 MODERN BREAKER CARD]
+
+The above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker
+and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a
+second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately
+the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the
+pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing
+rollers. The sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into
+the broad and upper part of the conductor. This conductor, made mostly
+of tin and V-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in
+Fig. 14. Immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the
+conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and,
+of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and
+delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can,
+distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. The sliver is
+seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can.
+
+The fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward
+relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less
+parallel to each other. The technical term "draft" is used to
+indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other,
+and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out
+of the fibres by this special term "draft."
+
+It will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can
+at the rate of about 50 yards per minute, this constant flow will
+soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can,
+although the latter may hold approximately 20 lbs. The machine must,
+of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be
+kept in practically constant work. As a matter of fact, the machines
+are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable
+condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be
+satisfactorily fulfilled.
+
+The driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to
+that shown in Fig. 15 which, however, actually represents the pulley
+side of one type of finisher card as made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath. All finisher cards are fed by slivers which
+have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but
+there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of
+arranging the slivers at the feed side. In both cases, however, the
+full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with,
+however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each
+extreme end.
+
+One very common method of feeding is to place 10 or 12 full sliver
+cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and
+to the right of the machine illustrated in Fig. 15. The sliver from
+each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and
+thus the full width of the machine is occupied. The slivers are
+guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet"
+which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers.
+The feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type,
+and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. It
+will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different
+problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively
+uneven stricks.
+
+[Illustration: By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd.
+FIG. 15 FINISHER CARD WITH DRAWING-HEAD]
+
+The slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the
+machine at a height of about 4 feet from the floor. They thus form,
+as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this
+sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs
+of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as
+already described in connection with the breaker card. There are,
+however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are
+in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs
+of rollers, the former may be arranged with 3, 4, 5 or even 6 pairs
+of rollers (6 workers and 6 strippers). The number of pairs of
+rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the
+opinions of the various managers.
+
+There are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz--
+
+         1. Half-circular finisher cards.
+
+         2. Full-circular finisher cards.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 15 is of the latter type, and such
+machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so
+disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete
+circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to
+undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact
+with the doffer. There are five pairs of rollers in the machine in
+Fig. 15, and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels
+fenced. The arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very
+similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in Fig. 14,
+and therefore requires no further mention. Outside the boxing comes
+the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in Fig. 15, and
+adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to
+examine the rollers and other parts.
+
+The slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various
+rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are
+ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the
+cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. The
+conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the
+width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the
+other section. These two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet,
+traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two
+slivers about 6 inches above the point or plane in which the 10 or 12
+slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." The two
+slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface
+of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction
+of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to
+pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the
+left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can.
+
+In special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of
+mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. The machine illustrated
+in Fig. 15 is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported
+by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. This special
+mechanism is termed a "Patent Push Bar Drawing Head," and the
+function which it performs will be described shortly; in the
+meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the
+slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. A
+very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a
+finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should
+work in unison. In the machine under consideration, the feed and
+delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage
+of the draw-head mechanism.
+
+One of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform
+thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. A
+so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter,
+but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected
+with the full sense of the word uniform.
+
+It has already been stated that in the batching department various
+qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to
+obtain a satisfactory mixture. Fibres of different grades and marks
+vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness;
+it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse
+qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process
+so as to facilitate the subsequent operations.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. James F. Low & Co., Ltd. _
+FIG. 16 WASTE TEAZER]
+
+However skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the
+batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be
+desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary.
+It need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement,
+and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care
+which is exercised in the preliminary processes.
+
+The very fact of uniting 10 or 12 slivers at the feed of the
+finisher card mixes 10 or 12 distinct lengths into another new length,
+and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each
+individual sliver. It must not be taken for granted that the new
+length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths
+and ten or twelve times as bulky. A process of drafting takes place
+in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined
+10 or 12 slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of 8 to 16 or even
+more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which
+passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of 8 to 16 yards
+or whatever the draft happens to be. The resulting sliver will
+therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the
+original individual slivers. The actual ratio between them will
+obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the
+material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers.
+
+It is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous
+material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as
+card waste. And in all subsequent machines there is produced, in
+spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine
+which is not delivered as perfect material. All this waste from
+various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes,
+dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver
+for heavy sacking weft.
+
+The dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the
+valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are
+passed through a waste teazer such as that made by Messrs. J. F. Low &
+Co., Ltd., Monifieth, and illustrated in Fig. 16. The resulting mass
+is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material,
+and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the
+production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used
+for sacking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  DRAWING AND DRAWING FRAMES
+
+The operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the
+breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement
+of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in
+the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the
+peripheries of rotating rollers. In the draw-head mechanism, the
+pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or
+straight path. In the machines which fall to be discussed in this
+chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the
+slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a
+matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small
+drawing frame, as its name implies. Moreover, each row or rather
+double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a
+"faller." The faller as a whole consists of three parts:
+
+        1. A long iron or steel rod with provision for being
+        moved in a closed circuit.
+
+        2. Pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or
+        "stocks," fixed to the rod.
+
+        3. A series of short pins (one row sometimes about
+        1/8 in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or
+        hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above
+        gills.
+
+The numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular
+method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the
+fibre. The gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the
+movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers.
+There are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of
+a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining"
+rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller;
+immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last
+pair is the delivery rollers. The delivery rollers of one type of
+drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by
+Messsrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath, are seen distinctly
+in Fig. 17, and the can or cans into which the slivers are
+ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more
+sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration.
+The large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing
+roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the
+centre of same. Between these rollers and the retaining rollers are
+situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill
+pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins.
+
+Each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is
+led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver
+guide and between the retaining rollers. Immediately the slivers
+leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of
+a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the
+upper and active position. Each short length of slivers is
+penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up
+successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the
+same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. The sheet of
+pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the
+drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. As each
+faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is
+made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this
+point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until
+it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the
+fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. It will thus be
+seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between
+the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always
+one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining
+the set at the back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17 Push-bar drawing frame]
+
+The actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing
+rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all
+cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. This condition is
+necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much
+greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference
+between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual
+draft.
+
+Between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded
+in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned,
+to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip
+of the drawing rollers. Immediately the forward ends of the fibres
+are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres
+affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing
+rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. It will
+be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two
+pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be
+snapped. It is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance
+between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres
+under treatment. The technical word for this distance is "reach."
+
+On emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass
+between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which
+bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers,
+and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are
+diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again
+diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes
+straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the
+guide of the delivery rollers. It will thus be seen that a number of
+slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft,
+are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or
+conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a
+sliver can.
+
+The push-bar drawing illustrated in Fig. 17, or some other of the
+same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. With
+the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the
+far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. The
+set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the
+fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown,
+and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to
+the operative. The machines are made with what are known as
+"two heads" or "three heads." It will be seen from the large
+pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a
+"two-head" drawing frame.
+
+The slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a
+further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine
+termed the second drawing frame. The pins in the gills for this
+frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first
+drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and
+the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and
+therefore need no further description. It should be mentioned,
+however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their
+designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the
+fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. The names
+of other drawing frames appear below.
+
+  Spiral or screw gill;
+  Open link chain;
+  Rotary;
+  Ring Carrier
+  Circular.
+
+For the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is
+considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in
+a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered
+sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE ROVING FRAME
+
+The process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there
+still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the
+slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. And, in
+addition to these important functions, two other equally important
+operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to
+the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a
+"rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove
+bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame.
+
+The machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a
+"roving frame." Such machines are made in various sizes, and with
+different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided
+for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with
+two rows of spindles and flyers. These two rows of spindles, flyers,
+and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in Fig. 18, which
+represents a spiral roving frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser &
+Sons, Ltd., Arbroath.
+
+Each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the
+upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the
+flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. The discs or
+bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or
+"builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass
+through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a
+"flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the
+spindles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18 ROVING FRAME _By Permission of Messrs.
+Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+A roving machine at work is shown in Fig. 19, and it will be seen
+that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers
+passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye,
+then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer,
+round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of
+the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. Each bobbin has its
+own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this
+can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining
+rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the
+drawing (also the delivery) rollers. Here the sliver terminates
+because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and
+causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form.
+From this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described
+above.
+
+As in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver
+is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery
+of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about 20 yards
+per minute. The spindles and their flyers are also driven at a
+constant speed, because in all cases we have--
+
+  spindle speed = delivery x twist.
+
+There is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove
+bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven
+independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one
+series of rove coils on the bobbin. The speed of the bobbin differs,
+however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the
+effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the
+beginning of each new layer.
+
+The eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane,
+and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height
+from any fixed point. The bobbins, however, are raised gradually by
+the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the
+bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during
+the formation of each layer from bottom to top. In other words, the
+travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the
+inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19 ROVING FRAME FAIRBAIRN'S ROVING FRAME IN WORK]
+
+Since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue
+of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin,
+and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the
+combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of
+the rove. It is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and
+variable speed to the bobbin. The mechanism by means of which this
+desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one
+of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in
+textile machinery. Some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as
+well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered
+from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical
+experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed 50 years
+elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts
+was evolved for performing the function.
+
+The above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential
+motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing
+arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the
+various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide
+with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated
+but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without
+strain or stretch. The varying motion is regulated and obtained by a
+drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear
+is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct
+motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the
+bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine.
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 18 is of special design, and the
+whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels
+to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest
+the observer. The gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded,
+and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position
+on both sides. The machine is adapted for building 10 in. X 5 in.
+bobbins, i.e. 10 in. between the flanges and 5 in. outside diameter,
+and provided with either 56 or 64 spindles, the illustration showing
+part of a machine and approximately 48 spindles.
+
+The machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of
+the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. 10 in. x 5 in. frame,
+and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are 10 in.
+apart and 5 in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder
+would be 10 in. The 10 in. x 5 in. bobbin is the standard size for
+the ordinary run of yarns, but 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. bobbins are
+used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. When the
+finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning
+direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, 8 in. x 4
+in. bobbins are largely used.
+
+Provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove
+so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and
+according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in
+these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist
+gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic
+index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.  SPINNING
+
+The final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn
+required is termed the spinning frame. The actual process of
+spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole
+routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the
+name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of
+processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done
+before the actual process of spinning is attempted. The nomenclature
+is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the
+conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus
+than it is at present; the established name to denote this
+conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number
+of important processes, each one of which is as important and
+necessary as the actual operation of spinning.
+
+A photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the
+Indian jute mills appears in Fig. 20, showing particularly the wide
+"pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method
+adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. Spinning
+frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any
+practicable number of spindles; 64 to 80 spindles per side are
+common numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 20. AN INDIAN SPINNING FLAT]
+
+The rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in Fig. 20, are
+brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel
+(often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually
+above all moving parts of the machine. Each rove bobbin is free to
+rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the
+retaining rollers. The final drafting of the material takes place in
+this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the
+drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of
+yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of
+spinning bobbin.
+
+When the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a
+"breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the
+conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by
+means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing
+rollers, The rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the
+retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and
+the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the
+"thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the
+arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer
+arm and on to the spinning bobbin. The latter is raised and lowered
+as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be
+distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges.
+
+Each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which
+passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of
+the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of
+the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of
+spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. In this connection, the
+parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the
+functions of the two frames differ. The yarn has certainly to be
+wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from
+the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin,
+which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the
+roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually
+driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and
+just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of
+the "temper band" and weight. The temper band is simply a piece of
+leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other
+end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21 A LINE OF SPINNING FRAMES]
+
+The front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one
+of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in
+contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. A varying
+amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue
+of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is
+obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves
+in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of
+the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension.
+
+The spinning frames in Fig. 20 are arranged with the ends of the
+frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in Fig. 21 are at
+right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief
+parts is presented. The full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the
+pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove
+yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until
+they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to
+and wound upon the spinning bobbins. The flyers--at one time termed
+throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper
+weights. The chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever,
+adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the
+frame nearest the observer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  TWISTING AND REELING
+
+In regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form
+they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. On the
+other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it
+is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to
+combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes
+"doubling" when two single yarns only are combined.
+
+Although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is
+to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is
+not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or
+more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when
+this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of
+twines, ropes and the like. The twist or twine thus formed will have
+the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required
+for the finished product. The same operation is conducted in the
+making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are
+laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to
+distinguish them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres_, by T.
+Woodhouse and P. Kilgour.]
+
+When two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can
+be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a
+ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. There may
+be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop
+motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of
+any group which are being combined happens to break. When several
+threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting
+frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters,"
+and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a
+plate or disc before they reach the tube.
+
+More or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally
+adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned
+work on Cordage and similar literature for detailed information.
+
+When the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it
+is made up according to requirements, and the general operations
+which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll
+or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. The type or class of
+yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment
+of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be
+used previous to despatching the yarn.
+
+_Reeling_. Reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting
+solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on
+to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter,
+or rather circumference. Indeed, the circumference of the reel was
+fixed by an Act of Convention of Estates, dating as far back as 1665
+and as under:
+
+"That no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half
+to the King and half to the attacher."
+
+"That linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than
+_ten quarters_."
+
+The same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. All such
+yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be
+reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads
+which are obviously in a loose state. There are systems of dyeing
+and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not
+employed much in the jute industry. Large quantities of jute yarns
+intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable
+bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and
+sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries.
+
+        YARN TABLE FOR JUTE YARNS
+
+    90 inches,  or     2-1/2 yards    = 1 thread, or
+                                         the circumference of the reel
+   120 threads  or     300   yards    = 1 cut (or lea)
+     2 cuts     or     600   yards    = 1 heer
+    12 cuts     or   3,600   yards    = 1 standard hank
+    48 cuts     or  14,400   yards    = 1 spyndle
+
+Since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest
+yarns which contain 12 cuts per hank. The bulk of the yarn is made
+up into 6-cut hanks. If the yarn should be extra thick, even 6 cuts
+are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of 4 cuts, 3 cuts,
+2 cuts, and even 1 cut. A convenient name for any group less than 12
+cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of
+convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on
+the swift in the winding frame.
+
+The reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure
+the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming
+the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of
+designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. We have already
+seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs.
+of one spyndle (14,400 yds.).
+
+For 8 lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same
+count, it is usual to have provision for 24 spinning bobbins on the
+reel. As the reel rotates, the yarn from these 24 bobbins is wound
+round, say,
+
+6 in. apart, and when the reel has made 120 revolutions, or 120
+threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be 24 separate
+cuts of yarn on the reel. When 120 threads have been reeled as
+mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are
+complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round
+each group of 120 threads.
+
+A guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the
+reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be
+in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this
+movement of the thread extends to approximately 6 in., to accommodate
+the 6 cuts which are to form the mill-hank.
+
+Each time the reel has made 120 revolutions and the bell rings, the
+reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the
+mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. In some
+case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are
+simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking
+the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the
+cuts. At the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the
+mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied.
+
+The object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of
+winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate
+correctness.
+
+When the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four 6-cut hanks,
+there will evidently be 3 spyndles of yarn on the reel. The 24
+mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks
+taken to the bundling stool or frame. Here they, along with others
+of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from 54 lb.
+to 60 lb. according to the count of the yarn. Each bundle contains a
+number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the
+purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. Indeed,
+the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there
+would be exactly 56 lb. per bundle of 7 lb. yarn, or 8 lb. yarn,
+there would be 60 lb in a bundle of 7-1/2 lb. yarn, and 54 lb.
+in a bundle of 9 lb. yarn.
+
+The chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of
+threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal
+condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to
+approach it as closely as possible. Careless workers allow the reel
+to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this
+yields what is known as "short tell." It is not uncommon to
+introduce a bell wheel with, say, 123 or 124 teeth, instead of the
+nominal 120 teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  WINDING: ROLLS AND COPS
+
+The actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed,
+the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types
+of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. In its simplest
+definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in
+such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. The
+two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical
+terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. The
+threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp,
+while the transverse threads are the weft.
+
+The warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a
+large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be
+prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. These two distinct
+conditions necessitate two general types of winding:
+
+(_a_) Spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns.
+
+(_b_) Cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns.
+
+For the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the
+spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from 7 to
+8 lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops
+which weigh approximately 4 to 8 ounces.
+
+Originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins
+very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used
+for the linen trade. The advent of the roll-winding machine marked a
+great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with
+the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are
+used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached,
+dyed or similarly treated. Fig. 22 illustrates one of the modern
+bobbin winding machines for jute made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee. The finished product is illustrated by two full
+bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. There are
+also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of
+yarn on the swifts. Each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and
+since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the
+bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout
+the process. An automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin;
+this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin
+is filled as exemplified in the illustration.
+
+The distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a
+fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is
+limited. On the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and
+any suitable diameter. And while a bobbin holds about 2 lb. of yarn,
+a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from 7 to 8 lb.
+Such a roll measures, about 9 in. long and 8 in. diameter; hence for
+8 lb. yarn, the roll capacity is 14,400 yards.
+
+Rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines
+adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in Fig. 23. It is built
+specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of 15 in.
+diameter and 14 in. length, and this particular machine is used
+mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. One roll only is
+shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a 10
+in. x 5 in. rove bobbin. The rove is drawn forward by surface or
+frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating
+drum. The yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of
+the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the
+floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and
+upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. This rapid traverse,
+combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be
+securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required,
+and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations
+for rolls is much below that for bobbins.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 22 BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE WITH HANKS]
+
+Precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary 9
+in. x 8 in. or 8 in. x 7 in. rolls for the warping and dressing
+departments. These rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning
+bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having
+two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is 80.
+
+The double tier on each side is practicable because of the small
+space required for the spinning bobbins. When, however, rolls are
+wound from hank, as is illustrated in Fig. 24, and as practised in
+several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each
+side is possible. Both types are made by each machine maker, the one
+illustrated in Fig. 24 being the product of Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee.
+
+In all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the
+wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically
+indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it
+looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still
+further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23 ROLL WINDER FOR LARGE ROLLS _By permission of
+Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.]
+
+The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, as well as those by other makers,
+is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls,
+can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions,
+one for each roll.
+
+A full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. A recent
+improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic
+stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted,
+has just been introduced on to the Combe-Barbour frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 ROLL WINDING MACHINE (FROM HANKS) _By
+permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Weft Winding. A few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning
+bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). The great majority of
+manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. The cops are
+almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the
+exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. There are
+different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case
+the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a
+rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so
+necessary for making a stable cop. The disposition of the cops in
+the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the
+tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning
+bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in
+other machines these conditions are opposite. Thus, in the cop
+winding frame made by Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd., Arbroath,
+and illustrated in Fig. 25, the spinning bobbins are below the cops,
+the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers,
+and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. This view shows
+about three-fourths of the full width of a 96-spindle machine, 48
+spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one
+partially built. The illustration in Fig. 26 is the above-mentioned
+opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning
+bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the
+low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing
+downwards. Six spindles only appear in this view, which represents
+the machine made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee,
+but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as
+desired within practicable and economic limits.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Douglas Fraser & Sons, Ltd_.
+FIG. 25 COP WINDING MACHINE]
+
+The spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in Fig.
+26; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while
+the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles.
+The upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a
+clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the
+spindle. When the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are
+when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when
+the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when
+the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel
+wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the
+spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in
+conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface
+of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of
+the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the
+length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the
+partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until
+the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically
+stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. Cops may
+be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for
+jute shuttle is 10 in. long, and 1-5/8 in. diameter, and the
+angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately 30 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 26 COP WINDING MACHINE _By permission of Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  WARPING, BEAMING AND DRESSING
+
+There are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the
+weaver's beam. Stated briefly, the chief methods are--
+
+1. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and
+when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred
+on to the weaver's beam.
+
+2. The warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and
+then beamed on to a weaver's beam.
+
+3. The warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large
+cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam.
+
+4. The warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on
+to a weaver's beam.
+
+The last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall
+describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned.
+
+For mill warping, as in No. 1 method, from 50 to 72 full spinning
+bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right
+of each large circular warping mill in Fig. 27. The ends of the
+threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves
+of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. The heck, or
+apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's
+lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the
+bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the
+illustration. The heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains,
+and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction
+the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when
+the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised
+gradually between the same slides. These movements are necessary in
+order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally
+round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the
+figure. The particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing
+if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of
+spirals; a common distance is about 1-1/2 in. There are about
+42 spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in Fig. 27, and this number
+multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of
+the warp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 A ROW OF MODERN WARPING MILLS]
+
+At the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's
+lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill
+with the 50 to 72 threads (often 56), the mill is rotated by means
+of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill.
+As the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually
+and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical
+spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached.
+A beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs;
+there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the
+pin lease; a common number is 7 to 9. When this pin lease has been
+formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion
+finished being (50 to 72)/x where x is the total number of threads
+required for the cloth. The same kind of lease must again be made on
+the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next
+section of 50 to 72 threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite
+direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second
+group of 50 to 72 threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch
+with the threads of the first group. When the heck reaches the top of
+the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads
+passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the
+same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been
+introduced on to the mill. If it is impossible to accommodate all the
+threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more
+parts or chains. It will be noticed that the heck for the nearest
+mill is opposite about the 12th round of threads from the bobbin,
+whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from
+the top. A completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the
+third mill. When the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and
+simultaneously linked into a chain.
+
+A very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often
+better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in No. 2
+method. Such a machine is illustrated in Fig. 28, and the full
+equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a
+bank capable of holding approximately 300 spools, a frame for
+forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for
+drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring
+the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and
+finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the
+form of a chain.
+
+In Fig. 28 part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is
+shown in the extreme background. The two sets of threads, from the
+two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame
+immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are
+made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp.
+Between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in
+the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. Only
+part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the
+frame adjoining them. All these frames and machines are necessary,
+but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they
+perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the
+foreground of Fig. 28.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28 POWER CHAIN OF WARP LINKING MACHINE]
+
+Although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is
+a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts
+convert the straight running group of 300 threads into a linked chain,
+and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to
+the floor in the figure. Precisely the same kind of link is made by
+the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in Fig. 27 are being
+withdrawn from the mills. Two completed chains are shown tied up in
+Fig. 28, and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near
+the bank.
+
+The completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is
+now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the
+small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a
+kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and
+arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are
+attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. The chain is
+held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the
+latter is rotated. In this way a solid compact beam of yarn is
+obtained. The end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam
+last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is
+removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread
+lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually
+and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in
+which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the
+camas or HEALDS, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to
+the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth
+which has been completed.
+
+Instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on
+the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's
+beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct
+processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously.
+Thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any
+particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be
+very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools.
+Say, for example, a warp was required to be 600 yards long, and that
+there should be 500 threads in all. Five hundred spools of warp yarn
+would be placed in the two wings of a V-shaped bank, and the threads
+from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the
+splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position
+in regard to the winding-on mechanism. Some of the machines which
+perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while
+others are more or less complicated. In some the loom beam rotates
+at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the
+beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per
+minute. One of the latter types made by MESSRS Urquhart, Lindsay & Co.,
+Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 29, and the mechanism displayed
+is identical with that employed for No. 4 method of preparing warps.
+
+The V-shaped bank with its complement of spools (500 in our example)
+would occupy a position immediately to the left of Fig. 29. The
+threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet
+between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the
+supplementary frame on the left. A similar frame appears on the
+extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction
+with another V-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a
+position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough
+to hold the required number of spools. The part on the extreme right
+can be ignored at present.
+
+The threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in Fig.
+28 from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in Fig. 29,
+and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the
+stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame,
+and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. It
+may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that
+the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the
+same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 WINDING-ON OR DRY BEAMING MACHINE _By
+permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.]
+
+The speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the
+two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being
+positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal
+shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. The loom beam, which
+is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by
+friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant;
+hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the
+revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying
+amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their
+flannels.
+
+As the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between
+the flanges of the loom beam. Thus, the 500 threads would be
+arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of 45 to 46 in., and
+bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus,
+to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which 500
+threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the
+ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. It will be understood that in
+the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to
+bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a
+fixed position in the width.
+
+The last and most important method of making a warp, No. 4 method,
+for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous
+processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example,
+all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size
+immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary
+frame in Fig. 29. The moistened threads must, however, be dried
+before they reach the loom beam. When a warp is starched, dried and
+beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed."
+
+In the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in Fig. 30,
+there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns
+before the latter reach the loom beams. Both banks, or rather part
+of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be
+formed of the great length occupied. Several of the threads from the
+spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed,
+then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is
+partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second
+reed. After the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes
+partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each
+of three cylinders arranged  deg.o deg., and finally on to the loom beam.
+Each cylinder is 4 feet diameter, and three of them occupy a
+position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame
+in Fig. 29, while the remaining three cylinders are similarly
+disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of
+the right in the same illustration.
+
+The number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend
+somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed
+which it is desired to run the yarn. A common speed for
+ordinary-sized jute is from 18 to 22 yards per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 A MODERN YARN DRESSING MACHINE WITH SIX
+STEAM-HEATED CYLINDERS]
+
+A different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in Fig. 31.
+This view, which illustrates a machine made by Messrs. Charles Parker,
+Sons & Co., Dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps
+under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the
+banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the
+same time. In such a case, three cylinders only would be used for
+each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single
+dressing machines. The two weaver's beams, with their pressing
+rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. Some
+machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight.
+A very similar machine to that illustrated in Fig. 31 is made so that
+all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and
+all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be
+wound on to one of the beams in the machine in Fig. 31 if the number
+of threads is too many for one bank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 DRESSING MACHINE FOR PREPARING TWO WARPS
+SIMULTANEOUSLY _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.]
+
+Suppose it is desired to make a warp of 700 threads instead of 500,
+as in the above example; then 350 spools would be placed in each of
+the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as
+much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one
+sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring
+roller. Both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of
+the machine in Fig. 31, and pass in this form on to one of the loom
+beams.
+
+It has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box
+is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of
+the machine, Fig. 29, while the upper roller, see Fig. 30, is a
+pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type.
+Between the two rollers the sheet of 350 threads passes, becomes
+impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the
+lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and
+returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards
+towards the nip of the rollers. The yarn emerges from the rollers
+and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to
+suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom
+beam at the same rate. But since the diameter of the beam increases
+each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread,
+it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion.
+
+The usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the
+beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. A certain
+amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for
+this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn
+dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw
+forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the
+yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed.
+
+During the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train
+of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed
+over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in
+addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an
+ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as
+a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has
+been woven. Thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts,
+each 120 yards, or 600 yards in all, the above apparatus would
+measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark
+at intervals of 120 yards on some of the threads. And all this is
+done without stopping the machine. At the time of marking, or
+immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring
+automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the
+warp is about to approach the loom beam. This bell is shown in Fig.
+29, near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame.
+
+As in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at
+the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a
+pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads.
+
+After the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from
+the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails
+of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts)
+and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of
+the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been
+woven into cloth. These latter threads are still intact in the cambs
+and reed in the loom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  TYING-ON, DRAWING-IN, AND WEAVING
+
+If all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the
+ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when
+the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly,
+and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots
+have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far
+forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward,
+or beating up, position during the operation of weaving.
+
+If, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or
+newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations
+would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and,
+when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs
+and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter,"
+"tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual
+operation of weaving. The latter work is often termed "gaiting a web."
+
+There is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the
+simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable
+difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. In nearly all
+the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in
+the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture
+of comparatively simple fabrics. Thus, in the jute industry, there
+are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others;
+these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling
+and sacking. In addition to these main types, there are several
+other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or
+other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate
+types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of
+carpets and the like.
+
+It is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of
+this kind; the commoner types are described in _Jute and Linen
+Weaving Calculations and Structure of Fabrics_; and the more
+elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in
+_Textile Design: Pure and Applied_, both by T. Woodhouse and T.
+Milne.
+
+Six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in Fig. 32. The
+technical characteristics of each are as follows--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32 SIX DISTINCT KINDS OF TYPICAL JUTE FABRICS]
+
+H.--An ordinary "HESSIAN" cloth made from comparatively fine single
+  warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest
+  order, termed "plain weave." A wide range of cloths is made from the
+  scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that
+  illustrated.
+
+B.--A "BAGGING" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in
+  pairs and then termed "double warp." The weft is thick, and the
+  weave is also plain.
+
+T.--A "TARPAULING" made from yarns similar to those in bagging,
+  although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft.
+  It is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the
+  structures are identical.
+
+S.--A striped "SACKING" made from comparatively fine warp yarns,
+  usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium
+  or thick weft interwoven in 3-leaf or 4-leaf twill order. The weaves
+  are shown in Fig. 33.
+
+C.--One type of "CARPET" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or
+  two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. The
+  threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed
+  to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern,
+  or arrow-head pattern.
+
+P.-An uncut pile fabric known as "BRUSSELLETTE." The figuring warp
+  is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite
+  pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. The
+  weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite
+  different from the other plain cloths illustrated. The cloth is
+  reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing
+  slightly in colour ornamentation.
+
+As already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or
+coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked H, B,
+T and S. The structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is
+constant and as stated.
+
+All the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in Fig.
+33, and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the
+yarns of the cloth is illustrated in Fig. 34. In Fig. 33, the unit
+weaves in A, B, C, D, E and F are shown in solid squares, while the
+repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 POINT-PAPER DESIGNS SHOWING WEAVERS FOR
+VARIOUS CLOTHS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF PLAIN
+CLOTH]
+
+A is the plain weave, 16 units shown, and used for fabrics H and P,
+Fig. 32.
+
+B is the double warp plain wave, 8 units shown, and shows the method
+of interlacing the yarns h patterns B and T, Fig. 32. When the warp
+is made double as indicated in weave _B_, the effect in the cloth
+can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for
+weave _A_. Hence, the cloths _H_, _B_ and _T_ can be woven without
+any mechanical alteration in the loom.
+
+_C_ is the 3-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows 4 units;
+since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two
+identical single rows, they may be represented as at _D_. The actual
+structure of the cloth _S_ in Fig. 32 is represented on design paper
+at _C_, Fig. 33.
+
+_D_ is the single warp 3-leaf sacking weave, 4 units shown, but
+the mechanical parts for weaving both _C_ and _D_ remain constant.
+
+_E_ is the double warp 4-leaf sacking, 2 units shown, while
+
+_F_ is the single warp 4-leaf sacking, 4 units shown.
+
+The patterns or cloths for _E_ and _F_ are not illustrated.
+
+_G_ is a "herring-bone" design on 24 threads and 4 picks, two
+units shown. It is typical of the pattern represented at _C_, Fig. 32,
+and involves the use of 4 leaves in the loom.
+
+The solid squares in weave _A_, Fig. 33, are reproduced in the
+left-hand bottom corner of Fig. 34. A diagrammatic plan of a plain
+cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in
+the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks
+of weft (the difference is for distinction only). The left-hand
+intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks,
+while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads
+interweaving with one pick. The two arrows from the weave or design
+to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will
+be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread
+on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft
+shot on the surface, and _vice versa_.
+
+A weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by
+belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in Fig. 35. The loom in
+the foreground is weaving a 3-leaf sacking similar to that
+illustrated at _S_, Fig. 32. while the appearance of a full weaver's
+warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in Fig. 35. There
+are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35 WEAVING SHED WITH BELT-DRIVEN LOOMS]
+
+During the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a
+cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in Fig. 25,
+and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle,
+is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the
+opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. The positions of
+the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see
+Fig. 33, and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom
+the other layer occupies a low position. The threads of the warp are
+placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed
+healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these
+two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each
+time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft
+each journey. The support or lay upon which the shuttle travels
+moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two
+layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each
+journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes
+successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones
+which preceded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36 LOOMS DRIVEN WITH INDIVIDUAL MOTORS _By
+permission of The English Electric Co., Ltd._]
+
+The order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as
+already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in Fig. 33, and the
+selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the
+surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same
+colour. A great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method
+of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of
+pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to
+the mode of interlacing.
+
+To illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving
+shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead
+shafting as in Fig. 35, and in a similar shed in which all the looms
+are individually driven by small motors made by the English Electric
+Co., Ltd. we introduce Fig. 36. This particular illustration shows
+cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is
+being adopted in many jute factories.
+
+A great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that
+illustrated at C, Fig. 32, can be woven in looms such as those
+illustrated in Fig. 35; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than
+that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in
+these comparatively simple looms. When, however, more than 4 leaves
+are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the
+nature of that shown in Fig. 37, is employed; this machine is made
+by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd., Dundee. The dobby itself,
+or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the
+requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the
+frame-work, and is designed to control 12 leaves, that is, it
+operates 12 leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co_.
+FIG. 37 DOBBY LOOM]
+
+A considerable quantity of Wilton and Brussels carpets is made from
+jute yarns, and Fig. 38 illustrates a loom at work on this
+particular branch of the trade. The different colours of warp for
+forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the
+back of the loom (hence the term 5-frame Brussels or Wilton carpet)
+and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed.
+The design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the
+cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the
+needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which
+e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond
+with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer.
+This machine weaves the actual Brussels and Wilton fabrics, and
+these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _P_, Fig.
+32. In both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are
+required. It need hardly be said that there is a considerable
+difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the
+designs and the looms in which they are woven.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: For structure of carpets, _see_ pp. 394-114, _Textile
+Design: Pure and Applied_, by T. Woodhouse and T. Milne.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 BRUSSELS CARPET JACQUARD LOOM]
+
+In the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in
+the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy
+rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room.
+Accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the
+warp beams, are being placed in position. In order to minimize the
+danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with
+fewer hands, some firms have installed Overhead Runway Systems, with
+suitable Lifting Gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from
+the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and
+then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. Such means of
+transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to
+each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are
+valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct
+from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. Fig. 39 shows the
+old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place
+to place, while Fig. 40 illustrates the modern and efficient method.
+The latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by
+Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., Loughborough, for this important
+branch of the industry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. THE OLD WAY]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. THE NEW WAY _By permission of Messrs.
+Herbert Morris, Ltd_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  FINISHING
+
+The finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves
+the loom. The first operation is that of inspecting the cloth,
+removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any
+damaged or imperfect parts. After this, the cloth is passed through
+a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting
+fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart
+appearance. It is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although
+there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated,
+while others again miss this operation entirely.
+
+A cropping machine is shown in the foreground of Fig. 41, and in
+this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at
+the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been
+woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in Fig. 38. The
+fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute Wilton carpets. The
+illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of
+the machine in Fig. 41. Machines are made usually with either two or
+four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41 CROPPING MACHINE AT WORK]
+
+The cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a
+series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable
+arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating
+slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth
+in contact with them. This is, of course, at the feed side; the
+cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown
+distinctly on the right in Fig. 42. This view illustrates a double
+cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. As the
+cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two
+spirals.[3] When four spirals are required, the frame is much wider,
+and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the
+machines illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 42 DOUBLE CROPPING MACHINE _By permission of
+Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co., Ltd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: For a full description of all finishing processes,
+see _The Finishing of Jute and Linen Fabrics_, by T. Woodhouse.
+(Published by Messrs. Emmott & Co., Ltd., Manchester.)]
+
+The cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed
+on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in Fig. 43,
+which represents the type made by Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons &, Co.,
+Dundee. The cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then
+upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and
+over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the
+pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by
+means of a belt on the pulleys shown. While the cloth is pulled
+rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on
+to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes
+in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process.
+At other times, or rather in other machines, the water is
+distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly
+rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in
+a tank of water at a fixed level. In both cases, both sides of the
+fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. The damped
+fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is,
+to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the
+calender.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.,
+Ltd_. FIG. 43 DAMPING MACHINE]
+
+The calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different
+rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls,
+the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. A five-bowl
+calender is shown on the extreme right in Fig. 41, and in the
+background, while a complete illustration of a modern 5-bowl calender,
+with full equipment, and made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd.,
+Dundee, appears in Fig. 44.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 44 CALENDAR]
+
+The cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of
+the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom
+roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls
+according to the type of finish desired. For calender finish, the
+bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so
+that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave
+the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in Fig. 34, are
+eliminated by this calendering action. The cloth is then delivered
+at the far side of the machine in Fig. 44. If necessary, the surface
+speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the
+others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by
+ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. The
+faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. For ordinary calender
+finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same.
+
+Another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish"
+or "round-thread finish." In this case, the whole length of cloth is
+wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, Fig. 44,
+and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the
+amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the
+way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. The two
+sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in Fig. 44, and these
+act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the
+dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light
+finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. After
+the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it
+is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with
+its belt pulley in Fig. 41.
+
+There are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in Fig. 44; one is
+driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. Provision
+is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. The
+pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are
+inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure.
+Either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a
+oblique position.
+
+The compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and
+the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure,
+and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small
+weights used. The heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the
+chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the
+"mangle finish."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd_.
+FIG. 45 HYDRAULIC MANGLE]
+
+A heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by Messrs.
+Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee, is illustrated in Fig. 45.
+The cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to
+what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when
+the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge
+rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. Four narrow pieces are
+shown in Fig. 45 on the pin, and between the two rollers. There are
+other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the
+beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery
+side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. The
+three pins are arranged thus o deg.o, and since all three are
+moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each
+roller or pin is moved through 120 deg.. Thus, the stripped pin will be
+placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the
+mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the
+stripping position.
+
+While the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move
+first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this
+change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism
+situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing
+seen at the far end of the mangle. And while this mangling is taking
+place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously
+mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus
+which deposits the cloth in folds. This operation is also known as
+"cuttling" or "faking." It will be, understood that a wide mangle,
+such as that illustrated in Fig. 45. is constructed specially for
+treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply
+because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Charles Parker, Sons & Co.
+Ltd_. Fig 46 FOLDING, LAPPING OR PLEATING MACHINE]
+
+The high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation
+of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought
+into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is
+applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers.
+
+Cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a
+measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed
+through. There are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on
+the clock face; one hand registers the units up to 10 on one circle
+of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers 10, 20, 30, up to
+100. The measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in
+circumference.
+
+If the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing
+or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden
+centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well,
+and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar
+to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. Cloths
+for this purpose are often made up to 600 yards in length; indeed,
+special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to
+weave cloths up to 2,000 yards in length. Special dressing machines
+and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. When the
+linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre
+are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. The empty centres are
+returned periodically.
+
+Narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a
+simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth,
+and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or
+folded by special machines such as that illustrated in Fig. 46. The
+cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown,
+to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars.
+As the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand
+side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the
+convex table. The carriers may be adjusted to move through different
+distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may
+be made.
+
+Comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but
+some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and
+this is done by machines of different kinds. In all cases, however,
+the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. Thus,
+Fig. 47, illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and
+made by Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Ca., Ltd., Dundee. The
+full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent
+stripes--one near each side. The full width cloth passes upwards
+obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it
+is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left.
+The doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven
+drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as
+indicated. The machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and
+delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. In other
+industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging.  Some of
+the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth
+lengthwise as illustrated in Fig. 47, and, in addition, roll it at
+the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart Lindsay & Co. Ltd_.
+FIG. 47 CRISPING, CREASING OR RIGGING MACHINE]
+
+If the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the
+making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made
+annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand,
+semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are
+sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways
+according to requirements.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Urquhart, Lindsay & Co. Ltd_
+FIG 48 SEMI-MECHANICAL BAG OR SACK CUTTING MACHINE]
+
+Fig. 48 illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this
+purpose; this particular type being made by Messrs. Urquhart,
+Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee. About eight or nine different cloths
+are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of
+these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the
+machine. They are then led between the rollers, under the cutting
+knife, and on to the table. The length of cloth is measured as it
+passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are
+supplied so that practically any length may be cut. Eight or nine
+lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and
+when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts
+the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by
+means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table.
+He thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length
+is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. Means are provided for
+registering the number passed through; from 36,000 yards to 40,000
+yards can be treated per day.
+
+The bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in
+Fig. 32. When hessian cloth, II, Fig. 32, is used, the sewing is
+usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the Yankee or
+Union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than 2,000
+bags per day. For the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking,
+_S_, Fig. 32, the sewing is almost invariably done by the Laing or
+overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in
+Fig. 49, and made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald, South St. Roque's Works,
+Dundee. This is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately 1,000
+bags can be sewn in one day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49 OVERHEAD (LAING) SACK SEWING MACHINE _By
+permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_]
+
+The distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form
+of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at
+_S_, Fig. 32. It is obvious that a considerable variety can be
+made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and
+their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same
+cloth, the variety is still further increased.
+
+Many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and
+other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the
+necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by
+a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. The
+latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in Fig. 50.
+It is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald,
+Dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two
+distinct colours, say red and black. Occasionally three and
+four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably
+the most common.
+
+[Illustration: _By Permission of Mr. D. J. Macdonald_. FIG 50 SACK
+PRINTING MACHINE]
+
+The ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the
+many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number
+their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock,
+or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a
+special numbering machine, also made by Mr. D. J. Macdonald.
+
+The last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is
+that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a
+hydraulic press. The goods are placed on the lower moving table upon
+a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite
+quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are
+placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the
+bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed
+table. From 1 1/2 ton to 2 tons per square inch is applied
+according to the nature of the goods and their destination. While
+the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates,
+the wrappers a sewn together. Then specially prepared hoops or metal
+bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system,
+involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. The
+ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent
+ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the
+pins inserted in the loops. As soon as the hydraulic pressure is
+removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the
+bale securely.
+
+Such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre,
+the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into
+cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the
+world's common carrier.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+ACCUMULATOR
+Assorting jute fibre.
+
+BAG-MAKING
+Bale opener
+     opening
+Baling cloth
+     house
+     press
+     station
+Bast layer (see also Fibrous layer)
+Batch
+Batchers
+Batching
+     apparatus
+     carts or stalls
+Batch-ticket
+Beamer's lease
+Beaming
+     (dry) direct from bank,
+Blending
+Bobbin winding
+Bojah
+Botanical features of jute plants
+Breaker card
+Brussels carpet
+Bundle of jute.
+
+CALCUTTA, jute machinery introduced into
+Calender
+     finish
+Calenderoy
+Carding
+Card waste
+Cargoes of jute
+Chest finish
+Clasp-rods
+Conditioning fibre
+Cops
+Cop winding
+Corchorus capsularis
+     clitorius
+Crisping and crisping machines
+Cropping machine
+Cultivation of jute
+Cutting knife for jute fibre
+Cuttings.
+
+DAMPING machine
+Defects in fibre and in handling
+Designs or weaves
+Differential motion
+Dobby loom
+Draft
+Drafting
+Drawing
+  frames
+    different kinds of
+Drawing-in
+Dressing and dressing machine
+Drum
+Drying jute fibre
+Dust shaker.
+
+EAST India Co.
+Exports of jute from India.
+
+FABRICS
+Faller
+Farming operations
+Fibres,
+  the five main
+    imports of jute.
+
+
+Fibrous layer
+Finisher card
+Finishing
+folding machine.
+
+Gaiting
+Glazed finish
+Grading jute fibre
+Gunny bags.
+
+Hand batching
+Harvesting the plants
+Height of jute plants
+Hydraulic mangle
+  press.
+
+Identification marks on bags
+Imports of jute.
+
+Jacquard loom
+Jute crop
+  exports from India
+  fabrics
+  fibre, imports of
+  industry
+  knife
+  plants, botanical and physical features of
+  cultivation of
+  height of
+  marks.
+
+Laddering
+Ladders
+Lapping machine
+Linking machine
+Linoleum
+Looms
+Lubrication of fibre.
+
+Machine batching
+Machinery for jute manufacture introduced into Calcutta
+Mangle finish
+  (hydraulic)
+Marks of jute (_see_ jute marks)
+Maund
+Measuring and marking machine
+  machine for cloth
+  the warp
+Methods of preparing warps
+Multiple-colour printing machines.
+
+Numbering machine for bags.
+
+Opening jute heads
+Overhead runway systems
+  sewing machine (Laing's).
+
+Packing goods
+Physical features of jute plants
+Pin-lease
+Plaiting machine
+Plants, thinning of
+  weeding of
+Ploughs for jute cultivation
+Point-paper designs
+Porcupine feed
+Printing machine.
+
+Reach
+Reeling
+Retting
+Roller-feed
+Rolls
+Root-comber
+  opener
+Round-thread finish
+Rove
+Roving frame
+Roxburgh, Dr.
+
+Sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical
+Sack making
+  printing machine
+Sand bags
+Seed
+  per acre, amount of
+  sowing of
+Sewing machines
+Shell-feed
+Short-tell
+Snipping machine
+Softening machines
+Spinning
+Spool or roll winding
+Spools (_see_ Rolls)
+Standard bale
+Starching (_see_ Dressing)
+Steeping (_see_ Retting)
+Striker-up (_see_ Batcher)
+Stripping
+Systems.
+
+Teazer
+Tell (of yarn)
+Thinning of plants
+Thrum
+Time for harvesting the plants
+Tube-twisters
+Twist
+Twisting
+Two-colour printing machine
+Tying-on
+Typical jute fabrics.
+
+Union Or Yankee sewing machine
+Unloading bales of jute from ship.
+
+Variations in jute
+Varieties of jute fibre
+  plants.
+
+Warp
+Warp dressing (_see_ Dressing)
+Warping, beaming and dressing
+  mill
+Washing
+Waste
+  teazer
+Weaves or designs
+Weaving
+Weaver's lease
+Weeding of plants
+Weft
+  winding
+Wilton carpet
+Winding (bobbin) machine
+  from hank
+  (large roll) machine
+  (ordinary size from hanks) machine
+  rolls and cops
+World's great war.
+
+Yankee or Union sewing machine
+Yarn table
+Yield of fibre.
+
+
+
+_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_
+
+
+
+[Advertisement 14: Thomas Hart, LTD.; DAVID KEAY & LESLIE]
+
+[Advertisement 15: ROYLES LIMITED.]
+
+[Advertisement 16: D. J. MACDONALD C.E., M. I.M. ECH.E.]
+
+[Advertisement 17: ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 18: WHITE, CHILD & BENEY, LIMITED]
+
+[Advertisement 19: THE BRITISH NORTHROP LOOM CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 20: FREDERICK SMITH & CO.]
+
+[Advertisement 21: THE SKEFKO BALL BEARING CO., LTD.]
+
+[Advertisement 22: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ARITHMETIC]
+
+[Advertisement 23: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BOOK-KEEPING & ACCOUNTANCY]
+
+[Advertisement 24: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: BUSINESS TRAINING]
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+[Advertisement 25: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: CIVIL SERVICE]
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+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ENGLISH, HISTORY]
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+[Advertisement 26: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ECONOMICS, BANKING]
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+[Advertisement 27: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: INSURANCE, SHIPPING, INCOME TAX]
+
+[Advertisement 28: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ADMINISTRATION, ADVERTISING]
+
+[Advertisement 29: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: HANDBOOKS, REFERENCE]
+
+[Advertisement 30: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: COMMODITIES, LAW]
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+[Advertisement 31: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: FRENCH]
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+[Advertisement 32: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: GERMAN, SPANISH]
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+[Advertisement 33: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: ITALIAN, SHORTHAND]
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+[Advertisement 34: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND DICTIONARIES, PHRASES]
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+[Advertisement 35: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: SHORTHAND SPEED PRACTICE, READING]
+
+[Advertisement 36: PITMAN HANDBOOKS: TEACHING, TYPEWRITING, PERIODICALS]
+
+[Advertisement 36: HENRY TAYLOR & SONS, LTD., PITMAN'S BOOKS]
+
+[Advertisement 37: THOS. BROADBENT & SONS, LTD.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Jute Industry: From Seed to
+Finished Cloth, by T. Woodhouse and P. Kilgour
+
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