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diff --git a/old/12375-8.txt b/old/12375-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f29db57 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12375-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6151 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Masters of Space, by Walter Kellogg Towers + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Masters of Space + Morse, Thompson, Bell, Marconi, Carty + +Author: Walter Kellogg Towers + +Release Date: May 18, 2004 [EBook #12375] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MASTERS OF SPACE *** + + + + +Produced by Leah Moser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +[Illustration: SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE MORSE + +Inventor of the Telegraph] + +MASTERS OF SPACE + + MORSE + _and the Telegraph_ + THOMPSON + _and the Cable_ + BELL + _and the Telephone_ + MARCONI + _and the Wireless Telegraph_ + CARTY + _and the Wireless Telephone_ + +BY WALTER KELLOGG TOWERS + +ILLUSTRATED + +1917 + + + + + TO + + MY CO-LABORER AND COMPANION + + BERENICE LAURA TOWERS + + WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT AND ASSISTANCE + + WERE CONSTANT IN THE GATHERING + + AND PREPARATION OF MATERIAL + + FOR THIS VOLUME. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAP. + + PREFACE + + I. COMMUNICATION AMONG THE ANCIENTS + + II. SIGNALS PAST AND PRESENT + + III. FORERUNNERS OF THE TELEGRAPH + + IV. INVENTIONS OF SIR CHARLES WHEATSTONE + + V. THE ACHIEVEMENT OF MORSE + + VI. "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT?" + + VII. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM + + VIII. TELEGRAPHING BENEATH THE SEA + + IX. THE PIONEER ATLANTIC CABLE + + X. A SUCCESSFUL CABLE ATTAINED + + XI. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, THE YOUTH + + XII. THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + + XIII. THE TELEPHONE AT THE CENTENNIAL + + XIV. IMPROVEMENT AND EXPANSION + + XV. TELEGRAPHING WITHOUT WIRES + + XVI. AN ITALIAN BOY'S WORK + + XVII. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY ESTABLISHED + + XVIII. THE WIRELESS SERVES THE WORLD + + XIX. SPEAKING ACROSS THE CONTINENT + + XX. TELEPHONING THROUGH SPACE + + APPENDIX A + + APPENDIX B + + INDEX + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE MORSE + + MORSE'S FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT + + CYRUS W. FIELD + + WILLIAM THOMSON (LORD KELVIN) + + THE "GREAT EASTERN" LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE, 1866 + + ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL + + THOMAS A. WATSON + + PROFESSOR BELL'S VIBRATING REED + + PROFESSOR BELL'S FIRST TELEPHONE + + THE FIRST TELEPHONE SWITCHBOARD USED IN NEW HAVEN, CONN., FOR EIGHT + SUBSCRIBERS + + EARLY NEW YORK EXCHANGE + + PROFESSOR BELL IN SALEM, MASS., AND MR. WATSON IN BOSTON, + DEMONSTRATING THE TELEPHONE BEFORE AUDIENCES IN 1877 + + DOCTOR BELL AT THE TELEPHONE OPENING THE NEW YORK-CHICAGO LINE, + OCTOBER 18, 1892 + + GUGLIELMO MARCONI + + A REMARKABLE PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN OUTSIDE OF THE CLIFDEN STATION WHILE + MESSAGES WERE BEING SENT ACROSS TO CAPE RACE + + MARCONI STATION AT CLIFDEN, IRELAND + + + + +PREFACE + + +This is the story of talking at a distance, of sending messages +through space. It is the story of great men--Morse, Thomson, Bell, +Marconi, and others--and how, with the aid of men like Field, Vail, +Catty, Pupin, the scientist, and others in both the technical and +commercial fields, they succeeded in flashing both messages and speech +around the world, with wires and without wires. It is the story of +how the thought of the world has been linked together by those modern +wonders of science and of industry--the telegraph, the submarine +cable, the telephone, the wireless telegraph, and, most recently, the +wireless telephone. + +The story opens with the primitive methods of message-sending by fire +or smoke or other signals. The life and experiments of Morse are then +pictured and the dramatic story of the invention and development of +the telegraph is set forth. The submarine cable followed with the +struggles of Field, the business executive, and Thomson, the inventor +and scientific expert, which finally culminated in success when the +_Great Eastern_ landed a practical cable on the American coast. The +early life of Alexander Graham Bell was full of color, and I have told +the story of his patient investigations of human speech and hearing, +which, finally culminated in a practical telephone. There follows the +fascinating story of Marconi and the wireless telegraph. Last comes +the story of the wireless telephone, that newest wonder which has come +among us so recently that we can scarcely realize that it is here. An +inner view of the marvelous development of the telephone is added in +an appendix. + +The part played by the great business leaders who have developed and +extended the new inventions, placing them at the service of all, +has not been forgotten. Not only have means of communication been +discovered, but they have been improved and put to the widest +practical use with remarkable efficiency and celerity. The stories of +these developments, in both the personal and executive sides, embody +the true romance of the modern business world. + +The great scientists and engineers who have wrought these wonders +which have had so profound an influence upon the life of the +world lived, and are living, lives filled with patient effort, +discouragement, accomplishment, and real romance. They are interesting +men who have done interesting things. Better still, they have done +important, useful things. This book relates their life stories in a +connected form, for they have all worked for a similar end. The story +of these men, who, starting in early youth in the pursuit of a great +idea, have achieved fame and success and have benefited civilization, +cannot but be inspiring. They did not stumble upon their discoveries +by any lucky accident. They knew what they sought, and they labored +toward the goal with unflagging zeal. Had they been easily discouraged +we might still be dependent upon the semaphore and the pony express +for the transmission of news. But they persevered until success was +attained, and in the account of their struggle to success every one +may find encouragement in facing his own tasks. + +One can scarce overestimate the value of modern methods of +communication to the world. So much of our development has been more +or less directly dependent upon it that it is difficult to fancy our +situation without the telegraph and telephone. The diligence with +which the ancients sought speedy methods for the sending of messages +demonstrates the human need for them. The solution of this great +problem, though long delayed, came swiftly, once it was begun. + +Even the simple facts regarding "Masters of Space" and their lives of +struggle and accomplishment in sending messages between distant points +form an inspiring story of great achievement. + +W.K.T. + + + + +#MASTERS OF SPACE# + + + + +I + +COMMUNICATION AMONG THE ANCIENTS + + Signaling the Fall of Troy--Marine Signaling among the + Argonauts--Couriers of the Greeks, Romans, and + Aztecs--Sound-signaling--Stentorophonic Tube--The Shouting + Sentinels--The Clepsydra--Signal Columns--Indian Fire and Smoke + Signals. + + +It was very early in the history of the world that man began to feel +the urgent need of communicating with man at a distance. When village +came into friendly contact with village, when nations began to +form and expand, the necessity of sending intelligence rapidly and +effectively was clearly realized. And yet many centuries passed +without the discovery of an effective system. Those discoveries were +to be reserved for the thinkers of our age. + +We can understand the difficulties that beset King Agamemnon as he +stood at the head of his armies before the walls of Troy. Many were +the messages he would want to send to his native kingdom in Greece +during the progress of the siege. Those at home would be eager for +news of the great enterprise. Many contingencies might arise which +would make the need for aid urgent. Certainly Queen Clytemnestra +eagerly awaited word of the fall of the city. Yet the slow progress of +couriers must be depended upon. + +One device the king hit upon which was such as any boy might devise +to meet the simplest need. "If I can go skating tonight," says Johnny +Jones to his chum, "I'll put a light in my window." Such is the simple +device which has been used to bear the simplest message for ages. So +King Agamemnon ordered beacon fires laid on the tops of Mount Ida, +Mount Athos, Mount Cithćron, and on intervening eminences. Beside them +he placed watchers who were always to have their faces toward Troy. +When Troy fell a near-by fire was kindled, and beacon after beacon +sprang into flame on the route toward Greece. Thus was the message +of the fall of Troy quickly borne to the waiting queen by this +preconceived arrangement. Yet neither King Agamemnon nor his sagest +counselors could devise an effective system for expediting their +messages. + +Prearranged signals were used to convey news in even earlier times. +Fire, smoke, and flags were used by the Egyptians and the Assyrians +previous to the Trojan War. The towers along the Chinese Wall were +more than watch-towers; they were signal-towers. A flag or a light +exhibited from tower to tower would quickly convey a certain message +agreed upon in advance. Human thought required a system which could +convey more than one idea, and yet skill in conveying news grew +slowly. + +Perhaps the earliest example of marine signaling of which we know +is recorded of the Argonautic Expedition. Theseus devised the use of +colored sails to convey messages from ship to ship of the fleet, and +caused the death of his father by his failure to handle the signals +properly. Theseus sailed into conflict with the enemy with black sails +set, a signal of battle and of death. With the battle over and himself +the victor, he forgot to lower the black flag and set the red flag of +victory. His father, the aged Ćgeus, seeing the black flag, believed +it reported his son's death, and, flinging himself into the sea, was +drowned. + +In time it occurred to the great monarchs as their domains extended +to establish relays of couriers to bear the messages which must be +carried. Such systems were established by the Greeks, the Romans, and +the Aztecs. Each courier would run the length of his own route and +would then shout or pass the message to the next runner, who would +speed it away in turn. Such was the method employed by our own +pony-express riders. + +An ancient Persian king thought of having the messages shouted from +sentinel to sentinel, instead of being carried more slowly by relays +of couriers. So he established sentinels at regular intervals within +hearing of one another, and messages were shouted from one to the +other. Just fancy the number of sentinels required to establish a line +between distant cities, and the opportunities for misunderstanding and +mistake! The ancient Gauls also employed this method of communication. +Cćsar records that the news of the massacre of the Romans at Orleans +was sent to Auvergne, a distance of nearly one hundred and fifty +miles, by the same evening. + +Though signaling by flashes of light occurred to the ancients, we have +no knowledge that they devised a way of using the light-flashes for +any but the simplest prearranged messages. The mirrors of the Pharaohs +were probably used to flash light for signal purposes. We know that +the Persians applied them to signaling in time of war. It is reported +that flashes from the shields were used to convey news at the battle +of Marathon. These seem to be the forerunners of the heliograph. But +the heliograph using the dot-and-dash system of the Morse code can +be used to transmit any message whatever. The ancients had evolved +systems by which any word could be spelled, but they did not seem to +be able to apply them practically to their primitive heliographs. + +An application of sound-signaling was worked out for Alexander +the Great, which was considered one of the scientific wonders of +antiquity. This was called a stentorophonic tube, and seems to have +been a sort of gigantic megaphone or speaking-trumpet. It is recorded +that it sent the voice for a dozen miles. A drawing of this strange +instrument is preserved in the Vatican. + +Another queer signaling device, built and operated upon a novel +principle, was an even greater wonder among the early peoples. This +was known as a clepsydra. Fancy a tall glass tube with an opening at +the bottom in which a sort of faucet was fixed. At varying heights +sentences were inscribed about the tube. The tube, being filled with +water, with, a float at the top, all was ready for signaling any +of the messages inscribed on the tube to a station within sight and +similarly equipped. The other station could be located as far away +as a light could be seen. The station desiring to send a message to +another exhibited its light. When the receiving station showed its +light in answer, the tap was opened at the bottom of the tube in each +station. When the float dropped until it was opposite the sentence +which it was desired to transmit, the sending station withdrew its +light and closed the tap. This was a signal for the receiving station +to stop the flow of water from its tube. As the tubes were just alike, +and the water had flowed out during the same period at equal speed, +the float at the receiving station then rested opposite the message to +be conveyed. + +Many crude systems of using lights for signaling were employed. Lines +of watch-towers were arranged which served as signal-stations. The +ruins of the old Roman and Gallic towers may still be found In France. +Hannibal erected them in Africa and Spain. Colored tunics and spears +were also used for military signals in the daytime. For instance, +a red tunic displayed meant prepare for battle; while a red spear +conveyed the order to sack and devastate. + +An ancient system of camp signals from columns is especially +interesting as showing a development away from the prearranged signals +of limited application. For these camp signals the alphabet was +divided into five or six parts, and a like number of columns erected +at each signal-station. Each column represented one group of letters. +Suppose that we should agree to get along without the Q and the Z +and reduce our own alphabet to twenty-four letters for use in such +a system. With six columns we would then have four letters for each +column. The first column would be used to signal A, B, C, and D. One +light or flag shown from column one would represent A, two flags +or lights B, and so on. Thus any word could be spelled out and any +message sent. Without doubt the system was slow and cumbersome, but it +was a step in the right direction. + +The American Indians developed methods of transmitting news which +compare very favorably with the means employed by the ancients. +Smoke-rings and puffs for the daytime, and fire-arrows at night, were +used by them for the sending of messages. Smoke signals are obtained +by building a fire of moist materials. The Indian obtains his +smoke-puffs by placing a blanket or robe over the fire, withdrawing +it for an instant, and then replacing it quickly. In this way puffs of +smoke may be sent aloft as frequently as desired. + +A column of smoke-puffs was used as a warning signal, its meaning +being: Look out, the enemy is near. One smoke-puff was a signal for +attention; two puffs indicated that the sender would camp at that +place. Three puffs showed that the sender was in danger, as the enemy +was near. + +Fire-arrows shot across the sky at night had a similar meaning. The +head of the arrow was dipped in some highly inflammable substance and +then set on fire at the instant before it was discharged from the bow. +One fire-arrow shot into the sky meant that the enemy were near; two +signaled danger, and three great danger. When the Indian shot many +fire-arrows up in rapid succession he was signaling to his friends +that his enemies were too many for him. Two arrows discharged into the +air at the same time indicated that the party sending them was +about to attack. Three indicated an immediate attack. A fire-arrow +discharged diagonally across the sky indicated the direction in which +the sender would travel. Such were the methods which the Indians used, +working out different meanings for the signals in the various tribes. + +Very slight progress was made in message-sending in medieval times, +and it was the middle of the seventeenth century before even signal +systems were attained which were in any sense an improvement. For many +centuries the people of the world existed, devising nothing better +than the primitive methods outlined above. + + + + +II + +SIGNALS PAST AND PRESENT + + Marine and Military Signals--Code Flags--Wig-wag--Semaphore + Telegraphs--Heliographs--Ardois Signals--Submarine Signals. + + +In naval affairs some kind of an effective signal system is +imperative. Even in the ordinary evolutions of a fleet the commander +needs some better way of communicating with the ship captains than +despatching a messenger in a small boat. The necessity of quick and +sure signals in time of battle is obvious. Yet for many centuries +naval signals were of the crudest. + +The first distinct advance over the primitive methods by which the +commander of one Roman galley communicated with another came with the +introduction of cannon as a naval arm. The use of signal-guns was soon +thought of, and war-ships used their guns for signal purposes as early +as the sixteenth century. Not long after came the square-rigged +ship, and it soon occurred to some one that signals could be made by +dropping a sail from the yard-arm a certain number of times. + +Up to the middle of the seventeenth century the possibilities of +the naval signal systems were limited indeed. Only a few prearranged +orders and messages could be conveyed. Unlimited communication at a +distance was still impossible, and there were no means of sending a +message to meet an unforeseen emergency. So cumbersome were the signal +systems in use that even though they would convey the intelligence +desired, the speaking-trumpet or a courier was employed wherever +possible. + +To the officers of the British navy of the seventeenth century +belongs the credit for the first serious attempt to create a system of +communication which would convey any and all messages. It is not clear +whether Admiral Sir William Penn or James II. established the code. +It was while he was Duke of York and the commander of Britain's +navy, that the James who was later to be king took this part in the +advancement of means of communication. Messages were sent by varying +the position of a single signal flag. + +In 1780 Admiral Kempenfeldt thought of adding other signal flags +instead of depending upon the varied positions of a single signal. +From his plan the flag signals now in use by the navies of the world +were developed. The basis of his system was the combining of distinct +flags in pairs. + +The work of Admiral Philip Colomb marked another long step forward +in signaling between ships. While a young officer he developed a +night-signal system of flashing lights, still in use to some extent, +and which bears his name. Colomb's most important contribution to the +art of signaling was his realization of the utility of the code which +Morse had developed in connection with the telegraph. + +Code flags, which are largely used between ships, have not been +entirely displaced by the wireless. The usual naval code set consists +of a set of alphabet flags and pennants, ten numeral flags, and +additional special flags. This of course provides for spelling out any +conceivable message by simply hoisting letter after letter. So slow +a method is seldom used, however. Various combinations of letters and +figures are used to indicate set terms or sentences set forth in the +code-book. Thus the flags representing A and E, hoisted together, may +be found on reference to the code-book to mean, "Weigh anchor." Each +navy has its own secret code, which is carefully guarded lest it be +discovered by a possible enemy. Naval code-books are bound with metal +covers so that they may be thrown overboard in case a ship is forced +to surrender. + +The international code is used by ships of all nations. It is the +universal language of the sea, and by it sailors of different tongues +may communicate through this common medium. Any message may be +conveyed by a very few of the flags in combination. + +The wig-wag system, a favorite and familiar method of communication +with every Boy Scout troop, is in use by both army and navy. The +various letters of the alphabet are indicated by the positions in +which the signaler holds his arms. Keeping the arms always forty-five +degrees apart, it is possible to read the signals at a considerable +distance. Navy signalers have become very efficient with this form of +communication, attaining a speed of over fifteen words a minute. + +A semaphore is frequently substituted for the wig-wag flags both on +land and on sea. Navy semaphores on big war-ships consist of arms ten +or twelve feet long mounted at the masthead. The semaphore as a means +of communication was extensively used on land commercially as well as +by the army. A regular semaphore telegraph system, working in relays +over considerable distances was in operation in France a century ago. +Other semaphore telegraphs were developed in England. + +The introduction of the Morse code and its adaptation to signaling by +sight and sound did much to simplify these means of communication. The +development of signaling after the adoption of the Morse code, though +it occurred subsequent to the introduction of the telegraph, may +properly be spoken of here, since the systems dependent upon sight and +sound grow from origins more primitive than those which depend upon +electricity. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century armies had +made slight progress in perfecting means of communication. The British +army had no regular signal service until after the recommendations +of Colomb proved their worth in naval affairs. The German army, whose +systems of communication have now reached such perfection, did not +establish an army signal service until 1902. + +The simplicity of the dot and dash of the Morse code makes it +readily available for almost any form of signaling under all possible +conditions. Two persons within sight of each other, who understand +the code, may establish communication by waving the most conspicuous +object at hand, using a short swing for a dot and a long swing for a +dash. Two different shapes may also be exhibited, one representing a +dot and the other a dash. The dot-and-dash system is also admirably +adapted for night signaling. A search-light beam may be swung across +the sky through short and long arcs, a light may be exhibited and +hidden for short and long periods, and so on. Where the search-light +may be played upon a cloud it may be seen for very considerable +distances, messages having been sent forty miles by this means. +Fog-horns, whistles, etc., may be similarly employed during fogs or +amid thick smoke. A short blast represents a dot, and a long one a +dash. + +The heliograph, which established communication by means of short and +long light-flashes, is another important means of signaling to which +the Morse code has been applied. This instrument catches the rays of +the sun upon a mirror, and thence casts them to a distant receiving +station. A small key which throws the mirror out of alignment serves +to obscure the flashes for a space at the will of the sender, and so +produces short or long flashes. + +The British army has made wide use of the heliograph in India and +Africa. During the British-Boer War It formed the sole means of +communication between besieged garrisons and the relief forces. +Where no mountain ranges intervene and a bright sun is available, +heliographic messages may be read at a distance of one hundred and +fifty miles. + +While the British navy used flashing lights for night signals, the +United States and most other navies adopted a system of fixed colored +lights. The system in use in the United States Navy is known as the +Ardois system. In this system the messages are sent by four lights, +usually electric, which are suspended from a mast or yard-arm. The +lights are manipulated by a keyboard situated at a convenient point on +the deck. A red lamp is flashed to indicate a dot in the Morse code, +while a white lamp indicates a dash. The Ardois system is also used by +the Army. The perfection of wireless telegraphy has caused the Ardois +and other signal systems depending upon sight or sound to be discarded +in all but exceptional cases. The wig-wag and similar systems will +probably never be entirely displaced by even such superior systems +as wireless telegraphy. The advantage of the wig-wag lies in the +fact that no apparatus is necessary and communication may thus be +established for short distances almost instantly. Its disadvantages +are lack of speed, impenetrability to dust, smoke, and fog, and the +short ranges over which it may be operated. + +There is another form of sound-signaling which, though it has been +developed in recent years, may properly be mentioned in connection +with earlier signal systems of similar nature. This is the submarine +signal. We have noted that much attention was paid to communication by +sound-waves through the medium of the air from the earliest times. It +was not until the closing years of the past century, however, that +the superior possibilities of water as a conveyer of sound were +recognized. + +Arthur J. Mundy, of Boston, happened to be on an American steamer on +the Mississippi River in the vicinity of New Orleans. It was rumored +that a Spanish torpedo-boat had evaded the United States war vessels +and made its way up the great river. The general alarm and the +impossibility of detecting the approach of another vessel set +Mundy thinking. It seemed to him that there should be some way +of communicating through the water and of listening for sounds +underwater. He recalled his boyhood experiments in the old +swimming-hole. He remembered how distinctly the sound of stones +cracked together carried to one whose ears were beneath the surface. +Thus the idea of underwater signaling was born. + +Mundy communicated this idea to Elisha Gray, and the two, working +together, evolved a successful submarine signal system. It was on the +last day of the nineteenth century that they were able to put their +experiments into practical working form. Through a well in the center +of the ship they suspended an eight-hundred-pound bell twenty feet +beneath the surface of the sea. A receiving apparatus was located +three miles distant, which consisted simply of an ear-trumpet +connected to a gas-pipe lowered into the sea. The lower end of the +pipe was sealed with a diaphragm of tin. When submerged six feet +beneath the surface the strokes of the bell could be heard. Then +a special electrical receiver of extreme sensitiveness, known as a +microphone, was substituted and connected at the receiving station +with an ordinary telephone receiver. With this receiving apparatus the +strokes of the bell could be heard at a distance of over ten miles. + +This system has had a wide practical application for communication +both between ship and ship and between ship and shore. Most +transatlantic ships are now equipped with such a system. The +transmitter consists of a large bell which is actuated either by +compressed air or by an electro-magnetic system. This is so arranged +that it may be suspended over the side of the ship and lowered +well beneath the surface of the water. The receivers consist of +microphones, one on each side of the ship. The telephone receivers +connected to the two microphones are mounted close together on an +instrument board on the bridge of the ship. The two instruments are +used when it is desired to determine the direction from which the +signals come. If the sound is stronger in the 'phone on the right-hand +side of the ship the commander knows that the signals are coming from +that direction. If the signals are from a ship in distress he may +proceed toward it by turning his vessel until the sound of the +signal-bell is equal in the two receivers. The ability to determine +the direction from which the signal comes is especially valuable +in navigating difficult channels in foggy weather. Signal-bells are +located near lighthouses and dangerous reefs. Each calls its own +number, and the vessel's commander may thus avoid obstructions and +guide the ship safely into the harbor. The submarine signal is equally +useful in enabling vessels to avoid collision in fogs. Because water +conducts sound much better than air, submarine signals are far better +than the fog-horn or whistles. + +The submarine signal system has also been applied to submarine +war-ships. By this means alone may a submarine communicate with +another, with a vessel on the surface, or with a shore station. + +An important and interesting adaptation of the marine signal was made +to meet the submarine warfare of the great European conflict. At first +it seemed that battle-ship and merchantman could find no way to locate +the approach of an enemy submarine. But it was found that by means +of the receiving apparatus of the submarine telephone an approaching +submarine could be heard and located. While the sounds of the +submarine's machinery are not audible above the water, the delicate +microphone located beneath the water can detect them. Hearing a +submarine approaching beneath the surface, the merchantman may avoid +her and the destroyers and patrol-boats may take means to effect her +capture. + + + + +III + +FORERUNNERS OF THE TELEGRAPH + + From Lodestone to Leyden Jar--The Mysterious "C.M."--Spark and + Frictional Telegraphs--The Electro-magnet--Davy and the Relay + System. + + +The thought and effort directed toward improving the means of +communication brought but small results until man discovered and +harnessed for himself a new servant--electricity. The story of +the growth of modern means of communication is the story of the +application of electricity to this particular one of man's needs. +The stories of the Masters of Space are the stories of the men who so +applied electricity that man might communicate with man. + +Some manifestations of electricity had been known since long before +the Christian era. A Greek legend relates how a shepherd named Magnes +found that his crook was attracted by a strange rock. Thus was the +lodestone, the natural magnetic iron ore, discovered, and the legend +would lead us to believe that the words magnet and magnetism were +derived from the name of the shepherd who chanced upon this natural +magnet and the strange property of magnetism. + +The ability of amber, when rubbed, to attract straws, was also known +to the early peoples. How early this property was found, or how, we do +not know. The name electricity is derived from _elektron_, the Greek +name for amber. + +The early Chinese and Persians knew of the lodestone, and of the +magnetic properties of amber after it has been rubbed briskly. The +Romans were familiar with these and other electrical effects. The +Romans had discovered that the lodestone would attract iron, though a +stone wall intervened. They were fond of mounting a bit of iron on a +cork floating in a basin of water and watch it follow the lodestone +held in the hand. It is related that the early magicians used it as a +means of transmitting intelligence. If a needle were placed upon a bit +of cork and the whole floated in a circular vessel with the alphabet +inscribed about the circle, one outside the room could cause the +needle to point toward any desired letters in turn by stepping to the +proper position with the lodestone. Thus a message could be sent to +the magician inside and various feats of magic performed. Our own +modern magicians are reported as availing themselves of the more +modern applications of electricity in somewhat similar fashion and +using small, easily concealed wireless telegraph or telephone sets for +communication with their confederates off the stage. + +The idea of encircling a floating needle with the alphabet was +developed into the sympathetic telegraph of the sixteenth century, +which was based on a curious error. It was supposed that needles which +had been touched by the same lodestone were sympathetic, and that if +both were free to move one would imitate the movements of another, +though they were at a distance. Thus, if one needle were attracted +toward one letter after the other, and the second similarly mounted +should follow its movements, a message might readily be spelled out. +Of course the second needle would not follow the movements of the +first, and so the sympathetic telegraph never worked, but much effort +was expended upon it. + +In the mean time others had learned that many substances besides +amber, on being rubbed, possessed magnetic properties. Machines by +which electricity could be produced in greater quantities by friction +were produced and something was learned of conductors. + +Benjamin Franklin sent aloft his historic kite and found that +electricity came down the silken cord. He demonstrated that frictional +and atmospheric electricity are the same. Franklin and others sent the +electric charge along a wire, but it did not occur to them to endeavor +to apply this to sending messages. + +Credit for the first suggestion of an electric telegraph must be given +to an unknown writer of the middle eighteenth century. In the _Scots +Magazine_ for February 17, 1755, there appeared an article signed +simply, "C.M.," which suggested an electric telegraph. The writer's +idea was to lay an insulated wire for each letter of the alphabet. +The wires could be charged from an electrical machine in any desired +order, and at the receiving end would attract disks of paper marked +with the letter which that wire represented, and so any message could +be spelled out. The identity of "C.M." has never been established, but +he was probably Charles Morrison, a Scotch surgeon with a reputation +for electrical experimentation, who later emigrated to Virginia. Of +course "C.M.'s" telegraph was not practical, because of the many wires +required, but it proved to be a fertile suggestion which was followed +by many other thinkers. One experimenter after another added an +improvement or devised a new application. + +A French scientist devised a telegraph which it is suspected might +have been practical, but he kept his device secret, and, as Napoleon +refused to consider it, it never was put to a test. An Englishman +devised a frictional telegraph early in the last century and +endeavored to interest the Admiralty. He was told that the semaphore +was all that was required for communication. Another submitted a +similar system to the same authorities in 1816, and was told that +"telegraphs of any kind are now wholly unnecessary." An American +inventor fared no better, for one Harrison Gray Dyar, of New York, was +compelled to abandon his experiments on Long Island and flee because +he was accused of conspiracy to carry on secret communication, which +sounded very like witchcraft to our forefathers. His telegraph sent +signals by having the electric spark transmitted by the wire decompose +nitric acid and so record the signals on moist litmus paper. It seems +altogether probable that had not the discovery of electro-magnetism +offered improved facilities to those seeking a practical telegraph, +this very chemical telegraph might have been put to practical use. + +In the early days of the nineteenth century the battery had come into +being, and thus a new source of electric current was available for +the experimenters. Coupled with this important discovery in its +effect upon the development of the telegraph was the discovery of +electro-magnetism. This was the work of Hans Christian Oersted, a +native of Denmark. He first noticed that a current flowing through +a wire would deflect a compass, and thus discovered the magnetic +properties of the electric current. A Frenchman named Ampčre, +experimenting further, discovered that when the electric current is +sent through coils of wire the magnetism is increased. + +The possibility of using the deflection of a magnetic needle by +an electric current passing through a wire as a means of conveying +intelligence was quickly grasped by those who were striving for +a telegraph. Experiments with spark and chemical telegraphs were +superseded by efforts with this new discovery. Ampčre, acting upon the +suggestion of La Place, an eminent mathematician, published a plan for +a feasible telegraph. This was later improved upon by others, and it +was still early in the nineteenth century that a model telegraph was +exhibited in London. + +About this time two professors at the University of Göttingen were +experimenting with telegraphy. They established an experimental line +between their laboratories, using at first a battery. Then Faraday +discovered that an electric current could be generated in a wire by +the motion of a magnet, thus laying the basis for the modern dynamo. +Professors Gauss and Weber, who were operating the telegraph line at +Göttingen, adapted this new discovery to their needs. They sent the +message by moving a magnetic key. A current was thus generated in the +line, and, passing over the wire and through a coil at the farther +end, moved a magnet suspended there. The magnet moved to the right or +left, depending on the direction of the current sent through the +wire. A tiny mirror was mounted on the receiving magnet to magnify its +movement and so render it more readily visible. + +One Steinheil, of Munich, simplified it and added a call-bell. He +also devised a recording telegraph in which the moving needle at the +receiving station marked down its message in dots and dashes on a +ribbon of paper. He was the first to utilize the earth for the return +circuit, using a single wire for despatching the electric current used +in signaling and allowing it to return through the ground. + +In 1837, the same year in which Wheatstone and Morse were busy +perfecting their telegraphs, as we shall see, Edward Davy exhibited a +needle telegraph in London. Davy also realized that the discoveries +of Arago could be used in improving the telegraph and making it +practical. Arago discovered that the current passing through a coil of +wire served to magnetize temporarily a piece of soft iron within it. +It was this principle upon which Morse was working at this time. Davy +did not carry his suggestions into effect, however. He emigrated to +Australia, and the interruption in his experiments left the field open +for those who were finally to bring the telegraph into usable form. +Davy's greatest contribution to telegraphy was the relay system by +which very weak currents could call into play strong currents from +a local battery, and so make the signals apparent at the receiving +station. + + + + +IV + + +INVENTIONS OF SIR CHARLES WHEATSTONE + + Wheatstone and His Enchanted Lyre--Wheatstone and Cooke--First + Electric Telegraph Line Installed--The Capture of the "Kwaker"--The + Automatic Transmitter. + + +Before we come to the story of Samuel F.B. Morse and the telegraph +which actually proved a commercial success as the first practical +carrier of intelligence which had been created for the service of man, +we should pause to consider the achievements of Charles Wheatstone. +Together with William Fothergill Cooke, another Englishman, he +developed a telegraph line that, while it did not attain commercial +success, was the first working telegraph placed at the service of the +public. + +Charles Wheatstone was born near Gloucester in 1802. Having completed +his primary schooling, Charles was apprenticed to his uncle, who was +a maker and seller of musical instruments. He showed little aptitude +either in the workshop or in the store, and much preferred to continue +the study of books. His father eventually took him from his uncle's +charge and allowed him to follow his bent. He translated poetry from +the French at the age of fifteen, and wrote some verse of his own. He +spent all the money he could secure on books. Becoming interested in a +book on Volta's experiments with electricity, he saved up his coppers +until he could purchase it. It was in French, and he found the +technical descriptions rather too difficult for his comprehension, so +that he was forced to save again to buy a French-English dictionary. +With the aid of this he mastered the volume. + +Immediately his attention was turned toward the wonders of the infant +science of electricity, and he eagerly endeavored to perform the +experiments described. Aided by his older brother, he set to work on +a battery as a source of current. Running short of funds with which to +purchase copper plates, he again began to save his pennies. Then the +idea occurred to him to use the pennies themselves, and his first +battery was soon complete. + +He continued his experiments in various fields until, at the age of +nineteen, he first brought himself to public notice with his enchanted +lyre. This he placed on exhibition in music-shops in London. It +consisted of a small lyre suspended from the ceiling which gave forth, +in turn, the sounds of various musical instruments. Really the lyre +was merely a sounding-box, and the vibrations of the music were +conveyed from instruments, played in the next room, to the lyre +through a steel rod. The young man spent much time experimenting with +the transmission of sound. Having conveyed music through the steel rod +to his enchanted lyre, much to the mystification of the Londoners, +he proposed to transmit sounds over a considerable distance by this +method. He estimated that sound could be sent through steel rods at +the rate of two hundred miles a second and suggested the use of such +a rod as a telegraph between London and Edinburgh. He called his +arrangement a telephone. + +A scientific writer of the day, commenting in a scientific journal +on the enchanted lyre which Wheatstone had devised, suggested that it +might be used to render musical concerts audible at a distance. Thus +an opera performed in a theater might be conveyed through rods to +other buildings in the vicinity and there reproduced. This was never +accomplished, and it remained for our own times to accomplish this and +even greater wonders. + +Wheatstone also devised an instrument for increasing feeble sound, +which he called a microphone. This consisted of a pair of rods to +convey the sound vibrations to the ears, and does not at all resemble +the modern electrical microphone. Other inventions in the transmission +and reproduction of sound followed, and he devoted no little attention +to the construction of improved musical instruments. He even made some +efforts to produce a practical talking-machine, and was convinced +that one would be attained. At thirty-two he was widely famed as a +scientist and had been made a professor of experimental physics +in King's College, London. His most notable work at this time was +measuring the speed of the electric current, which up to that time had +been supposed to be instantaneous. + +By 1835 Wheatstone had abandoned his plans for transmitting sounds +through long rods of metal and was studying the telegraph. He +experimented with instruments of his own and proposed a line across +the Thames. It was in 1836 that Mr. Cooke, an army officer home on +leave, became interested in the telegraph and devoted himself to +putting it on a working basis. He had already exhibited a crude set +when he came to Wheatstone, realizing his own lack of scientific +knowledge. The two men finally entered into partnership, Wheatstone +contributing the scientific and Cooke the business ability to the new +enterprise. The partnership was arranged late in 1837, and a patent +taken out on Wheatstone's five-needle telegraph. + +In this telegraph a magnetic needle was located within a loop formed +by the telegraph circuit at the receiving end. When the circuit was +closed the needle was deflected to one side or the other, according to +the direction of the current. Five separate circuits and needles were +used, and a variety of signals could thus be sent. Five wires, with a +sixth return wire, were used in the first experimental line erected in +London in 1837. So in the year when Morse was constructing his models +Wheatstone and Cooke were operating an experimental line, crude +and impracticable though it was, and enjoying the sensations of +communicating with each other at a distance. + +In 1841 the telegraph was placed on public exhibition at so much a +head, but it was viewed as an entertaining novelty without utility by +the public at large. After many disappointments the inventors secured +the cooperation of the Great Western Railroad, and a line was erected +for a distance of thirteen miles. But the public would not patronise +the line until its utility was strikingly demonstrated by the capture +of the "Kwaker." + +Early one morning a woman was found dead in her home in the suburbs of +London. A man had been observed leaving the house, and his appearance +had been noted. Inquiries revealed that a man answering his +description had left on the slow train for London. Without the +telegraph he could not have been apprehended. But the telegraph was +available at this point, and his description was telegraphed ahead and +the police in London were instructed to arrest him upon his arrival. +"He is dressed as a Quaker," ran the message. There was no Q in the +alphabet of-the five-needle instrument, and so the sender spelled +Quaker, Kwaker. The clerk at the receiving end could not-understand +the strange word, and asked to have it repeated again and again. +Finally some one suggested that the message be completed and the whole +was then deciphered. When the man dressed as a Quaker stepped from the +slow train on his arrival at London the police were awaiting him; he +was arrested and eventually confessed the murder. The news of this +capture and the part the telegraph played gave striking proof of the +utility of the new invention, and public skepticism and indifference +were overcome. + +By 1845 Wheatstone had so improved his apparatus that but one wire was +required. The single-needle instrument pointed out the letters on the +dial around it by successive deflections in which it was arranged +to move, step by step, at the will of the sending station. The +single-needle instrument, though generally displaced by Morse's +telegraph, remained in use for a long time on some English lines. +Wheatstone had also invented a type-printing telegraph, which he +patented in 1841. This required two circuits. + +With a working telegraph attained, the partners became involved in an +altercation as to which deserved the honor of inventing the same. +The quarrel was finally submitted to two famous scientists for +arbitration. They reported that the telegraph was the result of +their joint labors. To Wheatstone belongs the credit for devising +the apparatus; to Cooke for introducing it and placing it before the +public in working form. Here we see the combination of the man of +science and the man of business, each contributing needed talents for +the establishment of a great invention on a working basis. + +Wheatstone's researches in the field of electricity were constant. +In 1840 he devised a magnetic clock and proposed a plan by which many +clocks, located at different points, could be set at regular intervals +with the aid of electricity. Such a system was the forerunner of +the electrically wound and regulated clocks with which we are now so +familiar. He also devised a method for measuring the resistance which +wires offer to the passage of an electric current. This is known +as Wheatstone's bridge and is still in use in every electrical and +physical laboratory. He also invented a sound telegraph by which +signals were transmitted by the strokes of a bell operated by the +current at the receiving end of the circuit. + +The invention of Wheatstone's which proved to be of greatest lasting +importance in connection with the telegraph was the automatic +transmitter. By this system the message is first punched in a strip of +paper which, when passed through the sending instrument, transmits the +message. By this means he was able to send messages at the rate of one +hundred words a minute. This automatic transmitter is much used for +press telegrams where duplicate messages are to be sent to various +points. + +The automatic transmitter brought knighthood to its inventor, +Wheatstone receiving this honor in 1868. Wheatstone took an active +part in the development of the telegraph and the submarine cable up to +the time of his death in 1875. + +Wheatstone's telegraph would have served the purposes of humanity +and probably have been universally adopted, had not a better one been +invented almost before it was established. And it is because Morse, +taking up the work where others had left off, was able to invent an +instrument which so fully satisfied the requirements of man for so +long a period that he is known to all of us as the inventor of the +telegraph. And yet, without belittling the part played by Morse, +we must recognize the important work accomplished by Sir Charles +Wheatstone. + + + + +V + +THE ACHIEVEMENT OF MORSE + + Morse's Early Life--Artistic Aspirations--Studies in Paris--His + Paintings--Beginnings of His Invention--The First Instrument--The + Morse Code--The First Written Message. + + +When we consider the youth and immaturity of America in the first half +of the nineteenth century, it seems the more remarkable that the honor +of making the first great practical application of electricity should +have been reserved for an American. With the exception of the isolated +work of Franklin, the development of the new science of electrical +learning was the work of Europeans. This was natural, for it was +Europe which was possessed of the accumulated wealth and learning +which are usually attained only by older civilizations. Yet, with all +these advantages, electricity remained largely a scientific plaything. +It was an American who fully recognized the possibilities of this +new force as a servant of man, and who was possessed of the practical +genius and the business ability to devise and introduce a thoroughly +workable system of rapid and certain communication. + +We have seen that Wheatstone was early trained as a musician. Samuel +Morse began life as an artist. But while Wheatstone early indicated +his lack of interest in music and devoted himself to scientific +studies while yet a youth, Morse's artistic career was of his own +choosing, and he devoted himself to it for many years. This explains +the fact that Wheatstone attained much scientific success before +Morse, though he was eleven years his junior. + +It was in 1791 that Samuel Morse was born. Samuel Finley Breese Morse +was the entire name with which he was endowed by his parents. He came +from the sturdiest of Puritan stock, his father being of English and +his mother of Scotch descent. His father was an eminent divine, and +also notable as a geographer, being the author of the first American +geography of importance. His mother also was possessed of unusual +talent and force. It is interesting to note that Samuel Morse first +saw the light in Charlestown, Massachusetts, at the foot of Breed's +Hill, but little more than a mile from the birthplace of Benjamin +Franklin. He came into the world about a year after Franklin died. +It is interesting to believe that some of the practical talent of +America's first great electrician in some way descended to Samuel +Morse. + +He received an unusual education. At the age of seven he was sent to a +school at Andover, Massachusetts, to prepare him for Phillips Academy. +At the academy he was prepared for Yale College, which he entered when +fifteen years of age. With the knowledge of science so small at the +time, collegiate instruction in such subjects was naturally meager in +the extreme. Jeremiah Day was then professor of natural philosophy at +Yale, and was probably America's ablest teacher of the subject. +His lectures upon electricity and the experiments with which he +illustrated them aroused the interest of Morse, as we learn from the +letters he wrote to his parents at this time. + +One principle in particular impressed Morse. This was that "if the +electric circuit be interrupted at any place the fluid will become +visible, and when it passes it will leave an impression upon any +intermediate body." Thus was it stated in the text-book in use at Yale +at that time. More than a score of years after the telegraph had been +achieved Morse wrote: + + The fact that the presence of electricity can be made visible + in any desired part of the circuit was the crude seed which + took root in my mind, and grew into form, and ripened into the + invention of the telegraph. + +We shall later hear of the occasion which recalled this bit of +information to Morse's mind. + +But though Yale College was at that time a center of scientific +activity, and Morse showed more than a little interest in electricity +and chemistry, his major interest remained art. He eagerly looked +forward to graduation that he might devote his entire time to the +study of painting. It is significant of the tolerance and breadth of +vision of his parents that they apparently put no bars in the path +of this ambition, though they had sacrificed to give him the best +of collegiate trainings that he might fit himself for the ministry, +medicine, or the law. As a boy of fifteen Samuel Morse had painted +water-colors that attracted attention, and he was possessed of enough +talent to paint miniatures while at Yale which were salable at five +dollars apiece, and so aided in defraying his college expenses. + +After his graduation from Yale in 1810, Morse devoted himself entirely +to the study of art, still being dependent upon his parents for +support. He secured the friendship and became the pupil of Washington +Allston, then a foremost American painter. In the summer of 1811 +Allston sailed for England, and Morse accompanied him. In London he +came to the attention of Benjamin West, then at the height of his +career, and benefited by his advice and encouragement. + +That he had no ambition other than his art at this period we may learn +from a letter he wrote to his mother in 1812. + + My passion for my art [he wrote] is so firmly rooted that I + am confident no human power could destroy it. The more I study + the greater I think is its claim to the appellation divine. I + am now going to begin a picture of the death of Hercules, the + figure to be large as life. + +When he had completed this picture to his own satisfaction, he showed +it to West. "Go on and finish it," was West's comment. "But it is +finished," said Morse. "No, no. See here, and here, and here are +places you can improve it." Morse went to work upon his painting +again, only to meet the same comment when he again showed it to West. +This happened again and again. When the youth had finally brought it +to a point where West was convinced it was the very best Morse could +do he had learned a lesson in thoroughness and painstaking attention +to detail that he never forgot. + +That he might have a model for his painting Morse had molded a figure +of Hercules in clay. At the advice of West he entered the cast in a +competition for a prize in sculpture, with the result that he received +the prize and a gold medal for his work. He then plunged into the +competition for a prize and medal offered by the Royal Academy for the +best historical painting. His subject was, "The Judgment of Jupiter +in the Case of Apollo, Marpessa, and Idas." Though he completed the +picture to the satisfaction of West, Morse was not able to remain in +London and enter it in the competition. The rules required that the +artist be present in person if he was to receive the prize, but Morse +was forced to return to America. He had been in England for four +years--a year longer than had originally been planned for him--and he +was out of funds, and his parents could support him no longer. + +Morse lived in London during the War of 1812, but seems to have +suffered no annoyance other than that of poverty, which the war +intensified by raising the prices of food as well as his necessary +artist's materials to an almost prohibitive figure. The last of the +Napoleonic wars was also in progress. News of the battle of Waterloo +reached London but a short time before Morse sailed for America. It +required two days for the news to reach the English capital. The young +American, whose inability to sell his paintings was driving him from +London, was destined to devise a system which would have carried the +great news to its destination within a few seconds. + +But while he gained fame in America and secured praise and attention +as he had in London, he found art no more profitable. He contrived to +eke out an existence by painting an occasional portrait, going from +town to town in New England for this purpose. He turned from art +to invention for a time, joining with his brother in devising a +fire-engine pump of an improved pattern. They secured a patent upon +it, but could not sell it. He turned again to the life of a wandering +painter of portraits. In 1818 he went to Charleston, South Carolina, +at the invitation of his uncle. His portraits proved very popular and +he was soon occupied with work at good prices. This prosperity enabled +him to take unto himself a wife, and the same year he married Lucretia +Walker, of Concord, New Hampshire. + +After four years in the South Morse returned to the North, hoping that +larger opportunities would now be ready for him. The result was again +failure. He devoted his time to huge historical paintings, and the +public would neither buy them nor pay to see them when they were +exhibited. Another blow fell upon him in 1825 when his wife died. At +last he began to secure more sitters for his portraits, though his +larger works still failed. He assisted in the organization of the +National Academy of Design and became its first president. In 1829 he +again sailed for Europe to spend three years in study in the galleries +of Paris and Rome. Still he failed to attain any real success in his +chosen work. He had made many friends and done much worthy work, yet +there is little probability that he would have attained lasting fame +as an artist even though his energies had not been turned to other +interests. + +It was on the packet ship _Sully_, crossing the Atlantic from France, +that Morse conceived the telegraph which was to prove the first great +practical application of electricity. One noon as the passengers +were gathered about the luncheon-table, a Dr. Charles T. Jackson, +of Boston, exhibited an electro-magnet he had secured in Europe, and +described certain electrical experiments he had seen while in Paris. +He was asked concerning the speed of electricity through a wire, and +replied that, according to Faraday, it was practically instantaneous. +The discussion recalled to Morse his own collegiate studies in +electricity, and he remarked that if the circuit were interrupted the +current became visible, and that it occurred to him that these flashes +might be used as a means of communication. The idea of using the +current to carry messages became fixed in his mind, and he pondered, +over it during the remaining weeks of the long, slow voyage. + +Doctor Jackson claimed, after Morse had perfected and established his +telegraph, that the idea had been his own, and that Morse had secured +it from him on board the _Sully_. But Doctor Jackson was not a +practical man who either could or did put any ideas he may have had +to practical use. At the most he seems to have simply started Morse's +mind along a new train of thought. The idea of using the current as +a carrier of messages, though it was new to Morse, had occurred to +others earlier, as we have seen. But at the very outset Morse set +himself to find a means by which he might make the current not only +signal the message, but actually record it. Before he landed from the +_Sully_ he had worked out sketches of a printing telegraph. In this +the current actuated an electro-magnet on the end of which was a rod. +This rod was to mark down dots and dashes on a moving tape of paper. + +Thus was the idea born. Of course the telegraph was still far from an +accomplished fact. Without the improved electro-magnets and the relay +of Professor Henry, Morse had not yet even the basic ideas upon +which a telegraph to operate over considerable distances could +be constructed. But Morse was possessed of Yankee imagination and +practical ability. He was possessed of a fair technical education +for that day, and he eagerly set himself to attaining the means to +accomplish his end. That he realized just what he sought is shown by +his remark to the captain of the _Sully_ when he landed at New York. +"Well, Captain," he remarked, "should you hear of the telegraph one of +these days as the wonder of the world, remember that the discovery was +made on board the good ship _Sully_." + +With the notion of using an electro-magnet as a receiver, an alphabet +consisting of dots and dashes, and a complete faith in the practical +possibilities of the whole, Morse went to work in deadly earnest. But +poverty still beset him and it was necessary for him to devote most of +his time to his paintings, that he might have food, shelter, and the +means to buy materials with which to experiment. From 1832 to 1835 he +was able to make but small progress. In the latter year he secured an +appointment as professor of the literature of the arts of design in +the newly established University of the City of New York. He soon had +his crude apparatus set up in a room at the college and in 1835 was +able to transmit messages. He now had a little more leisure and a +little more money, but his opportunities were still far from what +he would have desired. The principal aid which came to him at the +university was from Professor Gale, a teacher of chemistry. Gale +became greatly interested in Morse's apparatus, and was able to give +him much practical assistance, becoming a partner in the enterprise. +Morse knew little of the work of other experimenters in the field of +electricity and Gale was able to tell Morse what had been learned by +others. Particularly he brought to Morse's attention the discoveries +of another American, Prof. Joseph Henry. + +The electro-magnet which actuated the receiving instrument in the +crude set in use by Morse in 1835 had but a few turns of thick +wire. Professor Henry, by his experiments five years earlier, had +demonstrated that many turns of small wire made the electro-magnet far +more sensitive. Morse made this improvement in his own apparatus. In +1832 Henry had devised a telegraph very similar to that of Morse by +which he signaled through a mile of wire. His receiving apparatus +was an electro-magnet, the armature of which struck a bell. Thus the +messages were read by sound, instead of being recorded on a moving +strip of paper as by Morse's system. While Henry was possibly the +ablest of American electricians at that time, he devoted himself +entirely to science and made no effort to put his devices to practical +use. Neither did he endeavor to profit by his inventions, for he +secured no patents upon them. + +Professor Henry realized, in common with Morse and others, that if +the current were to be conducted over long wires for considerable +distances it would become so weak that it would not operate a +receiver. Henry avoided this difficulty by the invention of what is +known as the relay. At a distance where the current has become +weak because of the resistance of the wire and losses due to faulty +insulation, it will still operate a delicate electro-magnet with a +very light armature so arranged as to open and close a local circuit +provided with suitable batteries. Thus the recording instrument may +be placed on the local circuit and as the local circuit an opened and +closed in unison with the main circuit, the receiver can be operated. +It was the relay which made it possible to extend telegraph lines to +a considerable distance. It is not altogether clear whether Morse +adopted Henry's relay or devised it for himself. It is believed, +however, that Professor Henry explained the relay to Professor Gale, +who in turn placed it before his partner, Morse. + +By 1837 Morse had completed a model, had improved his apparatus, had +secured stronger batteries and longer wires, and mastered the use +of the relay. It was in this year that the House of Representatives +ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to investigate the feasibility +of establishing a system of telegraphs. This action urged Morse to +complete his apparatus and place it before the Government. He was +still handicapped by lack of money, lack of scientific knowledge, and +the difficulty of securing necessary materials and devices. To-day the +experimenter may buy wire, springs, insulators, batteries, and almost +anything that might be useful. Morse, with scanty funds and limited +time, had to search for his materials and puzzle out the way to make +each part for himself with such crude tools as he had available. Need +we wonder that his progress was slow? Instead we should wonder that, +despite all discouragements and handicaps, he clung to his great idea +and labored on. + +But assistance was to come to him in this same eventful year of 1837, +and that quite unexpectedly. On a Saturday in September a young man +named Alfred Vail wandered into Professor Gale's laboratory. Morse +was there engaged in exhibiting his model to an English professor then +visiting in New York. The youth was deeply impressed with what he saw. +He realized that here were possibilities of an instrument that would +be of untold service to mankind. Asking Professor Morse whether he +intended to experiment with a longer line, he was informed that such +was his intention as soon as he could secure the means. Young Vail +replied that he thought he could secure the money if Morse would admit +him as a partner. To this Morse assented. + +Vail plunged into the enterprise with all the enthusiasm of youth. +That very evening he studied over the commercial possibilities, and +before he retired had marked out on the maps in his atlas the routes +for the most needed lines of communication. The young man applied to +his father for support. The senior Vail was the head of the Speedwell +Iron Works at Morristown, New Jersey, and was a man of unusual +enterprise and ability. He determined to back his son in the +enterprise, and Morse was invited to come and exhibit his model. Two +thousand dollars was needed to make the necessary instruments and +secure the patents. On September 23, 1837, the agreement was drawn +up by the terms of which Alfred Vail was, at his own expense, to +construct apparatus suitable for exhibition to Congress and to secure +a patent. In return he was to receive a one-fourth interest. Very +shortly afterward they filed a caveat in the Patent Office, which is a +notice serving to protect an impending invention. + +Alfred Vail immediately set to work on the apparatus, his only helper +being a fifteen-year-old apprentice boy named William Baxter. The +two worked early and late for many months in a secret room in the +iron-works, being forced to fashion every part for themselves. The +first machine was a copy of Morse's model, but Vail's native +ability as a mechanic and his own ingenuity enabled him to make many +improvements. The pencil fastened to the armature which had marked +zigzag lines on the moving paper was replaced by a fountain-pen which +inscribed long and short lines, and thus the dashes and dots of the +Morse code were put into their present form. Morse had worked out an +elaborate telegraphic code or dictionary, but a simpler code by which +combinations of dots and dashes were used to represent letters instead +of numbers in a code was now devised. Vail recognized the importance +of having the simplest combinations of dots and dashes stand for the +most used letters, as this would increase the speed of sending. He +began to figure out for himself the frequency with which the various +letters occur in the English language. Then he thought of the +combination of types in a type-case, and, going to a local newspaper +office, found the result all worked out for him. In each case of type +such common letters as _e_ and _t_ have many more types than little +used letters such as _q_ and _z_. By observing the number of types of +each letter provided, Vail was enabled to arrange them in the order of +their importance in assigning them symbols in the code. Thus the +Morse code was arranged as it stands to-day. Alfred Vail played a +very important part in the arrangement of the code as well as in the +construction of the apparatus, and there are many who believe that the +code should have been called the Vail code instead of the Morse code. + +[Illustration: MORSE'S FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT + +A pen was attached to the pendulum and drawn across the strip of paper +by the action of the electro-magnet. The lead type shown in the lower +right-hand corner was used in making electrical contact when sending a +message. The modern instrument shown in the lower left-hand corner is +the one that sent a message around the world in 1896.] + +Morse came down to Speedwell when he could to assist Vail with the +work, and yet it progressed slowly. But at last, early in January +of 1838 they had the telegraph at work, and William Baxter, the +apprentice boy, was sent to call the senior Vail. Within a few moments +he was in the work-room studying the apparatus. Alfred Vail was at +the sending key, and Morse was at the receiver. The father wrote on a +piece of paper these words: "A patient waiter is no loser." Handing it +to his son, he stated that if he could transmit the message to Morse +by the telegraph he would be convinced. The message was sent and +recorded and instantly read by Morse. The first test had been +completed successfully. + + + + +VI + +"WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT?" + + Congress Becomes Interested--Washington to Baltimore Line + Proposed--Failure to Secure Foreign Patents--Later Indifference of + Congress--Lean Years--Success at Last--The Line is Built--The First + Public Message--Popularity. + + +Morse and his associates now had a telegraph which they were confident +would prove a genuine success. But the great work of introducing this +new wonder to the public, of overcoming indifference and skepticism, +of securing financial support sufficient to erect a real line, still +remained to be done. We shall see that this burden remained very +largely upon Morse himself. Had Morse not been a forceful and able man +of affairs as well as an inventor, the introduction of the telegraph +might have been even longer delayed. + +The new telegraph was exhibited in New York and Philadelphia without +arousing popular appreciation. It was viewed as a scientific toy; few +saw in it practical possibilities. Morse then took it to Washington +and set up his instruments in the room of the Committee on Commerce +of the House of Representatives in the Capitol. Here, as in earlier +exhibitions, a majority of those who saw the apparatus in operation +remained unconvinced of its ability to serve mankind. But Morse +finally made a convert of the Hon. Francis O.J. Smith, chairman of +the Committee on Commerce. Smith had previously been in correspondence +with the inventor, and Morse had explained to him at length his belief +that the Government should own the telegraph and control and operate +it for the public good. He believed that the Government should be +sufficiently interested to provide funds for an experimental line a +hundred miles long. In return he was willing to promise the Government +the first rights to purchase the invention at a reasonable price. +Later he changed his request to a line of fifty miles, and estimated +the cost of erection at $26,000. + +Smith aided in educating the other members of his committee, and one +day in February of 1838 he secured the attendance of the entire body +at a test of the telegraph over ten miles of wire. The demonstration +convinced them, and many were their expressions of wonder and +amazement. One member remarked, "Time and space are now annihilated." +As a result the committee reported a bill appropriating $30,000 for +the erection of an experimental line between Washington and Baltimore. +Smith's report was most enthusiastic in his praise of the invention. +In fact, the Congressman became so much interested that he sought a +share in the enterprise, and, securing it, resigned from Congress that +he might devote his efforts to securing the passage of the bill and to +acting as legal adviser. At this time the enterprise was divided into +sixteen shares: Morse held nine; Smith, four; Alfred Vail, two; and +Professor Gale, one. We see that Morse was a good enough business man +to retain the control. + +Wheatstone and others were developing their telegraphs in Europe, and +Morse felt that it was high time to endeavor to secure foreign patents +on his invention. Accompanied by Smith, he sailed for England in May, +taking with him a new instrument provided by Vail. Arriving in London, +they made application for a patent. They were opposed by Wheatstone +and his associates, and could not secure even a hearing from the +patent authorities. Morse strenuously insisted that his telegraph was +radically different from Wheatstone's, laying especial emphasis on the +fact that his recording instrument printed the message in permanent +form, while Wheatstone's did not. Morse always placed great emphasis +on the recording features of his apparatus, yet these features were +destined to be discarded in America when his telegraph at last came +into use. + +With no recourse open to him but an appeal to Parliament, a long and +expensive proceeding with little apparent possibility of success, +Morse went to France, hoping for a more favorable reception. He found +the French cordial and appreciative. French experts watched his tests +and examined his apparatus, pronouncing his telegraph the best of all +that had been devised. He received a patent, only to learn that to be +effective the invention must be put in operation in France within two +years, under the French patent law. Morse sought to establish his line +in connection with a railway, as Wheatstone had established his +in England, but was told that the telegraph must be a Government +monopoly, and that no private parties could construct or operate. +The Government would not act, and Morse found himself again defeated. +Faring no better with other European governments, Morse decided +to return to America to push the bill for an appropriation before +Congress. + +While Morse was in Europe gaining publicity for the telegraph, but +no patents, his former fellow-passenger on the _Sully_, Dr. Charles +Jackson, had laid claim to a share in the invention. He insisted that +the idea had been his and that he had given it to Morse on the trip +across the Atlantic. This Morse indignantly denied. + +Congress would now take no action upon the invention. A heated +political campaign was in progress, and no interest could be aroused +in an invention, no matter what were its possibilities in the +advancement of the work and development of the nation. Smith was +in politics, the Vails were suffering from a financial depression, +Professor Gale was a man of very limited means, and so Morse found +himself without funds or support. In Paris he had met M. Daguerre, who +had just discovered photography. Morse had learned the process and, +in connection with Doctor Draper, he fitted up a studio on the roof +of the university. Here they took the first daguerreotypes made in +America. + +Morse's work in art had been so much interrupted that he had but few +pupils. The fees that these brought to him were small and irregular, +and he was brought to the very verge of starvation. We are told of the +call Morse made upon one pupil whose tuition was overdue because of a +delay in the arrival of funds from his home. + +"Well, my boy," said the professor, "how are we off for money?" + +The student explained the situation, adding that he hoped to have the +money the following week. + +"Next week!" exclaimed Morse. "I shall be dead by next week--dead of +starvation." + +"Would ten dollars be of any service?" asked the student, astonished +and distressed. + +"Ten dollars would save my life," was Morse's reply. + +The student paid the money--all he had--and they dined together, Morse +remarking that it was his first meal for twenty-four hours. + +Morse's situation and feelings at this time are also illustrated by a +letter he wrote to Smith late in 1841. + + I find myself [he wrote] without sympathy or help from any + who are associated with me, whose interests, one would think, + would impell them to at least inquire if they could render me + some assistance. For nearly two years past I have devoted all + my time and scanty means, living on a mere pittance, denying + myself all pleasures and even necessary food, that I might + have a sum, to put my telegraph into such a position before + Congress as to insure success to the common enterprise. I + am crushed for want of means, and means of so trifling a + character, too, that they who know how to ask (which I do not) + could obtain in a few hours.... As it is, although everything + is favorable, although I have no competition and no + opposition--on the contrary, although every member of + Congress, so far as I can learn, is favorable--yet I fear all + will fail because I am too poor to risk the trifling expense + which my journey and residence in Washington will occasion me. + I will not run in debt, if I lose the whole matter. No one can + tell the days and months of anxiety and labor I have had in + perfecting my telegraphic apparatus. For want of means I have + been compelled to make with my own hands (and to labor for + weeks) a piece of mechanism which could be made much better, + and in a tenth the time, by a good mechanician, thus + wasting time--time which I cannot recall and which seems + double-winged to me. + + "Hope deferred maketh the heart sick." It is true, and I have + known the full meaning of it. Nothing but the consciousness + that I have an invention which is to mark an era in human + civilization, and which is to contribute to the happiness of + millions, would have sustained me through so many and such + lengthened trials of patience in perfecting it. + +A patent on the telegraph had been issued to Morse in 1840. The +issuance had been delayed at Morse's request, as he desired to first +secure foreign patents, his own American rights being protected by the +caveat he had filed. Although the commercial possibilities, and hence +the money value of the telegraph had not been established, Morse was +already troubled with the rival claims of those who sought to secure a +share in his invention. + +While working and waiting and saving, Morse conceived the idea of +laying telegraph wires beneath the water. He prepared a wire by +wrapping it in hemp soaked in tar, and then covering the whole with +rubber. Choosing a moonlight night in the fall of 1842, he submerged +his cable in New York Harbor between Castle Garden and Governors +Island. A few signals were transmitted and then the wire was carried +away by a dragging anchor. Truly, misfortune seemed to dog Morse's +footsteps. This seems to have been the first submarine cable, and +in writing of it not long after Morse hazarded the then astonishing +prediction that Europe and America would be linked by telegraphic +cable. + +Failing to secure effective aid from his associates, Morse hung on +grimly, fighting alone, and putting all of his strength and energy +into the task of establishing an experimental line. It was during +these years that he demonstrated his greatness to the full. His +letters to the members of the Congressional Committee on Commerce show +marked ability. They outline the practical possibilities very clearly. +Morse realized not only the financial possibilities of his invention, +but its benefit to humanity as well. He also presented very practical +estimates of the cost of establishing the line under consideration. +The committee again recommended that $30,000 be appropriated for the +construction of a Washington-Baltimore line. The politicians had come +to look upon Morse as a crank, and it was extremely difficult for his +adherents to secure favorable action in the House. Many a Congressman +compared Morse and his experiments to mesmerism and similar "isms," +and insisted that if the Government gave funds for this experiment +it would be called upon to supply funds for senseless trials of weird +schemes. The bill finally passed the House by the narrow margin of six +votes, the vote being taken orally because so many Congressmen feared +to go on record as favoring an appropriation for such a purpose. + +The bill had still to pass the Senate, and here there seemed little +hope. Morse, who had come to Washington to press his plan, anxiously +waited in the galleries. The bill came up for consideration late one +evening just before the adjournment. A Senator who noticed Morse went +up to him and said: + +"There is no use in your staying here. The Senate is not in sympathy +with your project. I advise you to give it up, return home, and think +no more about it." + +The inventor went back to his room, with how heavy a heart we may +well imagine. He paid his board bill, and found himself with but +thirty-seven cents in the world. After many moments of earnest prayer +he retired. + +Early next morning there came to him Miss Annie Ellsworth, daughter of +his friend the Commissioner of Patents, and said, "Professor, I have +come to congratulate you." + +"Congratulate me!" replied Morse. "On what?" + +"Why," she exclaimed, "on the passage of your bill by the Senate!" + +The bill had been passed without debate in the closing moments of the +session. As Morse afterward stated, this was the turning-point in the +history of the telegraph. His resources were reduced to the minimum, +and there was little likelihood that he would have again been able to +bring the matter to the attention of Congress. + +So pleased was Morse over the news of the appropriation, and so +grateful to Miss Ellsworth for her interest in bringing him the good +news, that he promised her that she should send the first message +when the line was complete. With the Government appropriation at his +disposal, Morse immediately set to work upon the Washington-Baltimore +line. Professors Gale and Fisher served as his assistants, and Mr. +Vail was in direct charge of the construction work. Another person +active in the enterprise was Ezra Cornell, who was later to found +Cornell University. Cornell had invented a machine for laying wires +underground in a pipe. + +It was originally planned to place the wires underground, as this was +thought necessary or their protection. After running the line some +five miles out from Baltimore it was found that this method of +installing the line was to be a failure. The insulation was not +adequate, and the line could not be operated to the first relay +station. A large portion of the $30,000 voted by Congress had been +spent and the line was still far from completion. Disaster seemed +imminent. Smith lost all faith in the enterprise, demanded most of the +remaining money under a contract he had taken to lay the line, and a +quarrel broke out between him and Morse which further jeopardized the +undertaking. + +Morse and such of his lieutenants as remained faithful in this hour of +trial, after a long consultation, decided to string the wire on +poles. The method of attaching the wire to the poles was yet to be +determined. They finally decided to simply bore a hole through each +pole near the top and push the wire through it. Stringing the wire in +such fashion was no small task, but it was finally accomplished. It +was later found necessary to insulate the wire with bottle necks where +it passed through the poles. On May 23, 1844, the line was complete. +Remembering his promise to Miss Ellsworth, Morse called upon her +next morning to give him the first message. She chose, "What hath +God wrought?" and early on the morning of the 24th Morse sat at the +transmitter in the Supreme Court room in the Capitol and telegraphed +these immortal words to Vail at Baltimore. The message was received +without difficulty and repeated back to Morse at Washington. The +magnetic telegraph was a reality. + +Still the general public remained unconvinced. As in the case of +Wheatstone's needle telegraph a dramatic incident was needed to +demonstrate the utility of this new servant. Fortunately for Morse, +the telegraph's opportunity came quickly. The Democratic national +convention was in session at Baltimore. After an exciting struggle +they dropped Van Buren, then President, and nominated James K. Polk. +Silas Wright was named for the Vice-Presidency. At that time Mr. +Wright was in Washington. Hearing of the nomination, Alfred Vail +telegraphed it to Morse in Washington. Morse communicated with Wright, +who stated that he could not accept the honor. The telegraph was ready +to carry his message declining the nomination, and within a very few +minutes Vail had presented it to the convention at Baltimore, to the +intense surprise of the delegates there assembled. They refused to +believe that Wright had been communicated with, and sent a committee +to Washington to see Wright and make inquiries. They found that +the message was genuine, and the utility of the telegraph had been +strikingly established. + + + + +VII + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM + + The Magnetic Telegraph Company--The Western Union--Crossing the + Continent--The Improvements of Alfred Vail--Honors Awarded to + Morse--Duplex Telegraphy--Edison's Improvements. + + +For some time the telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore +remained on exhibition as a curiosity, no charge being made for +demonstrating it. Congress made an appropriation to keep the line in +operation, Vail acting as operator at the Washington end. On April +1, 1845, the line was put in operation on a commercial basis, +service being offered to the public at the rate of one cent for four +characters. It was operated as a branch of the Post-office Department. +On the 4th of April a visitor from Virginia came into the Washington +office wishing to see a demonstration. Up to this time not a paid +message had been sent. The visitor, having no permit from the +Postmaster-General, was told that he could only see the telegraph in +operation by sending a message. One cent being all the money he had +other than twenty-dollar bills, he asked for one cent's worth. The +Washington operator asked of Baltimore, "What time is it?" which in +the code required but one character. The reply came, "One o'clock," +another single character. Thus but two characters had been used, or +one-half cent's worth of telegraphy. The visitor expressed himself as +satisfied, and waived the "change." This penny was the line's first +earnings. + +Under the terms of the agreement by which Congress had made the +appropriation for the experimental line, Morse was bound to give the +Government the first right to purchase his invention. He accordingly +offered it to the United States for the sum of $100,000. There +followed a distressing example of official stupidity and lack of +foresight. With the opportunity to own and control the nation's +telegraph lines before it the Government declined the offer. This +action was taken at the recommendation of the Hon. Cave Johnson, then +Postmaster-General, under whose direction the line had been +operated. He had been a member of Congress at the time the original +appropriation was voted, and had ridiculed the project. The nation was +now so unfortunate as to have him as its Postmaster-General, and he +reported "that the operation of the telegraph between Washington and +Baltimore had not satisfied him that, under any rate of postage +that could be adopted, its revenues could be made equal to its +expenditures." And yet the telegraph, here offered to the Government +for $100,000, was developed under private management until it paid a +profit on a capitalization of $100,000,000. + +Morse seems to have had a really patriotic motive, as well as a desire +for immediate return and the freedom from further worries, in his +offer to the Government. He was greatly disappointed at its refusal +to purchase, a refusal that was destined to make Morse a wealthy man. +Amos Kendall, who had been Postmaster-General under Jackson, was +now acting as Morse's agent, and they decided to depend upon private +capital. Plans were made for a line between New York and Philadelphia, +and to arouse interest and secure capital the apparatus was exhibited +in New York City at a charge of twenty-five cents a head. The public +refused to patronize in sufficient numbers to even pay expenses, +and the entire exhibition was so shabby, and the exhibitors so +poverty-stricken, that the sleek capitalists who came departed without +investing. Some of the exhibitors slept on chairs or on the floor in +the bare room, and it is related that the man who was later to +give his name and a share of his fortune to Cornell University was +overjoyed at finding a quarter on the sidewalk, as it enabled him to +buy a hearty breakfast. Though men of larger means refused to take +shares, some in humbler circumstances could recognize the great +idea and the wonderful vision which Morse had struggled so long to +establish--a vision of a nation linked together by telegraphy. The +Magnetic Telegraph Company was formed and work started on the line. + +In August of 1845 Morse sailed for Europe in an endeavor to enlist +foreign capital. The investors of Europe proved no keener than those +of America, and the inventor returned without funds, but imbued with +increased patriotism. He had become convinced that the telegraph could +and would succeed on American capital alone. In the next year a line +was constructed from Philadelphia to Washington, thus extending +the New York-Philadelphia line to the capital. Henry O'Reilly, of +Rochester, New York, took an active part in this construction work +and now took the contract to construct a line from Philadelphia to St. +Louis. This line was finished by December of 1847. + +The path having been blazed, others sought to establish lines of their +own without regard to Morse's patents. One of these was O Reilly, who, +on the completion of the line to St. Louis, began one to Now Orleans, +without authority from Morse or his company. O'Reilly called his +telegraph "The People's Line," and when called to account in the +courts insisted not only that his instruments were different from +Morse's, and so no infringement of his patents, but also that the +Morse system was a harmful monopoly and that "The People's Line" +should be encouraged. It was further urged that Wheatstone in England +and Steinheil in Germany had invented telegraphs before Morse, and +that Professor Henry had invented the relay which made it possible +to operate the telegraph over long distances. The suits resulted in a +legal victory for Morse, and his patents were maintained. + +But still other rival companies built lines, using various forms of +apparatus, and though the courts repeatedly upheld Morse's patent +rights, the pirating was not effectively checked. The telegraph had +come to be a necessity and the original company lacked the capital to +construct lines with sufficient rapidity to meet the need. Within +ten years after the first line had been put into operation the more +thickly settled portions of the United States were served by scores +of telegraph lines owned by a dozen different companies. Hardly any of +these were making any money, though the service was poor and the rates +were high. They were all operating on too small a scale and business +uses of the telegraph had not yet developed sufficiently. + +An amalgamation of the scattered, competing lines was needed, both +to secure better service for the public and proper dividends for the +investors. This amalgamation was effected by Mr. Hiram Sibley, who +organized the Western Union in 1856. The plan was ridiculed at +the time, some one stating that "The Western Union seems very like +collecting all the paupers in the State and arranging them into a +union so as to make rich men of them." But these pauper companies did +become rich once they were united under efficient management. + +The nation was just then stretching herself across to the Pacific. +The commercial importance of California was growing rapidly. By 1857 +stage-coaches were crossing the plains and the pony-express riders +were carrying the mail. The pioneers of the telegraph felt that a line +should span the continent. This was then a tremendous undertaking, and +when Mr. Sibley proposed that the Western Union should undertake the +construction of such a line he was met with the strongest opposition. +The explorations of Frémont were not far in the past, and the vast +extent of country west of the Mississippi was regarded as a wilderness +peopled with savages and almost impossible of development. But Sibley +had faith; he was possessed of Morse's vision and Morse's courage. +The Western Union refusing to undertake the enterprise, he began it +himself. The Government, realizing the military and administrative +value of a telegraph line to California, subsidized the work. +Additional funds were raised and a route selected was through Omaha +and Salt Lake City to San Francisco. + +The undertaking proved less formidable than had been anticipated, +for, instead of two years, less than five months were occupied in +completing the line. Sibley's tact and ability did much to avoid +opposition by the Indians. He made the red men his friends and +impressed upon them the wonder of the telegraph. When the line was in +operation between Fort Kearney and Fort Laramie he invited the chief +of the Arapahoes at Fort Kearney to communicate by telegraph with +his friend the chief of the Sioux at Fort Laramie. The two chiefs +exchanged telegrams and were deeply impressed. They were told that the +telegraph was the voice of the Manitou or Great Spirit. To convince +them it was suggested that they meet half-way and compare their +experiences. Though they were five hundred miles apart, they started +out on horseback, and on meeting each other found that the line had +carried their words truly. The story spread among the tribes, and so +the telegraph line became almost sacred to the Indians. They might +raid the stations and kill the operators, but they seldom molested the +wires. + +Among many ignorant peoples the establishment of the telegraph has +been attained with no small difficulty. The Chinese showed a dread of +the telegraph, frequently breaking down the early lines because they +believed that they would take away the good luck of their district. +The Arabs, on the other hand, did not oppose the telegraph. This +is partly because the name is one which they can understand, +_tel_ meaning wire to them, and _araph_, to know. Thus in Arabic +_tele-agraph_ means to know by wire. + +Just as the Indians of our own plains had difficulty in understanding +the telegraph, so the primitive peoples in other parts of the world +could scarce believe it possible. A story is told of the construction +of an early line in British India. The natives inquired the purpose of +the wire from the head man. + +"The wire is to carry messages to Calcutta," he replied. + +"But how can words run along a wire?" they asked. + +The head man puzzled for a moment. + +"If there were a dog," he replied, "with a tail long enough to reach +from here to Calcutta, and you pinched his tail here, wouldn't he howl +in Calcutta?" + +Once Sibley and the other American telegraph pioneers had spanned the +continent, they began plans for spanning the globe. Their idea was to +unite America and Europe by a line stretched through British Columbia, +Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and Siberia. Siberia had been connected +with European Russia, and thus practically the entire line could be +stretched on land, only short submarine cables being necessary. It was +then seriously doubted that cables long enough to cross the Atlantic +were practicable. The expedition started in 1865, a fleet of thirty +vessels carrying the men and supplies. Tremendous difficulties had +been overcome and a considerable part of the work accomplished when +the successful completion of the Atlantic cable made the work useless. +Nearly three million dollars had been expended by the Western Union +in this attempt. Yet, despite this loss, its affairs were so generally +successful and the need for the telegraph so real that it continued to +thrive until it reached its present remarkable development. + +While the line-builders were busy stretching telegraph wires into +almost every city and town in the nation, others were perfecting the +apparatus. Alfred Vail was a leading figure in this work. Already he +had played a large part in designing and constructing the apparatus to +carry out Morse's ideas, and he continued to improve and perfect +until practically nothing remained of Morse's original apparatus. The +original Morse transmitter had consisted of a porte-rule and movable +type. This was cumbersome, and Vail substituted a simple key to make +and break the circuit. Vail had also constructed the apparatus to +emboss the message upon the moving strip of paper, but this he now +improved upon. The receiving apparatus was simplified and the pen was +replaced by a disk smeared with ink which marked the dots and dashes +upon the paper. + +As we have noticed, Morse took particular pride in the fact that +the receiving apparatus in his telegraph was self-recording, and +considered this as one of the most important parts of his system. But +when the telegraph began to come into commercial use the operators at +the receiving end noticed that they could read the messages from the +long and short periods between the clicks of the receiving mechanism. +Thus they were taking the message by ear and the recording mechanism +was superfluous. Rules and fines failed to break them of the habit, +and Vail, recognizing the utility of the development, constructed a +receiver which had no recording device, but from which the messages +were read by listening to the clicks as the armature struck against +the frame in which it was set. Thus the telegraph returned in its +elements to the form of Professor Henry's original bell telegraph. + +With his bell telegraph and his relay Henry had the elements of a +successful system. He failed, however, to develop them practically or +to introduce them to the attention of the public. He was the man of +science rather than the practical inventor. Alfred Vail, joining with +Morse after the latter had conceived the telegraph, but before +his apparatus was in practical form, was a tireless and invaluable +mechanical assistant. His inventions of apparatus were of the utmost +practical value, and he played a very large part in bringing the +telegraph to a form where it could serve man effectively. After +success had been won Morse did not extend to Vail the credit which it +seems was his due. + +Yet, though Morse made free use of the ideas and assistance of others, +he was richly deserving of a major portion of the fame and the rewards +that came to him as inventor of the telegraph. Morse was the directing +genius; he contributed the idea and the leadership, and bore the brunt +of the burdens when all was most discouraging. + +Honors were heaped upon Morse both at home and abroad as his telegraph +established itself in all parts of the world. Orders of knighthood, +medals, and decorations were conferred upon him. Though he had failed +to secure foreign patents, many of the foreign governments recognized +the value of his invention, and France, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, +Russia, Sweden, Turkey, and some smaller nations joined in paying him +a testimonial of four hundred thousand francs. It is to be noticed +that Great Britain did not join in this testimonial, though Morse's +system had been adopted there in preference to the one developed by +Wheatstone. + +In 1871 a statue of Morse was erected in Central Park, New York +City. It was in the spring of the next year that another statue was +unveiled, this time one of Benjamin Franklin, and Morse presided at +the ceremonies. The venerable man received a tremendous ovation on +this occasion, but the cold of the day proved too great a strain upon +him. He contracted a cold which eventually resulted in his death on +April 2, 1872. + +While extended consideration cannot be given here to the telegraphic +inventions of Thomas A. Edison, no discussion of the telegraph should +close without at least some mention of his work in this field. Edison +started his career as a telegrapher, and his first inventions were +improvements in the telegraph. His more recent and more wonderful +inventions have thrown his telegraphic inventions into the shadow. On +the telegraph as invented by Morse but one message could be sent over +a single wire at one time. It was later discovered that two messages' +could be sent over the single wire in opposite directions at the +same time. This was called duplex telegraphy. Edison invented duplex +telegraphy by which two messages could be sent over the same wire in +the same direction at the same time. Later he succeeded in combining +the two, which resulted in the quadruplex, by which four messages +may be sent over one wire at one time. Though Edison received +comparatively little for this invention, its commercial value may be +estimated from the statement by the president of the Western Union +that it saved that company half a million dollars in a single year. +Edison's quadruplex system was also adopted by the British lines. + +Before this he had perfected an automatic telegraph, work on which +had been begun by George Little, an Englishman. Little could make the +apparatus effective only over a short line and attained no very great +speed. Edison improved the apparatus until it transmitted thirty-five +hundred words a minute between New York and Philadelphia. Such is the +perfection to which Morse's marvel has been brought in the hands of +the most able of modern inventors. + + + + +VIII + +TELEGRAPHING BENEATH THE SEA + + Early Efforts at Underwater Telegraphy--Cable Construction and + Experimentation--The First Cables--The Atlantic Cable + Projected--Cyrus W. Field Becomes Interested--Organizes Atlantic + Telegraph Company--Professor Thomson as Scientific Adviser--His + Early Life and Attainments. + + +The idea of laying telegraph wires beneath the sea was discussed long +before a practical telegraph for use on land had been attained. It +is recorded that a Spaniard suggested submarine telegraphy in 1795. +Experiments were conducted early in the nineteenth century with +various materials in an effort to find a covering for the wires which +would be both a non-conductor of electricity and impervious to water. +An employee of the East India Company made an effort to lay a cable +across the river Hugli as early as 1838. His method was to coat the +wire with pitch inclose it in split rattan, and then wrap the whole +with tarred yarn. Wheatstone discussed a Calais-Dover cable in 1840, +but it remained for Morse to actually lay an experimental cable. We +have already heard of his experiments in New York Harbor in 1842. His +insulation was tarred hemp and India rubber. Wheatstone performed a +similar experiment in the Bay of Swansea a few months later. + +Perhaps the first practical submarine cable was laid by Ezra Cornell, +one of Morse's associates, in 1845. He laid twelve miles of cable in +the Hudson River, connecting Fort Lee with New York City. The cable +consisted of two cotton-covered wires inclosed in rubber, and the +whole incased in a lead pipe. This cable was in use for several months +until it was carried away by the ice in the winter of 1846. + +These early experimenters found the greatest difficulty in incasing +their wires in rubber, practical methods of working that substance +being then unknown. The discovery of gutta-percha by a Scotch surveyor +of the East India Company in 1842, and the invention of a machine for +applying it to a wire, by Dr. Werner Siemens, proved a great aid +to the cable-makers. These gutta-percha-covered wires were used for +underground telegraphy both in England and on the Continent. Tests +were made with such a cable for submarine work off Dover in 1849, and, +proving successful, the first cable across the English Channel was +laid the next year by John Watkins Brett. The cable was weighted +with pieces of lead fastened on every hundred yards. A few incoherent +signals were exchanged and the communication ceased. A Boulogne +fisherman had caught the new cable in his trawl, and, raising it, had +cut a section away. This he had borne to port as a great treasure, +believing the copper to be gold in some new form of deposit. This +experience taught the need of greater protection for a cable, and the +next year another was laid across the Channel, which was protected by +hemp and wire wrappings. This proved successful. In 1852 England +and Ireland were joined by cable, and the next year a cable was laid +across the North Sea to Holland. The success of these short cables +might have promised success in an attempt to cross the Atlantic had +not failures in the deep water of the Mediterranean made it seem an +impossibility. + +We have noted that Morse suggested the possibility of uniting Europe +and America by cable. The same thought had occurred to others, but the +undertaking was so vast and the problems so little understood that for +many years none were bold enough to undertake the project. A telegraph +from New York to St. John's, Newfoundland, was planned, however, which +was to lessen the time of communication between the continents. +News brought by boats from England could be landed at St. John's and +telegraphed to New York, thus saving two days. F.N. Gisborne secured +the concession for such a line in 1852, and began the construction. +Cables were required to connect Newfoundland with the continent, and +to cross the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but the rest of the line was to be +strung through the forests. + +Before much had been accomplished, Gisborne had run out of funds, +and work was suspended. In 1854 Gisborne met Cyrus West Field, of +New York, a retired merchant of means. Field became interested in +Gisborne's project, and as he examined the globe in his library the +thought occurred to him that the line to St. John's was but a start on +the way to England. The idea aroused his enthusiasm, and he determined +to embark upon the gigantic enterprise. He knew nothing of telegraph +cables or of the sea-bottom, and so sought expert information on the +subject. + +One important question was as to the condition of the sea-bottom on +which the cable must rest. Lieutenant Berryman of the United States +Navy had taken a series of soundings and stated that the sea-bottom +between Newfoundland and Ireland was a comparatively level plateau +covered with soft ooze, and at a depth of about two thousand fathoms. +This seemed to the investigators to have been provided for the +especial purpose of receiving a submarine cable, so admirably was it +suited to this purpose. Morse was consulted, and assured Field that +the project was entirely feasible, and that a submarine cable once +laid between the continents could be operated successfully. + +Field thereupon adopted the plans of Gisborne as the first step in the +larger undertaking. In 1855 an attempt was made to lay a cable across +the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but a storm arose, and the cable had to be +cut to save the ship from which it was being laid. Another attempt +was made the following summer with better equipment, and the cable was +successfully completed. Other parts of the line had been finished, the +telegraph now stretched a thousand miles toward England, and New York +was connected with St. John's. + +Desiring more detailed information of the ocean-bed along the proposed +route, Field secured the assistance of the United States and British +governments. Lieutenant Berryman, U.S.N., in the _Arctic_, and +Lieutenant Dayman, R.N., in the _Cyclops_, made a careful survey. +Their soundings revealed a ridge near the Irish coast, but the slope +was gradual and the general conditions seemed especially favorable. + +The preliminary work had been done by an American company with Field +at the head and Morse as electrician. Now Field went to England +to secure capital sufficient for the larger enterprise. With the +assistance of Mr. J.W. Brett he organized the Atlantic Telegraph +Company, Field himself supplying a quarter of the capital. Associated +with Field and Brett in the leadership of the enterprise was Charles +Tiltson Bright, a young Englishman who became engineer for the new +company. + +Besides the enormous engineering difficulties of producing a cable +long enough and strong enough, and laying it at the bottom of the +Atlantic, there were electrical problems involved far greater than +Morse seems to have realized. It had been discovered that the passage +of a current through a submarine cable is seriously retarded. +The retarding of the current as it passes through the water is a +difficulty that does not exist with the land telegraph stretched on +poles. Faraday had demonstrated that this retarding was caused by +induction between the electricity in the wire and the water about the +cable. The passage of the current through the wire induces currents in +the water, and these moving in the opposite direction act as a drag on +the passage of the message through the wire. What the effect of this +phenomenon would be on a cable long enough to cross the Atlantic wan +a serious problem that required deep study by the company's engineers. +It seemed entirely possible that the messages would move so slowly +that the operation of the cable, once it was laid, would not pay. + +Faraday failed to give any definite information on the subject, but +Professor William Thomson worked out the law of retardation accurately +and furnished to the cable-builders the accurate information which +was required. Doctor Whitehouse, electrician for the Atlantic Company, +conducted some experiments of his own and questioned the accuracy of +Thomson's statements. Thomson maintained his position so ably, and +proved himself so thoroughly a master of the subject that Field and +his associates decided to enlist him in the enterprise. This addition +to the forces was one of the utmost importance. William Thomson, +later to become Lord Kelvin, was probably the ablest scientist of his +generation, and was destined to prove his great abilities in his early +work with the Atlantic cable. + +William Thomson was born in Belfast, Ireland, in 1824. His father was +a teacher and took an especially keen interest in the affairs of his +boys because their mother had died while William was very young. +When William was eight years of age his father removed to Glasgow, +Scotland, where he had secured the chair of mathematics in Glasgow +University. His early education he secured from his father, and this +training, coupled with his natural brilliancy, enabled him to develop +genuine precocity. At the age of eight he attended his father's +university lectures as a visitor, and it is reported that on one +occasion he answered his father's questions when all of the class had +failed. At the age of ten he entered the university, together with +his brother James, who was but two years older. The brothers displayed +marked interest in science and invention, eagerly pursued their +studies in these branches, and performed many electrical experiments +together. + +[Illustration: CYRUS W. FIELD] + +[Illustration: WILLIAM THOMSON (LORD KELVIN)] + +James took the degrees B.A. and M.A. in successive years. Though +William also passed the examinations, he did not take the degrees, +because he had decided to go to Cambridge, and it was thought best +that he take all his degrees from that great school. In writing to +his older brother at this time, William was accustomed to sign himself +"B.A.T.A.I.A.P.," which signified "B.A. to all intents and purposes." +After finishing their work at Glasgow the boys traveled extensively on +the Continent. + +At seventeen William entered St. Peter's College, Cambridge University, +taking courses in advanced mathematics and continuing to distinguish +himself. He took an active part in the life of the university, making +something of a record us an athlete, winning the silver sculls, and +rowing on a 'varsity crew which took the measure of Oxford in the +great annual boat-race. He also interested himself in literature and +music, but his real passion was science. Already he had written many +learned essays on mathematical electricity and was accomplishing +valuable research work. On the completion of his work at Cambridge he +secured a fellowship which brought him an income of a thousand dollars +a year and enabled him to pursue his studies in Paris. + +When he was but twenty-two years of age he was made professor of +natural philosophy at the University of Glasgow. Though young, +he proved entirely successful, and wan immensely popular with his +students. At that time the university had no experimental laboratory, +and Professor Thomson and his pupils performed their experiments +in the professor's room and in an abandoned coal-cellar, slowly +developing a laboratory for themselves. His development continued +until, when at the age of thirty-three he was called upon to assist +with the work of laying an Atlantic cable, he was possessed of +scientific attainments which made him invaluable among the cable +pioneers. + + + + +IX + +THE PIONEER ATLANTIC CABLE + + Making the Cable--The First Attempt at Laying--Another Effort + Checked by Storm--The Cable Laid at Last--Messages Cross the + Ocean--The Cable Fails--Professor Thomson's Inventions and + Discoveries--Their Part in Designing and Constructing an Improved + Cable and Apparatus. + + +Field and his business associates were extremely anxious that the +cable be laid with all possible speed, and little time was allowed the +engineers and electricians for experimentation. The work of building +the cable was begun early in 1857 by two English firms. It consisted +of seven copper wires covered with gutta-percha and wound with tarred +hemp. Over this were wound heavy iron wires to give protection and +added strength. The whole weighed about a ton to the mile, and was +both strong and flexible. The distance from the west coast of Ireland +to Newfoundland being 1,640 nautical miles, it was decided to supply +2,500 miles of cable, an extra length being, of course, necessary +to allow for the inequalities at the bottom of the sea, and the +possibility of accident. + +The British and American governments had already provided subsidies, +and they now supplied war-ships for use in the work of laying the +cable. The _Agamemnon_, one of the largest of England's war-ships, and +the _Niagara_, giant of the United States Navy, were to do the actual +work of cable-laying, the cable being divided between them. They were +accompanied by the United States frigate _Susquehanna_ and the +British war-ships _Leopard_ and _Cyclops_. In August of 1857 the fleet +assembled on the Irish coast for the start, and the American sailors +landed the end of the cable amid great ceremony. + +The work of cable-laying was begun by the _Niagara_, which steamed +slowly away, accompanied by the fleet. The great cable payed out +smoothly as the Irish coast was left behind and the frigate increased +her speed. The submarine hill with its dangerous slopes was safely +passed, and it was felt that the greatest danger was past. The +paying-out machinery seemed to be working perfectly. Telegraphic +communication was constantly maintained with the shore end. For six +days all went well and nearly four hundred miles of cable had been +laid. + +With the cable dropping to the bottom two miles down it was found +that it was flowing out at the rate of six miles an hour while the +_Niagara_ was steaming but four. It was evident that the cable was +being wasted, and to prevent its running out too fast at this great +depth the brake controlling the flow of the cable was tightened. The +stern of the vessel rising suddenly on a wave, the strain proved too +great and the cable parted and was lost. Instant grief swept over +the ship and squadron, for the heart of every one was in the great +enterprise. It was felt that it would be useless to attempt to grapple +the cable at this great depth, and there seemed nothing to do but +abandon it and return. + +The loss of the cable and of a year's time--since another attempt +could not be made until the next season--resulted in a total loss +to the company of half a million dollars. Public realization of the +magnitude of the task had been awakened by the failure of the first +expedition and Field found it far from easy to raise additional +capital. It was finally accomplished, however, and a new supply of +cable was constructed. + +Professor Thomson had been studying the problems of submarine +telegraphy with growing enthusiasm, and had now arrived at the +conclusion that the conductivity of the cable depended very largely +upon the purity of the copper employed. He accordingly saw to it that +in the construction of the new section all the wires were carefully +tested and such as did not prove perfect were discarded. In the mean +time the engineers were busy improving the paying-out machinery. They +designed an automatic brake which would release the cable instantly +upon the strain becoming too great. It was thus hoped to avoid a +recurrence of the former accident. Chief-Engineer Bright also arranged +a trial trip for the purpose of drilling the staff in their various +duties. + +The same vessels were provided to lay the cable on the second attempt +and the fleet sailed in June of 1858, this time without celebration or +public ceremony. On this occasion the recommendation of Chief-Engineer +Bright was followed, and it was arranged that the _Niagara_ and +_Agamemnon_ should meet in mid-ocean, there splice the cable together +and proceed in opposite directions, laying the cable simultaneously. +On this expedition Professor Thomson was to assume the real scientific +leadership, Professor Morse, though he retained his position with the +company, taking no active part. + +The ships had not proceeded any great distance before they ran into a +terrible gale. The _Agamemnon_ had an especially difficult time of +it, her great load of cable overbalancing the ship and threatening +to break loose again and again and carry the great vessel and her +precious cargo to the bottom. The storm continued for over a week, and +when at last it had blown itself out the _Agamemnon_ resembled a wreck +and many of her crew had been seriously injured. But the cable +had been saved and the expedition was enabled to proceed to the +rendezvous. The _Niagara_, a larger ship, had weathered the storm +without mishap. + +The splice was effected on Saturday, the 26th, but before three miles +had been laid the cable caught in the paying-out machinery on the +_Niagara_ and was broken off. Another splice was made that evening and +the ships started again. The two vessels kept in communication with +each other by telegraph as they proceeded, and anxious inquiries and +many tests marked the progress of the work. When fifty miles were +out, the cable parted again at some point between the vessels and they +again sought the rendezvous in mid-Atlantic. Sufficient cable still +remained and a third start was made. For a few days all went well and +some four hundred miles of cable had been laid with success as the +messages passing from ship to ship clearly demonstrated. Field, +Thomson, and Bright began to believe that their great enterprise was +to be crowned with success when the cable broke again, this time about +twenty feet astern of the _Agamemnon_. This time there was no apparent +reason for the mishap, the cable having parted without warning when +under no unusual strain. + +The vessels returned to Queenstown, and Field and Thomson went to +London, where the directors of the company were assembled. Many were +in favor of abandoning the enterprise, selling the remaining cable +for what it would bring, and saving as much of their investment as +possible. But Field and Thomson were not of the sort who are easily +discouraged, and they managed to rouse fresh courage in their +associates. Yet another attempt was decided upon, and with replenished +stores the _Agamemnon_ and _Niagara_ once again proceeded to the +rendezvous. + +The fourth start was made on the 29th of July. On several occasions as +the work progressed communication failed, and Professor Thomson on +the _Agamemnon_ and the other electricians on the _Niagara_ spent many +anxious moments fearing that the line had again been severed. On each +occasion, however, the current resumed. It was afterward determined +that the difficulties were because of faulty batteries rather than +leaks in the cable. On both ships bad spots were found in the cable +as it was uncoiled and some quick work was necessary to repair them +before they dropped into the sea, since it was practically impossible +to stop the flow of the cable without breaking it. The _Niagara_ +had some narrow escapes from icebergs, and the _Agamemnon_ had +difficulties with ships which passed too close and a whale which swam +close to the ship and grazed the precious cable. But this time there +was no break and the ships approached their respective destinations +with the cable still carrying messages between them. The _Niagara_ +reached the Newfoundland coast on August 4th, and early the next +morning landed the cable in the cable-house at Trinity Bay. The +_Agamemnon_ reached the Irish coast but a few hours later, and her end +of the cable was landed on the afternoon of the same day. + +The public, because of the repeated failures, had come to look upon +the cable project as a sort of gigantic wild-goose chase. The news +that a cable had at last been laid across the ocean was received with +incredulity. Becoming convinced at last, there was great rejoicing +in England and America. Queen Victoria sent to President Buchanan +a congratulatory message in which she expressed the hope "that the +electric cable which now connects Great Britain with the United +States will prove an additional link between the two nations, whose +friendship is founded upon their mutual interest and reciprocal +esteem." The President responded in similar vein, and expressed the +hope that the neutrality of the cable might be established. + +Honors were showered upon the leaders in the enterprise. Charles +Bright, the chief engineer, was knighted, though he was then but +twenty-six years of age. Banquet after banquet was held in England at +which Bright and Thomson were the guests of honor. New York celebrated +in similar fashion. A grand salute of one hundred guns was fired, the +streets were decorated, and the city was illuminated at night. +The festivities rose to the highest pitch in September with Field +receiving the plaudits of all New York. Special services were held in +Trinity Church, and a great celebration was held in Crystal Palace. +The mayor presented to Field a golden casket, and the ceremony was +followed by a torchlight parade. That very day the last message went +over the wire. + +The shock to the public was tremendous. Many insisted that the cable +had never been operated and that the entire affair was a hoax. This +was quickly disproved. Aside from the messages between Queen and +President many news messages had gone over the cable and it had proved +of great value to the British Government. The Indian mutiny had been +in progress and regiments in Canada had received orders by mail to +sail for India. News reached England that the mutiny was at an end, +and the cable enabled the Government to countermand the orders, thus +saving a quarter of a million dollars that would have been expended in +transporting the troops. + +The engineers to whom the operations of the cable had been intrusted +had decided that very high voltages were necessary to its successful +operation. They had accordingly installed huge induction coils and +sent currents of two thousand volts over the line. Even this voltage +had failed to operate the Morse instruments, the drag by induction +proving too great. The strain of this high voltage had a very serious +effect upon the insulation. Abandoning the Morse instruments and +the high voltage, recourse was then had to Professor Thomson's +instruments, which proved entirely effective with ordinary battery +current. + +Because of the effect of induction the current is much delayed +in traveling through a long submarine cable and arrives in waves. +Professor Thomson devised his mirror galvanometer to meet this +difficulty. This device consists of a large coil of very fine wire, in +the center of which, in a small air-chamber, is a tiny mirror. Mounted +on the back of the mirror are very small magnets. The mirror is +suspended by a fiber of the finest silk. Thus the weakest of currents +coming in over the wire serve to deflect the mirror, and a beam +of light being directed upon the mirror and reflected by it upon a +screen, the slightest movement of the mirror is made visible. If the +mirror swings too far its action is deadened by compressing the air in +the chamber. The instrument is one of the greatest delicacy. Such +was the greatest contribution of Professor Thomson to submarine +telegraphy. Without it the cable could not have been operated even +for a short period. Had it been used from the first the line would not +have been ruined and might have been used for a considerable period. + +Professor Thomson together with Engineer Bright made a careful +investigation of the causes of failure. The professor pointed out +that had the mirror galvanometer been used with a moderate current the +cable could have been continued in successful operation. Ha continued +to improve this apparatus and at the same time busied himself with +a recording instrument to be used for cable work. Both Thomson and +Bright had recommended a larger and stronger cable, and other failures +in cable-laying in the Red Sea and elsewhere in the next few years +bore out their contentions. But with each failure new experience was +gained and methods were perfected. Professor Thomson continued his +work with the utmost diligence and continued to add to the fund of +scientific knowledge on the subject. So it was that he was prepared to +take his place as scientific leader of the next great effort. + + + + +X + +A SUCCESSFUL CABLE ATTAINED + + Field Raises New Capital--The _Great Eastern_ Secured and + Equipped--Staff Organized with Professor Thomson as Scientific + Director--Cable Parts and is Lost--Field Perseveres--The Cable + Recovered--The Continents Linked at Last--A Commercial + Success--Public Jubilation--Modern Cables. + + +The early 'sixties were trying years for the cable pioneers. It +required all of Field's splendid genius and energy to keep the project +alive. In the face of repeated failures, and doubt as to whether +messages could be sent rapidly enough to make any cable a commercial +success, it was extremely difficult to raise fresh capital. America +continued to evince interest in the cable, but with, the Civil War in +progress it was not easy to raise funds. But no discouragement could +deter Field. Though he suffered severely from seasickness, he crossed +the Atlantic sixty-four times in behalf of the great enterprise which +he had begun. + +It was necessary to raise three million dollars to provide a cable of +the improved type decided upon and to install it properly. The English +firm of Glass, Eliot & Company, which was to manufacture the cable, +took a very large part of the stock. The new cable was designed in +accordance with the principles enunciated by Professor Thomson. The +conductor consisted of seven wires of pure copper, weighing three +hundred pounds to the mile. This copper core was covered with +Chatterton's compound, which served as water-proofing. This was +surrounded by four layers of gutta-percha, cemented together by the +compound, and about this hemp was wound. The outer layer consisted +of eighteen steel wires wound spirally, each being covered with a +wrapping of hemp impregnated with a preservative solution. The new +cable was twice as heavy as the old and more than twice as strong, a +great advance having been made in the methods of manufacturing steel +wire. + +It was decided that the cable should, be laid by one vessel, instead +of endeavoring to work from two as in the past. Happily, a boat was +available which was fitted to carry this enormous burden. This was +the _Great Eastern_, a mammoth vessel far in advance of her time. +This great ship of 22,500 tons had been completed in 1857, but had not +proved a commercial success. The docks of that day were not adequate, +the harbors were not deep enough, and the cargoes were insufficient. +She had long lain idle when she was secured by the cable company and +fitted out for the purpose of laying the cable, which was the first +useful work which had been found for the great ship. The 2,300 miles +of heavy cable was coiled into the hull and paying-out machinery was +installed upon the decks. Huge quantities of coal and other supplies +were added. + +Capt. James Anderson of the Cunard Line was placed in command of the +ship for the expedition, with Captain Moriarty, R.N., as navigating +officer. Professor Thomson and Mr. C.F. Varley represented the +Atlantic Telegraph Company as electricians and scientific advisers. +Mr. Samuel Canning was engineer in charge for the contractors. Mr. +Field was also on board. + +It was on July 23, 1865, that the expedition started from the Irish +coast, where the eastern end of the cable had been landed. Less than a +hundred miles of cable had been laid when the electricians discovered +a fault in the cable. The _Great Eastern_ was stopped, the course was +retraced, and the cable picked up until the fault was reached. It was +found that a piece of iron wire had in some way pierced the cable +so that the insulation was ruined. This was repaired and the work of +laying was again commenced. Five days later, when some seven hundred +miles of cable had been laid, communication was again interrupted, and +once again they turned back, laboriously lifting the heavy cable from +the depths, searching for the break. Again a wire was found thrust +through the cable, and this occasioned no little worry, as it was +feared that this was being done maliciously. + +It was on August 2d that the next fault was discovered. Nearly +two-thirds of the cable was now in place and the depth was here over +one mile. Raising the cable was particularly difficult, and just at +this juncture the _Great Eastern's_ machinery broke down, leaving her +without power and at the mercy of the waves. Subjected to an enormous +strain, the precious cable parted and was lost. Despite the great +depth, efforts were made to grapple the lost cable. Twice the cable +was hooked, but on both occasions the rope parted and after days of +tedious work the supply of rope was exhausted and it was necessary +to return to England. Still another cable expedition had ended in +failure. + +Field, the indomitable, began all over again, raising additional funds +for a new start. The _Great Eastern_ had proved entirely satisfactory, +and it was hoped that with improvements in the grappling-gear the +cable might be recovered. The old company gave way before a new +organization known as the Anglo-American Telegraph Company. It was +decided to lay an entirely new cable, and then to endeavor to complete +the one partially laid in 1865. + +With no services other than private prayers at the station on the +Irish shore, the _Great Eastern_ steamed away for the new effort on +July 13, 1866. This time the principal difficulties arose within the +ship. Twice the cable became tangled in the tanks and it was necessary +to stop the ship while the mass was straightened out. Most of the +time the "coffee-mill," as the seamen called the paying-out machinery, +ground steadily away and the cable sank into the sea. As the work +progressed Field and Thomson, who had suffered so many failures in +their great enterprise, watched with increasing anxiety. They were +almost afraid to hope that the good fortune would continue. + +Just two weeks after the Irish coast had been left behind the _Great +Eastern_ approached Newfoundland just as the shadows of night were +added to those of a thick fog. On the next morning, July 28th, she +steamed into Trinity Bay, where flags were flying in the little town +in honor of the great accomplishment. Amid salutes and cheers +the cable was landed and communication between the continents was +established. Almost the first news that came over the wire was that of +the signing of the treaty of peace which ended the war between Prussia +and Austria. + +Early in August the _Great Eastern_ again steamed away to search for +the cable broken the year before. Arriving on the spot, the grapples +were thrown out and the tedious work of dragging the sea-bottom was +begun. After many efforts the cable was finally secured and raised to +the surface. A new section was spliced on and the ship again turned +toward America. On September 7th the second cable was successfully +landed, and two wires were now in operation between the continents. +Thus was the great task doubly fulfilled. Once again there were public +celebrations in England and America. Field received the deserved +plaudits of his countrymen and Thomson was knighted in recognition of +his achievements. + +[Illustration: THE "GREAT EASTERN" LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE. 1866] + +The new cables proved a success and were kept in operation for many +years. Thomson's mirror receiver had been improved until it displayed +remarkable sensitiveness. Using the current from a battery placed in +a lady's thimble, a message was sent across the Atlantic through one +cable and back through the other. Professor Thomson was to give to +submarine telegraphy an even more remarkable instrument. The mirror +instrument did not give a permanent record of the messages. The +problem of devising a means of recording the messages delicate enough +so that it could be operated with rapidity by the faint currents +coming over a long cable was extremely difficult. But Thomson solved +it with his siphon recorder. In this a small coil is suspended between +the poles of a large magnet; the coil being free to turn upon its +axis. When the current from the cable passes through the coil it +moves, and so varies the position of the ink-siphon which is attached +to it. The friction of a pen on paper would have proved too great a +drag on so delicate an instrument, and so a tiny jet of ink from the +siphon was substituted. The ink is made to pass through the siphon +with sufficient force to mark down the message by a delightfully +ingenious method. Thomson simply arranged to electrify the ink, and +it rushes through the tiny opening on to the paper just as lightning +leaps from cloud to earth. + +Professor, now Sir, Thomson continued to take an active part in the +work of designing and laying new cables. Not only did he contribute +the apparatus and the scientific information which made cables +possible, but he attained renown as a physicist and a scientist in +many other fields. In 1892 he was given the title of Lord Kelvin, and +it was by this name that he was known as the leading physicist of his +day. He survived until 1907. + +To Cyrus W. Field must be assigned a very large share of the credit +for the establishment of telegraphic communication between the +continents. He gave his fortune and all of his tremendous energy and +ability to the enterprise and kept it alive through failure after +failure. He was a promoter of the highest type, the business man who +recognized a great human need and a great opportunity for service. +Without his efforts the scientific discoveries of Thomson could +scarcely have been put to practical use. + +The success of the first cable inspired others. In 1869 a cable from +France to the United States was laid from the _Great Eastern_. In 1875 +the Direct United States Cable Company laid another cable to England, +which was followed by another cable to France. One cable after another +was laid until there are now a score. This second great development in +communication served to bring the two continents much closer together +in business and in thought and has proved of untold benefit. + + + + +XI + +ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, THE YOUTH + + The Family's Interest in Speech Improvement--Early Life-Influence of + Sir Charles Wheatstone--He Comes to America--Visible Speech and the + Mohawks--The Boston School for Deaf Mutes--The Personality of Bell. + + +The men of the Bell family, for three generations, have interested +themselves in human speech. The grandfather, the father, and the +uncle of Alexander Graham Bell were all elocutionists of note. The +grandfather achieved fame in London; the uncle, in Dublin; and the +father, in Edinburgh. The father applied himself particularly to +devising means of instructing the deaf in speech. His book on _Visible +Speech_ explained his method of instructing deaf mutes in speech by +the aid of their sight, and of teaching them to understand the speech +of others by watching their lips as the words are spoken. + +Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh in 1847, and received +his early education in the schools of that city. He later studied +at Warzburg, Germany, where he received the degree of Doctor of +Philosophy. He followed very naturally in the footsteps of his father, +taking an early interest in the study of speech. He was especially +anxious to aid his mother, who was deaf. + +As a boy he exhibited a genius for invention, as well as for +acoustics. Much of this was duo to the wise encouragement of his +father. He himself has told of a boyhood invention. + + My father once asked my brother Melville and myself to try to + make a speaking-machine, I don't suppose he thought we could + produce anything of value, in itself. But he knew we could not + even experiment and manufacture anything which even tried to + speak, without learning something of the voice and the + throat; and the mouth--all that wonderful mechanism of sound + production in which he was so interested. + + So my brother and I went to work. We divided the task--he was + to make the lungs and the vocal cords, I was to make the mouth + and the tongue. He made a bellows for the lungs and a very + good vocal apparatus out of rubber. I procured a skull and + molded a tongue with rubber stuffed with cotton wool, and + supplied the soft parts of the throat with the same material + Then I arranged joints, so the jaw and the tongue could move. + It was a great day for us when we fitted the two parts of the + device together. Did it speak? It squeaked and squawked a + good deal, but it made a very passable imitation of + "Mam-ma--Mam-ma." It sounded very much like a baby. My father + wanted us to go on and try to get other sounds, but we were so + interested in what we had done we wanted to try it out. So we + proceeded to use it to make people think there was a baby in + the house, and when we made it cry "Mam-ma," and heard doors + opening and people coming, we were quite happy. What has + become of It? Well, that was across the ocean, in Scotland, + but I believe the mouth and tongue part that I made is in + Georgetown somewhere; I saw it not long ago. + +The inventor tells of another boyhood invention that, though it had no +connection with sound or speech, shows his native ingenuity. Again we +will tell it in his own words. + + I remember my first invention very well. There were several of + us boys, and we were fond of playing around a mill where they + ground wheat into flour. The miller's son was one of the + boys, and I am afraid he showed us how to be a good deal of a + nuisance to his father. One day the miller called us into the + mill and said, "Why don't you do something useful instead of + just playing all the time?" I wasn't afraid of the miller as + much as his son was, so I said, "Well, what can we do that + is useful?" He took up a handful of wheat, ran it over in his + hand and said: "Look at that! If you could manage to get the + husks off that wheat, that would be doing something useful!" + + So I took some wheat home with me and experimented. I found + the husks came off without much difficulty. I tried brushing + them off and they came off beautifully. Then it occurred to me + that brushing was nothing but applying friction to them. If + I could brush the husks off, why couldn't the husks be rubbed + off? + + There was in the mill a machine--I don't know what it was + for--but it whirled its contents, whatever it was, around in + a drum. I thought, "Why wouldn't the husks come off if the raw + wheat was whirled around in that drum?" So back I went to the + miller and suggested the idea to him. + + "Why," he said, "that's a good idea." So he called his foreman + and they tried it, and the husks came off beautifully, and + they've been taking husks off that way ever since. That was + my very first invention, and it led me to thinking for myself, + and really had quite an influence on my way and methods of + thought. + +Up to his sixteenth year young Bell's reading consisted largely of +novels, poetry, and romantic tales of Scotch heroes. But in addition +he was picking up some knowledge of anatomy, music, electricity, and +telegraphy. When he was but sixteen years of age his father secured +for him a position as teacher of elocution and this necessarily turned +his thought into more serious channels. He now spent his leisure +studying sound. During this period he made several discoveries in +sound which were of some small importance. + +When he was twenty-one years of age he went to London and there had +the good fortune to come to the attention of Charles Wheatstone +and Alex J. Ellis. Ellis was at that time president of the London +Philological Society, and had translated Helmholtz's _The Sensation +of Tone_ into English. He had made no little progress with sound, and +demonstrated to Bell the methods by which German scientists had caused +tuning-forks to vibrate by means of electro-magnets and had combined +the tones of several tuning-forks in an effort to reproduce the sound +of the human voice. Helmholtz had performed this experiment simply to +demonstrate the physical basis of sound, and seems to have had no idea +of its possible use in telephony. + +That an electro-magnet could vibrate a tuning-fork and so produce +sound was an entirely new and fascinating idea to the youth. It +appealed to his imagination, quickened by his knowledge of speech. +"Why not an electrical telegraph?" he asked himself. His idea seems to +have been that the electric current could carry different notes over +the wire and reproduce them by means of the electro-magnet. Although +Bell did not know it, many others were struggling with the same +problem, the answer to which proved most elusive. It gave Bell a +starting-point, and the search for the telephone began. + +Sir Charles Wheatstone was then England's leading man of science, +and so Bell sought his counsel. Wheatstone received the young man +and listened to his statement of his ideas and ambitions and gave +him every encouragement. He showed him a talking-machine which +had recently been invented by Baron de Kempelin, and gave him the +opportunity to study it closely. Thus Bell, the eager student, the +unknown youth of twenty-two, came under the influence of Wheatstone, +the famous scientist and inventor of sixty-seven. This influence +played a great part in shaping Bell's career, arousing as it did his +passion for science. This decided him to devote himself to the problem +of reproducing sounds by mechanical means. Thus a new improvement in +the means of human communication was being sought and another pioneer +of science was at work. + +The death of the two brothers of the young scientist from +tuberculosis, and the physician's report that he himself was +threatened by the dread malady, forced a change in his plans and +withdrew him from an atmosphere which was so favorable to the +development of his great ideas. He was told that he must seek a new +climate and lead a more vigorous life in the open. Accompanied by his +father, he removed to America and at the age of twenty-six took up the +struggle for health in the little Canadian town of Brantford. + +He occupied himself by teaching his father's system of visible speech +among the Mohawk Indians. In this work he met with no little success. +At the same time he was gaining in bodily vigor and throwing off the +tendency to consumption which had threatened his life. He did not +forget the great idea which filled his imagination and eagerly sought +the telephone with such crude means as were at hand. He succeeded in +designing a piano which, with the aid of the electric current, could +transmit its music over a wire and reproduce it. + +While lecturing in Boston on his system of teaching visible speech, +the elder Bell received a request to locate in that city and take up +his work in its schools. He declined the offer, but recommended his +son as one entirely competent for the position. Alexander Graham +Bell received the offer, which he accepted, and he was soon at work +teaching the deaf mutes in the school which Boston had opened for +those thus afflicted. He met with the greatest success in his work, +and ere long achieved a national reputation. During the first year of +his work, 1871, he was the sensation of the educational world. Boston +University offered him a professorship, in which position he taught +others his system of teaching, with increased success. + +The demand for his services led him to open a School of Vocal +Physiology. He had made some improvements in his father's system for +teaching the deaf and dumb to speak and to understand spoken words, +and displayed great ability as a teacher. His experiments with +telegraphy and telephony had been laid aside, and there seemed little +chance that he would turn from the work in which he was accomplishing +so much for so many sufferers, and which was bringing a comfortable +financial return, and again undertake the tedious work in search for a +telephone. + +Fortunately, Bell was to establish close relationships with those who +understood and appreciated his abilities and gave him encouragement +in his search for a new means of communication. Thomas Sanders, a +resident of Salem, had a five-year-old son named Georgie who was a +deaf mute. Mr. Sanders sought Bell's tutelage for his son, and it was +agreed that Bell should give Georgie private lessons for the sum of +three hundred and fifty dollars a year. It was also arranged that Bell +was to reside at the Sanders home in Salem. He made arrangements to +conduct his future experiments there. + +Another pupil who came to him about this time was Mabel Hubbard, a +fifteen-year-old girl who had lost her hearing and consequently her +powers of speech, through an attack of scarlet fever when an infant. +She was a gentle and lovable girl, and Bell fell completely in love +with his pupil. Four years later he was to marry her and she was +to prove a large influence in helping him to success. She took the +liveliest interest in all of his experiments and encouraged him to new +endeavor after each failure. She kept his records and notes and wrote +his letters. Through her Bell secured the support of her father, +Gardiner G. Hubbard, who was widely known as one of Boston's ablest +lawyers. He was destined to become Bell's chief spokesman and +defender. + +Hubbard first became aware of Bell's inventive genius when the latter +was calling one evening at the Hubbard home in Cambridge. Bell was +illustrating some mysteries of acoustics with the aid of the piano. +"Do you know," he remarked, "that if I sing the note G close to the +strings of the piano, the G string will answer me?" + +This did not impress the lawyer, who asked its significance. + +"It is a fact of tremendous importance," answered Bell. "It is +evidence that we may some day have a musical telegraph which will +enable us to send as many messages simultaneously over one wire as +there are notes on that piano." + +From that time forward Hubbard took every occasion to encourage Bell +to carry forward his experiments in musical telegraphy. + +As a young man Bell was tall and slender, with jet-black eyes and +hair, the latter being pushed back into a curly tangle. He was +sensitive and high-strung, very much the artist and the man of +science. His enthusiasms were intense, and, once his mind was filled +with an idea, he followed it devotedly. He was very little the +practical business man and paid scant attention to the small, +practical details of life. He was so interested in visible speech, and +so keenly alert to the pathos of the lives of the deaf mutes, that he +many times seriously considered giving over all experiments with the +musical telegraph and devoting his entire life and energies to the +amelioration of their condition. + + + + +XII + +THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + + The Cellar at Sanderses'--Experimental Beginnings--Magic Revived in + Salem Town--The Dead Man's Ear--The Right Path--Trouble and + Discouragement--The Trip to Washington--Professor Joseph Henry--The + Boston Workshop--The First Faint Twang of the Telephone--Early + Development. + + +Alexander Graham Bell had not resided at the Sanderses' home very long +before he had fitted the basement up as a workshop. For three years he +haunted it, spending all of his leisure time in his experiments. Here +he had his apparatus, and the basement was littered with a curious +combination of electrical and acoustical devices--magnets, batteries, +coils of wire, tuning-forks, speaking-trumpets, etc. Bell had a great +horror that his ideas might be stolen and was very nervous over any +possible intrusion into his precious workshop. Only the members of +the Sanders family were allowed to enter the basement. He was equally +cautious in purchasing supplies and equipment lest his very purchases +reveal the nature of his experiments. He would go to a half-dozen +different stores for as many articles. He usually selected the night +for his experiments, and pounded and scraped away indefatigably, +oblivious of the fact that the family, as well as himself, was sorely +in need of rest. + +"Bell would often awaken me in the middle of the night," says Mr. +Sanders, "his black eyes blazing with excitement. Leaving me to go +down to the cellar, he would rush wildly to the barn and begin to send +me signals along his experimental wires. If I noticed any improvement +in his apparatus he would be delighted. He would leap and whirl around +in one of his 'war-dances,' and then go contentedly to bed. But if +the experiment was a failure he would go back to his work-bench to try +some different plan." + +In common with other experimenters who were searching for the +telephone, Bell was experimenting with a sort of musical telegraph. +Eagerly and persistently he sought the means that would replace the +telegraph with its cumbersome signals by a new device which would +enable the human voice itself to be transmitted. The longer he worked +the greater did the difficulties appear. His work with the deaf and +dumb was alluring, and on many occasions he seriously considered +giving over his other experiments and devoting himself entirely to the +instruction of the deaf and dumb and to the development of his system +of making speech visible by making the sound-vibrations visible to the +eye. But as he mused over the difficulties in enabling a deaf mute to +achieve speech nothing else seemed impossible. "If I can make a deaf +mute talk," said Bell, "I can make iron talk." + +One of his early ideas was to install a harp at one end of the wire +and a speaking-trumpet at the other. His plan was to transmit +the vibrations over the wire and have the voice reproduced by the +vibrations of the strings of the harp. By attaching a light pencil +or marker to a cord or membrane and causing the latter to vibrate by +talking against it, he could secure tracings of the sound-vibrations. +Different tracings were secured from different sounds. He thus sought +to teach the deaf to speak by sight. + +At this time Bell enjoyed the friendship of Dr. Clarence J. Blake, an +eminent Boston aurist, who suggested that the experiments be conducted +with a human ear instead of with a mechanical apparatus in imitation +of the ear. Bell eagerly accepted the idea, and Doctor Blake provided +him with an ear and connecting organs cut from a dead man's head. Bell +soon had the ghastly specimen set up in his workshop. He moistened the +drum with glycerine and water and, substituting a stylus of hay for +the stapes bone, he obtained a wonderful series of curves which showed +the vibrations of the human voice as recorded by the ear. One can +scarce imagine a stranger picture than Bell must have presented in the +conduct of those experiments. We can almost see him with his face the +paler in contrast with his black hair and flashing black eyes as he +shouted and whispered by turns into the ghastly ear. Surely he must +have looked the madman, and it is perhaps fortunate that he was not +observed by impressionable members of the public else they would have +been convinced that the witches had again visited old Salem town to +ply their magic anew. But it was a new and very real and practical +sort of magic which was being worked there. + +His experiments with the dead man's ear brought to Bell at least one +important idea. He noted that, though the ear-drum was thin and light, +it was capable of sending vibrations through the heavy bones that +lay back of it. And so he thought of using iron disks or membranes to +serve the purpose of the drum in the ear and arrange them so that +they would vibrate an iron rod. He thought of connecting two such +instruments with an electrified wire, one of which would receive the +sound-vibrations and the other of which would reproduce them after +they had been transmitted along the wire. At last the experimenter +was on the right track, with a conception of a practicable method of +transmitting sound. He now possessed a theoretical knowledge of what +the telephone he sought should be, but there yet remained before him +the enormous task of devising and constructing the apparatus which +would carry out the idea, and find the best way of utilizing the +electrical current for this work. + +Bell was now at a critical point in his career and was confronted by +the same difficulty which assails so many inventors. In his constant +efforts to achieve a telephone he had entirely neglected his school of +vocal physiology, which was now abandoned. Georgie Sanders and +Mabel Hubbard were his only pupils. Though Sanders and Hubbard were +genuinely interested in Bell and his work, they felt that he was +impractical, and were especially convinced that his experiments with +the ear and its imitations were entirely useless. They believed that +the electrical telegraph alone presented possibilities, and they told +Bell that unless he would devote himself entirely to the improvement +of this instrument and cease wasting time and money over ear toys +that had no commercial value they would no longer give him financial +support. Hubbard went even further, and insisted that if Bell did not +abandon his foolish notions he could not marry his daughter. + +Bell was almost without funds, his closest friends now seemed to turn +upon him, and altogether he was in a sorry plight. Of course Sanders +and Hubbard meant the best, yet in reality they were seeking to drive +their protégé in exactly the wrong direction. As far back as 1860 a +German scientist named Philipp Reis produced a musical telephone +that even transmitted a few imperfect words. But it would not talk +successfully. Others had followed in his footsteps, using the musical +telephone to transmit messages with the Morse code by means of long +and short hums. Elisha Gray, of Chicago, also experimented with the +musical telegraph. At the transmitting end a vibrating steel tongue +served to interrupt the electric current which passed over the wire +in waves, and, passing through the coils of an electro-magnet at the +receiving end, caused another strip of steel located near the magnet +to vibrate and so produce a tone which varied with the current. + +All of these developments depended upon the interruption of the +current by some kind of a vibrating contact. The limitations which +Sanders and Hubbard sought to impose upon Bell, had they been obeyed +to the letter, must have prevented his ultimate success. In a letter +to his mother at this time, he said: + + I am now beginning to realize the cares and anxieties of being + an inventor. I have had to put off all pupils and classes, for + flesh and blood could not stand much longer such a strain as I + have had upon me. + +But good fortune was destined to come to Bell along with the bad. On +an enforced trip to Washington to consult his patent attorney--a trip +he could scarce raise funds to make--Bell met Prof. Joseph Henry. +We have seen the part which this eminent scientist had played in the +development of the telegraph. Now he was destined to aid Bell, as he +had aided Morse a generation earlier. The two men spent a day over the +apparatus which Bell had with him. Though Professor Henry was fifty +years his senior and the leading scientist in America, the youth was +able to demonstrate that he had made a real discovery. + +"You are in possession of the germ of a great invention," said +Henry, "and I would advise you to work at it until you have made it +complete." + +"But," replied Bell, "I have not got the electrical knowledge that is +necessary." + +"Get it," was Henry's reply. + +This proved just the stimulus Bell needed, and he returned to Boston +with a new determination to perfect his great idea. + +Bell was no longer experimenting in the Sanderses' cellar, having +rented a room in Boston in which to carry on his work. He had also +secured the services of an assistant, one Thomas Watson, who received +nine dollars a week for his services in Bell's behalf. The funds +for this work were supplied by Sanders and Hubbard jointly, but they +insisted that Bell should continue his experiments with the musical +telegraph. Though he was convinced that the opportunities lay in the +field of telephony, Bell labored faithfully for regular periods with +the devices in which his patrons were interested. The remainder of his +time and energy he put upon the telephone. The basis of his telephone +was still the disk or diaphragm which would vibrate when the +sound-waves of the voice were thrown against it. Behind this +were mounted various kinds of electro-magnets in series with the +electrified wire over which the inventor hoped to send his messages. +For three years they labored with this apparatus, trying every +conceivable sort of disk. It is easy to pass over those three years, +filled as they were with unceasing toil and patient effort, because +they were drab years when little of interest occurred. But these were +the years when Bell and Watson were "going to school," learning how +to apply electricity to this new use, striving to make their apparatus +talk. How dreary and trying these years must have been for the +experimenters we may well imagine. It requires no slight force of will +to hold oneself to such a task in the face of failure after failure. + +By June of 1875 Bell had completed a new Instrument. In this the +diaphragm was a piece of gold-beater's skin, which Bell had selected +as most closely resembling the drum in the human ear. This was +stretched tight to form a sort of drum, and an armature of magnetized +iron was fastened to its middle. Thus the bit of iron was free to +vibrate, and opposite it was an electro-magnet through which flowed +the current that passed over the line. This acted as the receiver. At +the other end of the wire was a sort of crude harmonica with a clock +spring, reed, and magnet. Bell and Watson had been working upon their +crude apparatus for months, and finally, on June 2d, sounds were +actually transmitted. Bell was afire with enthusiasm; the first great +step had been taken. The electric current had carried sound-vibrations +along the wire and had reproduced them. If this could be done a +telephone which would reproduce whole words and sentences could be +attained. + +[Illustration: ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL] + +[Illustration: THOMAS A. WATSON] + +So great was Bell's enthusiasm over this achievement that he succeeded +in convincing Sanders and Hubbard that his idea was practical, and +they at last agreed to finance him in his further experiments with the +telephone. A second membrane receiver was constructed, and for many +more weeks the experiments continued. It was found that sounds were +carried from instrument to instrument, but as a telephone they were +still far from perfection. It was not until March of 1876 that Bell, +speaking into the instrument in the workroom, was heard and understood +by Watson at the other instrument in the basement. The telephone had +carried and delivered an intelligible message. + +The telephone which Bell had invented, and on which he received a +patent on his twenty-ninth birthday, consisted of two instruments +similar in principle to what we would now call receivers. If you will +experiment with the receiver of a modern telephone you will find +that it will transmit as well as receive sound. The heart of the +transmitter was an electro-magnet in front of which was a drum-like +membrane with a piece of iron cemented to its center opposite the +magnet. A mouthpiece was arranged to throw the sounds of the voice +against the diaphragm, and as the membrane vibrated the bit of iron +upon it--acting as an armature--induced currents corresponding to the +sound-waves, in the coils of the electro-magnet. + +Passing over the line the current entered the coils of the tubular +electro-magnet in the receiver. A thin disk of soft iron was fastened +at the end of this. When the current-waves passed through the coils +of the magnet the iron disk was thrown into vibration, thus producing +sound. As it vibrated with the current produced by the iron on +the vibrating membrane in the transmitter acting as an armature, +transmitter and receiver vibrated in unison and so the same sound was +given off by the receiver and made audible to the human ear as was +thrown against the membrane of the transmitter by the voice. + +The patent issued to Bell has been described as "the most valuable +single patent ever issued." Certainly it was destined to be of +tremendous service to civilization. It was so entirely new and +original that Bell found difficulty in finding terms in which to +describe his invention to the patent officials. He called it "an +improvement on the telegraph," in order that it might be identified as +an improvement in transmitting intelligence by electricity. In reality +the telephone was very far from being a telegraph or anything in the +nature of a telegraph. + +As Bell himself stated, his success was in large part due to the fact +that he had approached the problem from the viewpoint of an expert +in sound rather than as an electrician. "Had I known more about +electricity and less about sound," he said, "I would never have +invented the telephone." As we have seen, those electricians who +worked from the viewpoint of the telegraph never got beyond the +limitations of the instrument and found that with it they could +transmit signals but not sounds. Bell, with his knowledge of the laws +of speech and sound, started with the principles of the +transmission of sound as a basis and set electricity to carrying the +sound-vibrations. + + + + +XIII + +THE TELEPHONE AT THE CENTENNIAL + + Boll's Impromptu Trip to the Exposition--The Table Under the + Stairs--Indifference of the Judges--Enter Don Pedro, Emperor of + Brazil--Attention and Amazement--Skepticism of the Public--The Aid + of Gardiner Hubbard--Publicity Campaign. + + +The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition--America's first great +exposition--opened within a month after the completion of the first +telephone. The public knew nothing of the telephone, and before it +could be made a commercial success and placed in general service +the interest of investors and possible users had to be aroused. +The Centennial seemed to offer an unusual opportunity to place the +telephone before the public. But Bell, like Morse, had no money with +which to push his invention. Hubbard was one of the commissioners of +the exposition, and exerted his influence sufficiently so that a small +table was placed in an odd corner in the Department of Education for +the exhibition of the apparatus. The space assigned was a narrow strip +between the stairway and the wall. + +But no provision was made to allow Bell himself to be present. The +young inventor was almost entirely without funds. Sanders and Hubbard +had paid nothing but his room rent and the cost of his experiments. He +had devoted himself to his inventions so entirely that he had lost all +of his professional income. So it was that he was forced to face +the prospect of staying in Boston and allowing this opportunity of +opportunities to pass unimproved. His fiancée, Miss Hubbard, expected +to attend the exposition, and had heard nothing of Bell's inability to +go. He went with her to the station, and as the train was leaving she +learned for the first time that he was not to accompany her. She burst +into tears at the disappointment. Seeing this, Bell dashed madly after +the train and succeeded in boarding it. Without money or baggage, he +nevertheless succeeded in arriving in Philadelphia. + +Bell arrived at the exposition but a few days before the judges were +to make their tour of inspection. With considerable difficulty +Hubbard had secured their promise that they would stop and examine +the telephone. They seemed to regard it as a toy not worth their +attention, and the public generally had displayed no interest in the +device. When the day for the inspection arrived Bell waited eagerly. +As the day passed his hope began to fall, as there seemed little +possibility that the judges would reach his exhibit. The Western +Union's exhibit of recording telegraphs, the self-binding harvester, +the first electric light, Gray's musical telegraph, and other +prominently displayed wonders had occupied the attention of the +scientists. It was well past supper-time when they came to Bell's +table behind the stairs, and most of the judges were tired out and +loudly announced their intention of quitting then and there. + +At this critical moment, while they were fingering Bell's apparatus +indifferently and preparing for their departure, a strange and +fortunate thing occurred. Followed by a group of brilliantly attired +courtiers, the Emperor of Brazil appeared. He rushed up to Bell +and greeted him with a warmth of affection that electrified the +indifferent judges. They watched the scene in astonishment, wondering +who this young Bell was that he could attract the attention and the +friendship of the Emperor. The Emperor had attended Bell's school for +deaf mutes in Boston when it was at the height of its success, and +had conceived a warm admiration for the young man and taken a +deep interest in his work. The Emperor was ready to examine Bell's +invention, though the judges were not. Bell showed him how to place +his ear to the receiver, and he then went to the transmitter which had +been placed at the other end of the wire strung along the room. The +Emperor waited expectantly, the judges watched curiously. Bell, at a +distance, spoke into the transmitter. In utter wonderment the Emperor +raised his head from the receiver. "My God," he cried, "it talks!" + +Skepticism and indifference were at an end among the judges, and they +eagerly followed the example of the Emperor. Joseph Henry, the most +venerable savant of them all, took his place at the receiver. Though +his previous talk with Bell, when the telephone was no more than an +idea, should perhaps have prepared him, he showed equal astonishment, +and instantly expressed his admiration. Next followed Sir William +Thomson, the hero of the cable and England's greatest scientist. After +his return to England Thomson described his sensations. + +"I heard," he said, "'To be or not to be ... there's the rub,' +through an electric wire; but, scorning monosyllables, the electric +articulation rose to higher flights, and gave me passages from the +New York newspapers. All this my own ears heard spoken to me with +unmistakable distinctness by the then circular-disk armature of just +such another little electro-magnet as this I hold in my hand." + +Thomson pronounced Bell's telephone "the most wonderful thing he had +seen in America." The judges had forgotten that they were hungry and +tired, and remained grouped about the telephone, talking and listening +in turn until far into the evening. With the coming of the next +morning Bell's exhibit was moved from its obscure corner and given the +most prominent place that could be found. From that time forward it +was the wonder of the Centennial. + +[Illustration: PROFESSOR BELL'S VIBRATING REED] + +[Illustration: PROFESSOR BELL'S FIRST TELEPHONE] + +[Illustration: THE FIRST TELEPHONE SWITCHBOARD USED IN NEW HAVEN, +CONN, FOR EIGHT SUBSCRIBERS] + +[Illustration: EARLY NEW YORK EXCHANGE + +Boys were employed as operators at first, but they were not adapted to +the work so well as girls.] + +[Illustration: PROFESSOR BELL IN SALEM, MASS., AND MR. WATSON IN +BOSTON, DEMONSTRATING THE TELEPHONE BEFORE AUDIENCES IN 1877] + +[Illustration: DR BELL AT THE TELEPHONE OPENING THE NEW YORK-CHICAGO +LINE, OCTOBER 18, 1892] + +Yet but a small part of the public could attend the exposition and +actually test the telephone for themselves. Many of these believed +that it was a hoax, and general skepticism still prevailed. Business +men, though they were convinced that the telephone would carry +spoken messages, nevertheless insisted that it presented no business +possibilities. Hubbard, however, had faith in the invention, and +as Bell was not a business man, he took upon himself the work of +promotion--the necessary, valuable work which must be accomplished +before any big idea or invention may be put at the service of the +public. Hubbard's first move was to plan a publicity campaign which +should bring the new invention favorably to the attention of all, +prove its claims, and silence the skeptics. They were too poor to +set up an experimental line of their own, and so telegraph lines were +borrowed for short periods wherever possible, demonstrations were +given and tests made. The assistance of the newspapers was invoked and +news stories of the tests did much to popularize the new idea. + +An opportunity then came to Bell to lecture and demonstrate the +telephone before a scientific body in Essex. He secured the use of a +telegraph line and connected the hall with the laboratory in Boston. +The equipment consisted of old-fashioned box 'phones over a foot long +and eight inches square, built about an immense horseshoe magnet. +Watson was stationed in the Boston laboratory. Bell started his +lecture, with Watson constantly listening over the telephone. Bell +would stop from time to time and ask that the ability of the +telephone to transmit certain kinds of sounds be illustrated. Musical +instruments were played in Boston and heard in Essex; then Watson +talked, and finally he was instructed to sing. He insisted that he was +not a singer, but the voices of others less experienced in speaking +over the crude instruments often failed to carry sufficiently well +for demonstration purposes. So Watson sang, as best he could, "Yankee +Doodle," "Auld Lang Syne," and other favorites. After the lecture had +been completed members of the audience were invited to talk over the +telephone. A few of them mustered confidence to talk with Watson +in Boston, and the newspaper reporters carefully noted down all the +details of the conversation. + +The lecture aroused so much interest that others were arranged. The +first one had been free, but admission was charged for the later +lectures and this income was the first revenue Bell had received for +his invention. The arrangements were generally the same for each of +the lectures about Boston. The names of Longfellow, of Holmes, and of +other famous American men of letters are found among the patrons of +some of the lectures in Boston. Bell desired to give lectures in New +York City, but was not certain that his apparatus would operate at +that distance over the lines available. The laboratory was on the +third floor of a rooming-house, and Watson shouted so loud in his +efforts to make his voice carry that the roomers complained. So he +took blankets and erected a sort of tent over the instruments to +muffle the sound. When the signal came from Bell that he was ready for +the test, Watson crawled into the tent and began his shoutings. The +day was a hot one, and by the time that the test had been completed +Watson was completely wilted. But the complaints of the roomers had +been avoided. For one of the New York demonstrations the services of +a negro singer with a rich barytone voice had been secured. Watson had +no little difficulty in rehearsing him for the part, as he objected to +placing his lips close to the transmitter. When the time for the test +arrived he persisted in backing away from the mouthpiece when he sang, +and, though Watson endeavored to hold the transmitter closer to him, +his efforts were of no avail. Finally Bell told Watson that as the +negro could not be heard he would have to sing himself. The girl +operator in the laboratory had assembled a number of her girl +friends to watch the test, and Watson, who did not consider himself +a vocalist, did not fancy the prospect. But there was no one else to +sing, the demonstration must proceed, and finally Watson struck up +"Yankee Doodle" in a quavering voice. + +The negro looked on in disgust. "Is that what you wanted me to do, +boss?" + +"Yes," replied the embarrassed Watson. + +"Well, boss, I couldn't sing like that." + +The telegraph wires which were borrowed to demonstrate the utility of +the telephone proved far from perfect for the work at hand. Many of +the wires were rusted and the insulation was poor. The stations along +the line were likely to cut in their relays when the test was in +progress, and Bell's instruments were not arranged to overcome this +retardation. However, the lectures were a success from the popular +viewpoint. The public flocked to them and the fame of the telephone +grew. So many cities desired the lecture that it finally became +necessary for Bell to employ an assistant to give the lecture for him. +Frederick Gower, a Providence newspaper man, was selected for this +task, and soon mastered Bell's lecture. It was then possible to give +two lectures on the same evening, Bell delivering one, Gower the +other, and Watson handling the laboratory end for both. + +Gower secured a contract for the exclusive use of the telephone in New +England, but failed to demonstrate much ability in establishing the +new device on a business basis. How little the possibilities of the +telephone were then appreciated we may understand from the fact that +Gower exchanged his immensely valuable New England rights for the +exclusive right to lecture on the telephone throughout the country. + +The success of these lectures made it possible for Bell to marry, and +he started for England on a wedding-trip. The lectures also aroused +the necessary interest and made it possible to secure capital for the +establishment of telephone lines. It also determined Hubbard in his +plan of leasing the telephones instead of selling them. This was +especially important, as it made possible the uniformity of the +efficient Bell system of the present day. + + + + +XIV + +IMPROVEMENT AND EXPANSION + + The First Telephone Exchange--The Bell Telephone + Association--Theodore N. Vail--The Fight with the Western + Union--Edison and Blake Invent Transmitters--Last Effort of the + Western Union--Mushroom Companies and Would-be Inventors--The + Controversy with Gray--Dolbear's Claims--The Drawbaugh Case--On a + Firm Footing. + + +Through public interest had been aroused in the telephone, it was +still very far from being at the service of the nation. The telephone +increases in usefulness just in proportion to the number of your +acquaintances and business associates who have telephones in their +homes or offices. Instruments had to be manufactured on a commercial +scale, telephone systems had to be built up. While the struggles of +the inventor who seeks to apply a new idea are often romantic, the +efforts of the business executives who place the invention, once it +is achieved, at the service of people everywhere, are not less +praiseworthy and interesting. + +A very few telephones had been leased to those who desired to +establish private lines, but it was not until May of 1877 that the +first telephone system was established with an exchange by means of +which those having telephones might talk with one another. There was a +burglar-alarm system in Boston which had wires running from six banks +to a central station. The owner of this suggested that telephones be +installed in the banks using the burglar-alarm wires. Hubbard gladly +loaned the instruments for the purpose. Instruments were installed in +the banks without saying anything to the bankers, or making any charge +for the service. One banker demanded that his telephone be removed, +insisting that it was a foolish toy. But even with the crude little +exchange the first system proved its worth. Others were established in +New York, Philadelphia, and other cities on a commercial basis. A man +from Michigan appeared and secured the perpetual rights for his State, +and for his foresight and enterprise he was later to be rewarded by +the sale of these rights for a quarter of a million dollars. The free +service to the Boston bankers was withdrawn and a commercial system +installed there. + +But these exchanges served but a few people, and were poorly equipped. +There was, of course, no provision for communication between cities. +With the telephone over a year old, less than a thousand instruments +were in use. But Hubbard, who was directing the destinies of the +enterprise during Bell's absence in Europe, decided that the time +had come to organize. Accordingly the Bell Telephone Association was +formed, with Bell, Hubbard, Sanders, and Watson as the shareholders. +Sanders was the only one of the four with any considerable sum of +money, and his resources were limited. He staked his entire credit in +the enterprise, and managed to furnish funds with which the fight for +existence could be carried on. But a business depression was upon the +land and it was not easy to secure support for the telephone. + +The entrance of the Western Union Telegraph Company into the telephone +field brought the affairs of the Bell company to a crisis. As we have +seen, the telegraph company had developed into a great and powerful +corporation with wires stretching across the length and breadth of +the land and agents and offices established in every city and town of +importance. Once the telephone began to be used as a substitute for +the telegraph in conveying messages, the telegraph officials awoke to +the fact that here, possibly, was a dangerous rival, and dropped the +viewpoint that Bell's telephone was a mere plaything. They acquired +the inventions of Edison, Gray, and Dolbear, and entered the telephone +field, announcing that they were prepared to furnish the very best +in telephonic communication. This sudden assault by the most powerful +corporation in America, while it served to arouse public confidence in +the telephone, made it necessary for Hubbard to reorganize his forces +and find a general capable of doing battle against such a foe. + +Hubbard's political activities had brought to him a Presidential +appointment as head of a commission on mail transportation. In the +course of the work for the Government he had come much in contact with +a young man named Theodore N. Vail, who was head of the Government +mail service. He had been impressed by Vail's ability and had in turn +introduced Vail to the telephone and aroused his enthusiasm in its +possibilities. This Vail was a cousin of the Alfred Vail who +was Morse's co-worker, and who played so prominent a part in the +development of the telegraph. His experience in the Post-office +Department had given him an understanding of the problems of +communication in the United States, and had developed his executive +ability. Realizing the possibilities of the telephone, he relinquished +his governmental post and cast his fortunes with the telephone +pioneers, becoming general manager of the Bell company. + +The Western Union strengthened its position by the introduction of a +new and improved transmitter. This was the work of Thomas Edison, and +was so much better than Bell's transmitter that it enabled the Western +Union to offer much better telephonic equipment. As we have seen, +Bell's transmitter and receiver were very similar, being about the +same as the receiver now in common use. In his transmitter Edison +placed tiny bits of carbon in contact with the diaphragm. As the +diaphragm vibrated under the sound-impulses the pressure upon the +carbon granules was varied. An electric current was passed through +the carbon particles, whose electrical resistance was varied by the +changing pressure from the diaphragm. Thus the current was thrown into +undulations corresponding to the sound-waves, and passed over the +line and produced corresponding sounds in the receiver. Much stronger +currents could be utilized than those generated by Bell's instrument, +and thus the transmitter was much more effective for longer distances. + +Bell returned from Europe to find the affairs of his company in a +sorry plight. Only the courage and generalship of Vail kept it in +the field at all. Bell was penniless, having failed to establish +the telephone abroad, even as Morse before him had failed to secure +foreign revenue from his invention. Bell's health failed him, and as +he lay helpless in the hospital his affairs were indeed at a low +ebb. At this juncture Francis Blake, of Boston, came forward with an +improved transmitter which he offered to the Bell company in exchange +for stock. The instrument proved a success and was gladly adopted, +proving just what was needed to make possible successful competition +with the Western Union. + +Prolonged patent litigation followed, and after a bitter legal +struggle the Western Union officials became convinced of two things: +one, that the Bell company, under Vail's leadership, would not +surrender; second, that Bell was the original inventor of the +telephone and that his patent was valid. The Western Union, however, +seemed to have strong basis for its claim that the new transmitter of +the Bell people was an infringement of Edison's patent. A compromise +was arranged between the contestants by which the two companies +divided the business of furnishing communication by wire in the +United States. This agreement proved of the greatest benefit to both +organizations, and did much to make possible the present development +and universal service of both the telephone and telegraph. By the +terms of the agreement the Western Union recognized Bell's patent +and agreed to withdraw from the telephone business. The Bell company +agreed not to engage in the telegraph business and to take over the +Western Union telephone system and apparatus, paying a royalty on all +telephone rentals. Experience has demonstrated that the two businesses +are not competitive, but supplement each other. It is therefore proper +that they should work side by side with mutual understanding. + +Success had come at last to the telephone pioneers. Other battles were +still to be fought before their position was to be made secure, +but from the moment when the Western Union admitted defeat the Bell +company was the leader. The stock of the company advanced to a point +where Bell, Hubbard, Sanders, and Watson found themselves in the +possession of wealth as a reward for their pioneering. + +The Western Union had no sooner withdrawn as a competitor of the Bell +organization than scores of small, local companies sprang up, all +ready to pirate the Bell patent and push the claims of some rival +inventor. A very few of them really tried to establish telephone +systems, but the majority were organized simply to sell stock to a +gullible public. They stirred up a continuous turmoil, and made +much trouble for the larger company, though their patent claims were +persistently defeated in the courts. + +Most of the rival claimants who sprang up, once the telephone had +become an established fact and had proved its value, were men of +neither prominence nor scientific attainments. Of a very different +type was Elisha Gray, whose work we have before noticed, and who +now came forward with the claim that he had invented a telephone +in advance of Bell. Gray was a practical man of real scientific +attainments, but, as we have noticed, his efforts in search of a +telephone were from the viewpoint of a musical telegraph and so +destined to failure. It has frequently been stated that Gray filed +his application for a patent on a telephone of his invention but a +few minutes after Bell, and so Bell wrested the honor from him by the +scantiest of margins. A careful reading of the testimony brought out +in Gray's suit against Bell does not support such a statement. While +Bell filed an application for a patent on a completed, invention, Gray +filed, a few moments later, a caveat. This was a document, stating +that he hoped to invent a telephone of a certain kind therein stated, +and would serve to protect his rights until he should have time to +perfect it. Thus Gray did not have a completed invention, and he later +failed to perfect a telephone along the lines described in his caveat. +The decision of the court supported Bell's claims in full. + +Another of the Western Union's telephone experts, Professor Dolbear, +of Tufts College, also sought to make capital of his knowledge of the +telephone. He based his claims upon an improvement of the Reis +musical telegraph, which had formed the starting-point for so many +experimenters. The case fell flat, however, for when the apparatus was +brought into court no one could make it talk. + +None of the attacks upon Bell's claim to be the original inventor +of the telephone aroused more popular interest at the time than the +famous Drawbaugh case. Daniel Drawbaugh was a country mechanic with a +habit of reading of the new inventions in the scientific journals. He +would work out models of many of these for himself, and, showing them +very proudly, often claim them as his own devices. Drawbaugh was +now put forward by the opponents of the Bell organization as having +invented a telephone before Bell. It was claimed that he had been too +poor to secure a patent or to bring his invention to popular notice. +Much sympathy was thus aroused for him and the legal battle was waged +to interminable length, with the usual result. Bell's patent was again +sustained, and Drawbaugh's claims were pronounced without merit. + +Many other legal battles followed, but the dominance of the Bell +organization, resting upon the indisputable fact that Bell was the +first man to conceive and execute a practical telephone, could not +be shaken. The telephone business was on a firm footing: it had +demonstrated its real service to the public; it had become a +necessity; and, under the able leadership of Vail, was fast extending +its field of usefulness. + + + + +XV + +TELEGRAPHING WITHOUT WIRES + + The First Suggestion--Morse Sends Messages Through the + Water--Trowbridge Telegraphs Through the Earth--Experiments of + Preece and Heaviside in England--Edison Telegraphs from Moving + Trains--Researches of Hertz Disclose the Hertzian Waves. + + +Great as are the possibilities of the telegraph and the telephone in +the service of man, these instruments are still limited to the wires +over which they must operate. Communication was not possible until +wires had been strung; where wires could not be strung communication +was impossible. Much yet remained to be done before perfection +in communication was attained, and, though the public generally +considered the telegraph, and the telephone the final achievement, men +of science were already searching for an even better way. + +The first suggestion that electric currents carrying messages might +some day travel without wires seems to have come from K.A. Steinheil, +of Munich. In 1838 he discovered that if the two ends of a single wire +carrying the electric current be connected with the ground a complete +circuit is formed, the earth acting as the return. Thus he was able +to dispense with one wire, and he suggested that some day it might be +possible to eliminate the wire altogether. The fact that the current +bearing messages could be sent through the water was demonstrated by +Morse as early as 1842. He placed plates at the termini of a circuit +and submerged them in water some distance apart on one side of a +canal. Other plates were placed on the opposite side of the waterway +and were connected by a wire with a sensitive galvanometer in series +to act as a receiver. Currents sent from the opposite side were +recorded by the galvanometer and the possibility of communication +through the water was established. Others carried these experiments +further, it being even suggested that messages might be sent across +the Atlantic by this method. + +But Bell's greatest contribution to the search for wireless telegraphy +was not his direct work in this field, but the telephone itself. +His telephone receiver provided the wireless experimenters with an +instrument of extreme sensitiveness by which they were able to detect +currents which the mirror galvanometer could not receive. While +experimenting with a telephone along a telegraph line a curious +phenomenon was noticed. The telephone experimenters heard music very +clearly. They investigated and found that another telegraph wire, +strung along the same poles, but at the usual distance and with +the usual insulation, was being used for a test of Edison's musical +telephone. Many other similar tests were made and the effect was +always noted. In some way the message on one line had been conveyed +across the air-gap and had been recorded by the telephones on the +other line. It was decided that this had been caused by induction. + +Prof. John Trowbridge, of Harvard University, might well be termed +the grandfather of wireless telegraphy. He made the first extensive +investigation of the subject, and his experiments in sending +messages without wires and his discoveries furnished information and +inspiration for those who were to follow. His early experiments tested +the possibility of using the earth as a conductor. He demonstrated +that when an electric current is sent into the earth it spreads from +that point in waves in all directions, just as when a stone is cast +into a pond the ripples widen out from that point, becoming fainter +and fainter until they reach the shore. He further found that these +currents could be detected by grounding the terminals of a telephone +circuit. Telegraphy through the earth was thus possible. However, the +farther the receiving station was from the sending station the wider +must be the distance between the telephone terminals and the smaller +the current received. Professor Trowbridge did not find it possible to +operate his system at a sufficient distance to make it of value, but +he did demonstrate that the currents do travel through the earth and +that they can be set to carrying messages. + +Professor Trowbridge also revived the idea of telegraphing across the +Atlantic by utilizing the conductivity of the sea-water to carry the +currents. In working out the plan theoretically he discovered that the +terminals on the American side would have to be widely separated--one +in Nova Scotia and the other in Florida--and that they would have to +be connected by an insulated cable. Two widely separated points on +the coast of France were suggested for the other terminals. He +also calculated that very high voltages would be necessary, and the +practical difficulties involved made it seem certain that such a +system would cost far too much to construct and to operate to be +profitable. + +Trowbridge suggested the possibility of using such a system +for establishing communication between ships at sea. Ship could +communicate with ship, over short distances, during a fog. A trailing +wire was to be used to increase the sending and receiving power, and +Trowbridge believed that with a dynamo capable of supplying current +for a hundred lights, communication could be established at a distance +of half a mile. + +Not satisfied with the earth or the sea as a medium for carrying the +current, Trowbridge essayed to use the air. He believed that this was +possible, and that it would be accomplished at no distant date. He +believed, however, that such a system could not be operated over +considerable distances because of the curvature of the earth. He +endeavored to establish communication through the air by induction. +He demonstrated that if one coil of wire be set up and a current sent +through it, a similar coil facing it will have like currents induced +within it, which may be detected with a telephone receiver. He also +determined that the currents were strongest in the receiving coil when +it was placed in a plane parallel with the sending coil. By turning +the receiving coil about until the sound was strongest in the +telephone receiver, it was thus possible to determine the direction +from which the messages were coming. Trowbridge recognized the great +value of this feature to a ship at sea. + +But these induced currents could only be detected at a distance by +the use of enormous coils. To receive at a half-mile a coil of eight +hundred feet radius would have been necessary, and this was obviously +impossible for use on shipboard. So these experiments also developed +no practical improvement in the existing means of communication. But +Professor Trowbridge had demonstrated new possibilities, and had set +men thinking along new lines. He was the pioneer who pointed the way +to a great invention, though he himself failed to attain it. + +Bell followed up Trowbridge's suggestions of using the water as a +medium of communication, and in a series of experiments conducted on +the Potomac River established communication between moving ships. + +Professor Dolbear also turned from telephone experimentation to the +search for the wireless. He grounded his wires and sent high currents +into the earth, but improved his system and took another step toward +the final achievement by adding a large induction coil to his sending +equipment. He suggested that the spoken word might be sent as well as +dots and dashes, and so sought the wireless telephone as well as +the wireless telegraph. Like his predecessors, his experiments were +successful only at short distances. + +The next application of the induction telegraph was to establish +communication with moving trains. Several experimenters had suggested +it, but it remained for Thomas A. Edison to actually accomplish it. +He set up a plate of tin-foil on the engine or cars, opposite the +telegraph wires. Currents could be induced across the gap, no matter +what the speed of the train, and, traveling along the wires to the +station, communication was thus established. Had Edison continued his +investigation further, instead of turning to other pursuits, he +might have achieved the means of communicating through the air at +considerable distances. + +These experiments by Americans in the early 'eighties seemed to +promise that America was to produce the wireless telegraph, as it had +produced the telegraph and the telephone. But the greatest activity +now shifted to Europe and the American men of science failed to push +their researches to a successful conclusion. Sir W.H. Preece, +an Englishman, brought himself to public notice by establishing +communication with the Isle of Wight by Morse's method. Messages were +sent and received during a period when the cable to the island was +out of commission, and thus telegraphing without wires was put to +practical use. + +Preece carried his experiments much further. In 1885 he laid out two +great squares of insulated wire, a quarter of a mile to the side, +and at a distance of a quarter of a mile from each other. Telephonic +communication was established between them, and thus he had attained +wireless telephony by induction. In 1887, another Englishman, A.W. +Heaviside, laid circuits over two miles long on the surface and other +circuits in the galleries of a coal-mine three hundred and fifty feet +below, and established communication between the circuits. Working +together, Preece and Heaviside extended the distances over which +they could communicate. Preece finally decided that a combination of +conduction and induction was the best means of wireless communication. +He grounded the wire of his circuit at two points and raised it to a +considerable height between these points. Preece's work was to put the +theories of Professor Trowbridge to practical use and thus bring the +final achievement a step nearer. + +But conduction and induction combined would not carry messages to a +distance that would enable extensive communication. A new medium had +yet to be found, and this was the work of Heinrich Hertz, a young +German scientist. He was experimenting with two flat coils of wire, +as had many others before him, but one of the coils had a small gap +in it. Passing the discharge from a condenser into this coil, Hertz +discovered that the spark caused when the current jumped the gap set +up electrical vibrations that excited powerful currents in the other +coil. These currents were noticeable, though the coils were a very +considerable distance apart. Thus Hertz had found out how to send out +electrical waves that would travel to a considerable distance. + +What was the medium that carried these waves? This was the question +that Hertz asked himself, and the answer was, the ether. We know that +light will pass through a vacuum, and these electric waves would do +likewise. It was evident that they did not pass through the air. The +answer, as evolved by Hertz and approved by other scientists, is that +they travel through the ether, a strange substance which pervades all +space. Hertz discovered that light and his electrical waves traveled +at the same speed, and so deduced that light consists of electrical +vibrations in the ether. + +With the knowledge that this all-pervading ether would carry electric +waves at the speed of light, that the waves could be set up by the +discharge of a spark across a spark-gap in a coil, and that they +could be received in another coil in resonance with the first, the +establishment of a practical wireless telegraph was not far away. + + + + +XVI + +AN ITALIAN BOY'S WORK + + The Italian Youth who Dreamed Wonderful Dreams--His Studies--Early + Detectors--Marconi Seeks an Efficient Detector--Devises New Sending + Methods--The Wireless Telegraph Takes Form--Experimental Success. + + +With the nineteenth century approaching its close, man had discovered +that the electric waves would travel through the ether; he had learned +something of how to propagate those waves, and something of how +to receive them. But no one had yet been able to combine these +discoveries in practical form, to apply them to the task of carrying +messages, to make the improvements necessary to make them available +for use at considerable distances. Though many mature scientists had +devoted themselves to the problem, it remained for a youth to solve +it. The youth was Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian. + +We have noticed that the telegraph, the cable, and the telephone were +the work of those of the Anglo-Saxon race--Englishmen or Americans--so +it came as a distinct surprise that an Italian youth should make +the next great application of electricity to communication. But +Anglo-Saxon blood flows in Marconi's veins. Though his father was an +Italian, his mother was an Irishwoman. He was born at Villa Griffone +near Bologna, Italy, on April 25, 1874. He studied in the schools of +Bologna and of Florence, and early showed his interest in scientific +affairs. From his mother he learned English, which he speaks as +fluently as he does his native tongue. As a boy he was allowed to +attend English schools for short periods, spending some time at +Bedford and at Rugby. + +One of his Italian teachers was Professor Righi, who had made a close +study of the Hertzian waves, and who was himself making no small +contributions to the advancement of the science. From him young +Marconi learned of the work which had been accomplished, and of the +apparatus which was then available. Marconi was a quiet boy--almost +shy. + +He did not display the aggressive energy so common with many promising +youths. But though he was quiet, he was not slothful. He entered into +his studies with a determination and an application that brought to +him great results. He was a student and a thinker. Any scientific book +or paper which came before him was eagerly devoured. It was this habit +of careful and persistent study that made it possible for Marconi to +accomplish such wonderful things at an early age. + +Marconi had learned of the Hertzian waves. It occurred to him that by +their aid wireless telegraphy might be accomplished. The boy saw the +wonderful possibilities; he dreamed dreams of how these waves might +carry messages from city to city, from ship to shore, and from +continent to continent without wires. He realized his own youth and +inexperience, and it seemed certain to him that many able scientists +had had the same vision and must be struggling toward its attainment. +For a year Marconi dreamed those dreams, studying the books and papers +which would tell him more of these wonderful waves. Each week he +expected the news that wireless telegraphy had been established, but +the news never came. Finally he concluded that others, despite their +greater opportunities, had not been so far-seeing as he had thought. + +Marconi attacked the problem himself with the dogged persistence and +the studious care so characteristic of him. He began his experiments +upon his father's farm, the elder Marconi encouraging the youth and +providing him with funds with which to purchase apparatus. He set +up poles at the opposite sides of the garden and on them mounted the +simple sending and receiving instruments which were then available, +using plates of tin for his aerials. He set up a simple spark-gap, as +had Hertz, and used a receiving device little more elaborate. A Morse +telegraph-key was placed in circuit with the spark-gap. When the key +was held down for a longer period a long spark passed between the +brass knobs of the spark-gap and a dash was thus transmitted. When +the key was depressed for a shorter period a dot in the Morse code was +sent forth. After much work and adjustment Marconi was able to send +a message across the garden. Others had accomplished this for similar +distances, but they lacked Marconi's imagination and persistence, and +failed to carry their experiments further. To the young Irish-Italian +this was but a starting-point. + +[Illustration: GUGLIELMO MARCONI + +Photographed in the uniform of an officer in the Italian army] + +Marconi quickly found that the receiver was the least effective part +of the existing apparatus. The waves spread in all directions from +the sending station and become feebler and feebler as the distance +increases. To make wireless telegraphy effective over any considerable +distance a highly efficient and extremely sensitive receiving device +is necessary. Some special means of detecting the feeble currents was +necessary. The coherer was the solution. As early as 1870 a Mr. S.A. +Varley, an Englishman, had discovered that when he endeavored to +send a current through a mass of carbon granules the tiny particles +arranged themselves in order under the influence of the electric +current, and offered a free path for the passage of the current. When +shaken apart they again resisted the flow of current until it became +powerful enough to cause them to again arrange themselves into a +sort of bridge for its passage. Thus was the principle of the coherer +discovered. + +An Italian scientist, Professor Calzecchi-Onesti, carried these +experiments still further. He used various substances in place of the +carbon granules and showed that some of them will arrange themselves +so as to allow the passage of a current under the influence of the +spark setting up the Hertzian waves. Professor E. Branly, of the +Catholic University of Paris, took up this work in 1890. He arranged +metal filings in a small glass tube six inches long and arranged a +tapper to disarrange the filings after they had been brought together +under the influence of the spark. + +With the Branly coherer as the basis Marconi sought to make +improvements which would result in the detector he was seeking. For +his powder he used nickel, mixed with a small proportion of fine +silver filings. This he placed between silver plugs in a small glass +tube. Platinum wires were connected to the silver plugs and brought +out at the opposite ends of the tube. It required long study to +determine just how to adjust the plugs between which the powder was +loosely arranged. If the particles were pressed together too tightly +they would not fall apart readily enough under the influence of the +tapper. If too much space was allowed they would not cohere readily +enough. Marconi also discovered that a larger proportion of silver +in the powder and a smaller amount between the plugs increased the +sensitiveness of the receiver. Yet he found it well not to have it +too sensitive lest it cohere for every stray current and so give false +signals. + +Under the influence of the electric waves set up from the spark-gap +those tiny particles so arranged themselves that they would readily +carry a current between the plugs. By placing these plugs with their +platinum terminals in circuit with a local battery the current from +this local battery was given a passage through the coherer by the +action of the electric waves coming through the ether. While these +waves themselves were too feeble to operate a receiving mechanism, +they were strong enough to arrange the particles of the sensitive +metal in the tube in order, so that the current from the local battery +could pass through them. This current operated a telegraph relay which +in turn operated a Morse receiving instrument. An electrical tapper +was also arranged in this circuit so that it would strike the tube a +light blow after each long or short wave representing a dot or a dash +had been received. Thus the particles were disarranged, ready to array +themselves when the next wave came through the ether and so form the +bridge over which the stronger local circuit could convey the signal. + +Marconi further discovered that the most effective arrangement was to +run a wire from one terminal of the coherer into the ground, and from +the other to an elevated metal plate or wire. The waves coming through +the ether were received by the elevated wire and were conducted down +to the coherer. Experimenting with his apparatus on the posts in +the garden, he discovered that an increase in the height of the wire +greatly increased the receiving distance. + +At his sending station he used the exciter of his teacher, Professor +Righi. This, too, he modified and perfected for his practical purpose. +As he used the device it consisted of two brass spheres a millimeter +apart. An envelope was provided so that the sides of the spheres +toward each other and the space between was occupied by vaseline oil +which served to keep the faces of the spheres clean and produce a more +uniform spark. Outside the two spheres, but in line with them, were +placed two smaller spheres at a distance of about two-fifths of a +centimeter. The terminals of the sending circuit were attached to +these. The secondary coil of a large induction coil was placed in +series with them, and batteries were wired in series with the primary +of the coil with a sending key to make and break the circuit. When the +key was closed a series of sparks sprang across the spark-gap, and +the waves were thus set up in the ether and carried the message to the +receiving station. + +As in the case of his receiving station, Marconi found that results +were much improved when he wired his sending apparatus so that one +terminal was grounded and the other connected with an elevated wire or +aerial, which is now called the antenna. By 1896 Marconi had brought +this apparatus to a state of perfection where he could transmit +messages to a distance of several miles. This Irish-Italian youth +of twenty-two had mastered the problem which had baffled veteran +scientists and was ready to place a new wonder at the service of the +world. + +The devices which Marconi thus assembled and put to practical use had +been, in the hands of others, little more than scientific toys. +Others had studied the Hertzian waves and the methods of sending and +detecting them from a purely scientific viewpoint. Marconi had the +vision to realize the practical possibilities, and, though little +more than a boy, had assembled the whole into a workable system of +communication. He richly deserves the laurels and the rewards as the +inventor of the wireless telegraph. + + + + +XVII + +WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY ESTABLISHED + + Marconi Goes to England--he Confounds the Skeptics--A Message to + France Without Wires--The Attempt to Span the Ocean--Marconi in + America Receives the First Message from Europe--Fame and Recognition + Achieved. + + +The time had now come for Marconi to introduce himself and his +discoveries to the attention of the world. He went to England, and +on June 2, 1896, applied for a patent on his system of wireless +telegraphy. Soon afterward his plans were submitted to the +postal-telegraph authorities. Fortunately for Marconi and for the +world, W.H. Preece was then in authority in this department. He +himself had experimented with some little success with wireless +messages. He was able enough to see the merit in Marconi's +discoveries and generous enough to give him full recognition and every +encouragement. + +The apparatus was first set up in the General Post-office in London, +another station being located on the roof but a hundred yards away. +Though several walls intervened, the Hertzian waves traversed them +without difficulty, and messages were sent and received. Stations +were then set up on Salisbury Plain, some two miles apart, and +communication was established between them. + +Though the postal-telegraph authorities received Marconi's statements +of his discoveries with open mind and put his apparatus to fair tests, +the public at large was much less tolerant. The skepticism which met +Morse and Bell faced Marconi. Men of science doubted his statements +and scoffed at his claims. The Hertzian waves might be all right to +operate scientific playthings, they thought, but they were far too +uncertain to furnish a medium for carrying messages in any practical +way. Then, as progress was made and Marconi began to prove his system, +the inevitable jealousies arose. Experimenters who might have invented +the wireless telegraph, but who did not, came forward to contest +Marconi's claims and to seek to snatch his laurels from him. + +The young inventor forged steadily ahead, studying and experimenting, +devising improved apparatus, meeting the difficulties one by one +as they arose. In most of his early experiments he had used a +modification of the little tin boxes which had been set up in his +father's garden as his original aerials. Having discovered that the +height of the aerials increased the range of the stations, he covered +a large kite with tin-foil and, sending it up with a wire, used this +as an aerial. Balloons were similarly employed. He soon recognized, +however, that a practical commercial system, which should be capable +of sending and receiving messages day and night, regardless of the +weather, could not be operated with kites or balloons. The height of +masts was limited, so he sought to increase the range by increasing +the electrical power of the current sending forth the sparks from the +sending station. Here he was on the right path, and another long step +forward had been taken. + +In the fall of 1897 he set up a mast on the Isle of Wight, one hundred +and twenty feet high. From the top of this was strung a single wire +and a new series of experiments was begun. Marconi had spent the +summer in Italy demonstrating his apparatus, and had established +communication between a station on the shore and a war-ship of the +Italian Navy equipped with his apparatus. He now secured a small +steamer for his experiments from his station on the Isle of Wight and +equipped it with a sixty-foot mast. Communication was maintained with +the boat day after day, regardless of weather conditions. The distance +at which communication could be maintained was steadily increased +until communication was established with the mainland. + +In July of 1898 the wireless demonstrated its utility as a conveyer of +news. An enterprising Dublin newspaper desired to cover the Kingstown +regatta with the aid of the wireless. In order to do this a land +station was erected at Kingstown, and another on board a steamer which +followed the yachts. A telephone wire connected the Kingstown station +with the newspaper office, and as the messages came by wireless from +the ship they were telephoned to Dublin and published in successive +editions of the evening papers. + +This feat attracted so much attention that Queen Victoria sought the +aid of the wireless for her own necessities. Her son, the Prince of +Wales, lay ill on his yacht, and the aged queen desired to keep +in constant communication with him. Marconi accordingly placed one +station on the prince's yacht and another at Osborne House, the +queen's residence. Communication was readily maintained, and one +hundred and fifty messages passed by wireless between the prince and +the royal mother. + +While the electric waves bearing the messages were found to pass +through wood, stone, or earth, it was soon noticed in practical +operation that when many buildings, or a hill, or any other solid +object of size intervened between the stations the waves were +greatly retarded and the messages seriously interfered with. When the +apparatus was placed on board steel vessels it was found that any part +of the vessel coming between the stations checked the communication. +Marconi sought to avoid these difficulties by erecting high aerials at +every point, so that the waves might pass through the clear air over +solid obstructions. + +Marconi's next effort was to connect France with England. He went to +France to demonstrate his apparatus to the French Government and set +up a station near Boulogne. The aerial was raised to a height of one +hundred and fifty feet. Another station was erected near Folkestone +on the English coast, across the Channel. A group of French officials +gathered in the little station near Folkestone for the test, which was +made on the 27th of March, 1899. Marconi sent the messages, which were +received by the station on the French shore without difficulty. Other +messages were received from France, and wireless communication between +the nations was an accomplished fact. + +The use of the wireless for ships and lighthouses sprang into favor, +and wireless stations were established all around the British coasts +so that ships equipped with wireless might keep in communication +with the land. The British Admiralty quickly recognized the value +of wireless telegraphy to war vessels. While field telegraphs and +telephones had served the armies, the navies were still dependent upon +primitive signals, since a wire cannot be strung from ship to ship +nor from ship to shore. So the British battle-ships were equipped with +wireless apparatus and a thorough test was made. A sham battle +was held in which all of the orders were sent by wireless, and +communication was constantly maintained both between the flag-ships +and the vessels of their fleets and between the flag-ships and the +shore. Marconi's invention had again proved itself. + +The wireless early demonstrated its great value as a means of saving +life at sea. Lightships off the English coast were equipped with the +wireless and were thus enabled to warn ships of impending storms, +and on several occasions the wireless was used to summon aid from the +shore when ships were sinking because of accidents near the lightship. + +Following the establishment of communication with France, Marconi +increased the range of his apparatus until he was able to cover most +of eastern Europe. In one of his demonstrations he sent messages +to Italy. His ambition, however, was to send messages across the +Atlantic, and he now attacked this stupendous task. On the coast of +Cornwall, England, he began the construction of a station which should +have sufficient power to send a message to America. Instead of using +a single wire for his aerial, he erected many tall poles and strung a +number of wires from pole to pole. The comparatively feeble batteries +which had furnished the currents used in the earlier efforts were +replaced with great power-driven dynamos, and converters were used +instead of the induction coil. Thus was the great Poldhu station +established. + +Late in 1901 Marconi crossed to America to superintend the +preparations there, and that he himself might be ready to receive +the first message, should it prove possible to span the ocean. Signal +Hill, near St. John's, Newfoundland was selected as the place for the +American station. The expense of building a great aerial for the test +was too great, and so dependence was had upon kites to send the wires +aloft. For many days Marconi's assistants struggled with the great +kites in an effort to get them aloft. At last they flew, carrying the +wire to a great height. The wire was carried into a small Government +building near by in which Marconi stationed himself. At his ear was a +telephone receiver, this having been substituted for the relay and the +Morse instrument because of its far greater sensitiveness. + +Marconi had instructed his operator at Poldhu to send simply the +letter "s" at an hour corresponding to 12.30 A.M. in Newfoundland. +Great was the excitement and suspense in Cornwall when the hour for +the test arrived. Forgetting that they were sleepy, the staff crowded +about the sending key, and the little building at the foot of the +ring of great masts supporting the aerial shook with the crash of the +blinding sparks as the three, dots which form the letter "s" were sent +forth. Even greater was the tension on the Newfoundland coast, where +Marconi sat eagerly waiting for the signal. Finally it came, three +faint ticks in the telephone receiver. The wireless had crossed the +Atlantic. Marconi had no sending apparatus, so that it was not until +the cable had carried the news that those in England knew that the +message had been received. + +Because Marconi had never made a statement or a claim he had not been +able to prove, he had attained a reputation for veracity which made +his statement that he had received a signal across the Atlantic carry +weight with the scientists. Many, of course, were skeptical, and +insisted that the simple signal had come by chance from some ship not +far away. But the inventor pushed quietly and steadily ahead, making +arrangements to perfect the system and establish it so that it would +be of commercial use. + +Marconi returned to England, but two months later set out for America +again on the liner _Philadelphia_ with improved apparatus. He kept in +constant communication with his station at Poldhu until the ship was +a hundred and fifty miles from shore. Beyond that point he could not +send messages, as the sending apparatus on the ship lacked sufficient +power. Messages were received, however, until the sending station +was over two thousand miles away. This seemed miraculous to those +on shipboard, but Marconi accepted it as a matter of course. He had +equipped the Poldhu station to send twenty-one hundred miles, and he +knew that it should accomplish the feat. + +A large station was set up at Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and regular +communication was established between there and Poldhu. With the +establishment of regular transatlantic communication the utility of +Marconi's invention, even for work at great distances, was no longer +open to question. By quiet, unassuming, conscientious work he had put +another great carrier of messages at the service of the world, and he +now reaped the fame and fortune which he so richly deserved. + + + + +XVIII + +THE WIRELESS SERVES THE WORLD + + Marconi Organized Wireless Telegraphy Commercially--The New Wonder + at the Service of the World--Marine Disasters Prevented--The + Extension of the Wireless on Shipboard--Improved Apparatus--The + Wireless in the World War--The Boy and the Wireless. + + +With his clear understanding of the possibilities of his invention, +Marconi was not long in establishing the wireless upon a commercial +basis. He is a man of keen business judgment, and as he brought his +invention forward and clearly demonstrated its worth at a time when +commercial enterprise was alert he found no great difficulty in +establishing his company. The first Marconi company was organized +as early as 1897 under the name of the Wireless Telegraph and Signal +Company, Limited. This was later displaced by the Marconi Telegraph +Company, which operates a regular system of stations on a commercial +basis, carrying messages in competition with the cable and telegraph +companies. It also erects stations for other companies which are +operated under the Marconi patents. + +With the telegraph and the telephone so well established and serving +the needs of ordinary communication on land, it was natural that the +wireless should make headway but slowly as a commercial proposition +between points on land. For communication at sea, however, it had no +competition, and merchant-ships as well as war vessels were rapidly +equipped with wireless apparatus. + +When the great liner _Republic_ was sinking as a result of a collision +off the port of New York in 1903 her wireless brought aid. Her +passengers and crew were taken off in safety, and what otherwise would +have been a terrible disaster was avoided by the use of the wireless. +The utility of the wireless was again brought sharply to the attention +of the world. It was realized that a wireless set on a passenger-ship +was necessary if the lives of the passengers were to be safeguarded. +The United States Government by its laws now requires that +passenger-ships shall be equipped with wireless apparatus in charge of +a competent operator. + +One of the early objections made to the wireless was its apparent lack +of secrecy, since any other receiving apparatus within range of the +waves sent forth by the sending station can receive the signals. It +was also realized that as soon as any considerable number of stations +were established about the world, and began sending messages to and +fro, there would be a perfect jumble of waves flying about in all +directions through the ether, so that no messages could be sent or +received. + +Marconi's answer to these difficulties was the tuning apparatus. The +electric waves carrying the messages may be sent out at widely varying +lengths. Marconi found that it was possible to adjust a receiving +station so that it would receive only waves of a certain length. +Thus stations which desired to communicate could select a certain +wave-length, and they could send and receive messages without +interfering with others using different wave-lengths, or without the +receiving station being confused by messages coming in from +other stations using different wave-lengths. You know that when a +tuning-fork is set in vibration another of the same pitch near it will +vibrate with it, but others of different pitch will not be affected. +The operation of wireless stations in tune with each other is similar. + +[Illustration: A REMARKABLE PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN OUTSIDE OF THE CLIFDEN +STATION WHILE MESSAGES WERE BEING SENT ACROSS TO CAPE RACE + +The camera was exposed for two hours, and the white bars show the +sparks leaving the wires for their journey through the air for +seventeen hundred miles.] + +[Illustration: MARCONI STATION AT CLIFDEN, IRELAND + +These dynamos send a message straight across the ocean.] + +An example of the value of tuning is afforded by the manner in which +press reports are sent from the great Marconi station at Poldhu. Each +night at a certain hour this station sends out news reports of the +events of the day, using a certain set wave-length. Each ship on the +Atlantic and every land station within range which is to receive the +reports at that hour adjusts its receiving set to receive waves of +that length. In this way they hear nothing but the Poldhu news reports +which they desire to receive, and are not troubled by messages from +other stations within range. + +Secrecy is also attained by the use of tuning. It is possible that +another station may discover the wave-length being used for a secret +message and "listen in," but there are so many possible wave-lengths +that this is difficult. Secrecy may also be secured by the use of code +messages. + +Many of the advantages of tuning were lost by the international +agreement which provided that but two wave-lengths should be used for +commercial work. This, however, enables ships to get in touch with +other ships in time of need. With his telephone receivers the operator +can hear the passage of the waves as they are brought to him by his +aerial and the dots and dashes sound as buzzes of greater or less +length. Out of the confusion of currents passing through the air he +can select the messages he wishes to read by sound. + +You may wonder how one wireless operator gets into communication with +another. He first listens in to determine whether messages are coming +through the ether within range in the wave-length he is to use. +Hearing nothing, he adjusts his sending apparatus to the desired +wave-length and switches this in with the signal aerial which +serves both his sending and his receiving set. This at the same time +disconnects his receiving set. He sends out the call letters of the +station to which he wishes to send a message, following them with +his own call letters, as a signature to show who is calling. After +repeating these signals several times he switches out his sending set +and listens in with his receiving set. If he then gets an answer from +the other station he can begin sending the message. + +Marconi was not allowed to hold the wireless field unmolested. +Many others set up wireless stations, some of them infringing upon +Marconi's patents. Others have devised wireless systems along +more original lines. Particularly we should mention two American +experimenters, Dr. de Forest and Professor Fessenden. Both have +established wireless systems with no little promise. The system of +Professor Fessenden is especially unique and original and may be +destined to work a revolution in the methods of wireless telegraphy. + +With an increase in the number of wireless stations and varieties +of apparatus came a wide increase in the uses to which wireless +telegraphy was applied. We have already noticed the press service +from Poldhu. The British Government makes use of this same station to +furnish daily news to its representatives in all parts of the +world. The wireless is also used to transmit the time from the great +observatories. + +Some of the railroads in the United States have equipped their trails +as well as their stations with wireless sets. It has proved its worth +in communicating between stations, taking the place in time of need +of either the telegraph or the telephone. In equipping the trains with +sets a difficulty was met in arranging the aerials. It is, of course, +impossible to arrange the wires at any height above the cars, since +they would be swept away in passing under bridges. Even with very low +aerials, however, communication has been successfully maintained at +a distance of over a hundred miles. The speed of the fastest train +affects the sending and receiving of messages not at all. It was also +found that messages passed without hindrance, even though the train +was passing through a tunnel. + +Another interesting application of wireless telegraphy is to the +needs of the fire-fighters. Fire stations in New York City have been +equipped with wireless telegraph sets, and they have proved so useful +in spreading alarms and transmitting news of fires that they seem +destined to come into universal use. + +The outbreak of the world war gave a tremendous impetus to the +development of wireless telegraphy. The German cable to the United +States was cut in the early days of the conflict. The sending power +of wireless stations had been sufficiently increased, however, so that +the great German stations could communicate with those in the United +States. Communication was readily maintained between the Allies by +means of wireless, the great stations at Poldhu and at the Eiffel +Tower in Paris being in constant communication with each other and +with the stations in Italy and in Russia. + +Portable field sets had been used with some slight success even in the +Boer War, and had definitely proved their worth in the Balkans. The +outbreak of the greater war found all of the nations equipped with +portable apparatus for the use of their armies. These proved of +great use. The field sets of the United States Army also proved their +utility in the campaign into Mexico in pursuit of Villa. By their +means it was possible for General Pershing's forces to keep in +constant touch with the headquarters in the United States. + +The wireless proved as valuable to the navies as had been anticipated. +The Germans in particular made great improvements in light wireless +sets designed for use on aircraft. The problem of placing an aerial on +an aeroplane is difficult, but no little headway has been made in this +direction. + +It is the American boy who has done the most interesting work with the +wireless in the United States. While the commercial development +has been comparatively slow, the boys have set up stations by the +thousands. Most of these stations were constructed by the boys +themselves, who have learned and are learning how best to apply this +modern wonder to the service of man. So many amateurs set up stations +that the Government found it necessary to regulate them by law. +The law now requires that amateur experimenters use only short +wave-lengths in their sending, which will not interfere with messages +from Government or commercial stations. It also provides for the +licensing of amateurs who prove competent. + +The stations owned and operated by boys have already proved of great +use. In times of storm and flood when wire communication failed they +have proved the only means of communicating with many districts. In +time of war these amateur stations, scattered in all parts of the +country, might prove immensely valuable. Means have now been taken to +so organize the amateurs that they can communicate with one another, +and by this means messages may be sent to any part of the country. + +One young American, John Hays Hammond, Jr., has applied the wireless +in novel and interesting ways. By means of special apparatus mounted +on a small boat he can by the means of a wireless station on shore +start or stop the vessel, or steer it in any direction by his wireless +control. He has applied the same system to the control of torpedoes. +By this means a torpedo may be controlled after it has left the shore +and may be directed in any direction as long as it is within sight. +This invention may prove of incalculable benefit should America be +attacked by a foreign power. + +What startling developments of wireless telegraphy lie still in the +future we do not know. Marconi has predicted that wireless messages +will circle the globe. "I believe," he has said, "that in the near +future a wireless message will be sent from New York completely around +the world without relaying, and will be received by an instrument +in the same office with the transmitter, in perhaps less time than +Shakespeare's forty minutes." + +Not long ago the United States battle-ship _Wyoming_, lying off Cape +Henry on the Atlantic coast, communicated with the _San Diego_ at +Guaymas, on the Pacific coast of Mexico. This distance, twenty-five +hundred miles across land, shows that Marconi's prediction may be +realized in the not distant future. + + + + +XIX + +SPEAKING ACROSS THE CONTINENT + + A New "Hello Boy" in Boston--Why the Boy Sought the Job--The Useful + Things the Boy Found to Do--Young Carty and the Multiple + Switchboard--Called to New York City--He Quiets the Roaring + Wires--Carty Made Engineer-in-Chief--Extending the Range of the + Human Voice--New York Talks to San Francisco Over a Wire. + + +It seemed to many that the wireless telegraph was to be the final word +in the development of communication, but two striking achievements +coming in 1915 proved this to be far from the case. While one group of +scientists had given themselves to experimentation with the Hertzian +waves which led to wireless telegraphy, other scientists and engineers +were busily engaged in bringing the telephone to a perfection +which would enable it to accomplish even more striking feats. These +electrical pioneers did not work as individuals, but were grouped +together as the engineering staff of the American Telephone and +Telegraph Company. At their head was John J. Carty, and it was under +his guiding genius that the great work was accomplished. John Carty +is the American son of Irish parents. He was born in Cambridge, +Massachusetts, on April 14, 1861. His father was a gun-maker and an +expert mechanic of marked intelligence and ingenuity who numbered +among his friends Howe, the creator of the sewing-machine. As a boy +John Carty displayed the liveliest interest in things electrical. When +the time came for him to go to school, physics was his favorite study. +He showed himself to be possessed of a keen mind and an infinite +capacity for work. To these advantages was added a good elementary +education. He was graduated from Cambridge Latin School, where he +prepared for Harvard University. Before he could enter the university +his eyesight failed, and the doctor forbade continuance of study. +Many a boy would have been discouraged by this physical handicap which +denied him complete scholastic preparation. But this boy was not +the kind that gives up. He had been supplementing his school work +in physics with experimentations upon his own behalf. Let us let Mr. +Carty tell in his own words how he next occupied himself. + + I had often visited the shop of Thomas Hall, at 19 Bromfield + Street, and looked in the window. I went in from time to time, + not to make large purchases, but mostly to make inquiries and + to buy some blue vitriol, wire, or something of the kind. It + was a store where apparatus was sold for experimentation in + schools, and on Saturdays a number of Harvard and Institute + of Technology professors could be found there. It was quite a + rendezvous for the scientific men in those days, just the + same as the Old Corner Bookstore at the corner of School and + Washington Streets was a place where the literary men used to + congregate. Don't think that I was an associate of these great + scientists, but I was very much attracted to the atmosphere of + that store. I wanted to get in and handle the apparatus. + + Finally it occurred to me that I would like to get into the + business, somehow. But I did not have the courage to go in + and ask them for a job. One day I was going by and saw a sign + hanging out, "Boy Wanted." I was about nineteen, and really + thought I was something of a scientist, not exactly a boy. I + was a boy, however. I walked by on one side of the street and + then on the other, looking in, and finally the idea possessed + me to go in and strike for that job. So I took down the sign, + which was outside the window, put it under my arm, and went in + and persuaded Tom Hall that I was the boy he wanted. + + He said, "When can you begin?" I said, "Now." There was no + talk of wages or duties. He said, "Take this package around + to Earle & Prew's express and hurry back, as I have another + errand for you to do." So I had to take a great, heavy box + around to the express-office and get a receipt for it. I + found, when Saturday night came around, that I had been + engaged at the rate of fifty cents a day. I would have been + glad to work for nothing. + + Well, I did not get near that apparatus in a hurry, not until + the time came for fixing up the window. My first talk in + regard to it had no reference to services in a scientific + capacity on my part. I had rather hoped that the boss would + come around and consult with, me as to how to adjust the + apparatus. But that was not it. He said: "John, clean out that + window. Everything is full of dust, and be careful and don't + break anything!" So I cleaned it out. I swept out the place, + cleaned about there, did errands, mixed battery solutions, and + got a great deal of experience there in one way or another. I + did whatever there was to do and got a good deal of fun out + of it, while becoming acquainted with the state of the art of + that day. I got to know intimately all the different sorts of + philosophical apparatus there were, and how to mix the various + battery solutions. In fact, I became really quite experienced + for those times in such matters. + +It was not long before young Carty lost his job. Being a regular boy, +he had been guilty of too much skylarking. This experience steadied +him, and he forthwith sought a new job. He had met some of the +employees of the telephone company and was naturally interested in +their work. At that time "hello boys" held sway in the crude telephone +exchanges, the "hello girl" having not yet appeared. So John Carty at +the age of nineteen went to work in the Boston telephone exchange. + +The switchboard at which they placed him had been good enough for +the other boys who had been called upon to operate it, and indeed +it represented the best thought and effort of the leaders in the +telephone world. But it did not satisfy Carty, who, not content +with simply-operating the board, studied its construction and began +planning improvements. As Mr. Carty himself puts it: + + The little switchboards of that day were a good deal like the + automobiles of some years ago--one was likely to spend more + time under the switchboard than, sitting at it! In that way I + learned a great deal about the arrangement and construction + of switchboards. Encountering the trouble first, I had an + advantage over others in being able to suggest a remedy. So I + have always thought it was a good thing to have troubles, as + long as they are not too serious or too numerous. Troubles are + certainly a great advantage, if we manage them correctly. + +Certainly Carty made these switchboard troubles the first +stepping-stone in his climb to the top in the field of telephone +engineering. The improvements which the youngster suggested were so +valuable that they were soon being made under his direction, and +ere long he installed in the Boston exchange the first multiple +switchboard, the fundamental features of which are in the switchboards +of to-day. In his work with the switchboards young Carty early got +in touch with Charles E. Scribner, another youngster who was doing +notable work in this field. The young men became fast friends and +worked much together. Scribner devoted himself almost exclusively +to switchboards and came to be known as the father of the modern +switchboard. + +Boston had her peculiar problems and an "express" service was needed. +How to handle this in the exchange was another problem, and this, too, +Carty solved. For this purpose he designed and installed the first +metallic circuit, multiple switchboard to go into service. The +problems of the exchange were among the most serious of the many which +troubled the early telephone companies. Of course every telephone-user +desired to be able to converse with any other who had a telephone in +his office or residence. The development of the switchboards had been +comparatively slow in the past, and the service rendered by the boys +proved far from satisfactory. The average boy proved himself +too little amenable to discipline, too inclined to "sass" the +telephone-users, and too careless. But the early use of "hello boys" +was at least a success for the telephone in that it brought to +its service John J. Carty. This boy pointed the way to the great +improvements that made it possible to handle the constantly growing +volume of calls expeditiously and effectively. + +The early telephones were operated with a single wire grounded at +either end, the earth return being used to complete the circuit +as with the telegraph. But while the currents used to operate the +telegraph are fairly strong and so can dominate the earth currents, +the tiny currents which represented the vibrations of the human voice +were all too often drowned by the earth currents which strayed on to +the lines. Telephone engineers were not then agreed that this caused +the difficulty; but they did know there was difficulty. Many weird +noises played over the lines and as often as not the spoken word was +twisted into the strangest gibberish and rendered unintelligible. If +the telephone was to satisfy its patrons and prove of real service +to the world, the difficulty had to be overcome. Some of the more +progressive engineers insisted that a double-wire system without a +ground was necessary. This, of course, involved tremendous expenses +in rebuilding every line and duplicating every wire. The more +conservative hesitated, but Carty forged ahead. + +In 1880 he was engaged in operating a new line out of Boston. He was +convinced that the double-wire system alone could be successful, and +he arranged to operate a line on this plan. Taking two single lines, +he instructed the operator at the other end to join them, forming a +two-wire circuit. The results justified him. At last a line had been +attained which could be depended upon to carry the conversation. + +No sooner was one problem solved than another presented itself. What +to do with the constantly increasing number of wires was a pressing +difficulty. All telephone circuits had been strung overhead, and with +the demand for telephones for office and residence rapidly increasing, +the streets of the great cities were becoming a perfect forest of +telephone poles, with the sky obscured by a maze of wires. Poles were +constantly increased in height until a line was strung along Wall +Street in New York City at a height of ninety feet. From the poles the +wires overflowed to the housetops, increasing the difficulty of the +engineers. How to protect the wires so that they could be placed +underground was the problem. + +We have noticed that Theodore Vail had been brought to the head of +the Bell system in its infancy and had led the fight against the rival +companies until it was thoroughly established. Now he was directing +his genius and executive ability to so improving the telephone that +it should serve every need of communication. While the engineers +discussed theories Vail began actual tests. A trench five miles long +was dug beside a railway track by the simple expedient of hitching a +plow to a locomotive. In this trench were laid a number of wires, each +with a different covering. The gutta-percha and the rubber coverings +which had been used in cable construction predominated. It was found +that these wires would carry the telephone currents, not as well as +might be desired, but well enough to assure Vail that he was on the +right track. The companies began to place their wires underground, and +Vail saw to it that the experiments with coverings for telephone wires +were continued. The result was the successful underground cables in +use to-day. + +At the same time Vail and his engineers were seeking to improve the +wires themselves. Iron and steel wires had been used, but they proved +unsatisfactory, as they rusted and were poor conductors. Copper was +an excellent conductor, but the metal in the pure state is soft and +no one then knew how to make a copper wire that would sustain its own +weight. But Vail kept his men at the problem and the hard-drawn copper +wire was at length evolved. This proved just what was needed for the +telephone circuits. The copper wire was four times as expensive as the +iron, but as it was four times as good Vail adopted it. + +John Carty had rather more than kept pace with these improvements. He +was but twenty-six years of age when Union N. Bethell, head of the New +York company, picked Carty to take charge of the telephone engineering +work in the metropolis. Bethell was Vail's chief executive officer, +and under him Carty received an invaluable training in executive work. +Carty's largest task was putting the wires underground, and here again +he was a tremendous success. He found ways to make cables cheaper +and better, and devised means of laying them at half the former cost. +Having solved the most pressing problems in this field, his employers, +who had come to recognize his marked genius, set him to work again on +the switchboard. He was placed in charge of the switchboard department +of the Western Electric Company, the concern which manufactures the +apparatus for the telephone company. The switchboard, as we have +seen, was Carty's first love, and again he pointed the way to great +improvements. Most of the large switchboards of that time were +installed under his direction, and they were better switchboards than +had ever been known before. + +Up to this time it had been thought necessary to have individual +batteries supplying current to each line. These were a constant source +of difficulty, and Carty directed his own attention, and that of his +associate engineers, to finding a satisfactory solution. He sought a +method of utilizing one common battery at the central station and the +way was found and the improvement accomplished. + +Though the telephone circuits were now protected from the earth, +telephone-users, at times when the lines were busy, were still +troubled with roarings and strange cross-talk. Though busy with the +many engineering problems which the telephone heads had assigned to +him, Carty found time for some original research. He showed that the +roarings in the wires were largely caused by electro-static induction. +In 1889 he read a paper before the Electric Club that startled the +engineers of that day. He demonstrated that in every telephone circuit +there is a particular point at which, if a telephone is inserted, no +cross-talk can be heard. He had worked out the rules for determining +this point. Thus he had at once discovered the trouble and prescribed +the cure. Of course it could not be expected that the sage experts +would all agree with young Carty right away; but they were forced to +in the end, for again he was proved right. + +By 1901 Carty was ready with another invention which was to place the +telephone in the homes of hundreds of thousands who, without it, could +scarcely have afforded this modern necessity. This was the "bridging +bell" which made possible the party line. By its use four telephones +could be placed on a single line, each with its own signal, so that +any one could be rung without ringing the others. Its introduction +inaugurated a new boom in the use of the telephone. + +Theodore Vail had resigned from his positions with the telephone +companies in 1890 with the determination to retire from business. But +when the panic of 1907 came the directors of the company went to him +on his Vermont farm and pleaded with him to return and again resume +the leadership. Other and younger men would not do in this business +crisis. They also pointed out that the nation's telephones had not +yet been molded into the national system which had been his dream--a +system of universal service in which any one at any point in the +country might talk by telephone with any other. So Vail re-entered +the telephone field and again took the presidency of the American +Telephone and Telegraph Company. + +One of his first official acts was to appoint John J. Carty his chief +engineer. Vail had selected the right man to make his dreams come +true; Carty now had the executive who would make it possible for +him to accomplish even larger things. He set about building up the +engineering organization which was to accomplish the work, selecting +the most brilliant graduates of American technical schools. He set +this organization to work upon the extension and development of the +long-distance telephone lines. + +As a "hello boy" Carty had believed in the possibility of the +long-distance telephone when others had scoffed. He has told of an +early experience while in the Boston exchange: + + One hot day an old lady toiled up the inevitable flights of + stairs which led to the telephone-office of those times. + Out of breath, she sat down, and when she had recovered + sufficiently to speak she said she wanted to talk to Chicago. + My colleagues of that time were all what the ethnologists + would rank a little bit lower than the wild Indian. These + youngsters set up a great laugh; and, indeed, the absurdity of + the old lady's project could hardly be overstated, because + at that time Salem was a long-distance line, Lowell sometimes + worked, and Worcester was the limit--that is, in every sense + of the word. The Lowell line was so unreliable that we had a + telegraph operator there, and when the talk was not possible, + he pushed the message through by Morse. It is no wonder that + the absurdity of the old lady's proposal was the cause + of poorly suppressed merriment. But I can remember that I + explained to her that our wires had not yet been extended to + Chicago, and that, after she had departed, I turned to the + other operators and said that the day would come when we could + talk to Chicago. My prophecy was received with what might + be called--putting it mildly--vociferous discourtesy. + Nevertheless, I remember very well the impression which that + old lady's request made upon me; and I really did believe + that, some day or other, in some way, we would be able to talk + to Chicago. + +By 1912 it was possible to talk from New York to Denver, a distance of +2,100 miles. No European engineers had achieved any such results, and +this feat brought to Carty and his wonderful staff the admiration +of foreign experts. But for the American engineers this was only a +starting-point. + +The next step was to link New York and California. This was more than +a matter of setting poles and stringing wires, stupendous though this +task was. The line crosses thirteen States, and is carried on 130,000 +poles. Three thousand tons of wire are used in the line. The Panama +Canal took nine years to complete, and cost over three hundred million +dollars; but within that time the telephone company spent twice that +amount in engineering construction work alone, extending the scope of +the telephone. + +The technical problems were even more difficult. Carty and his +engineers had to find a way to send something three thousand +miles with the breath as its motive power. It was a problem of the +conservation of the tiny electric current which carried the speech. +The power could not be augmented or speech would not result at the +destination. + +Added to the efforts of these able engineers was the work of Prof. +Michael I. Pupin, of Columbia University, whose brilliant invention +of the loading coil some ten years before had startled the scientific +world and had increased the range of telephonic transmission through +underground cables and through overhead wires far beyond what +had formerly been possible. Professor Pupin applied his masterful +knowledge of physics and his profound mathematical attainments +so successfully to the practical problems of the transmission of +telephone speech that he has been called "the telephone scientist." +It is impossible to talk over long-distance lines anywhere in America +without speaking through Pupin coils, which are distributed throughout +the hundreds of thousands of miles of wire covering the North American +continent. In the transcontinental telephone line Pupin coils play a +most important part, and they are distributed at eight-mile intervals +throughout its entire length from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In +speaking at a dinner of eminent scientists, Mr. Carty once said that +on account of his distinguished scientific attainments and wonderful +telephonic inventions, Professor Pupin would rank in history alongside +of Bell himself. + +We have seen how Alexander Graham Bell, standing in the little room in +Boston, spoke through the crude telephone he had constructed the first +words ever carried over a wire, and how these words were heard and +understood by his associate, Thomas Watson. This was in 1876, and it +was in January of 1915--less than forty years later--that these +two men talked across the continent. The transcontinental line was +complete. Bell in the offices of the company in New York talked freely +with Watson in San Francisco, and all in the most conversational +tone, without a trace of the difficulty that had attended their first +conversation over the short line. Thus, within the span of a single +life the telephone had been developed from a crude instrument which +transmitted speech with difficulty over a wire a hundred feet long, +until one could be heard perfectly, though over three thousand miles +of wire intervened. + +The spoken word travels across the continent almost instantaneously, +far faster than the speed of sound. If it were possible for one to be +heard in San Francisco as he shouted from New York through the air, +four hours would be required before the sound would arrive. Thus the +telephone has been brought to a point of perfection where it carries +sound by electricity and reproduces it again far more rapidly and +efficiently than sound can be transmitted through its natural medium. + + + + +XX + +TELEPHONING THROUGH SPACE + + The Search for the Wireless Telephone--Early Successes--Carty and + His Assistants Seek the Wireless Telephone--The Task Before Them--De + Forest's Amplifier--Experimental Success Achieved--The + Test--Honolulu and Paris Hear Arlington--The Future. + + +No sooner had Marconi placed the wireless telegraph at the service of +the world than men of science of all nations began the search for +the wireless telephone. But the vibrations necessary to reproduce the +sound of the human voice are so infinitely more complex than those +which will suffice to carry signals representing the dots and +dashes of the telegraph code that the problem long defied solution. +Scientists attacked the problem with vigor, and various means of +wireless telephony were developed, without any being produced which +were effective over sufficient ranges to make them really useful. + +Probably the earliest medium chosen to carry wireless speech was light +rays. A microphone transmitter was arranged so that the vibrations +of the voice would affect the stream of gas flowing in a sensitive +burner. The flame was thus thrown into vibrations corresponding to the +vibrations of sound. The rays from this flame were then directed by +mirrors to a distant receiving station and there concentrated on +a photo-electric selenium cell, which has the strange property of +varying its resistance according to the illumination. Thus a telephone +receiver arranged in series with it was made to reproduce the sounds. + +This strange, wireless telephone was so arranged that a search-light +beam could be used for the light path, and distances up to three miles +were covered. Even with this limited range the search-light telephone +had certain advantages. Its message could be received only by those in +the direct line of the light. Neither did it require aerial masts +or wires and a trained telegrapher who could send and receive the +telegraph code. It was put to some use between battle-ships and +smaller craft lying within a radius of a few miles. The sensitive +selenium cell proved unreliable, however, and this means of +communication was destined to failure. + +The experimenters realized that future success lay in making the ether +carry telephonic currents as it carried telegraphic currents. They +succeeded in establishing communication without wires, using the same +antenna as in wireless telegraphy, and the principles determined are +those used in the wireless telephone of to-day. The sending apparatus +was so arranged that continuous oscillations are set up in the ether, +either by a high-frequency machine or from an electric arc. Where +set up by spark discharges the spark frequency must be above twenty +thousand per second. This unbroken wave train does not affect the +telephone and is not audible in a telephone receiver inserted in the +radio receiving circuit. But when a microphone transmitter is inserted +in the sending circuit, instead of the make-and-break key used for +telegraphy, the waves of the voice, thrown against the transmitter +in speaking, break up the waves so that the telephone receiver in the +receiving circuit will reproduce sound. Here was and is the wireless +telephone. Marconi and many other scientists were able to operate +it successfully over comparatively short distances, and were busily +engaged in extending its range and improving the apparatus. One +great difficulty involved was in increasing the power of the sending +apparatus. Greater range has been secured in wireless telegraphy by +using stronger sending currents. But the delicate microphone would +not carry these stronger currents. Increased sensitiveness in the +receiving apparatus was also necessary. + +Not content with their accomplishments in increasing the scope of the +wire telephone, the engineers of the Bell organization, headed by +John J. Carty, turned their attention to the wireless transmission +of speech. Determined that the existing telephone system should be +extended and supplemented in every useful way, they attacked the +problem with vigor. It was a problem that had long baffled the keenest +of European scientists, including Marconi himself, but that did not +deter Carty and his associates. They were determined that the glory of +spanning the Atlantic by wireless telephone should come to America +and American engineers. They wanted history to record the wireless +telephone as an American achievement along with the telegraph and the +telephone. + +The methods used in achieving the wireless telephone were widely +different from those which brought forth the telegraph and the +telephone. Times had changed. Men had found that it was more effective +to work together through organizations than to struggle along as +individuals. The very physical scope of the undertakings made the old +methods impracticable. One cannot perfect a transcontinental telephone +line nor a transatlantic wireless telephone in a garret. And with a +powerful organization behind them it was not necessary for Carty +and his associates to starve and skimp through interminable years, +handicapped by the inadequate equipment, while they slowly achieved +results. This great organization, working with modern methods, +produced the most wonderful results with startling rapidity. + +Important work had already been done by Marconi, Fessenden, De Forest, +and others. But their results were still incomplete; they could not +talk for any considerable distance. Carty organized his staff with +care, Bancroft Gerhardi, Doctor Jewett, H.D. Arnold, and Colpitts +being prominent among the group of brilliant American scientists +who joined with Carty in his great undertaking. While much had +been accomplished, much still remained to be done, and the various +contributions had to be co-ordinated into a unified, workable whole. +In large part it was Carty's task to direct the work of this staff and +to see that all moved smoothly and in the right direction. Just as +the telephone was more complex than the telegraph, and the wireless +telegraph than the telephone, so the apparatus used in wireless +telephony is even more complex and technical. Working with the +intricate mechanisms and delicate apparatus, one part after another +was improved and adapted to the task at hand. + +To the devices of Carty and his associates was added the extremely +delicate detector that was needed. This was the invention of Dr. +Lee de Forest, an American inventor and a graduate of the Sheffield +Technical School of Yale University. De Forest's contribution was +a lamp instrument, a three-step audion amplifier. This is to the +wireless telephone what the coherer is to the wireless telegraph. It +is so delicate that the faintest currents coming through the ether +will stimulate it and serve to set in motion local sources of +electrical energy so that the waves received are magnified to a point +where they will produce sound. + +By the spring of 1915, but a few months after the transcontinental +telephone line had been put in operation, Carty had his wireless +telephone apparatus ready for extended tests. A small experimental +tower was set up at Montauk Point, Long Island, and another was +borrowed at Wilmington, Delaware. The tests were successful, and the +experimenters found that they could talk freely with each other. Soon +they talked over a thousand miles, from the tower at Montauk Point +to another at St. Simon's Island, Georgia. This in itself was a great +achievement, but the world was not told of it. "Do it first and then +talk about it" is the maxim with Theodore Vail and his telephone men. +This was but a beginning, and Carty had far more wonderful things in +mind. + +It was on the 29th of September, 1915, that Carty conducted the +demonstrations which thrilled the world and showed that wireless +telephony was an accomplished fact. Sitting in his office in New York, +President Theodore Vail spoke into his desk telephone of the familiar +type. The wires carried his words to the towers of the Navy wireless +station at Arlington, Virginia, where they were delivered to the +sending apparatus of the wireless telephone. Leaping into space, they +traveled in every direction through the ether. The antenna of the +wireless station at Mare Island, California, caught part of the waves +and they were amplified so that John Carty, sitting with his ear +to the receiver, could hear the voice of his chief. Carty and his +associates had not only developed a system which made it possible to +talk across the continent without wires, but they had made it possible +to combine wire and wireless telegraphy. He and Vail talked with each +other freely and easily, while the naval officers who verified the +tests marveled. + +But even more wonderful things were to come. Early in the morning of +the next day other messages were sent from the Arlington tower, +and these messages were heard by Lloyd Espenschied, one of Carty's +engineers, who was stationed at the wireless station at Pearl Harbor, +near Honolulu, Hawaii. The distance covered was nearly five thousand +miles, and half of it was across land, which is the more remarkable as +the wireless does not operate so readily over land as over water. +The distance covered in this test was greater than the distance +from Washington to London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, or Petrograd. The +successful completion of this test meant that the capitals of the +great nations of the world might communicate, might talk with +one another, by wireless telephone. Only a receiving set had been +installed at Hawaii, so that it was not possible for Espenschied to +reply to the message from Arlington, and it was not until his message +came by cable that those at Arlington knew that the words they had +spoken had traveled five thousand miles. Other receiving sets had been +located at San Diego and at Darien on the Isthmus of Panama, and at +these points also the words were distinctly heard. + +By the latter part of October all was in readiness for a transatlantic +test, and on the 20th of October American engineers, with American +apparatus installed at the great French station at the Eiffel Tower, +Paris, heard the words spoken at Arlington, Virginia. Carty and his +engineers had bridged the Atlantic for the spoken word. Because of +war-time conditions it was not possible to secure the use of the +French station for an extended test, but the fact was established that +once the apparatus is in place telephonic communication between Europe +and America may he carried on regularly. + +The apparatus used as developed by the engineers of the Bell system +was in a measure an outgrowth of their work with the long-distance +telephone. Wireless telephony, despite the wonders it has already +accomplished, is still in its infancy. With more perfect apparatus +and the knowledge that comes with experience we may expect that speech +will girdle the earth. + +It is natural that one should wonder whether the wireless telephone is +destined to displace our present apparatus. This does not seem at all +probable. In the first place, wireless telephony is now, and probably +always will be, very expensive. Where the wire will do it is the more +economical. There are many limitations to the use of the other for +talking purposes, and it cannot be drawn upon too strongly by the man +of science. It will accomplish miracles, but must not be overtaxed. +Millions of messages going in all directions, crossing and +recrossing one another, as is done every day by wire, are probably +an impossibility by wireless telephony. Weird and little-understood +conditions of the ether, static electricity, radio disturbances, make +wireless work uncertain, and such a thing as twenty-four-hour service, +seven days in the week, can probably never be guaranteed. In radio +communication all must use a common medium, and as its use increases, +so also do the difficulties. The privacy of the wire is also lacking +with the wireless telephone. + +But because a way was found to couple the wireless telephone with the +wire telephone, the new wonder has great possibilities as a supplement +to our existing system. Before so very long it may be possible for an +American business man sitting in his office to call up and converse +with a friend on a liner crossing the Atlantic. The advantages +of speaking between ship and ship as an improvement over wireless +telegraphy in time of need are obvious. A demonstration of the part +this great national telephone system would play in the country's +defense in case of attack was held in May of 1916. The Navy Department +at Washington was placed in communication with every navy-yard and +post in the United States, so that the executive officers could +instantly talk with those in charge of the posts throughout the +country. The wireless telephone was used in addition to the long +distance, and Secretary of the Navy Daniels, sitting at his desk at +Washington, talked with Captain Chandler, who was at his station on +the bridge of the U.S.S. _New Hampshire_ at Hampton Roads. + +Whatever the future limitations of wireless telephony, there is +no doubt as to the place it will take among the scientific +accomplishments of the age. Merely as a scientific discovery or +invention, it ranks among the wonders of civilization. Much as the +tremendous leap of human voice across the line from New York to San +Francisco appealed to the mind, there is something infinitely more +fascinating in this new triumph of the engineer. The human mind can +grasp the idea of the spoken word being carried along wires, though +that is difficult enough, but when we try to understand its flight +through space we are faced with something beyond the comprehension of +the layman and almost past belief. + +We have seen how communication has developed, very slowly at first, +and then, as electricity was discovered, with great rapidity until man +may converse with man at a distance of five thousand miles. What +the future will bring forth we do not know. The ether may be made to +accomplish even more wonderful things as a bearer of intelligence. +Though we cannot now see how it would be possible, the day may come +when every automobile and aeroplane will be equipped with its wireless +telephone, and the motorist and aviator, wherever they go, may +talk with anyone anywhere. The transmission of power by wireless is +confidently predicted. Pictures have been transmitted by telegraph. It +may be possible to transmit them by wireless. Then some one may find +out how to transmit moving pictures through the ether. Then one might +sit and see before him on a screen a representation of what was then +happening thousands of miles away, and, listening through a telephone, +hear all the sounds at the same place. Wonders that we cannot even now +imagine may lie before us. + + + + +APPENDIX A + +NEW DEVELOPMENTS OF THE TELEGRAPH + +_By F.W. Lienan, Superintendent Tariff Bureau, Western Union Telegraph +Company_ + + +The invention of Samuel F.B. Morse is unique in this, that the methods +and instruments of telegraph operation as he evolved them from his +first experimental apparatus were so simple, and yet so completely met +the requirements, that they have continued in use to the present day +in practically their original form. But this does not mean that there +has not been the same constant striving for betterment in this as in +every other art. Many minds have, since the birth of the telegraph, +occupied themselves with the problem of devising improved means of +telegraphic transmission. The results have varied according to the +point of view from which the subject was approached, but all, directly +or indirectly, sought the same goal (the obvious one, since speed is +the essence of telegraphy), to find the best means of sending more +messages over the wire in a given time. It will readily suggest +itself that the solution of this problem lies either in an arrangement +enabling the wire to carry more than one message at once, or in some +apparatus capable of transmitting messages over the wire more +rapidly than can be done by hand, or in a combination of both these +principles. + +Duplex and quadruples operations are perhaps the most generally known +methods by which increased utilization of the capacity of the line has +been achieved. Duplex operation permits of the sending of two messages +over one wire in opposite directions at the same time; and quadruples, +the simultaneous transmission of four messages, two going in each +direction. Truly a remarkable accomplishment; but, like many other +things that have found their permanent place in daily use, become so +familiar that we no longer pause to marvel at it. These expedients +constitute a direct and very effective attack on the problem how to +get more work out of the wire with the existing means of operation, +and on account of their fundamental character and the important place +which by reason thereof they have taken in the telegraphic art, are +entitled to first mention. + +The problem of increasing the rapidity of transmission has been met by +various automatic systems of telegraphy, so called because they embody +the idea of mechanical transmission with resulting gain in speed and +other advantages. The number of these which have from time to time +been devised is considerable. Not all have proven to be practicable, +but those which have failed to prove in under actual operating +conditions none the less display evidence of ingenuity which may well +excite our admiration. + +To mention one or two which may be interesting on account of the +oddity of their method--there was, for instance, an early device, +similar in principle to the calling apparatus of the automatic +telephone, which involved the turning of a movable disk so that a +projection on its circumference pointed successively to the letters to +be transmitted. Experiments were made with ordinary metal type set up +in a composing-stick, a series of brushes passing over the type faces +and producing similar characters on a tape at the other end of the +line. In another more recent ingenious device a pivoted mirror at the +receiving end was so manipulated by the electrical impulses that a ray +of light reflected from the surface of the mirror actually wrote the +message upon sensitized paper, like a pencil, in a fair handwriting. +In another the receiving apparatus printed vertical, horizontal, and +slanting lines in such manner that they combined to make letters, +rather angular, it is true, but legible. + +These and other kindred devices are interesting as efforts to +accomplish the direct production of legible messages. In experimental +tests they performed their function successfully, and in some cases +with considerable speed, but some of them required more than one line +wire, some were too sensitive to disturbance by inductive currents +and some developed other weaknesses which have prevented their +incorporation in the actual operating machinery of to-day. + +In the general development of the so-called automatic telegraph +devices which have been or now are in practical operation, two lines +have been pursued. One involves direct keyboard transmission; the +other, the use at the sending end of a perforated tape capable of +being run through a transmitting machine at high speed. One type of +the former is the so-called step-by-step process, in which a revolving +body in the transmitting apparatus, as, for instance, a cylinder +provided with pegs placed at intervals around its circumference in +spiral fashion, is arrested by the depression of the keys of the +keyboard in such a way that a type wheel in the receiving apparatus +at the distant end of the line prints the corresponding letter. +This method was employed in the House and Phelps printing telegraphs +operated by the Western Union Telegraph Company in its earlier days, +and is to-day used in the operation of the familiar ticker. In +another type of direct keyboard operation the manipulation of the +keys transmits the impulses directly to the line and the receiving +apparatus translates them by electrically controlled mechanical +devices into printed characters in message form. + +The systems best adapted to rapid telegraph work are predicated on the +use of a perforated tape on which, by means of a suitable perforating +apparatus, little round holes are produced in various groupings, each +group, when the tape is passed through the transmitter, causing a +certain combination of electrical impulses to pass over the wire. +The transmitter as a rule consists of a mechanically or motor driven +mechanism which causes the telegraph impulses to be transmitted to the +line, and the combination and character of the impulses are determined +by the tape perforations. The rapidity with which the tape may +be driven through the transmitter makes very high speed operation +possible. Of course it is necessary that there should be at the other +end of the wire apparatus capable of receiving and recording the +signals as speedily as they are sent. + +As early as 1848 Alexander Bain perfected a system involving the use +of the perforated transmitting tape; at the receiving station the +messages were recorded in dots and dashes upon a chemically prepared +strip of paper by means of iron pens, the metal of which was, through +the combined action of the electrical current and the chemical +preparation, decomposed, producing black marks in the form of dots and +dashes upon the paper. The Bain apparatus was in actual operation in +the younger days of the telegraph. Various systems, based on similar +principles, involving tape transmission and the production of dots and +dashes on a receiving tape, have from time to time been devised, but +have generally not succeeded in establishing any permanent usefulness +in competition with more effective instrumentalities which have been +perfected. + +The hardiest survivor of them is the Wheatstone apparatus, which +has been in successful operation for years. Originally the +perforating--or, to use the commonly current term, the punching--of +the Wheatstone sending tape was accomplished by a mechanism equipped +with three keys--one for the dot, one for the dash, and one for the +space. The keys were struck with rubber-tipped mallets held in the +hands of the operator and brought down with considerable force. Later +this rather primitive perforator was supplanted by one equipped with a +full keyboard on the order of a typewriter keyboard. At the receiving +end of the line the messages are produced on a tape in dots and dashes +of the Morse alphabet, and hence a further process of translation is +necessary. This system has proven very useful, particularly in times +of wire trouble and scarcity of facilities, when it is essential to +move as many messages as possible over the available lines. + +The schemes devised for combining automatic transmission by the +perforated-tape method with direct production of the message at +its destination in ordinary letters and figures, eliminating the +intervening step of translation from Morse characters, have been +many. Their individual enumeration is beyond the scope of the present +discussion, and would in any event involve a wearisome exposition of +their distinguishing technical features. Several of these systems are +at present in practical and very effective operation. + +One of the forerunners of the printing telegraph systems now in use +was the Buckingham system, for many years employed by the Western +Union Telegraph Company, but now for some time obsolete. The receiving +mechanism of this system printed the messages on telegraph blanks +placed upon a cylinder of just the right circumference to accommodate +two telegraph blanks. The blanks were arranged in pairs, rolled into +the form of a tube and placed around the cylinder. When two messages +had been written a new pair of blanks had to be substituted. This was +a rather awkward arrangement, but at a time when more highly developed +apparatus had not been perfected it served its purpose to good +advantage. + +The printing telegraphs of to-day produce their messages by the +direct operation of typewriting machines or mechanisms operating +substantially in the same manner as the ordinary typewriting machine. +The methods by which the electrical impulses coming over the line are +transformed into mechanical operation of the typewriter keys, or what +corresponds to the typewriter keys, vary. It would be difficult to +describe how this function is performed without entering upon much +detail of a highly technical character. Suffice it to say that means +have been devised by which each combination of electrical impulses +coming over the line wire causes a channel to be opened for the motor +operation of the typewriting key-bar operating the corresponding +letter upon the typewriter apparatus. These machines write the +messages with proper arrangement of the date line, address, text, and +signature, operating not only the type, but also the carriage shift +and the line spacing as required. A further step in advance has +been made by feeding the blanks into the receiving typewriter from +a continuous roll, an attendant tearing the messages off as they are +completed. The entire operation is automatic from beginning to end and +capable of considerable speed. + +There remained the problem of devising some means by which a number of +automatic units could be operated over the same line at the same +time. This is not by any means a new proposition. Here again various +solutions have been offered by the scientists both of Europe and of +this country, and different systems designed to accomplish the desired +object have been placed in operation. One of the most recent, and +we believe the most efficient so far developed, is the so-called +multiplex printer system, devised by the engineers of the Western +Union Telegraph Company and now being extensively used by that +company. Perhaps the best picture of what is accomplished by this +system can be given by an illustration. Let us assume a single wire +between New York and Chicago. At the New York end there are connected +with this wire four combined perforators and transmitters, and four +receiving machines operating on the typewriter principle. At the +Chicago end the wire is connected with a like number of sending and +receiving machines. All these machines are in simultaneous operation; +that is to say, four messages are being sent from New York to Chicago, +and four messages are being sent from Chicago to New York, all at the +same time and over a single wire, and the entire process is automatic. +The method by which eight messages can be sent over a single wire at +the same time without interfering with one another cannot readily +be described in simple terms. It may give some comprehension of the +underlying principle to say that the heart of the mechanism is in +two disks at each end of the line, which are divided into groups of +segments insulated from each other, each group being connected to one +of the sending or receiving machines, respectively. A rotating contact +brush connected to the line wire passes over the disk, so that, as it +comes into contact with each segment, the line wire is connected in +turn with the channel leading to the corresponding operating unit. The +brushes revolve in absolute unison of time and position. To use the +same illustration as before, the brush on the Chicago disk and the +brush on the New York disk not only move at exactly the same speed, +but at any given moment the two brushes are in exactly the same +position with regard to the respective group of segments of both +disks. If we now conceive of these brushes passing over the successive +segments of the disks at a very great rate of speed, it may be +understood that the effect is that the electrical impulses are +distributed, each receiving machine receiving only those produced by +the corresponding sending machine at the other end. In other words, +each of the sets of receiving and sending apparatus really gets the +use of the line for a fraction of the time during each revolution +of the brushes of the distributer or disk mechanism. The multiplex +automatic circuits are being extended all over the country and are +proving extremely valuable in handling the constantly growing volume +of telegraph traffic. + +What has thus been achieved in developing the technical side of +telegraph operation must be attributed in part to that impulse toward +improvement which is constantly at work everywhere and is the most +potent factor in the progress of all industries, but in large +measure it is the reflex of the growing--and recently very rapidly +growing--demands which are made upon the telegraph service. Emphasis +is placed on the larger ratio of growth in this demand in recent years +because it is peculiarly symptomatic of a noticeably wider realization +of the advantages which the telegraph offers as an effective medium +for business and social correspondence than has heretofore been in +evidence. It means that we have graduated from that state of mind +which saw in the telegraph something to be resorted to only under +the stress of emergency, which caused many good people to associate +a telegram with trouble and bad news and sudden calamity. There are +still some dear old ladies who, on receipt of a telegram, make a rapid +mental survey of the entire roster of their near and distant relatives +and wonder whose death or illness the message may announce before they +open the fateful envelope, only to find that up-to-date Cousin Mary, +who has learned that the telegraph is as readily used as the mail and +many times more rapid and efficient, wants to know whether they can +come out for the week-end. When Cousin Mary of to-day wants to know, +she wants to know right away--not only that she has her arrangements +to make, but also because she just does not propose to wait a day or +two to get a simple answer to a simple question. + +Therein she embodies the spirit of the times. Our ancestors were +content to jog along for days in a stuffy stage-coach; we complain +that the train which accomplishes the same distance in a few hours is +too slow. We act more quickly; we think more quickly. We have to if we +want to keep within earshot of the band. + +This speeding up makes itself quite obviously most apparent in our +business processes. No body of business men need be told how much +keener competition is becoming daily, how much narrower the margin by +which success must be won. Familiar phrases, these. But behind them +lies a wealth of tragedy. How many have fallen by the way? It is +estimated that something less than ten per cent. of those who engage +in business on their own account succeed. How terrible the percentage +of those who fail! The race has become too swift for them. Driven +by the lash of competition, business must perforce move faster and +faster. Time is becoming ever more precious. Negotiations must be +rapidly conducted, decisions arrived at quickly, transactions closed +on the moment. What wonder that all this makes for a vastly increased +use of the quickest method of communication? + +That is but one of the conditions which accounts for the growing use +of the telegraph. Another is to be found in the recognition of the +convenience of the night letter and day letter. This has brought +about a considerable increase in the volume of family and social +correspondence by telegraph, which will grow to very much greater +proportions as experience demonstrates its value. In business life the +night letter and day letter have likewise established a distinct place +for themselves. Here also the present development of this traffic can +be regarded as only rudimentary in comparison with the possibilities +of its future development, indications of which are already apparent. +It has been discovered that the telegram, on account of its peculiar +attention-compelling quality, is an effective medium not only for +the individual appeal, but for placing business propositions before +a number of people at once, the night letters and day letters being +particularly adapted to this purpose by reason of the greater scope of +expression which they offer. + +Again, business men are developing the habit of using the telegram +in keeping in touch with their field forces and their salesmen and +encouraging their activities, in cultivating closer contact with their +customers, in placing their orders, in replenishing their stocks, +and in any number of other ways calculated to further the profitable +conduct of their enterprises. + +All this means that the telegraph is increasingly being utilized as a +means of correspondence of every conceivable sort. It means also that +with the growing appreciation of its adaptability to the every-day +needs of social and business communication a very much larger public +demand upon it must be anticipated, and it is to meet this demand with +prompt and satisfactory service that the telegraph company has +been bending its efforts to the perfection of a highly developed +organization and of operating appliances of the most modern and +efficient type. + + + + +APPENDIX B + +Through the courtesy of J.J. Carty, Esq., Chief Engineer of the +American Telephone and Telegraph Company, there follows the clean-cut +survey of the evolution of the telephone presented in his address +before the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, May 17, 1916, when he +received the gold medal of the Institute. + + +More than any other, the telephone art is a product of American +institutions and reflects the genius of our people. The story of its +wonderful development is a story of our own country. It is a story +exclusively of American enterprise and American progress, for, +although the most powerful governments of Europe have devoted their +energies to the development and operation of telephone systems, great +contributions to the art have not been made by any of them. With very +few exceptions, the best that is used in telephony everywhere in the +world to-day has been contributed by workers here in America. + +It is of peculiar interest to recall the fact that the first words +ever transmitted by the electric telephone were spoken in a building +at Boston, not far from where Benjamin Franklin first saw the light. +The telephone, as well as Franklin, was born at Boston, and, like +Franklin, its first journey into the world brought it to Philadelphia, +where it was exhibited by its inventor, Alexander Graham Bell, at +the Centennial Exhibition in 1876, held here to commemorate the first +hundred years of our existence as a free and independent nation. + +It was a fitting contribution to American progress, representing the +highest product of American inventive genius, and a worthy continuance +of the labors of Franklin, one of the founders of the science of +electricity as well as of the Republic. + +Nothing could appeal more to the genius of Franklin than the +telephone, for not only have his countrymen built upon it an +electrical system of communication of transcendent magnitude and +usefulness, but they have made it into a powerful agency for the +advancement of civilization, eliminating barriers to speech, binding +together our people into one nation, and now reaching out to the +uttermost limits of the earth, with the grand aim of some day bringing +together the people of all the nations of the earth into one common +brotherhood. + +On the tenth day of March, 1876, the telephone art was born, when, +over a wire extending between two rooms on the top floor of a building +in Boston, Alexander Graham Bell spoke to his associate, Thomas A. +Watson, saying: "Mr. Watson, please come here. I want you." These +words, then heard by Mr. Watson in the instrument at his ear, +constitute the first sentence ever received by the electric telephone. +The instrument into which Doctor Bell spoke was a crude apparatus, and +the current which it generated was so feeble that, although the line +was about a hundred feet in length, the voice heard in the receiver +was so faint as to be audible only to such a trained and sensitive ear +as that of the young Mr. Watson, and then only when all surrounding +noises were excluded. + +Following the instructions given by Doctor Bell, Mr. Watson with his +own hands had constructed the first telephone instruments and ran the +first telephone wire. At that time all the knowledge of the telephone +art was possessed exclusively by those two men. There was no +experience to guide and no tradition to follow. The founders of the +telephone, with remarkable foresight, recognized that success depended +upon the highest scientific knowledge and technical skill, and at once +organized an experimental and research department. They also sought +the aid of university professors eminent for their scientific +attainments, although at that time there was no university giving the +degree of Electrical Engineer or teaching electrical engineering. + +From this small beginning there has been developed the present +engineering, experimental and research department which is under my +charge. From only two men in 1876 this staff has, in 1915, grown +to more than six hundred engineers and scientists, including former +professors, post-graduate students, and scientific investigators, +graduates of nearly a hundred American colleges and universities, thus +emphasizing in a special way the American character of the art. The +above number includes only those devoted to experimental and research +work and engineering development and standardization, and does +not include the very much larger body of engineers engaged in +manufacturing and in practical field work throughout the United +States. Not even the largest and most powerful government telephone +and telegraph administration of Europe has a staff to be compared with +this. It is in our great universities that anything like it is to +be found, but even here we find that it exceeds in number the entire +teaching staff of even our largest technical institutions. + +A good idea may spring up in the mind of man anywhere, but as applied +to such a complex entity as a telephone system, the countless parts of +which cover a continent, no individual unaided can bring the idea to +a successful conclusion. A comprehensive and effective engineering and +scientific and development organization such as this is necessary, and +years of expensive work are required before the idea can be rendered +useful to the public. + +But, vital as they are to its success, the, telephone art requires +more than engineers and scientists. So we find that in the building +and operation and maintenance of that vast continental telephone +system which bears the name of Bell, in honor of the great inventor, +there are at work each day more than 170,000 employees, of which +nearly 20,000 are engaged in the manufacture of telephones, +switchboards, cables, and all of the thousands and tens of thousands +of parts required for the operation of the telephone system of +America. + +The remaining 150,000 are distributed throughout all of the States +of the Union. About 80,000 of these are women, largely telephone +operators; 50,000 are linemen, installers, cable splicers, and the +like, engaged in the building and maintaining of the continental +plant. There are thousands of other employees in the accounting, +legal, commercial and other departments. There are 2,100 engineers +located in different parts of the country. The majority of these +engineers have received technical training in American technical +schools, colleges, and universities. This number does not include +by any means all of those in the other departments who have received +technical or college training. + +In view of the technical and scientific nature of the telephone art, +an unusually high-grade personnel is required in all departments, and +the amount of unskilled labor employed is relatively very small. +No other art calls forth in a higher degree those qualities of +initiative, judgment, skill, enterprise, and high character which have +in all times distinguished the great achievements of America. + +In 1876 the telephone plant of the whole world could be carried away +in the arms of one man. It consisted of two crude telephones like the +one now before you, connected together by a wire of about one hundred +feet in length. A piece cut from this wire by Mr. Watson himself is +here in this little glass case. + +At this time there was no practical telephone transmitter, no +hard-drawn copper wire, no transposed and balanced metallic circuits, +no multiple telephone switchboard, or telephone switchboard of any +kind, no telephone cable that would work satisfactorily; in fact, +there were none of the multitude of parts which now constitute the +telephone system. + +The first practical telephone line was a copy of the best telegraph +line of the day. A line wire was strung on the poles and housetops, +using the ground for the return circuit. Electrical disturbances, +coming from no one knows where, were picked up by this line. +Frequently the disturbances were so loud in the telephone as to +destroy conversation. When a second telephone line was strung +alongside the first, even though perfectly insulated, another surprise +awaited the telephone pioneers. Conversation carried on over one of +these wires could plainly be heard on the other. Another strange +thing was discovered. Iron wire was not so good a conductor for the +telephone current as it was for the telegraph current. The talking +distance, therefore, was limited by the imperfect carrying power of +the conductor and by the confusing effect of all sorts of disturbing +currents from the atmosphere and from neighboring telephone and +telegraph wires. + +These and a multitude of other difficulties, constituting problems of +the most intricate nature, impeded the progress of the telephone +art, but American engineers, by persistent study, incessant +experimentation, and the expenditure of immense sums of money, have +overcome these difficulties. They have created a new art, inventing, +developing, and perfecting, making improvements great and small in +telephone, transmitter, line, cable, switchboard, and every other +piece of apparatus and plant required for the transmission of speech. + +As the result of nearly forty years of this unceasing, organized +effort, on the 25th of January, 1915, there was dedicated to the +service of the American public a transcontinental telephone line, +3,600 miles long, joining the Atlantic and the Pacific, and carrying +the human voice instantly and distinctly between San Francisco and New +York and Philadelphia and Boston. On that day over this line Doctor +Bell again talked to Mr. Watson, who was now 3,400 miles away. It was +a day of romantic triumph for these two men and for their associates +and their thousands of successors who have built up the great American +telephone art. + +The 11th of February following was another day of triumph for the +telephone art as a product of American institutions, for, in the +presence of dignitaries of the city and State here at Philadelphia and +at San Francisco, the sound of the Liberty Bell, which had not been +heard since it tolled for the death of Chief-Justice Marshall, +was transmitted by telephone over the transcontinental line to San +Francisco, where it was plainly heard by all those there assembled. +Immediately after this the stirring tones of the "Star-spangled +Banner" played on the bugle at San Francisco were sent like lightning +back across the continent to salute the old bell in Philadelphia. + +It had often been pointed out that the words of the tenth verse of the +twenty-fifth chapter of Leviticus, added when the bell was recast in +1753, were peculiarly applicable to the part played by the old bell in +1776. But the words were still more prophetic. The old bell had been +silent for nearly eighty years, and it was thought forever, but by the +use of the telephone a gentle tap, which could be heard through the +air only a few feet away, was enough to transmit the tones of the +historic relic all the way across the continent from the Atlantic to +the Pacific. Thus, by the aid of the telephone art, the Liberty Bell +was enabled literally to fulfil its destiny and "Proclaim liberty +throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof." + +The two telephone instruments of 1876 had become many millions by +1916, and the first telephone line, a hundred feet long, had grown to +one of more than three thousand miles in length. This line is but part +of the American telephone system of twenty-one million miles of +wire, connecting more than nine million telephone stations located +everywhere throughout the United States, and giving telephone service +to one hundred million people. Universal telephone service throughout +the length and breadth of our land, that grand objective of Theodore +N. Vail, has been attained. + +While Alexander Graham Bell was the first to transmit the tones of +the human voice over a wire by electricity, he was also the first to +transmit the tones of the human voice by the wireless telephone, +for in 1880 he spoke along a beam of light to a point a considerable +distance away. While the method then used is different from that now +in vogue, the medium employed for the transmission is the same--the +ether, that mysterious, invisible, imponderable wave-conductor which +permeates all creation. + +While many great advances in the wireless art were made by Marconi and +many other scientists in America and elsewhere, it remained for that +distinguished group of American scientists and engineers working under +my charge to be the first to transmit the tones of the human voice in +the form of intelligible speech across the Atlantic Ocean. This great +event and those immediately preceding it are so fresh in the public +mind that I will make but a brief reference to them here. + +On April 4, 1915, we were successful in transmitting speech without +the use of wires from our radio station at Montauk Point on Long +Island to Wilmington, Delaware. + +On May 18th we talked by radio telephone from our station on Long +Island to St. Simon Island in the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of +Georgia. + +On the 27th of August, with our apparatus installed by permission of +the Navy Department at the Arlington, Virginia, radio station, speech +was successfully transmitted from that station to the Navy wireless +station equipped with our receiving apparatus at the Isthmus of +Panama. + +On September 29th, speech was successfully transmitted by wire from +New York City to the radio station at Arlington, Virginia, and thence +by wireless telephone across the continent to the radio station at +Mare Island Navy-yard, California, where I heard and understood the +words of Mr. Theodore N. Vail speaking to me from the telephone on his +desk at New York. + +On the next morning at about one o'clock, Washington time, we +established wireless telephone communication between Arlington, +Virginia, and Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands, where an engineer +of our staff, together with United States naval officers, distinctly +heard words spoken into the telephone at Arlington, Virginia. On +October 22d, from the Arlington tower in Virginia, we successfully +transmitted speech across the Atlantic Ocean to the Eiffel Tower at +Paris, where two of our engineers, in company with French military +officers, heard and understood the words spoken at Arlington. + +On the same day when speech was being transmitted by the apparatus at +Arlington to our engineers and to the French military officers at the +Eiffel Tower in Paris, our telephone engineer at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, +together with an officer of the United States Navy, heard the words +spoken from Arlington to Paris and recognized the voice of the +speaker. + +As a result of exhaustive researches, too extensive to describe here, +it has been ascertained that the function of the wireless telephone +is not to do away with the use of wires, but rather to be employed +in situations where wires are not available or practicable, such as +between ship and ship, and ship and shore, and across large bodies of +water. The ether is a universal conductor for wireless telephone +and telegraph impulses and must be used in common by all who wish to +employ those agencies of communication. In the case of the wireless +telegraph the number of messages which may be sent simultaneously is +much restricted. In the case of the wireless telephone, owing to the +thousands of separate wave-lengths required for the transmission of +speech, the number of telephone conversations which may be carried on +at the same time is still further restricted and is so small that +all who can employ wires will find it necessary to do so, leaving the +ether available for those who have no other means of communication. +This quality of the ether which thus restricts its use is really +a characteristic of the greatest value to mankind, for it forms a +universal party line, so to speak, connecting together all creation, +so that anybody anywhere, who connects with it in the proper manner, +may be heard by every one else so connected. Thus, a sinking ship or a +human being anywhere can send forth a cry for help which may be heard +and answered. + +No one can tell how far away are the limits of the telephone art, I +am certain that they are not to be found here upon the earth, for +I firmly believe in the fulfilment of that prophetic aspiration +expressed by Theodore N. Vail at a great gathering in Washington, that +some day we will build up a world telephone system, making necessary +to all peoples the use of a common language or a common understanding +of languages which will join all of the people of the earth into one +brotherhood. I believe that the time will come when the historic bell +which now rests in Independence Hall will again be sounded, and +that by means of the telephone art, which to-day has received such +distinguished recognition at your hands, it will proclaim liberty +once more, but this time throughout the whole world unto all the +inhabitants thereof. And, when this world is ready for the message, I +believe the telephone art will provide the means for transmitting to +all mankind a great voice saying, "Peace on earth, good will toward +men." + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +Ampere's telegraph, 42. +Anglo-American Telegraph Co., 134. +Ardois signal system, 30. +Atlantic cable projected, 109; + attempted, 117, 121, 123, 133; + completed, 124, 136. +Audion amplifier, 256. +Automatic telegraphy, 53, 105, 266. + + +B + +Baltimore-Washington Telegraph Line, 86. +Bell, Alexander Graham, parentage, 140; + youth, 141; + teaches elocution, 146; + experiments with speech, 151, 161; + meets Henry, 158; + invents telephone, 162; + at Centennial Exposition, 165; + demonstrates telephone, 170; + Bell Telephone Association, 178; + Bell-Western Union Settlement; + Bell and wireless telegraphy, 189; + Transcontinental telephone, 248. +Bethell, Union N., 241. +Blake, Clarence J., 154. +Blake, Francis, invents telephone transmitter, 182. +Branly coherer, 204. +Brett, J.W., 112. +Bright, Charles Tiltson, 112, 120, 125, 128. + + +C + +Cable laid across Channel, 108. +Carty, J.J., youth, 232; + enters telephone field, 234; + Carty and the switchboard, 235, 242; + uses metallic circuit, 238; + in New York City, 241; + invents bridging bell, 243; + chief engineer, 244; + extends long-distance telephone, 246; + seeks wireless telephone, 253; + talks across continent by wireless, 257. +Clepsydra, 18. +Code flags at sea, 24. +Coherer, 203. +Colomb's flashing lights, 25. +Congress votes funds for telegraph, 84. +Cooke, William P., 49, 52. +Cornell, Ezra, 86, 93, 107. + + +D + +Davy's needle telegraph, 44. +De Forest, Dr. Lee, 225, 256. +Dolbear and telephone, 185; + wireless telegraphy, 194. +Drawbaugh case, 186. +Duplex telegraphy, 104, 265. +Dyar, Harrison Gray, 41. + + +E + +Edison, and the telegraph, 104; + telephone transmitter 180; + wireless telegraphy, 195. +Ellsworth, Annie, 85. + + +F + +Field, Cyrus W., plans Transatlantic cable, 110; + honors, 125, 136; + develops cable, 130, 134. + + +G + +Gale, Professor, 67, 86. +Gauss and Weber's telegraph, 43. +Gisborne, F.N., 109. +Gray, Elisha, 157, 184. +_Great Eastern_, 132, 135, 139. +Guns as marine signals, 23. + + +H + +Hammond, John Hays, 229. +Heaviside, A.W., 196. +Heliograph, 29. +Henry, Joseph, 65, 67, 158, 169. +Hertz and the Hertzian waves, 197. +Hubbard, Gardiner G., 149, 159, 170, 178. +Hubbard, Mabel, 148, 166. + + +I + +Indian smoke signals, 20. + + +J + +Jackson, Dr. Charles T., 64, 79. + + +K + +Kelvin, Lord (See Thomson), 138. +"Kwaker" captured, 50. + + +L + +Long-distance telephone, 245. + + +M + +Magnetic Telegraph Co., 93. +Marconi, boyhood, 199; + accomplished wireless telegraphy, 202; + demonstration in England, 209; + Transatlantic telegraphy, 217; + Marconi Telegraph Company, 220. +Marine signals on Argonautic expedition, 15. +Mirror galvanometer, 127. +Mirrors of Pharaoh, 17. +Morse at University of New York, 66. +Morse, code in signals, 27; + parentage, 56; + at Yale, 57; + art student, 59; + artist, 62; + conceives the telegraph, 63; + exhibits telegraph, 75; + offers telegraph to Congress, 76, 91; + patents telegraph, 82; + submarine cable, 83, 107; + erects first line, 86; + dies, 104. +Multiplex printer telegraph, 274. +Mundy, Arthur J., 31. + + +O + +O'Reilly, Henry, 94. + + +P + +Preece, W.H., 196, 209. +Printing telegraph, 271. +Pupin, Michael I., 247. + + +Q + +Quadruplex telegraphy, 104, 265. + + +R + +Reis's musical telegraph, 157. + + +S + +Sanders, Thomas, 148, 159, 178. +Scribner, Charles E., 236. +Searchlight telephone, 251. +Semaphore signals, 27. +Shouting sentinels, 16. +Sibley, Hiram, 96, 99. +Signal columns, 19. +Siphon recorder, 137. +Smith, Francis O.J., 76. +Stentorophonic tube, 18. +Submarine signals, 31. + + +T + +Telegraph, first suggestion, 39; + patented, 82; + development, 264. +Telephone invented and patented, 162; + at Centennial, 165; + exchange, 177. +Thomson, youth, 144; + cable adviser, 121; + invents mirror galvanometer, 126; + knighted, 136; + invents siphon recorder, 137; + connection with telephone, 169. +Transatlantic cable (See Atlantic cable). +Transatlantic wireless telegraphy, 216. +Transatlantic wireless telephone, 259. +Transcontinental telegraph, 96. +Transcontinental telephone, 246. +Transcontinental wireless telephone, 257. +Trowbridge, John, 190. +Troy, signaling fall of, 14. +Tuning the wireless telegraph, 222. + + +V + +Vail, Alfred, arranges Morse code, joins Morse, 70; + makes telephone apparatus, 72; + operates first line, 90; + improves telegraph, 100. +Vail, Theodore, joins telephone forces, 180; + puts wires underground, 239; + adopts copper circuits, 240; + resumes telephone leadership, 244; + talks across continent without wires, 257. + + +W + +Watson, aids Bell with telephone, 159; + telephone partner, 175; + helps demonstrate telephone, 175; + telephones across continent, 248. +Western Union, organized, 96; + enters telephone field, 178. +Wheatstone, 1; + boyhood, 45; + five-needle telegraph, 49; + single-needle telegraph, 52; + Wheatstone-Cooke controversy, 52; + automatic transmitter, 53; + bridge, 53; + opposes Morse, 78; + encourages Bell, 145. +Wig-wag system, 26. +Wireless telegraphy suggested, 188; + invented, 202; + on shipboard, 221; + in the future, 230. +Wireless telephone, conceived, 250; + future, 260; + in navy, 261. + + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Masters of Space, by Walter Kellogg Towers + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MASTERS OF SPACE *** + +***** This file should be named 12375-8.txt or 12375-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/3/7/12375/ + +Produced by Leah Moser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + diff --git a/old/12375-8.zip b/old/12375-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..073dbd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12375-8.zip diff --git a/old/12375.txt b/old/12375.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c04213 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12375.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6151 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Masters of Space, by Walter Kellogg Towers + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Masters of Space + Morse, Thompson, Bell, Marconi, Carty + +Author: Walter Kellogg Towers + +Release Date: May 18, 2004 [EBook #12375] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MASTERS OF SPACE *** + + + + +Produced by Leah Moser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +[Illustration: SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE MORSE + +Inventor of the Telegraph] + +MASTERS OF SPACE + + MORSE + _and the Telegraph_ + THOMPSON + _and the Cable_ + BELL + _and the Telephone_ + MARCONI + _and the Wireless Telegraph_ + CARTY + _and the Wireless Telephone_ + +BY WALTER KELLOGG TOWERS + +ILLUSTRATED + +1917 + + + + + TO + + MY CO-LABORER AND COMPANION + + BERENICE LAURA TOWERS + + WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT AND ASSISTANCE + + WERE CONSTANT IN THE GATHERING + + AND PREPARATION OF MATERIAL + + FOR THIS VOLUME. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAP. + + PREFACE + + I. COMMUNICATION AMONG THE ANCIENTS + + II. SIGNALS PAST AND PRESENT + + III. FORERUNNERS OF THE TELEGRAPH + + IV. INVENTIONS OF SIR CHARLES WHEATSTONE + + V. THE ACHIEVEMENT OF MORSE + + VI. "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT?" + + VII. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM + + VIII. TELEGRAPHING BENEATH THE SEA + + IX. THE PIONEER ATLANTIC CABLE + + X. A SUCCESSFUL CABLE ATTAINED + + XI. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, THE YOUTH + + XII. THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + + XIII. THE TELEPHONE AT THE CENTENNIAL + + XIV. IMPROVEMENT AND EXPANSION + + XV. TELEGRAPHING WITHOUT WIRES + + XVI. AN ITALIAN BOY'S WORK + + XVII. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY ESTABLISHED + + XVIII. THE WIRELESS SERVES THE WORLD + + XIX. SPEAKING ACROSS THE CONTINENT + + XX. TELEPHONING THROUGH SPACE + + APPENDIX A + + APPENDIX B + + INDEX + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE MORSE + + MORSE'S FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT + + CYRUS W. FIELD + + WILLIAM THOMSON (LORD KELVIN) + + THE "GREAT EASTERN" LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE, 1866 + + ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL + + THOMAS A. WATSON + + PROFESSOR BELL'S VIBRATING REED + + PROFESSOR BELL'S FIRST TELEPHONE + + THE FIRST TELEPHONE SWITCHBOARD USED IN NEW HAVEN, CONN., FOR EIGHT + SUBSCRIBERS + + EARLY NEW YORK EXCHANGE + + PROFESSOR BELL IN SALEM, MASS., AND MR. WATSON IN BOSTON, + DEMONSTRATING THE TELEPHONE BEFORE AUDIENCES IN 1877 + + DOCTOR BELL AT THE TELEPHONE OPENING THE NEW YORK-CHICAGO LINE, + OCTOBER 18, 1892 + + GUGLIELMO MARCONI + + A REMARKABLE PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN OUTSIDE OF THE CLIFDEN STATION WHILE + MESSAGES WERE BEING SENT ACROSS TO CAPE RACE + + MARCONI STATION AT CLIFDEN, IRELAND + + + + +PREFACE + + +This is the story of talking at a distance, of sending messages +through space. It is the story of great men--Morse, Thomson, Bell, +Marconi, and others--and how, with the aid of men like Field, Vail, +Catty, Pupin, the scientist, and others in both the technical and +commercial fields, they succeeded in flashing both messages and speech +around the world, with wires and without wires. It is the story of +how the thought of the world has been linked together by those modern +wonders of science and of industry--the telegraph, the submarine +cable, the telephone, the wireless telegraph, and, most recently, the +wireless telephone. + +The story opens with the primitive methods of message-sending by fire +or smoke or other signals. The life and experiments of Morse are then +pictured and the dramatic story of the invention and development of +the telegraph is set forth. The submarine cable followed with the +struggles of Field, the business executive, and Thomson, the inventor +and scientific expert, which finally culminated in success when the +_Great Eastern_ landed a practical cable on the American coast. The +early life of Alexander Graham Bell was full of color, and I have told +the story of his patient investigations of human speech and hearing, +which, finally culminated in a practical telephone. There follows the +fascinating story of Marconi and the wireless telegraph. Last comes +the story of the wireless telephone, that newest wonder which has come +among us so recently that we can scarcely realize that it is here. An +inner view of the marvelous development of the telephone is added in +an appendix. + +The part played by the great business leaders who have developed and +extended the new inventions, placing them at the service of all, +has not been forgotten. Not only have means of communication been +discovered, but they have been improved and put to the widest +practical use with remarkable efficiency and celerity. The stories of +these developments, in both the personal and executive sides, embody +the true romance of the modern business world. + +The great scientists and engineers who have wrought these wonders +which have had so profound an influence upon the life of the +world lived, and are living, lives filled with patient effort, +discouragement, accomplishment, and real romance. They are interesting +men who have done interesting things. Better still, they have done +important, useful things. This book relates their life stories in a +connected form, for they have all worked for a similar end. The story +of these men, who, starting in early youth in the pursuit of a great +idea, have achieved fame and success and have benefited civilization, +cannot but be inspiring. They did not stumble upon their discoveries +by any lucky accident. They knew what they sought, and they labored +toward the goal with unflagging zeal. Had they been easily discouraged +we might still be dependent upon the semaphore and the pony express +for the transmission of news. But they persevered until success was +attained, and in the account of their struggle to success every one +may find encouragement in facing his own tasks. + +One can scarce overestimate the value of modern methods of +communication to the world. So much of our development has been more +or less directly dependent upon it that it is difficult to fancy our +situation without the telegraph and telephone. The diligence with +which the ancients sought speedy methods for the sending of messages +demonstrates the human need for them. The solution of this great +problem, though long delayed, came swiftly, once it was begun. + +Even the simple facts regarding "Masters of Space" and their lives of +struggle and accomplishment in sending messages between distant points +form an inspiring story of great achievement. + +W.K.T. + + + + +#MASTERS OF SPACE# + + + + +I + +COMMUNICATION AMONG THE ANCIENTS + + Signaling the Fall of Troy--Marine Signaling among the + Argonauts--Couriers of the Greeks, Romans, and + Aztecs--Sound-signaling--Stentorophonic Tube--The Shouting + Sentinels--The Clepsydra--Signal Columns--Indian Fire and Smoke + Signals. + + +It was very early in the history of the world that man began to feel +the urgent need of communicating with man at a distance. When village +came into friendly contact with village, when nations began to +form and expand, the necessity of sending intelligence rapidly and +effectively was clearly realized. And yet many centuries passed +without the discovery of an effective system. Those discoveries were +to be reserved for the thinkers of our age. + +We can understand the difficulties that beset King Agamemnon as he +stood at the head of his armies before the walls of Troy. Many were +the messages he would want to send to his native kingdom in Greece +during the progress of the siege. Those at home would be eager for +news of the great enterprise. Many contingencies might arise which +would make the need for aid urgent. Certainly Queen Clytemnestra +eagerly awaited word of the fall of the city. Yet the slow progress of +couriers must be depended upon. + +One device the king hit upon which was such as any boy might devise +to meet the simplest need. "If I can go skating tonight," says Johnny +Jones to his chum, "I'll put a light in my window." Such is the simple +device which has been used to bear the simplest message for ages. So +King Agamemnon ordered beacon fires laid on the tops of Mount Ida, +Mount Athos, Mount Cithaeron, and on intervening eminences. Beside them +he placed watchers who were always to have their faces toward Troy. +When Troy fell a near-by fire was kindled, and beacon after beacon +sprang into flame on the route toward Greece. Thus was the message +of the fall of Troy quickly borne to the waiting queen by this +preconceived arrangement. Yet neither King Agamemnon nor his sagest +counselors could devise an effective system for expediting their +messages. + +Prearranged signals were used to convey news in even earlier times. +Fire, smoke, and flags were used by the Egyptians and the Assyrians +previous to the Trojan War. The towers along the Chinese Wall were +more than watch-towers; they were signal-towers. A flag or a light +exhibited from tower to tower would quickly convey a certain message +agreed upon in advance. Human thought required a system which could +convey more than one idea, and yet skill in conveying news grew +slowly. + +Perhaps the earliest example of marine signaling of which we know +is recorded of the Argonautic Expedition. Theseus devised the use of +colored sails to convey messages from ship to ship of the fleet, and +caused the death of his father by his failure to handle the signals +properly. Theseus sailed into conflict with the enemy with black sails +set, a signal of battle and of death. With the battle over and himself +the victor, he forgot to lower the black flag and set the red flag of +victory. His father, the aged AEgeus, seeing the black flag, believed +it reported his son's death, and, flinging himself into the sea, was +drowned. + +In time it occurred to the great monarchs as their domains extended +to establish relays of couriers to bear the messages which must be +carried. Such systems were established by the Greeks, the Romans, and +the Aztecs. Each courier would run the length of his own route and +would then shout or pass the message to the next runner, who would +speed it away in turn. Such was the method employed by our own +pony-express riders. + +An ancient Persian king thought of having the messages shouted from +sentinel to sentinel, instead of being carried more slowly by relays +of couriers. So he established sentinels at regular intervals within +hearing of one another, and messages were shouted from one to the +other. Just fancy the number of sentinels required to establish a line +between distant cities, and the opportunities for misunderstanding and +mistake! The ancient Gauls also employed this method of communication. +Caesar records that the news of the massacre of the Romans at Orleans +was sent to Auvergne, a distance of nearly one hundred and fifty +miles, by the same evening. + +Though signaling by flashes of light occurred to the ancients, we have +no knowledge that they devised a way of using the light-flashes for +any but the simplest prearranged messages. The mirrors of the Pharaohs +were probably used to flash light for signal purposes. We know that +the Persians applied them to signaling in time of war. It is reported +that flashes from the shields were used to convey news at the battle +of Marathon. These seem to be the forerunners of the heliograph. But +the heliograph using the dot-and-dash system of the Morse code can +be used to transmit any message whatever. The ancients had evolved +systems by which any word could be spelled, but they did not seem to +be able to apply them practically to their primitive heliographs. + +An application of sound-signaling was worked out for Alexander +the Great, which was considered one of the scientific wonders of +antiquity. This was called a stentorophonic tube, and seems to have +been a sort of gigantic megaphone or speaking-trumpet. It is recorded +that it sent the voice for a dozen miles. A drawing of this strange +instrument is preserved in the Vatican. + +Another queer signaling device, built and operated upon a novel +principle, was an even greater wonder among the early peoples. This +was known as a clepsydra. Fancy a tall glass tube with an opening at +the bottom in which a sort of faucet was fixed. At varying heights +sentences were inscribed about the tube. The tube, being filled with +water, with, a float at the top, all was ready for signaling any +of the messages inscribed on the tube to a station within sight and +similarly equipped. The other station could be located as far away +as a light could be seen. The station desiring to send a message to +another exhibited its light. When the receiving station showed its +light in answer, the tap was opened at the bottom of the tube in each +station. When the float dropped until it was opposite the sentence +which it was desired to transmit, the sending station withdrew its +light and closed the tap. This was a signal for the receiving station +to stop the flow of water from its tube. As the tubes were just alike, +and the water had flowed out during the same period at equal speed, +the float at the receiving station then rested opposite the message to +be conveyed. + +Many crude systems of using lights for signaling were employed. Lines +of watch-towers were arranged which served as signal-stations. The +ruins of the old Roman and Gallic towers may still be found In France. +Hannibal erected them in Africa and Spain. Colored tunics and spears +were also used for military signals in the daytime. For instance, +a red tunic displayed meant prepare for battle; while a red spear +conveyed the order to sack and devastate. + +An ancient system of camp signals from columns is especially +interesting as showing a development away from the prearranged signals +of limited application. For these camp signals the alphabet was +divided into five or six parts, and a like number of columns erected +at each signal-station. Each column represented one group of letters. +Suppose that we should agree to get along without the Q and the Z +and reduce our own alphabet to twenty-four letters for use in such +a system. With six columns we would then have four letters for each +column. The first column would be used to signal A, B, C, and D. One +light or flag shown from column one would represent A, two flags +or lights B, and so on. Thus any word could be spelled out and any +message sent. Without doubt the system was slow and cumbersome, but it +was a step in the right direction. + +The American Indians developed methods of transmitting news which +compare very favorably with the means employed by the ancients. +Smoke-rings and puffs for the daytime, and fire-arrows at night, were +used by them for the sending of messages. Smoke signals are obtained +by building a fire of moist materials. The Indian obtains his +smoke-puffs by placing a blanket or robe over the fire, withdrawing +it for an instant, and then replacing it quickly. In this way puffs of +smoke may be sent aloft as frequently as desired. + +A column of smoke-puffs was used as a warning signal, its meaning +being: Look out, the enemy is near. One smoke-puff was a signal for +attention; two puffs indicated that the sender would camp at that +place. Three puffs showed that the sender was in danger, as the enemy +was near. + +Fire-arrows shot across the sky at night had a similar meaning. The +head of the arrow was dipped in some highly inflammable substance and +then set on fire at the instant before it was discharged from the bow. +One fire-arrow shot into the sky meant that the enemy were near; two +signaled danger, and three great danger. When the Indian shot many +fire-arrows up in rapid succession he was signaling to his friends +that his enemies were too many for him. Two arrows discharged into the +air at the same time indicated that the party sending them was +about to attack. Three indicated an immediate attack. A fire-arrow +discharged diagonally across the sky indicated the direction in which +the sender would travel. Such were the methods which the Indians used, +working out different meanings for the signals in the various tribes. + +Very slight progress was made in message-sending in medieval times, +and it was the middle of the seventeenth century before even signal +systems were attained which were in any sense an improvement. For many +centuries the people of the world existed, devising nothing better +than the primitive methods outlined above. + + + + +II + +SIGNALS PAST AND PRESENT + + Marine and Military Signals--Code Flags--Wig-wag--Semaphore + Telegraphs--Heliographs--Ardois Signals--Submarine Signals. + + +In naval affairs some kind of an effective signal system is +imperative. Even in the ordinary evolutions of a fleet the commander +needs some better way of communicating with the ship captains than +despatching a messenger in a small boat. The necessity of quick and +sure signals in time of battle is obvious. Yet for many centuries +naval signals were of the crudest. + +The first distinct advance over the primitive methods by which the +commander of one Roman galley communicated with another came with the +introduction of cannon as a naval arm. The use of signal-guns was soon +thought of, and war-ships used their guns for signal purposes as early +as the sixteenth century. Not long after came the square-rigged +ship, and it soon occurred to some one that signals could be made by +dropping a sail from the yard-arm a certain number of times. + +Up to the middle of the seventeenth century the possibilities of +the naval signal systems were limited indeed. Only a few prearranged +orders and messages could be conveyed. Unlimited communication at a +distance was still impossible, and there were no means of sending a +message to meet an unforeseen emergency. So cumbersome were the signal +systems in use that even though they would convey the intelligence +desired, the speaking-trumpet or a courier was employed wherever +possible. + +To the officers of the British navy of the seventeenth century +belongs the credit for the first serious attempt to create a system of +communication which would convey any and all messages. It is not clear +whether Admiral Sir William Penn or James II. established the code. +It was while he was Duke of York and the commander of Britain's +navy, that the James who was later to be king took this part in the +advancement of means of communication. Messages were sent by varying +the position of a single signal flag. + +In 1780 Admiral Kempenfeldt thought of adding other signal flags +instead of depending upon the varied positions of a single signal. +From his plan the flag signals now in use by the navies of the world +were developed. The basis of his system was the combining of distinct +flags in pairs. + +The work of Admiral Philip Colomb marked another long step forward +in signaling between ships. While a young officer he developed a +night-signal system of flashing lights, still in use to some extent, +and which bears his name. Colomb's most important contribution to the +art of signaling was his realization of the utility of the code which +Morse had developed in connection with the telegraph. + +Code flags, which are largely used between ships, have not been +entirely displaced by the wireless. The usual naval code set consists +of a set of alphabet flags and pennants, ten numeral flags, and +additional special flags. This of course provides for spelling out any +conceivable message by simply hoisting letter after letter. So slow +a method is seldom used, however. Various combinations of letters and +figures are used to indicate set terms or sentences set forth in the +code-book. Thus the flags representing A and E, hoisted together, may +be found on reference to the code-book to mean, "Weigh anchor." Each +navy has its own secret code, which is carefully guarded lest it be +discovered by a possible enemy. Naval code-books are bound with metal +covers so that they may be thrown overboard in case a ship is forced +to surrender. + +The international code is used by ships of all nations. It is the +universal language of the sea, and by it sailors of different tongues +may communicate through this common medium. Any message may be +conveyed by a very few of the flags in combination. + +The wig-wag system, a favorite and familiar method of communication +with every Boy Scout troop, is in use by both army and navy. The +various letters of the alphabet are indicated by the positions in +which the signaler holds his arms. Keeping the arms always forty-five +degrees apart, it is possible to read the signals at a considerable +distance. Navy signalers have become very efficient with this form of +communication, attaining a speed of over fifteen words a minute. + +A semaphore is frequently substituted for the wig-wag flags both on +land and on sea. Navy semaphores on big war-ships consist of arms ten +or twelve feet long mounted at the masthead. The semaphore as a means +of communication was extensively used on land commercially as well as +by the army. A regular semaphore telegraph system, working in relays +over considerable distances was in operation in France a century ago. +Other semaphore telegraphs were developed in England. + +The introduction of the Morse code and its adaptation to signaling by +sight and sound did much to simplify these means of communication. The +development of signaling after the adoption of the Morse code, though +it occurred subsequent to the introduction of the telegraph, may +properly be spoken of here, since the systems dependent upon sight and +sound grow from origins more primitive than those which depend upon +electricity. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century armies had +made slight progress in perfecting means of communication. The British +army had no regular signal service until after the recommendations +of Colomb proved their worth in naval affairs. The German army, whose +systems of communication have now reached such perfection, did not +establish an army signal service until 1902. + +The simplicity of the dot and dash of the Morse code makes it +readily available for almost any form of signaling under all possible +conditions. Two persons within sight of each other, who understand +the code, may establish communication by waving the most conspicuous +object at hand, using a short swing for a dot and a long swing for a +dash. Two different shapes may also be exhibited, one representing a +dot and the other a dash. The dot-and-dash system is also admirably +adapted for night signaling. A search-light beam may be swung across +the sky through short and long arcs, a light may be exhibited and +hidden for short and long periods, and so on. Where the search-light +may be played upon a cloud it may be seen for very considerable +distances, messages having been sent forty miles by this means. +Fog-horns, whistles, etc., may be similarly employed during fogs or +amid thick smoke. A short blast represents a dot, and a long one a +dash. + +The heliograph, which established communication by means of short and +long light-flashes, is another important means of signaling to which +the Morse code has been applied. This instrument catches the rays of +the sun upon a mirror, and thence casts them to a distant receiving +station. A small key which throws the mirror out of alignment serves +to obscure the flashes for a space at the will of the sender, and so +produces short or long flashes. + +The British army has made wide use of the heliograph in India and +Africa. During the British-Boer War It formed the sole means of +communication between besieged garrisons and the relief forces. +Where no mountain ranges intervene and a bright sun is available, +heliographic messages may be read at a distance of one hundred and +fifty miles. + +While the British navy used flashing lights for night signals, the +United States and most other navies adopted a system of fixed colored +lights. The system in use in the United States Navy is known as the +Ardois system. In this system the messages are sent by four lights, +usually electric, which are suspended from a mast or yard-arm. The +lights are manipulated by a keyboard situated at a convenient point on +the deck. A red lamp is flashed to indicate a dot in the Morse code, +while a white lamp indicates a dash. The Ardois system is also used by +the Army. The perfection of wireless telegraphy has caused the Ardois +and other signal systems depending upon sight or sound to be discarded +in all but exceptional cases. The wig-wag and similar systems will +probably never be entirely displaced by even such superior systems +as wireless telegraphy. The advantage of the wig-wag lies in the +fact that no apparatus is necessary and communication may thus be +established for short distances almost instantly. Its disadvantages +are lack of speed, impenetrability to dust, smoke, and fog, and the +short ranges over which it may be operated. + +There is another form of sound-signaling which, though it has been +developed in recent years, may properly be mentioned in connection +with earlier signal systems of similar nature. This is the submarine +signal. We have noted that much attention was paid to communication by +sound-waves through the medium of the air from the earliest times. It +was not until the closing years of the past century, however, that +the superior possibilities of water as a conveyer of sound were +recognized. + +Arthur J. Mundy, of Boston, happened to be on an American steamer on +the Mississippi River in the vicinity of New Orleans. It was rumored +that a Spanish torpedo-boat had evaded the United States war vessels +and made its way up the great river. The general alarm and the +impossibility of detecting the approach of another vessel set +Mundy thinking. It seemed to him that there should be some way +of communicating through the water and of listening for sounds +underwater. He recalled his boyhood experiments in the old +swimming-hole. He remembered how distinctly the sound of stones +cracked together carried to one whose ears were beneath the surface. +Thus the idea of underwater signaling was born. + +Mundy communicated this idea to Elisha Gray, and the two, working +together, evolved a successful submarine signal system. It was on the +last day of the nineteenth century that they were able to put their +experiments into practical working form. Through a well in the center +of the ship they suspended an eight-hundred-pound bell twenty feet +beneath the surface of the sea. A receiving apparatus was located +three miles distant, which consisted simply of an ear-trumpet +connected to a gas-pipe lowered into the sea. The lower end of the +pipe was sealed with a diaphragm of tin. When submerged six feet +beneath the surface the strokes of the bell could be heard. Then +a special electrical receiver of extreme sensitiveness, known as a +microphone, was substituted and connected at the receiving station +with an ordinary telephone receiver. With this receiving apparatus the +strokes of the bell could be heard at a distance of over ten miles. + +This system has had a wide practical application for communication +both between ship and ship and between ship and shore. Most +transatlantic ships are now equipped with such a system. The +transmitter consists of a large bell which is actuated either by +compressed air or by an electro-magnetic system. This is so arranged +that it may be suspended over the side of the ship and lowered +well beneath the surface of the water. The receivers consist of +microphones, one on each side of the ship. The telephone receivers +connected to the two microphones are mounted close together on an +instrument board on the bridge of the ship. The two instruments are +used when it is desired to determine the direction from which the +signals come. If the sound is stronger in the 'phone on the right-hand +side of the ship the commander knows that the signals are coming from +that direction. If the signals are from a ship in distress he may +proceed toward it by turning his vessel until the sound of the +signal-bell is equal in the two receivers. The ability to determine +the direction from which the signal comes is especially valuable +in navigating difficult channels in foggy weather. Signal-bells are +located near lighthouses and dangerous reefs. Each calls its own +number, and the vessel's commander may thus avoid obstructions and +guide the ship safely into the harbor. The submarine signal is equally +useful in enabling vessels to avoid collision in fogs. Because water +conducts sound much better than air, submarine signals are far better +than the fog-horn or whistles. + +The submarine signal system has also been applied to submarine +war-ships. By this means alone may a submarine communicate with +another, with a vessel on the surface, or with a shore station. + +An important and interesting adaptation of the marine signal was made +to meet the submarine warfare of the great European conflict. At first +it seemed that battle-ship and merchantman could find no way to locate +the approach of an enemy submarine. But it was found that by means +of the receiving apparatus of the submarine telephone an approaching +submarine could be heard and located. While the sounds of the +submarine's machinery are not audible above the water, the delicate +microphone located beneath the water can detect them. Hearing a +submarine approaching beneath the surface, the merchantman may avoid +her and the destroyers and patrol-boats may take means to effect her +capture. + + + + +III + +FORERUNNERS OF THE TELEGRAPH + + From Lodestone to Leyden Jar--The Mysterious "C.M."--Spark and + Frictional Telegraphs--The Electro-magnet--Davy and the Relay + System. + + +The thought and effort directed toward improving the means of +communication brought but small results until man discovered and +harnessed for himself a new servant--electricity. The story of +the growth of modern means of communication is the story of the +application of electricity to this particular one of man's needs. +The stories of the Masters of Space are the stories of the men who so +applied electricity that man might communicate with man. + +Some manifestations of electricity had been known since long before +the Christian era. A Greek legend relates how a shepherd named Magnes +found that his crook was attracted by a strange rock. Thus was the +lodestone, the natural magnetic iron ore, discovered, and the legend +would lead us to believe that the words magnet and magnetism were +derived from the name of the shepherd who chanced upon this natural +magnet and the strange property of magnetism. + +The ability of amber, when rubbed, to attract straws, was also known +to the early peoples. How early this property was found, or how, we do +not know. The name electricity is derived from _elektron_, the Greek +name for amber. + +The early Chinese and Persians knew of the lodestone, and of the +magnetic properties of amber after it has been rubbed briskly. The +Romans were familiar with these and other electrical effects. The +Romans had discovered that the lodestone would attract iron, though a +stone wall intervened. They were fond of mounting a bit of iron on a +cork floating in a basin of water and watch it follow the lodestone +held in the hand. It is related that the early magicians used it as a +means of transmitting intelligence. If a needle were placed upon a bit +of cork and the whole floated in a circular vessel with the alphabet +inscribed about the circle, one outside the room could cause the +needle to point toward any desired letters in turn by stepping to the +proper position with the lodestone. Thus a message could be sent to +the magician inside and various feats of magic performed. Our own +modern magicians are reported as availing themselves of the more +modern applications of electricity in somewhat similar fashion and +using small, easily concealed wireless telegraph or telephone sets for +communication with their confederates off the stage. + +The idea of encircling a floating needle with the alphabet was +developed into the sympathetic telegraph of the sixteenth century, +which was based on a curious error. It was supposed that needles which +had been touched by the same lodestone were sympathetic, and that if +both were free to move one would imitate the movements of another, +though they were at a distance. Thus, if one needle were attracted +toward one letter after the other, and the second similarly mounted +should follow its movements, a message might readily be spelled out. +Of course the second needle would not follow the movements of the +first, and so the sympathetic telegraph never worked, but much effort +was expended upon it. + +In the mean time others had learned that many substances besides +amber, on being rubbed, possessed magnetic properties. Machines by +which electricity could be produced in greater quantities by friction +were produced and something was learned of conductors. + +Benjamin Franklin sent aloft his historic kite and found that +electricity came down the silken cord. He demonstrated that frictional +and atmospheric electricity are the same. Franklin and others sent the +electric charge along a wire, but it did not occur to them to endeavor +to apply this to sending messages. + +Credit for the first suggestion of an electric telegraph must be given +to an unknown writer of the middle eighteenth century. In the _Scots +Magazine_ for February 17, 1755, there appeared an article signed +simply, "C.M.," which suggested an electric telegraph. The writer's +idea was to lay an insulated wire for each letter of the alphabet. +The wires could be charged from an electrical machine in any desired +order, and at the receiving end would attract disks of paper marked +with the letter which that wire represented, and so any message could +be spelled out. The identity of "C.M." has never been established, but +he was probably Charles Morrison, a Scotch surgeon with a reputation +for electrical experimentation, who later emigrated to Virginia. Of +course "C.M.'s" telegraph was not practical, because of the many wires +required, but it proved to be a fertile suggestion which was followed +by many other thinkers. One experimenter after another added an +improvement or devised a new application. + +A French scientist devised a telegraph which it is suspected might +have been practical, but he kept his device secret, and, as Napoleon +refused to consider it, it never was put to a test. An Englishman +devised a frictional telegraph early in the last century and +endeavored to interest the Admiralty. He was told that the semaphore +was all that was required for communication. Another submitted a +similar system to the same authorities in 1816, and was told that +"telegraphs of any kind are now wholly unnecessary." An American +inventor fared no better, for one Harrison Gray Dyar, of New York, was +compelled to abandon his experiments on Long Island and flee because +he was accused of conspiracy to carry on secret communication, which +sounded very like witchcraft to our forefathers. His telegraph sent +signals by having the electric spark transmitted by the wire decompose +nitric acid and so record the signals on moist litmus paper. It seems +altogether probable that had not the discovery of electro-magnetism +offered improved facilities to those seeking a practical telegraph, +this very chemical telegraph might have been put to practical use. + +In the early days of the nineteenth century the battery had come into +being, and thus a new source of electric current was available for +the experimenters. Coupled with this important discovery in its +effect upon the development of the telegraph was the discovery of +electro-magnetism. This was the work of Hans Christian Oersted, a +native of Denmark. He first noticed that a current flowing through +a wire would deflect a compass, and thus discovered the magnetic +properties of the electric current. A Frenchman named Ampere, +experimenting further, discovered that when the electric current is +sent through coils of wire the magnetism is increased. + +The possibility of using the deflection of a magnetic needle by +an electric current passing through a wire as a means of conveying +intelligence was quickly grasped by those who were striving for +a telegraph. Experiments with spark and chemical telegraphs were +superseded by efforts with this new discovery. Ampere, acting upon the +suggestion of La Place, an eminent mathematician, published a plan for +a feasible telegraph. This was later improved upon by others, and it +was still early in the nineteenth century that a model telegraph was +exhibited in London. + +About this time two professors at the University of Goettingen were +experimenting with telegraphy. They established an experimental line +between their laboratories, using at first a battery. Then Faraday +discovered that an electric current could be generated in a wire by +the motion of a magnet, thus laying the basis for the modern dynamo. +Professors Gauss and Weber, who were operating the telegraph line at +Goettingen, adapted this new discovery to their needs. They sent the +message by moving a magnetic key. A current was thus generated in the +line, and, passing over the wire and through a coil at the farther +end, moved a magnet suspended there. The magnet moved to the right or +left, depending on the direction of the current sent through the +wire. A tiny mirror was mounted on the receiving magnet to magnify its +movement and so render it more readily visible. + +One Steinheil, of Munich, simplified it and added a call-bell. He +also devised a recording telegraph in which the moving needle at the +receiving station marked down its message in dots and dashes on a +ribbon of paper. He was the first to utilize the earth for the return +circuit, using a single wire for despatching the electric current used +in signaling and allowing it to return through the ground. + +In 1837, the same year in which Wheatstone and Morse were busy +perfecting their telegraphs, as we shall see, Edward Davy exhibited a +needle telegraph in London. Davy also realized that the discoveries +of Arago could be used in improving the telegraph and making it +practical. Arago discovered that the current passing through a coil of +wire served to magnetize temporarily a piece of soft iron within it. +It was this principle upon which Morse was working at this time. Davy +did not carry his suggestions into effect, however. He emigrated to +Australia, and the interruption in his experiments left the field open +for those who were finally to bring the telegraph into usable form. +Davy's greatest contribution to telegraphy was the relay system by +which very weak currents could call into play strong currents from +a local battery, and so make the signals apparent at the receiving +station. + + + + +IV + + +INVENTIONS OF SIR CHARLES WHEATSTONE + + Wheatstone and His Enchanted Lyre--Wheatstone and Cooke--First + Electric Telegraph Line Installed--The Capture of the "Kwaker"--The + Automatic Transmitter. + + +Before we come to the story of Samuel F.B. Morse and the telegraph +which actually proved a commercial success as the first practical +carrier of intelligence which had been created for the service of man, +we should pause to consider the achievements of Charles Wheatstone. +Together with William Fothergill Cooke, another Englishman, he +developed a telegraph line that, while it did not attain commercial +success, was the first working telegraph placed at the service of the +public. + +Charles Wheatstone was born near Gloucester in 1802. Having completed +his primary schooling, Charles was apprenticed to his uncle, who was +a maker and seller of musical instruments. He showed little aptitude +either in the workshop or in the store, and much preferred to continue +the study of books. His father eventually took him from his uncle's +charge and allowed him to follow his bent. He translated poetry from +the French at the age of fifteen, and wrote some verse of his own. He +spent all the money he could secure on books. Becoming interested in a +book on Volta's experiments with electricity, he saved up his coppers +until he could purchase it. It was in French, and he found the +technical descriptions rather too difficult for his comprehension, so +that he was forced to save again to buy a French-English dictionary. +With the aid of this he mastered the volume. + +Immediately his attention was turned toward the wonders of the infant +science of electricity, and he eagerly endeavored to perform the +experiments described. Aided by his older brother, he set to work on +a battery as a source of current. Running short of funds with which to +purchase copper plates, he again began to save his pennies. Then the +idea occurred to him to use the pennies themselves, and his first +battery was soon complete. + +He continued his experiments in various fields until, at the age of +nineteen, he first brought himself to public notice with his enchanted +lyre. This he placed on exhibition in music-shops in London. It +consisted of a small lyre suspended from the ceiling which gave forth, +in turn, the sounds of various musical instruments. Really the lyre +was merely a sounding-box, and the vibrations of the music were +conveyed from instruments, played in the next room, to the lyre +through a steel rod. The young man spent much time experimenting with +the transmission of sound. Having conveyed music through the steel rod +to his enchanted lyre, much to the mystification of the Londoners, +he proposed to transmit sounds over a considerable distance by this +method. He estimated that sound could be sent through steel rods at +the rate of two hundred miles a second and suggested the use of such +a rod as a telegraph between London and Edinburgh. He called his +arrangement a telephone. + +A scientific writer of the day, commenting in a scientific journal +on the enchanted lyre which Wheatstone had devised, suggested that it +might be used to render musical concerts audible at a distance. Thus +an opera performed in a theater might be conveyed through rods to +other buildings in the vicinity and there reproduced. This was never +accomplished, and it remained for our own times to accomplish this and +even greater wonders. + +Wheatstone also devised an instrument for increasing feeble sound, +which he called a microphone. This consisted of a pair of rods to +convey the sound vibrations to the ears, and does not at all resemble +the modern electrical microphone. Other inventions in the transmission +and reproduction of sound followed, and he devoted no little attention +to the construction of improved musical instruments. He even made some +efforts to produce a practical talking-machine, and was convinced +that one would be attained. At thirty-two he was widely famed as a +scientist and had been made a professor of experimental physics +in King's College, London. His most notable work at this time was +measuring the speed of the electric current, which up to that time had +been supposed to be instantaneous. + +By 1835 Wheatstone had abandoned his plans for transmitting sounds +through long rods of metal and was studying the telegraph. He +experimented with instruments of his own and proposed a line across +the Thames. It was in 1836 that Mr. Cooke, an army officer home on +leave, became interested in the telegraph and devoted himself to +putting it on a working basis. He had already exhibited a crude set +when he came to Wheatstone, realizing his own lack of scientific +knowledge. The two men finally entered into partnership, Wheatstone +contributing the scientific and Cooke the business ability to the new +enterprise. The partnership was arranged late in 1837, and a patent +taken out on Wheatstone's five-needle telegraph. + +In this telegraph a magnetic needle was located within a loop formed +by the telegraph circuit at the receiving end. When the circuit was +closed the needle was deflected to one side or the other, according to +the direction of the current. Five separate circuits and needles were +used, and a variety of signals could thus be sent. Five wires, with a +sixth return wire, were used in the first experimental line erected in +London in 1837. So in the year when Morse was constructing his models +Wheatstone and Cooke were operating an experimental line, crude +and impracticable though it was, and enjoying the sensations of +communicating with each other at a distance. + +In 1841 the telegraph was placed on public exhibition at so much a +head, but it was viewed as an entertaining novelty without utility by +the public at large. After many disappointments the inventors secured +the cooperation of the Great Western Railroad, and a line was erected +for a distance of thirteen miles. But the public would not patronise +the line until its utility was strikingly demonstrated by the capture +of the "Kwaker." + +Early one morning a woman was found dead in her home in the suburbs of +London. A man had been observed leaving the house, and his appearance +had been noted. Inquiries revealed that a man answering his +description had left on the slow train for London. Without the +telegraph he could not have been apprehended. But the telegraph was +available at this point, and his description was telegraphed ahead and +the police in London were instructed to arrest him upon his arrival. +"He is dressed as a Quaker," ran the message. There was no Q in the +alphabet of-the five-needle instrument, and so the sender spelled +Quaker, Kwaker. The clerk at the receiving end could not-understand +the strange word, and asked to have it repeated again and again. +Finally some one suggested that the message be completed and the whole +was then deciphered. When the man dressed as a Quaker stepped from the +slow train on his arrival at London the police were awaiting him; he +was arrested and eventually confessed the murder. The news of this +capture and the part the telegraph played gave striking proof of the +utility of the new invention, and public skepticism and indifference +were overcome. + +By 1845 Wheatstone had so improved his apparatus that but one wire was +required. The single-needle instrument pointed out the letters on the +dial around it by successive deflections in which it was arranged +to move, step by step, at the will of the sending station. The +single-needle instrument, though generally displaced by Morse's +telegraph, remained in use for a long time on some English lines. +Wheatstone had also invented a type-printing telegraph, which he +patented in 1841. This required two circuits. + +With a working telegraph attained, the partners became involved in an +altercation as to which deserved the honor of inventing the same. +The quarrel was finally submitted to two famous scientists for +arbitration. They reported that the telegraph was the result of +their joint labors. To Wheatstone belongs the credit for devising +the apparatus; to Cooke for introducing it and placing it before the +public in working form. Here we see the combination of the man of +science and the man of business, each contributing needed talents for +the establishment of a great invention on a working basis. + +Wheatstone's researches in the field of electricity were constant. +In 1840 he devised a magnetic clock and proposed a plan by which many +clocks, located at different points, could be set at regular intervals +with the aid of electricity. Such a system was the forerunner of +the electrically wound and regulated clocks with which we are now so +familiar. He also devised a method for measuring the resistance which +wires offer to the passage of an electric current. This is known +as Wheatstone's bridge and is still in use in every electrical and +physical laboratory. He also invented a sound telegraph by which +signals were transmitted by the strokes of a bell operated by the +current at the receiving end of the circuit. + +The invention of Wheatstone's which proved to be of greatest lasting +importance in connection with the telegraph was the automatic +transmitter. By this system the message is first punched in a strip of +paper which, when passed through the sending instrument, transmits the +message. By this means he was able to send messages at the rate of one +hundred words a minute. This automatic transmitter is much used for +press telegrams where duplicate messages are to be sent to various +points. + +The automatic transmitter brought knighthood to its inventor, +Wheatstone receiving this honor in 1868. Wheatstone took an active +part in the development of the telegraph and the submarine cable up to +the time of his death in 1875. + +Wheatstone's telegraph would have served the purposes of humanity +and probably have been universally adopted, had not a better one been +invented almost before it was established. And it is because Morse, +taking up the work where others had left off, was able to invent an +instrument which so fully satisfied the requirements of man for so +long a period that he is known to all of us as the inventor of the +telegraph. And yet, without belittling the part played by Morse, +we must recognize the important work accomplished by Sir Charles +Wheatstone. + + + + +V + +THE ACHIEVEMENT OF MORSE + + Morse's Early Life--Artistic Aspirations--Studies in Paris--His + Paintings--Beginnings of His Invention--The First Instrument--The + Morse Code--The First Written Message. + + +When we consider the youth and immaturity of America in the first half +of the nineteenth century, it seems the more remarkable that the honor +of making the first great practical application of electricity should +have been reserved for an American. With the exception of the isolated +work of Franklin, the development of the new science of electrical +learning was the work of Europeans. This was natural, for it was +Europe which was possessed of the accumulated wealth and learning +which are usually attained only by older civilizations. Yet, with all +these advantages, electricity remained largely a scientific plaything. +It was an American who fully recognized the possibilities of this +new force as a servant of man, and who was possessed of the practical +genius and the business ability to devise and introduce a thoroughly +workable system of rapid and certain communication. + +We have seen that Wheatstone was early trained as a musician. Samuel +Morse began life as an artist. But while Wheatstone early indicated +his lack of interest in music and devoted himself to scientific +studies while yet a youth, Morse's artistic career was of his own +choosing, and he devoted himself to it for many years. This explains +the fact that Wheatstone attained much scientific success before +Morse, though he was eleven years his junior. + +It was in 1791 that Samuel Morse was born. Samuel Finley Breese Morse +was the entire name with which he was endowed by his parents. He came +from the sturdiest of Puritan stock, his father being of English and +his mother of Scotch descent. His father was an eminent divine, and +also notable as a geographer, being the author of the first American +geography of importance. His mother also was possessed of unusual +talent and force. It is interesting to note that Samuel Morse first +saw the light in Charlestown, Massachusetts, at the foot of Breed's +Hill, but little more than a mile from the birthplace of Benjamin +Franklin. He came into the world about a year after Franklin died. +It is interesting to believe that some of the practical talent of +America's first great electrician in some way descended to Samuel +Morse. + +He received an unusual education. At the age of seven he was sent to a +school at Andover, Massachusetts, to prepare him for Phillips Academy. +At the academy he was prepared for Yale College, which he entered when +fifteen years of age. With the knowledge of science so small at the +time, collegiate instruction in such subjects was naturally meager in +the extreme. Jeremiah Day was then professor of natural philosophy at +Yale, and was probably America's ablest teacher of the subject. +His lectures upon electricity and the experiments with which he +illustrated them aroused the interest of Morse, as we learn from the +letters he wrote to his parents at this time. + +One principle in particular impressed Morse. This was that "if the +electric circuit be interrupted at any place the fluid will become +visible, and when it passes it will leave an impression upon any +intermediate body." Thus was it stated in the text-book in use at Yale +at that time. More than a score of years after the telegraph had been +achieved Morse wrote: + + The fact that the presence of electricity can be made visible + in any desired part of the circuit was the crude seed which + took root in my mind, and grew into form, and ripened into the + invention of the telegraph. + +We shall later hear of the occasion which recalled this bit of +information to Morse's mind. + +But though Yale College was at that time a center of scientific +activity, and Morse showed more than a little interest in electricity +and chemistry, his major interest remained art. He eagerly looked +forward to graduation that he might devote his entire time to the +study of painting. It is significant of the tolerance and breadth of +vision of his parents that they apparently put no bars in the path +of this ambition, though they had sacrificed to give him the best +of collegiate trainings that he might fit himself for the ministry, +medicine, or the law. As a boy of fifteen Samuel Morse had painted +water-colors that attracted attention, and he was possessed of enough +talent to paint miniatures while at Yale which were salable at five +dollars apiece, and so aided in defraying his college expenses. + +After his graduation from Yale in 1810, Morse devoted himself entirely +to the study of art, still being dependent upon his parents for +support. He secured the friendship and became the pupil of Washington +Allston, then a foremost American painter. In the summer of 1811 +Allston sailed for England, and Morse accompanied him. In London he +came to the attention of Benjamin West, then at the height of his +career, and benefited by his advice and encouragement. + +That he had no ambition other than his art at this period we may learn +from a letter he wrote to his mother in 1812. + + My passion for my art [he wrote] is so firmly rooted that I + am confident no human power could destroy it. The more I study + the greater I think is its claim to the appellation divine. I + am now going to begin a picture of the death of Hercules, the + figure to be large as life. + +When he had completed this picture to his own satisfaction, he showed +it to West. "Go on and finish it," was West's comment. "But it is +finished," said Morse. "No, no. See here, and here, and here are +places you can improve it." Morse went to work upon his painting +again, only to meet the same comment when he again showed it to West. +This happened again and again. When the youth had finally brought it +to a point where West was convinced it was the very best Morse could +do he had learned a lesson in thoroughness and painstaking attention +to detail that he never forgot. + +That he might have a model for his painting Morse had molded a figure +of Hercules in clay. At the advice of West he entered the cast in a +competition for a prize in sculpture, with the result that he received +the prize and a gold medal for his work. He then plunged into the +competition for a prize and medal offered by the Royal Academy for the +best historical painting. His subject was, "The Judgment of Jupiter +in the Case of Apollo, Marpessa, and Idas." Though he completed the +picture to the satisfaction of West, Morse was not able to remain in +London and enter it in the competition. The rules required that the +artist be present in person if he was to receive the prize, but Morse +was forced to return to America. He had been in England for four +years--a year longer than had originally been planned for him--and he +was out of funds, and his parents could support him no longer. + +Morse lived in London during the War of 1812, but seems to have +suffered no annoyance other than that of poverty, which the war +intensified by raising the prices of food as well as his necessary +artist's materials to an almost prohibitive figure. The last of the +Napoleonic wars was also in progress. News of the battle of Waterloo +reached London but a short time before Morse sailed for America. It +required two days for the news to reach the English capital. The young +American, whose inability to sell his paintings was driving him from +London, was destined to devise a system which would have carried the +great news to its destination within a few seconds. + +But while he gained fame in America and secured praise and attention +as he had in London, he found art no more profitable. He contrived to +eke out an existence by painting an occasional portrait, going from +town to town in New England for this purpose. He turned from art +to invention for a time, joining with his brother in devising a +fire-engine pump of an improved pattern. They secured a patent upon +it, but could not sell it. He turned again to the life of a wandering +painter of portraits. In 1818 he went to Charleston, South Carolina, +at the invitation of his uncle. His portraits proved very popular and +he was soon occupied with work at good prices. This prosperity enabled +him to take unto himself a wife, and the same year he married Lucretia +Walker, of Concord, New Hampshire. + +After four years in the South Morse returned to the North, hoping that +larger opportunities would now be ready for him. The result was again +failure. He devoted his time to huge historical paintings, and the +public would neither buy them nor pay to see them when they were +exhibited. Another blow fell upon him in 1825 when his wife died. At +last he began to secure more sitters for his portraits, though his +larger works still failed. He assisted in the organization of the +National Academy of Design and became its first president. In 1829 he +again sailed for Europe to spend three years in study in the galleries +of Paris and Rome. Still he failed to attain any real success in his +chosen work. He had made many friends and done much worthy work, yet +there is little probability that he would have attained lasting fame +as an artist even though his energies had not been turned to other +interests. + +It was on the packet ship _Sully_, crossing the Atlantic from France, +that Morse conceived the telegraph which was to prove the first great +practical application of electricity. One noon as the passengers +were gathered about the luncheon-table, a Dr. Charles T. Jackson, +of Boston, exhibited an electro-magnet he had secured in Europe, and +described certain electrical experiments he had seen while in Paris. +He was asked concerning the speed of electricity through a wire, and +replied that, according to Faraday, it was practically instantaneous. +The discussion recalled to Morse his own collegiate studies in +electricity, and he remarked that if the circuit were interrupted the +current became visible, and that it occurred to him that these flashes +might be used as a means of communication. The idea of using the +current to carry messages became fixed in his mind, and he pondered, +over it during the remaining weeks of the long, slow voyage. + +Doctor Jackson claimed, after Morse had perfected and established his +telegraph, that the idea had been his own, and that Morse had secured +it from him on board the _Sully_. But Doctor Jackson was not a +practical man who either could or did put any ideas he may have had +to practical use. At the most he seems to have simply started Morse's +mind along a new train of thought. The idea of using the current as +a carrier of messages, though it was new to Morse, had occurred to +others earlier, as we have seen. But at the very outset Morse set +himself to find a means by which he might make the current not only +signal the message, but actually record it. Before he landed from the +_Sully_ he had worked out sketches of a printing telegraph. In this +the current actuated an electro-magnet on the end of which was a rod. +This rod was to mark down dots and dashes on a moving tape of paper. + +Thus was the idea born. Of course the telegraph was still far from an +accomplished fact. Without the improved electro-magnets and the relay +of Professor Henry, Morse had not yet even the basic ideas upon +which a telegraph to operate over considerable distances could +be constructed. But Morse was possessed of Yankee imagination and +practical ability. He was possessed of a fair technical education +for that day, and he eagerly set himself to attaining the means to +accomplish his end. That he realized just what he sought is shown by +his remark to the captain of the _Sully_ when he landed at New York. +"Well, Captain," he remarked, "should you hear of the telegraph one of +these days as the wonder of the world, remember that the discovery was +made on board the good ship _Sully_." + +With the notion of using an electro-magnet as a receiver, an alphabet +consisting of dots and dashes, and a complete faith in the practical +possibilities of the whole, Morse went to work in deadly earnest. But +poverty still beset him and it was necessary for him to devote most of +his time to his paintings, that he might have food, shelter, and the +means to buy materials with which to experiment. From 1832 to 1835 he +was able to make but small progress. In the latter year he secured an +appointment as professor of the literature of the arts of design in +the newly established University of the City of New York. He soon had +his crude apparatus set up in a room at the college and in 1835 was +able to transmit messages. He now had a little more leisure and a +little more money, but his opportunities were still far from what +he would have desired. The principal aid which came to him at the +university was from Professor Gale, a teacher of chemistry. Gale +became greatly interested in Morse's apparatus, and was able to give +him much practical assistance, becoming a partner in the enterprise. +Morse knew little of the work of other experimenters in the field of +electricity and Gale was able to tell Morse what had been learned by +others. Particularly he brought to Morse's attention the discoveries +of another American, Prof. Joseph Henry. + +The electro-magnet which actuated the receiving instrument in the +crude set in use by Morse in 1835 had but a few turns of thick +wire. Professor Henry, by his experiments five years earlier, had +demonstrated that many turns of small wire made the electro-magnet far +more sensitive. Morse made this improvement in his own apparatus. In +1832 Henry had devised a telegraph very similar to that of Morse by +which he signaled through a mile of wire. His receiving apparatus +was an electro-magnet, the armature of which struck a bell. Thus the +messages were read by sound, instead of being recorded on a moving +strip of paper as by Morse's system. While Henry was possibly the +ablest of American electricians at that time, he devoted himself +entirely to science and made no effort to put his devices to practical +use. Neither did he endeavor to profit by his inventions, for he +secured no patents upon them. + +Professor Henry realized, in common with Morse and others, that if +the current were to be conducted over long wires for considerable +distances it would become so weak that it would not operate a +receiver. Henry avoided this difficulty by the invention of what is +known as the relay. At a distance where the current has become +weak because of the resistance of the wire and losses due to faulty +insulation, it will still operate a delicate electro-magnet with a +very light armature so arranged as to open and close a local circuit +provided with suitable batteries. Thus the recording instrument may +be placed on the local circuit and as the local circuit an opened and +closed in unison with the main circuit, the receiver can be operated. +It was the relay which made it possible to extend telegraph lines to +a considerable distance. It is not altogether clear whether Morse +adopted Henry's relay or devised it for himself. It is believed, +however, that Professor Henry explained the relay to Professor Gale, +who in turn placed it before his partner, Morse. + +By 1837 Morse had completed a model, had improved his apparatus, had +secured stronger batteries and longer wires, and mastered the use +of the relay. It was in this year that the House of Representatives +ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to investigate the feasibility +of establishing a system of telegraphs. This action urged Morse to +complete his apparatus and place it before the Government. He was +still handicapped by lack of money, lack of scientific knowledge, and +the difficulty of securing necessary materials and devices. To-day the +experimenter may buy wire, springs, insulators, batteries, and almost +anything that might be useful. Morse, with scanty funds and limited +time, had to search for his materials and puzzle out the way to make +each part for himself with such crude tools as he had available. Need +we wonder that his progress was slow? Instead we should wonder that, +despite all discouragements and handicaps, he clung to his great idea +and labored on. + +But assistance was to come to him in this same eventful year of 1837, +and that quite unexpectedly. On a Saturday in September a young man +named Alfred Vail wandered into Professor Gale's laboratory. Morse +was there engaged in exhibiting his model to an English professor then +visiting in New York. The youth was deeply impressed with what he saw. +He realized that here were possibilities of an instrument that would +be of untold service to mankind. Asking Professor Morse whether he +intended to experiment with a longer line, he was informed that such +was his intention as soon as he could secure the means. Young Vail +replied that he thought he could secure the money if Morse would admit +him as a partner. To this Morse assented. + +Vail plunged into the enterprise with all the enthusiasm of youth. +That very evening he studied over the commercial possibilities, and +before he retired had marked out on the maps in his atlas the routes +for the most needed lines of communication. The young man applied to +his father for support. The senior Vail was the head of the Speedwell +Iron Works at Morristown, New Jersey, and was a man of unusual +enterprise and ability. He determined to back his son in the +enterprise, and Morse was invited to come and exhibit his model. Two +thousand dollars was needed to make the necessary instruments and +secure the patents. On September 23, 1837, the agreement was drawn +up by the terms of which Alfred Vail was, at his own expense, to +construct apparatus suitable for exhibition to Congress and to secure +a patent. In return he was to receive a one-fourth interest. Very +shortly afterward they filed a caveat in the Patent Office, which is a +notice serving to protect an impending invention. + +Alfred Vail immediately set to work on the apparatus, his only helper +being a fifteen-year-old apprentice boy named William Baxter. The +two worked early and late for many months in a secret room in the +iron-works, being forced to fashion every part for themselves. The +first machine was a copy of Morse's model, but Vail's native +ability as a mechanic and his own ingenuity enabled him to make many +improvements. The pencil fastened to the armature which had marked +zigzag lines on the moving paper was replaced by a fountain-pen which +inscribed long and short lines, and thus the dashes and dots of the +Morse code were put into their present form. Morse had worked out an +elaborate telegraphic code or dictionary, but a simpler code by which +combinations of dots and dashes were used to represent letters instead +of numbers in a code was now devised. Vail recognized the importance +of having the simplest combinations of dots and dashes stand for the +most used letters, as this would increase the speed of sending. He +began to figure out for himself the frequency with which the various +letters occur in the English language. Then he thought of the +combination of types in a type-case, and, going to a local newspaper +office, found the result all worked out for him. In each case of type +such common letters as _e_ and _t_ have many more types than little +used letters such as _q_ and _z_. By observing the number of types of +each letter provided, Vail was enabled to arrange them in the order of +their importance in assigning them symbols in the code. Thus the +Morse code was arranged as it stands to-day. Alfred Vail played a +very important part in the arrangement of the code as well as in the +construction of the apparatus, and there are many who believe that the +code should have been called the Vail code instead of the Morse code. + +[Illustration: MORSE'S FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT + +A pen was attached to the pendulum and drawn across the strip of paper +by the action of the electro-magnet. The lead type shown in the lower +right-hand corner was used in making electrical contact when sending a +message. The modern instrument shown in the lower left-hand corner is +the one that sent a message around the world in 1896.] + +Morse came down to Speedwell when he could to assist Vail with the +work, and yet it progressed slowly. But at last, early in January +of 1838 they had the telegraph at work, and William Baxter, the +apprentice boy, was sent to call the senior Vail. Within a few moments +he was in the work-room studying the apparatus. Alfred Vail was at +the sending key, and Morse was at the receiver. The father wrote on a +piece of paper these words: "A patient waiter is no loser." Handing it +to his son, he stated that if he could transmit the message to Morse +by the telegraph he would be convinced. The message was sent and +recorded and instantly read by Morse. The first test had been +completed successfully. + + + + +VI + +"WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT?" + + Congress Becomes Interested--Washington to Baltimore Line + Proposed--Failure to Secure Foreign Patents--Later Indifference of + Congress--Lean Years--Success at Last--The Line is Built--The First + Public Message--Popularity. + + +Morse and his associates now had a telegraph which they were confident +would prove a genuine success. But the great work of introducing this +new wonder to the public, of overcoming indifference and skepticism, +of securing financial support sufficient to erect a real line, still +remained to be done. We shall see that this burden remained very +largely upon Morse himself. Had Morse not been a forceful and able man +of affairs as well as an inventor, the introduction of the telegraph +might have been even longer delayed. + +The new telegraph was exhibited in New York and Philadelphia without +arousing popular appreciation. It was viewed as a scientific toy; few +saw in it practical possibilities. Morse then took it to Washington +and set up his instruments in the room of the Committee on Commerce +of the House of Representatives in the Capitol. Here, as in earlier +exhibitions, a majority of those who saw the apparatus in operation +remained unconvinced of its ability to serve mankind. But Morse +finally made a convert of the Hon. Francis O.J. Smith, chairman of +the Committee on Commerce. Smith had previously been in correspondence +with the inventor, and Morse had explained to him at length his belief +that the Government should own the telegraph and control and operate +it for the public good. He believed that the Government should be +sufficiently interested to provide funds for an experimental line a +hundred miles long. In return he was willing to promise the Government +the first rights to purchase the invention at a reasonable price. +Later he changed his request to a line of fifty miles, and estimated +the cost of erection at $26,000. + +Smith aided in educating the other members of his committee, and one +day in February of 1838 he secured the attendance of the entire body +at a test of the telegraph over ten miles of wire. The demonstration +convinced them, and many were their expressions of wonder and +amazement. One member remarked, "Time and space are now annihilated." +As a result the committee reported a bill appropriating $30,000 for +the erection of an experimental line between Washington and Baltimore. +Smith's report was most enthusiastic in his praise of the invention. +In fact, the Congressman became so much interested that he sought a +share in the enterprise, and, securing it, resigned from Congress that +he might devote his efforts to securing the passage of the bill and to +acting as legal adviser. At this time the enterprise was divided into +sixteen shares: Morse held nine; Smith, four; Alfred Vail, two; and +Professor Gale, one. We see that Morse was a good enough business man +to retain the control. + +Wheatstone and others were developing their telegraphs in Europe, and +Morse felt that it was high time to endeavor to secure foreign patents +on his invention. Accompanied by Smith, he sailed for England in May, +taking with him a new instrument provided by Vail. Arriving in London, +they made application for a patent. They were opposed by Wheatstone +and his associates, and could not secure even a hearing from the +patent authorities. Morse strenuously insisted that his telegraph was +radically different from Wheatstone's, laying especial emphasis on the +fact that his recording instrument printed the message in permanent +form, while Wheatstone's did not. Morse always placed great emphasis +on the recording features of his apparatus, yet these features were +destined to be discarded in America when his telegraph at last came +into use. + +With no recourse open to him but an appeal to Parliament, a long and +expensive proceeding with little apparent possibility of success, +Morse went to France, hoping for a more favorable reception. He found +the French cordial and appreciative. French experts watched his tests +and examined his apparatus, pronouncing his telegraph the best of all +that had been devised. He received a patent, only to learn that to be +effective the invention must be put in operation in France within two +years, under the French patent law. Morse sought to establish his line +in connection with a railway, as Wheatstone had established his +in England, but was told that the telegraph must be a Government +monopoly, and that no private parties could construct or operate. +The Government would not act, and Morse found himself again defeated. +Faring no better with other European governments, Morse decided +to return to America to push the bill for an appropriation before +Congress. + +While Morse was in Europe gaining publicity for the telegraph, but +no patents, his former fellow-passenger on the _Sully_, Dr. Charles +Jackson, had laid claim to a share in the invention. He insisted that +the idea had been his and that he had given it to Morse on the trip +across the Atlantic. This Morse indignantly denied. + +Congress would now take no action upon the invention. A heated +political campaign was in progress, and no interest could be aroused +in an invention, no matter what were its possibilities in the +advancement of the work and development of the nation. Smith was +in politics, the Vails were suffering from a financial depression, +Professor Gale was a man of very limited means, and so Morse found +himself without funds or support. In Paris he had met M. Daguerre, who +had just discovered photography. Morse had learned the process and, +in connection with Doctor Draper, he fitted up a studio on the roof +of the university. Here they took the first daguerreotypes made in +America. + +Morse's work in art had been so much interrupted that he had but few +pupils. The fees that these brought to him were small and irregular, +and he was brought to the very verge of starvation. We are told of the +call Morse made upon one pupil whose tuition was overdue because of a +delay in the arrival of funds from his home. + +"Well, my boy," said the professor, "how are we off for money?" + +The student explained the situation, adding that he hoped to have the +money the following week. + +"Next week!" exclaimed Morse. "I shall be dead by next week--dead of +starvation." + +"Would ten dollars be of any service?" asked the student, astonished +and distressed. + +"Ten dollars would save my life," was Morse's reply. + +The student paid the money--all he had--and they dined together, Morse +remarking that it was his first meal for twenty-four hours. + +Morse's situation and feelings at this time are also illustrated by a +letter he wrote to Smith late in 1841. + + I find myself [he wrote] without sympathy or help from any + who are associated with me, whose interests, one would think, + would impell them to at least inquire if they could render me + some assistance. For nearly two years past I have devoted all + my time and scanty means, living on a mere pittance, denying + myself all pleasures and even necessary food, that I might + have a sum, to put my telegraph into such a position before + Congress as to insure success to the common enterprise. I + am crushed for want of means, and means of so trifling a + character, too, that they who know how to ask (which I do not) + could obtain in a few hours.... As it is, although everything + is favorable, although I have no competition and no + opposition--on the contrary, although every member of + Congress, so far as I can learn, is favorable--yet I fear all + will fail because I am too poor to risk the trifling expense + which my journey and residence in Washington will occasion me. + I will not run in debt, if I lose the whole matter. No one can + tell the days and months of anxiety and labor I have had in + perfecting my telegraphic apparatus. For want of means I have + been compelled to make with my own hands (and to labor for + weeks) a piece of mechanism which could be made much better, + and in a tenth the time, by a good mechanician, thus + wasting time--time which I cannot recall and which seems + double-winged to me. + + "Hope deferred maketh the heart sick." It is true, and I have + known the full meaning of it. Nothing but the consciousness + that I have an invention which is to mark an era in human + civilization, and which is to contribute to the happiness of + millions, would have sustained me through so many and such + lengthened trials of patience in perfecting it. + +A patent on the telegraph had been issued to Morse in 1840. The +issuance had been delayed at Morse's request, as he desired to first +secure foreign patents, his own American rights being protected by the +caveat he had filed. Although the commercial possibilities, and hence +the money value of the telegraph had not been established, Morse was +already troubled with the rival claims of those who sought to secure a +share in his invention. + +While working and waiting and saving, Morse conceived the idea of +laying telegraph wires beneath the water. He prepared a wire by +wrapping it in hemp soaked in tar, and then covering the whole with +rubber. Choosing a moonlight night in the fall of 1842, he submerged +his cable in New York Harbor between Castle Garden and Governors +Island. A few signals were transmitted and then the wire was carried +away by a dragging anchor. Truly, misfortune seemed to dog Morse's +footsteps. This seems to have been the first submarine cable, and +in writing of it not long after Morse hazarded the then astonishing +prediction that Europe and America would be linked by telegraphic +cable. + +Failing to secure effective aid from his associates, Morse hung on +grimly, fighting alone, and putting all of his strength and energy +into the task of establishing an experimental line. It was during +these years that he demonstrated his greatness to the full. His +letters to the members of the Congressional Committee on Commerce show +marked ability. They outline the practical possibilities very clearly. +Morse realized not only the financial possibilities of his invention, +but its benefit to humanity as well. He also presented very practical +estimates of the cost of establishing the line under consideration. +The committee again recommended that $30,000 be appropriated for the +construction of a Washington-Baltimore line. The politicians had come +to look upon Morse as a crank, and it was extremely difficult for his +adherents to secure favorable action in the House. Many a Congressman +compared Morse and his experiments to mesmerism and similar "isms," +and insisted that if the Government gave funds for this experiment +it would be called upon to supply funds for senseless trials of weird +schemes. The bill finally passed the House by the narrow margin of six +votes, the vote being taken orally because so many Congressmen feared +to go on record as favoring an appropriation for such a purpose. + +The bill had still to pass the Senate, and here there seemed little +hope. Morse, who had come to Washington to press his plan, anxiously +waited in the galleries. The bill came up for consideration late one +evening just before the adjournment. A Senator who noticed Morse went +up to him and said: + +"There is no use in your staying here. The Senate is not in sympathy +with your project. I advise you to give it up, return home, and think +no more about it." + +The inventor went back to his room, with how heavy a heart we may +well imagine. He paid his board bill, and found himself with but +thirty-seven cents in the world. After many moments of earnest prayer +he retired. + +Early next morning there came to him Miss Annie Ellsworth, daughter of +his friend the Commissioner of Patents, and said, "Professor, I have +come to congratulate you." + +"Congratulate me!" replied Morse. "On what?" + +"Why," she exclaimed, "on the passage of your bill by the Senate!" + +The bill had been passed without debate in the closing moments of the +session. As Morse afterward stated, this was the turning-point in the +history of the telegraph. His resources were reduced to the minimum, +and there was little likelihood that he would have again been able to +bring the matter to the attention of Congress. + +So pleased was Morse over the news of the appropriation, and so +grateful to Miss Ellsworth for her interest in bringing him the good +news, that he promised her that she should send the first message +when the line was complete. With the Government appropriation at his +disposal, Morse immediately set to work upon the Washington-Baltimore +line. Professors Gale and Fisher served as his assistants, and Mr. +Vail was in direct charge of the construction work. Another person +active in the enterprise was Ezra Cornell, who was later to found +Cornell University. Cornell had invented a machine for laying wires +underground in a pipe. + +It was originally planned to place the wires underground, as this was +thought necessary or their protection. After running the line some +five miles out from Baltimore it was found that this method of +installing the line was to be a failure. The insulation was not +adequate, and the line could not be operated to the first relay +station. A large portion of the $30,000 voted by Congress had been +spent and the line was still far from completion. Disaster seemed +imminent. Smith lost all faith in the enterprise, demanded most of the +remaining money under a contract he had taken to lay the line, and a +quarrel broke out between him and Morse which further jeopardized the +undertaking. + +Morse and such of his lieutenants as remained faithful in this hour of +trial, after a long consultation, decided to string the wire on +poles. The method of attaching the wire to the poles was yet to be +determined. They finally decided to simply bore a hole through each +pole near the top and push the wire through it. Stringing the wire in +such fashion was no small task, but it was finally accomplished. It +was later found necessary to insulate the wire with bottle necks where +it passed through the poles. On May 23, 1844, the line was complete. +Remembering his promise to Miss Ellsworth, Morse called upon her +next morning to give him the first message. She chose, "What hath +God wrought?" and early on the morning of the 24th Morse sat at the +transmitter in the Supreme Court room in the Capitol and telegraphed +these immortal words to Vail at Baltimore. The message was received +without difficulty and repeated back to Morse at Washington. The +magnetic telegraph was a reality. + +Still the general public remained unconvinced. As in the case of +Wheatstone's needle telegraph a dramatic incident was needed to +demonstrate the utility of this new servant. Fortunately for Morse, +the telegraph's opportunity came quickly. The Democratic national +convention was in session at Baltimore. After an exciting struggle +they dropped Van Buren, then President, and nominated James K. Polk. +Silas Wright was named for the Vice-Presidency. At that time Mr. +Wright was in Washington. Hearing of the nomination, Alfred Vail +telegraphed it to Morse in Washington. Morse communicated with Wright, +who stated that he could not accept the honor. The telegraph was ready +to carry his message declining the nomination, and within a very few +minutes Vail had presented it to the convention at Baltimore, to the +intense surprise of the delegates there assembled. They refused to +believe that Wright had been communicated with, and sent a committee +to Washington to see Wright and make inquiries. They found that +the message was genuine, and the utility of the telegraph had been +strikingly established. + + + + +VII + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM + + The Magnetic Telegraph Company--The Western Union--Crossing the + Continent--The Improvements of Alfred Vail--Honors Awarded to + Morse--Duplex Telegraphy--Edison's Improvements. + + +For some time the telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore +remained on exhibition as a curiosity, no charge being made for +demonstrating it. Congress made an appropriation to keep the line in +operation, Vail acting as operator at the Washington end. On April +1, 1845, the line was put in operation on a commercial basis, +service being offered to the public at the rate of one cent for four +characters. It was operated as a branch of the Post-office Department. +On the 4th of April a visitor from Virginia came into the Washington +office wishing to see a demonstration. Up to this time not a paid +message had been sent. The visitor, having no permit from the +Postmaster-General, was told that he could only see the telegraph in +operation by sending a message. One cent being all the money he had +other than twenty-dollar bills, he asked for one cent's worth. The +Washington operator asked of Baltimore, "What time is it?" which in +the code required but one character. The reply came, "One o'clock," +another single character. Thus but two characters had been used, or +one-half cent's worth of telegraphy. The visitor expressed himself as +satisfied, and waived the "change." This penny was the line's first +earnings. + +Under the terms of the agreement by which Congress had made the +appropriation for the experimental line, Morse was bound to give the +Government the first right to purchase his invention. He accordingly +offered it to the United States for the sum of $100,000. There +followed a distressing example of official stupidity and lack of +foresight. With the opportunity to own and control the nation's +telegraph lines before it the Government declined the offer. This +action was taken at the recommendation of the Hon. Cave Johnson, then +Postmaster-General, under whose direction the line had been +operated. He had been a member of Congress at the time the original +appropriation was voted, and had ridiculed the project. The nation was +now so unfortunate as to have him as its Postmaster-General, and he +reported "that the operation of the telegraph between Washington and +Baltimore had not satisfied him that, under any rate of postage +that could be adopted, its revenues could be made equal to its +expenditures." And yet the telegraph, here offered to the Government +for $100,000, was developed under private management until it paid a +profit on a capitalization of $100,000,000. + +Morse seems to have had a really patriotic motive, as well as a desire +for immediate return and the freedom from further worries, in his +offer to the Government. He was greatly disappointed at its refusal +to purchase, a refusal that was destined to make Morse a wealthy man. +Amos Kendall, who had been Postmaster-General under Jackson, was +now acting as Morse's agent, and they decided to depend upon private +capital. Plans were made for a line between New York and Philadelphia, +and to arouse interest and secure capital the apparatus was exhibited +in New York City at a charge of twenty-five cents a head. The public +refused to patronize in sufficient numbers to even pay expenses, +and the entire exhibition was so shabby, and the exhibitors so +poverty-stricken, that the sleek capitalists who came departed without +investing. Some of the exhibitors slept on chairs or on the floor in +the bare room, and it is related that the man who was later to +give his name and a share of his fortune to Cornell University was +overjoyed at finding a quarter on the sidewalk, as it enabled him to +buy a hearty breakfast. Though men of larger means refused to take +shares, some in humbler circumstances could recognize the great +idea and the wonderful vision which Morse had struggled so long to +establish--a vision of a nation linked together by telegraphy. The +Magnetic Telegraph Company was formed and work started on the line. + +In August of 1845 Morse sailed for Europe in an endeavor to enlist +foreign capital. The investors of Europe proved no keener than those +of America, and the inventor returned without funds, but imbued with +increased patriotism. He had become convinced that the telegraph could +and would succeed on American capital alone. In the next year a line +was constructed from Philadelphia to Washington, thus extending +the New York-Philadelphia line to the capital. Henry O'Reilly, of +Rochester, New York, took an active part in this construction work +and now took the contract to construct a line from Philadelphia to St. +Louis. This line was finished by December of 1847. + +The path having been blazed, others sought to establish lines of their +own without regard to Morse's patents. One of these was O Reilly, who, +on the completion of the line to St. Louis, began one to Now Orleans, +without authority from Morse or his company. O'Reilly called his +telegraph "The People's Line," and when called to account in the +courts insisted not only that his instruments were different from +Morse's, and so no infringement of his patents, but also that the +Morse system was a harmful monopoly and that "The People's Line" +should be encouraged. It was further urged that Wheatstone in England +and Steinheil in Germany had invented telegraphs before Morse, and +that Professor Henry had invented the relay which made it possible +to operate the telegraph over long distances. The suits resulted in a +legal victory for Morse, and his patents were maintained. + +But still other rival companies built lines, using various forms of +apparatus, and though the courts repeatedly upheld Morse's patent +rights, the pirating was not effectively checked. The telegraph had +come to be a necessity and the original company lacked the capital to +construct lines with sufficient rapidity to meet the need. Within +ten years after the first line had been put into operation the more +thickly settled portions of the United States were served by scores +of telegraph lines owned by a dozen different companies. Hardly any of +these were making any money, though the service was poor and the rates +were high. They were all operating on too small a scale and business +uses of the telegraph had not yet developed sufficiently. + +An amalgamation of the scattered, competing lines was needed, both +to secure better service for the public and proper dividends for the +investors. This amalgamation was effected by Mr. Hiram Sibley, who +organized the Western Union in 1856. The plan was ridiculed at +the time, some one stating that "The Western Union seems very like +collecting all the paupers in the State and arranging them into a +union so as to make rich men of them." But these pauper companies did +become rich once they were united under efficient management. + +The nation was just then stretching herself across to the Pacific. +The commercial importance of California was growing rapidly. By 1857 +stage-coaches were crossing the plains and the pony-express riders +were carrying the mail. The pioneers of the telegraph felt that a line +should span the continent. This was then a tremendous undertaking, and +when Mr. Sibley proposed that the Western Union should undertake the +construction of such a line he was met with the strongest opposition. +The explorations of Fremont were not far in the past, and the vast +extent of country west of the Mississippi was regarded as a wilderness +peopled with savages and almost impossible of development. But Sibley +had faith; he was possessed of Morse's vision and Morse's courage. +The Western Union refusing to undertake the enterprise, he began it +himself. The Government, realizing the military and administrative +value of a telegraph line to California, subsidized the work. +Additional funds were raised and a route selected was through Omaha +and Salt Lake City to San Francisco. + +The undertaking proved less formidable than had been anticipated, +for, instead of two years, less than five months were occupied in +completing the line. Sibley's tact and ability did much to avoid +opposition by the Indians. He made the red men his friends and +impressed upon them the wonder of the telegraph. When the line was in +operation between Fort Kearney and Fort Laramie he invited the chief +of the Arapahoes at Fort Kearney to communicate by telegraph with +his friend the chief of the Sioux at Fort Laramie. The two chiefs +exchanged telegrams and were deeply impressed. They were told that the +telegraph was the voice of the Manitou or Great Spirit. To convince +them it was suggested that they meet half-way and compare their +experiences. Though they were five hundred miles apart, they started +out on horseback, and on meeting each other found that the line had +carried their words truly. The story spread among the tribes, and so +the telegraph line became almost sacred to the Indians. They might +raid the stations and kill the operators, but they seldom molested the +wires. + +Among many ignorant peoples the establishment of the telegraph has +been attained with no small difficulty. The Chinese showed a dread of +the telegraph, frequently breaking down the early lines because they +believed that they would take away the good luck of their district. +The Arabs, on the other hand, did not oppose the telegraph. This +is partly because the name is one which they can understand, +_tel_ meaning wire to them, and _araph_, to know. Thus in Arabic +_tele-agraph_ means to know by wire. + +Just as the Indians of our own plains had difficulty in understanding +the telegraph, so the primitive peoples in other parts of the world +could scarce believe it possible. A story is told of the construction +of an early line in British India. The natives inquired the purpose of +the wire from the head man. + +"The wire is to carry messages to Calcutta," he replied. + +"But how can words run along a wire?" they asked. + +The head man puzzled for a moment. + +"If there were a dog," he replied, "with a tail long enough to reach +from here to Calcutta, and you pinched his tail here, wouldn't he howl +in Calcutta?" + +Once Sibley and the other American telegraph pioneers had spanned the +continent, they began plans for spanning the globe. Their idea was to +unite America and Europe by a line stretched through British Columbia, +Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and Siberia. Siberia had been connected +with European Russia, and thus practically the entire line could be +stretched on land, only short submarine cables being necessary. It was +then seriously doubted that cables long enough to cross the Atlantic +were practicable. The expedition started in 1865, a fleet of thirty +vessels carrying the men and supplies. Tremendous difficulties had +been overcome and a considerable part of the work accomplished when +the successful completion of the Atlantic cable made the work useless. +Nearly three million dollars had been expended by the Western Union +in this attempt. Yet, despite this loss, its affairs were so generally +successful and the need for the telegraph so real that it continued to +thrive until it reached its present remarkable development. + +While the line-builders were busy stretching telegraph wires into +almost every city and town in the nation, others were perfecting the +apparatus. Alfred Vail was a leading figure in this work. Already he +had played a large part in designing and constructing the apparatus to +carry out Morse's ideas, and he continued to improve and perfect +until practically nothing remained of Morse's original apparatus. The +original Morse transmitter had consisted of a porte-rule and movable +type. This was cumbersome, and Vail substituted a simple key to make +and break the circuit. Vail had also constructed the apparatus to +emboss the message upon the moving strip of paper, but this he now +improved upon. The receiving apparatus was simplified and the pen was +replaced by a disk smeared with ink which marked the dots and dashes +upon the paper. + +As we have noticed, Morse took particular pride in the fact that +the receiving apparatus in his telegraph was self-recording, and +considered this as one of the most important parts of his system. But +when the telegraph began to come into commercial use the operators at +the receiving end noticed that they could read the messages from the +long and short periods between the clicks of the receiving mechanism. +Thus they were taking the message by ear and the recording mechanism +was superfluous. Rules and fines failed to break them of the habit, +and Vail, recognizing the utility of the development, constructed a +receiver which had no recording device, but from which the messages +were read by listening to the clicks as the armature struck against +the frame in which it was set. Thus the telegraph returned in its +elements to the form of Professor Henry's original bell telegraph. + +With his bell telegraph and his relay Henry had the elements of a +successful system. He failed, however, to develop them practically or +to introduce them to the attention of the public. He was the man of +science rather than the practical inventor. Alfred Vail, joining with +Morse after the latter had conceived the telegraph, but before +his apparatus was in practical form, was a tireless and invaluable +mechanical assistant. His inventions of apparatus were of the utmost +practical value, and he played a very large part in bringing the +telegraph to a form where it could serve man effectively. After +success had been won Morse did not extend to Vail the credit which it +seems was his due. + +Yet, though Morse made free use of the ideas and assistance of others, +he was richly deserving of a major portion of the fame and the rewards +that came to him as inventor of the telegraph. Morse was the directing +genius; he contributed the idea and the leadership, and bore the brunt +of the burdens when all was most discouraging. + +Honors were heaped upon Morse both at home and abroad as his telegraph +established itself in all parts of the world. Orders of knighthood, +medals, and decorations were conferred upon him. Though he had failed +to secure foreign patents, many of the foreign governments recognized +the value of his invention, and France, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, +Russia, Sweden, Turkey, and some smaller nations joined in paying him +a testimonial of four hundred thousand francs. It is to be noticed +that Great Britain did not join in this testimonial, though Morse's +system had been adopted there in preference to the one developed by +Wheatstone. + +In 1871 a statue of Morse was erected in Central Park, New York +City. It was in the spring of the next year that another statue was +unveiled, this time one of Benjamin Franklin, and Morse presided at +the ceremonies. The venerable man received a tremendous ovation on +this occasion, but the cold of the day proved too great a strain upon +him. He contracted a cold which eventually resulted in his death on +April 2, 1872. + +While extended consideration cannot be given here to the telegraphic +inventions of Thomas A. Edison, no discussion of the telegraph should +close without at least some mention of his work in this field. Edison +started his career as a telegrapher, and his first inventions were +improvements in the telegraph. His more recent and more wonderful +inventions have thrown his telegraphic inventions into the shadow. On +the telegraph as invented by Morse but one message could be sent over +a single wire at one time. It was later discovered that two messages' +could be sent over the single wire in opposite directions at the +same time. This was called duplex telegraphy. Edison invented duplex +telegraphy by which two messages could be sent over the same wire in +the same direction at the same time. Later he succeeded in combining +the two, which resulted in the quadruplex, by which four messages +may be sent over one wire at one time. Though Edison received +comparatively little for this invention, its commercial value may be +estimated from the statement by the president of the Western Union +that it saved that company half a million dollars in a single year. +Edison's quadruplex system was also adopted by the British lines. + +Before this he had perfected an automatic telegraph, work on which +had been begun by George Little, an Englishman. Little could make the +apparatus effective only over a short line and attained no very great +speed. Edison improved the apparatus until it transmitted thirty-five +hundred words a minute between New York and Philadelphia. Such is the +perfection to which Morse's marvel has been brought in the hands of +the most able of modern inventors. + + + + +VIII + +TELEGRAPHING BENEATH THE SEA + + Early Efforts at Underwater Telegraphy--Cable Construction and + Experimentation--The First Cables--The Atlantic Cable + Projected--Cyrus W. Field Becomes Interested--Organizes Atlantic + Telegraph Company--Professor Thomson as Scientific Adviser--His + Early Life and Attainments. + + +The idea of laying telegraph wires beneath the sea was discussed long +before a practical telegraph for use on land had been attained. It +is recorded that a Spaniard suggested submarine telegraphy in 1795. +Experiments were conducted early in the nineteenth century with +various materials in an effort to find a covering for the wires which +would be both a non-conductor of electricity and impervious to water. +An employee of the East India Company made an effort to lay a cable +across the river Hugli as early as 1838. His method was to coat the +wire with pitch inclose it in split rattan, and then wrap the whole +with tarred yarn. Wheatstone discussed a Calais-Dover cable in 1840, +but it remained for Morse to actually lay an experimental cable. We +have already heard of his experiments in New York Harbor in 1842. His +insulation was tarred hemp and India rubber. Wheatstone performed a +similar experiment in the Bay of Swansea a few months later. + +Perhaps the first practical submarine cable was laid by Ezra Cornell, +one of Morse's associates, in 1845. He laid twelve miles of cable in +the Hudson River, connecting Fort Lee with New York City. The cable +consisted of two cotton-covered wires inclosed in rubber, and the +whole incased in a lead pipe. This cable was in use for several months +until it was carried away by the ice in the winter of 1846. + +These early experimenters found the greatest difficulty in incasing +their wires in rubber, practical methods of working that substance +being then unknown. The discovery of gutta-percha by a Scotch surveyor +of the East India Company in 1842, and the invention of a machine for +applying it to a wire, by Dr. Werner Siemens, proved a great aid +to the cable-makers. These gutta-percha-covered wires were used for +underground telegraphy both in England and on the Continent. Tests +were made with such a cable for submarine work off Dover in 1849, and, +proving successful, the first cable across the English Channel was +laid the next year by John Watkins Brett. The cable was weighted +with pieces of lead fastened on every hundred yards. A few incoherent +signals were exchanged and the communication ceased. A Boulogne +fisherman had caught the new cable in his trawl, and, raising it, had +cut a section away. This he had borne to port as a great treasure, +believing the copper to be gold in some new form of deposit. This +experience taught the need of greater protection for a cable, and the +next year another was laid across the Channel, which was protected by +hemp and wire wrappings. This proved successful. In 1852 England +and Ireland were joined by cable, and the next year a cable was laid +across the North Sea to Holland. The success of these short cables +might have promised success in an attempt to cross the Atlantic had +not failures in the deep water of the Mediterranean made it seem an +impossibility. + +We have noted that Morse suggested the possibility of uniting Europe +and America by cable. The same thought had occurred to others, but the +undertaking was so vast and the problems so little understood that for +many years none were bold enough to undertake the project. A telegraph +from New York to St. John's, Newfoundland, was planned, however, which +was to lessen the time of communication between the continents. +News brought by boats from England could be landed at St. John's and +telegraphed to New York, thus saving two days. F.N. Gisborne secured +the concession for such a line in 1852, and began the construction. +Cables were required to connect Newfoundland with the continent, and +to cross the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but the rest of the line was to be +strung through the forests. + +Before much had been accomplished, Gisborne had run out of funds, +and work was suspended. In 1854 Gisborne met Cyrus West Field, of +New York, a retired merchant of means. Field became interested in +Gisborne's project, and as he examined the globe in his library the +thought occurred to him that the line to St. John's was but a start on +the way to England. The idea aroused his enthusiasm, and he determined +to embark upon the gigantic enterprise. He knew nothing of telegraph +cables or of the sea-bottom, and so sought expert information on the +subject. + +One important question was as to the condition of the sea-bottom on +which the cable must rest. Lieutenant Berryman of the United States +Navy had taken a series of soundings and stated that the sea-bottom +between Newfoundland and Ireland was a comparatively level plateau +covered with soft ooze, and at a depth of about two thousand fathoms. +This seemed to the investigators to have been provided for the +especial purpose of receiving a submarine cable, so admirably was it +suited to this purpose. Morse was consulted, and assured Field that +the project was entirely feasible, and that a submarine cable once +laid between the continents could be operated successfully. + +Field thereupon adopted the plans of Gisborne as the first step in the +larger undertaking. In 1855 an attempt was made to lay a cable across +the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but a storm arose, and the cable had to be +cut to save the ship from which it was being laid. Another attempt +was made the following summer with better equipment, and the cable was +successfully completed. Other parts of the line had been finished, the +telegraph now stretched a thousand miles toward England, and New York +was connected with St. John's. + +Desiring more detailed information of the ocean-bed along the proposed +route, Field secured the assistance of the United States and British +governments. Lieutenant Berryman, U.S.N., in the _Arctic_, and +Lieutenant Dayman, R.N., in the _Cyclops_, made a careful survey. +Their soundings revealed a ridge near the Irish coast, but the slope +was gradual and the general conditions seemed especially favorable. + +The preliminary work had been done by an American company with Field +at the head and Morse as electrician. Now Field went to England +to secure capital sufficient for the larger enterprise. With the +assistance of Mr. J.W. Brett he organized the Atlantic Telegraph +Company, Field himself supplying a quarter of the capital. Associated +with Field and Brett in the leadership of the enterprise was Charles +Tiltson Bright, a young Englishman who became engineer for the new +company. + +Besides the enormous engineering difficulties of producing a cable +long enough and strong enough, and laying it at the bottom of the +Atlantic, there were electrical problems involved far greater than +Morse seems to have realized. It had been discovered that the passage +of a current through a submarine cable is seriously retarded. +The retarding of the current as it passes through the water is a +difficulty that does not exist with the land telegraph stretched on +poles. Faraday had demonstrated that this retarding was caused by +induction between the electricity in the wire and the water about the +cable. The passage of the current through the wire induces currents in +the water, and these moving in the opposite direction act as a drag on +the passage of the message through the wire. What the effect of this +phenomenon would be on a cable long enough to cross the Atlantic wan +a serious problem that required deep study by the company's engineers. +It seemed entirely possible that the messages would move so slowly +that the operation of the cable, once it was laid, would not pay. + +Faraday failed to give any definite information on the subject, but +Professor William Thomson worked out the law of retardation accurately +and furnished to the cable-builders the accurate information which +was required. Doctor Whitehouse, electrician for the Atlantic Company, +conducted some experiments of his own and questioned the accuracy of +Thomson's statements. Thomson maintained his position so ably, and +proved himself so thoroughly a master of the subject that Field and +his associates decided to enlist him in the enterprise. This addition +to the forces was one of the utmost importance. William Thomson, +later to become Lord Kelvin, was probably the ablest scientist of his +generation, and was destined to prove his great abilities in his early +work with the Atlantic cable. + +William Thomson was born in Belfast, Ireland, in 1824. His father was +a teacher and took an especially keen interest in the affairs of his +boys because their mother had died while William was very young. +When William was eight years of age his father removed to Glasgow, +Scotland, where he had secured the chair of mathematics in Glasgow +University. His early education he secured from his father, and this +training, coupled with his natural brilliancy, enabled him to develop +genuine precocity. At the age of eight he attended his father's +university lectures as a visitor, and it is reported that on one +occasion he answered his father's questions when all of the class had +failed. At the age of ten he entered the university, together with +his brother James, who was but two years older. The brothers displayed +marked interest in science and invention, eagerly pursued their +studies in these branches, and performed many electrical experiments +together. + +[Illustration: CYRUS W. FIELD] + +[Illustration: WILLIAM THOMSON (LORD KELVIN)] + +James took the degrees B.A. and M.A. in successive years. Though +William also passed the examinations, he did not take the degrees, +because he had decided to go to Cambridge, and it was thought best +that he take all his degrees from that great school. In writing to +his older brother at this time, William was accustomed to sign himself +"B.A.T.A.I.A.P.," which signified "B.A. to all intents and purposes." +After finishing their work at Glasgow the boys traveled extensively on +the Continent. + +At seventeen William entered St. Peter's College, Cambridge University, +taking courses in advanced mathematics and continuing to distinguish +himself. He took an active part in the life of the university, making +something of a record us an athlete, winning the silver sculls, and +rowing on a 'varsity crew which took the measure of Oxford in the +great annual boat-race. He also interested himself in literature and +music, but his real passion was science. Already he had written many +learned essays on mathematical electricity and was accomplishing +valuable research work. On the completion of his work at Cambridge he +secured a fellowship which brought him an income of a thousand dollars +a year and enabled him to pursue his studies in Paris. + +When he was but twenty-two years of age he was made professor of +natural philosophy at the University of Glasgow. Though young, +he proved entirely successful, and wan immensely popular with his +students. At that time the university had no experimental laboratory, +and Professor Thomson and his pupils performed their experiments +in the professor's room and in an abandoned coal-cellar, slowly +developing a laboratory for themselves. His development continued +until, when at the age of thirty-three he was called upon to assist +with the work of laying an Atlantic cable, he was possessed of +scientific attainments which made him invaluable among the cable +pioneers. + + + + +IX + +THE PIONEER ATLANTIC CABLE + + Making the Cable--The First Attempt at Laying--Another Effort + Checked by Storm--The Cable Laid at Last--Messages Cross the + Ocean--The Cable Fails--Professor Thomson's Inventions and + Discoveries--Their Part in Designing and Constructing an Improved + Cable and Apparatus. + + +Field and his business associates were extremely anxious that the +cable be laid with all possible speed, and little time was allowed the +engineers and electricians for experimentation. The work of building +the cable was begun early in 1857 by two English firms. It consisted +of seven copper wires covered with gutta-percha and wound with tarred +hemp. Over this were wound heavy iron wires to give protection and +added strength. The whole weighed about a ton to the mile, and was +both strong and flexible. The distance from the west coast of Ireland +to Newfoundland being 1,640 nautical miles, it was decided to supply +2,500 miles of cable, an extra length being, of course, necessary +to allow for the inequalities at the bottom of the sea, and the +possibility of accident. + +The British and American governments had already provided subsidies, +and they now supplied war-ships for use in the work of laying the +cable. The _Agamemnon_, one of the largest of England's war-ships, and +the _Niagara_, giant of the United States Navy, were to do the actual +work of cable-laying, the cable being divided between them. They were +accompanied by the United States frigate _Susquehanna_ and the +British war-ships _Leopard_ and _Cyclops_. In August of 1857 the fleet +assembled on the Irish coast for the start, and the American sailors +landed the end of the cable amid great ceremony. + +The work of cable-laying was begun by the _Niagara_, which steamed +slowly away, accompanied by the fleet. The great cable payed out +smoothly as the Irish coast was left behind and the frigate increased +her speed. The submarine hill with its dangerous slopes was safely +passed, and it was felt that the greatest danger was past. The +paying-out machinery seemed to be working perfectly. Telegraphic +communication was constantly maintained with the shore end. For six +days all went well and nearly four hundred miles of cable had been +laid. + +With the cable dropping to the bottom two miles down it was found +that it was flowing out at the rate of six miles an hour while the +_Niagara_ was steaming but four. It was evident that the cable was +being wasted, and to prevent its running out too fast at this great +depth the brake controlling the flow of the cable was tightened. The +stern of the vessel rising suddenly on a wave, the strain proved too +great and the cable parted and was lost. Instant grief swept over +the ship and squadron, for the heart of every one was in the great +enterprise. It was felt that it would be useless to attempt to grapple +the cable at this great depth, and there seemed nothing to do but +abandon it and return. + +The loss of the cable and of a year's time--since another attempt +could not be made until the next season--resulted in a total loss +to the company of half a million dollars. Public realization of the +magnitude of the task had been awakened by the failure of the first +expedition and Field found it far from easy to raise additional +capital. It was finally accomplished, however, and a new supply of +cable was constructed. + +Professor Thomson had been studying the problems of submarine +telegraphy with growing enthusiasm, and had now arrived at the +conclusion that the conductivity of the cable depended very largely +upon the purity of the copper employed. He accordingly saw to it that +in the construction of the new section all the wires were carefully +tested and such as did not prove perfect were discarded. In the mean +time the engineers were busy improving the paying-out machinery. They +designed an automatic brake which would release the cable instantly +upon the strain becoming too great. It was thus hoped to avoid a +recurrence of the former accident. Chief-Engineer Bright also arranged +a trial trip for the purpose of drilling the staff in their various +duties. + +The same vessels were provided to lay the cable on the second attempt +and the fleet sailed in June of 1858, this time without celebration or +public ceremony. On this occasion the recommendation of Chief-Engineer +Bright was followed, and it was arranged that the _Niagara_ and +_Agamemnon_ should meet in mid-ocean, there splice the cable together +and proceed in opposite directions, laying the cable simultaneously. +On this expedition Professor Thomson was to assume the real scientific +leadership, Professor Morse, though he retained his position with the +company, taking no active part. + +The ships had not proceeded any great distance before they ran into a +terrible gale. The _Agamemnon_ had an especially difficult time of +it, her great load of cable overbalancing the ship and threatening +to break loose again and again and carry the great vessel and her +precious cargo to the bottom. The storm continued for over a week, and +when at last it had blown itself out the _Agamemnon_ resembled a wreck +and many of her crew had been seriously injured. But the cable +had been saved and the expedition was enabled to proceed to the +rendezvous. The _Niagara_, a larger ship, had weathered the storm +without mishap. + +The splice was effected on Saturday, the 26th, but before three miles +had been laid the cable caught in the paying-out machinery on the +_Niagara_ and was broken off. Another splice was made that evening and +the ships started again. The two vessels kept in communication with +each other by telegraph as they proceeded, and anxious inquiries and +many tests marked the progress of the work. When fifty miles were +out, the cable parted again at some point between the vessels and they +again sought the rendezvous in mid-Atlantic. Sufficient cable still +remained and a third start was made. For a few days all went well and +some four hundred miles of cable had been laid with success as the +messages passing from ship to ship clearly demonstrated. Field, +Thomson, and Bright began to believe that their great enterprise was +to be crowned with success when the cable broke again, this time about +twenty feet astern of the _Agamemnon_. This time there was no apparent +reason for the mishap, the cable having parted without warning when +under no unusual strain. + +The vessels returned to Queenstown, and Field and Thomson went to +London, where the directors of the company were assembled. Many were +in favor of abandoning the enterprise, selling the remaining cable +for what it would bring, and saving as much of their investment as +possible. But Field and Thomson were not of the sort who are easily +discouraged, and they managed to rouse fresh courage in their +associates. Yet another attempt was decided upon, and with replenished +stores the _Agamemnon_ and _Niagara_ once again proceeded to the +rendezvous. + +The fourth start was made on the 29th of July. On several occasions as +the work progressed communication failed, and Professor Thomson on +the _Agamemnon_ and the other electricians on the _Niagara_ spent many +anxious moments fearing that the line had again been severed. On each +occasion, however, the current resumed. It was afterward determined +that the difficulties were because of faulty batteries rather than +leaks in the cable. On both ships bad spots were found in the cable +as it was uncoiled and some quick work was necessary to repair them +before they dropped into the sea, since it was practically impossible +to stop the flow of the cable without breaking it. The _Niagara_ +had some narrow escapes from icebergs, and the _Agamemnon_ had +difficulties with ships which passed too close and a whale which swam +close to the ship and grazed the precious cable. But this time there +was no break and the ships approached their respective destinations +with the cable still carrying messages between them. The _Niagara_ +reached the Newfoundland coast on August 4th, and early the next +morning landed the cable in the cable-house at Trinity Bay. The +_Agamemnon_ reached the Irish coast but a few hours later, and her end +of the cable was landed on the afternoon of the same day. + +The public, because of the repeated failures, had come to look upon +the cable project as a sort of gigantic wild-goose chase. The news +that a cable had at last been laid across the ocean was received with +incredulity. Becoming convinced at last, there was great rejoicing +in England and America. Queen Victoria sent to President Buchanan +a congratulatory message in which she expressed the hope "that the +electric cable which now connects Great Britain with the United +States will prove an additional link between the two nations, whose +friendship is founded upon their mutual interest and reciprocal +esteem." The President responded in similar vein, and expressed the +hope that the neutrality of the cable might be established. + +Honors were showered upon the leaders in the enterprise. Charles +Bright, the chief engineer, was knighted, though he was then but +twenty-six years of age. Banquet after banquet was held in England at +which Bright and Thomson were the guests of honor. New York celebrated +in similar fashion. A grand salute of one hundred guns was fired, the +streets were decorated, and the city was illuminated at night. +The festivities rose to the highest pitch in September with Field +receiving the plaudits of all New York. Special services were held in +Trinity Church, and a great celebration was held in Crystal Palace. +The mayor presented to Field a golden casket, and the ceremony was +followed by a torchlight parade. That very day the last message went +over the wire. + +The shock to the public was tremendous. Many insisted that the cable +had never been operated and that the entire affair was a hoax. This +was quickly disproved. Aside from the messages between Queen and +President many news messages had gone over the cable and it had proved +of great value to the British Government. The Indian mutiny had been +in progress and regiments in Canada had received orders by mail to +sail for India. News reached England that the mutiny was at an end, +and the cable enabled the Government to countermand the orders, thus +saving a quarter of a million dollars that would have been expended in +transporting the troops. + +The engineers to whom the operations of the cable had been intrusted +had decided that very high voltages were necessary to its successful +operation. They had accordingly installed huge induction coils and +sent currents of two thousand volts over the line. Even this voltage +had failed to operate the Morse instruments, the drag by induction +proving too great. The strain of this high voltage had a very serious +effect upon the insulation. Abandoning the Morse instruments and +the high voltage, recourse was then had to Professor Thomson's +instruments, which proved entirely effective with ordinary battery +current. + +Because of the effect of induction the current is much delayed +in traveling through a long submarine cable and arrives in waves. +Professor Thomson devised his mirror galvanometer to meet this +difficulty. This device consists of a large coil of very fine wire, in +the center of which, in a small air-chamber, is a tiny mirror. Mounted +on the back of the mirror are very small magnets. The mirror is +suspended by a fiber of the finest silk. Thus the weakest of currents +coming in over the wire serve to deflect the mirror, and a beam +of light being directed upon the mirror and reflected by it upon a +screen, the slightest movement of the mirror is made visible. If the +mirror swings too far its action is deadened by compressing the air in +the chamber. The instrument is one of the greatest delicacy. Such +was the greatest contribution of Professor Thomson to submarine +telegraphy. Without it the cable could not have been operated even +for a short period. Had it been used from the first the line would not +have been ruined and might have been used for a considerable period. + +Professor Thomson together with Engineer Bright made a careful +investigation of the causes of failure. The professor pointed out +that had the mirror galvanometer been used with a moderate current the +cable could have been continued in successful operation. Ha continued +to improve this apparatus and at the same time busied himself with +a recording instrument to be used for cable work. Both Thomson and +Bright had recommended a larger and stronger cable, and other failures +in cable-laying in the Red Sea and elsewhere in the next few years +bore out their contentions. But with each failure new experience was +gained and methods were perfected. Professor Thomson continued his +work with the utmost diligence and continued to add to the fund of +scientific knowledge on the subject. So it was that he was prepared to +take his place as scientific leader of the next great effort. + + + + +X + +A SUCCESSFUL CABLE ATTAINED + + Field Raises New Capital--The _Great Eastern_ Secured and + Equipped--Staff Organized with Professor Thomson as Scientific + Director--Cable Parts and is Lost--Field Perseveres--The Cable + Recovered--The Continents Linked at Last--A Commercial + Success--Public Jubilation--Modern Cables. + + +The early 'sixties were trying years for the cable pioneers. It +required all of Field's splendid genius and energy to keep the project +alive. In the face of repeated failures, and doubt as to whether +messages could be sent rapidly enough to make any cable a commercial +success, it was extremely difficult to raise fresh capital. America +continued to evince interest in the cable, but with, the Civil War in +progress it was not easy to raise funds. But no discouragement could +deter Field. Though he suffered severely from seasickness, he crossed +the Atlantic sixty-four times in behalf of the great enterprise which +he had begun. + +It was necessary to raise three million dollars to provide a cable of +the improved type decided upon and to install it properly. The English +firm of Glass, Eliot & Company, which was to manufacture the cable, +took a very large part of the stock. The new cable was designed in +accordance with the principles enunciated by Professor Thomson. The +conductor consisted of seven wires of pure copper, weighing three +hundred pounds to the mile. This copper core was covered with +Chatterton's compound, which served as water-proofing. This was +surrounded by four layers of gutta-percha, cemented together by the +compound, and about this hemp was wound. The outer layer consisted +of eighteen steel wires wound spirally, each being covered with a +wrapping of hemp impregnated with a preservative solution. The new +cable was twice as heavy as the old and more than twice as strong, a +great advance having been made in the methods of manufacturing steel +wire. + +It was decided that the cable should, be laid by one vessel, instead +of endeavoring to work from two as in the past. Happily, a boat was +available which was fitted to carry this enormous burden. This was +the _Great Eastern_, a mammoth vessel far in advance of her time. +This great ship of 22,500 tons had been completed in 1857, but had not +proved a commercial success. The docks of that day were not adequate, +the harbors were not deep enough, and the cargoes were insufficient. +She had long lain idle when she was secured by the cable company and +fitted out for the purpose of laying the cable, which was the first +useful work which had been found for the great ship. The 2,300 miles +of heavy cable was coiled into the hull and paying-out machinery was +installed upon the decks. Huge quantities of coal and other supplies +were added. + +Capt. James Anderson of the Cunard Line was placed in command of the +ship for the expedition, with Captain Moriarty, R.N., as navigating +officer. Professor Thomson and Mr. C.F. Varley represented the +Atlantic Telegraph Company as electricians and scientific advisers. +Mr. Samuel Canning was engineer in charge for the contractors. Mr. +Field was also on board. + +It was on July 23, 1865, that the expedition started from the Irish +coast, where the eastern end of the cable had been landed. Less than a +hundred miles of cable had been laid when the electricians discovered +a fault in the cable. The _Great Eastern_ was stopped, the course was +retraced, and the cable picked up until the fault was reached. It was +found that a piece of iron wire had in some way pierced the cable +so that the insulation was ruined. This was repaired and the work of +laying was again commenced. Five days later, when some seven hundred +miles of cable had been laid, communication was again interrupted, and +once again they turned back, laboriously lifting the heavy cable from +the depths, searching for the break. Again a wire was found thrust +through the cable, and this occasioned no little worry, as it was +feared that this was being done maliciously. + +It was on August 2d that the next fault was discovered. Nearly +two-thirds of the cable was now in place and the depth was here over +one mile. Raising the cable was particularly difficult, and just at +this juncture the _Great Eastern's_ machinery broke down, leaving her +without power and at the mercy of the waves. Subjected to an enormous +strain, the precious cable parted and was lost. Despite the great +depth, efforts were made to grapple the lost cable. Twice the cable +was hooked, but on both occasions the rope parted and after days of +tedious work the supply of rope was exhausted and it was necessary +to return to England. Still another cable expedition had ended in +failure. + +Field, the indomitable, began all over again, raising additional funds +for a new start. The _Great Eastern_ had proved entirely satisfactory, +and it was hoped that with improvements in the grappling-gear the +cable might be recovered. The old company gave way before a new +organization known as the Anglo-American Telegraph Company. It was +decided to lay an entirely new cable, and then to endeavor to complete +the one partially laid in 1865. + +With no services other than private prayers at the station on the +Irish shore, the _Great Eastern_ steamed away for the new effort on +July 13, 1866. This time the principal difficulties arose within the +ship. Twice the cable became tangled in the tanks and it was necessary +to stop the ship while the mass was straightened out. Most of the +time the "coffee-mill," as the seamen called the paying-out machinery, +ground steadily away and the cable sank into the sea. As the work +progressed Field and Thomson, who had suffered so many failures in +their great enterprise, watched with increasing anxiety. They were +almost afraid to hope that the good fortune would continue. + +Just two weeks after the Irish coast had been left behind the _Great +Eastern_ approached Newfoundland just as the shadows of night were +added to those of a thick fog. On the next morning, July 28th, she +steamed into Trinity Bay, where flags were flying in the little town +in honor of the great accomplishment. Amid salutes and cheers +the cable was landed and communication between the continents was +established. Almost the first news that came over the wire was that of +the signing of the treaty of peace which ended the war between Prussia +and Austria. + +Early in August the _Great Eastern_ again steamed away to search for +the cable broken the year before. Arriving on the spot, the grapples +were thrown out and the tedious work of dragging the sea-bottom was +begun. After many efforts the cable was finally secured and raised to +the surface. A new section was spliced on and the ship again turned +toward America. On September 7th the second cable was successfully +landed, and two wires were now in operation between the continents. +Thus was the great task doubly fulfilled. Once again there were public +celebrations in England and America. Field received the deserved +plaudits of his countrymen and Thomson was knighted in recognition of +his achievements. + +[Illustration: THE "GREAT EASTERN" LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE. 1866] + +The new cables proved a success and were kept in operation for many +years. Thomson's mirror receiver had been improved until it displayed +remarkable sensitiveness. Using the current from a battery placed in +a lady's thimble, a message was sent across the Atlantic through one +cable and back through the other. Professor Thomson was to give to +submarine telegraphy an even more remarkable instrument. The mirror +instrument did not give a permanent record of the messages. The +problem of devising a means of recording the messages delicate enough +so that it could be operated with rapidity by the faint currents +coming over a long cable was extremely difficult. But Thomson solved +it with his siphon recorder. In this a small coil is suspended between +the poles of a large magnet; the coil being free to turn upon its +axis. When the current from the cable passes through the coil it +moves, and so varies the position of the ink-siphon which is attached +to it. The friction of a pen on paper would have proved too great a +drag on so delicate an instrument, and so a tiny jet of ink from the +siphon was substituted. The ink is made to pass through the siphon +with sufficient force to mark down the message by a delightfully +ingenious method. Thomson simply arranged to electrify the ink, and +it rushes through the tiny opening on to the paper just as lightning +leaps from cloud to earth. + +Professor, now Sir, Thomson continued to take an active part in the +work of designing and laying new cables. Not only did he contribute +the apparatus and the scientific information which made cables +possible, but he attained renown as a physicist and a scientist in +many other fields. In 1892 he was given the title of Lord Kelvin, and +it was by this name that he was known as the leading physicist of his +day. He survived until 1907. + +To Cyrus W. Field must be assigned a very large share of the credit +for the establishment of telegraphic communication between the +continents. He gave his fortune and all of his tremendous energy and +ability to the enterprise and kept it alive through failure after +failure. He was a promoter of the highest type, the business man who +recognized a great human need and a great opportunity for service. +Without his efforts the scientific discoveries of Thomson could +scarcely have been put to practical use. + +The success of the first cable inspired others. In 1869 a cable from +France to the United States was laid from the _Great Eastern_. In 1875 +the Direct United States Cable Company laid another cable to England, +which was followed by another cable to France. One cable after another +was laid until there are now a score. This second great development in +communication served to bring the two continents much closer together +in business and in thought and has proved of untold benefit. + + + + +XI + +ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, THE YOUTH + + The Family's Interest in Speech Improvement--Early Life-Influence of + Sir Charles Wheatstone--He Comes to America--Visible Speech and the + Mohawks--The Boston School for Deaf Mutes--The Personality of Bell. + + +The men of the Bell family, for three generations, have interested +themselves in human speech. The grandfather, the father, and the +uncle of Alexander Graham Bell were all elocutionists of note. The +grandfather achieved fame in London; the uncle, in Dublin; and the +father, in Edinburgh. The father applied himself particularly to +devising means of instructing the deaf in speech. His book on _Visible +Speech_ explained his method of instructing deaf mutes in speech by +the aid of their sight, and of teaching them to understand the speech +of others by watching their lips as the words are spoken. + +Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh in 1847, and received +his early education in the schools of that city. He later studied +at Warzburg, Germany, where he received the degree of Doctor of +Philosophy. He followed very naturally in the footsteps of his father, +taking an early interest in the study of speech. He was especially +anxious to aid his mother, who was deaf. + +As a boy he exhibited a genius for invention, as well as for +acoustics. Much of this was duo to the wise encouragement of his +father. He himself has told of a boyhood invention. + + My father once asked my brother Melville and myself to try to + make a speaking-machine, I don't suppose he thought we could + produce anything of value, in itself. But he knew we could not + even experiment and manufacture anything which even tried to + speak, without learning something of the voice and the + throat; and the mouth--all that wonderful mechanism of sound + production in which he was so interested. + + So my brother and I went to work. We divided the task--he was + to make the lungs and the vocal cords, I was to make the mouth + and the tongue. He made a bellows for the lungs and a very + good vocal apparatus out of rubber. I procured a skull and + molded a tongue with rubber stuffed with cotton wool, and + supplied the soft parts of the throat with the same material + Then I arranged joints, so the jaw and the tongue could move. + It was a great day for us when we fitted the two parts of the + device together. Did it speak? It squeaked and squawked a + good deal, but it made a very passable imitation of + "Mam-ma--Mam-ma." It sounded very much like a baby. My father + wanted us to go on and try to get other sounds, but we were so + interested in what we had done we wanted to try it out. So we + proceeded to use it to make people think there was a baby in + the house, and when we made it cry "Mam-ma," and heard doors + opening and people coming, we were quite happy. What has + become of It? Well, that was across the ocean, in Scotland, + but I believe the mouth and tongue part that I made is in + Georgetown somewhere; I saw it not long ago. + +The inventor tells of another boyhood invention that, though it had no +connection with sound or speech, shows his native ingenuity. Again we +will tell it in his own words. + + I remember my first invention very well. There were several of + us boys, and we were fond of playing around a mill where they + ground wheat into flour. The miller's son was one of the + boys, and I am afraid he showed us how to be a good deal of a + nuisance to his father. One day the miller called us into the + mill and said, "Why don't you do something useful instead of + just playing all the time?" I wasn't afraid of the miller as + much as his son was, so I said, "Well, what can we do that + is useful?" He took up a handful of wheat, ran it over in his + hand and said: "Look at that! If you could manage to get the + husks off that wheat, that would be doing something useful!" + + So I took some wheat home with me and experimented. I found + the husks came off without much difficulty. I tried brushing + them off and they came off beautifully. Then it occurred to me + that brushing was nothing but applying friction to them. If + I could brush the husks off, why couldn't the husks be rubbed + off? + + There was in the mill a machine--I don't know what it was + for--but it whirled its contents, whatever it was, around in + a drum. I thought, "Why wouldn't the husks come off if the raw + wheat was whirled around in that drum?" So back I went to the + miller and suggested the idea to him. + + "Why," he said, "that's a good idea." So he called his foreman + and they tried it, and the husks came off beautifully, and + they've been taking husks off that way ever since. That was + my very first invention, and it led me to thinking for myself, + and really had quite an influence on my way and methods of + thought. + +Up to his sixteenth year young Bell's reading consisted largely of +novels, poetry, and romantic tales of Scotch heroes. But in addition +he was picking up some knowledge of anatomy, music, electricity, and +telegraphy. When he was but sixteen years of age his father secured +for him a position as teacher of elocution and this necessarily turned +his thought into more serious channels. He now spent his leisure +studying sound. During this period he made several discoveries in +sound which were of some small importance. + +When he was twenty-one years of age he went to London and there had +the good fortune to come to the attention of Charles Wheatstone +and Alex J. Ellis. Ellis was at that time president of the London +Philological Society, and had translated Helmholtz's _The Sensation +of Tone_ into English. He had made no little progress with sound, and +demonstrated to Bell the methods by which German scientists had caused +tuning-forks to vibrate by means of electro-magnets and had combined +the tones of several tuning-forks in an effort to reproduce the sound +of the human voice. Helmholtz had performed this experiment simply to +demonstrate the physical basis of sound, and seems to have had no idea +of its possible use in telephony. + +That an electro-magnet could vibrate a tuning-fork and so produce +sound was an entirely new and fascinating idea to the youth. It +appealed to his imagination, quickened by his knowledge of speech. +"Why not an electrical telegraph?" he asked himself. His idea seems to +have been that the electric current could carry different notes over +the wire and reproduce them by means of the electro-magnet. Although +Bell did not know it, many others were struggling with the same +problem, the answer to which proved most elusive. It gave Bell a +starting-point, and the search for the telephone began. + +Sir Charles Wheatstone was then England's leading man of science, +and so Bell sought his counsel. Wheatstone received the young man +and listened to his statement of his ideas and ambitions and gave +him every encouragement. He showed him a talking-machine which +had recently been invented by Baron de Kempelin, and gave him the +opportunity to study it closely. Thus Bell, the eager student, the +unknown youth of twenty-two, came under the influence of Wheatstone, +the famous scientist and inventor of sixty-seven. This influence +played a great part in shaping Bell's career, arousing as it did his +passion for science. This decided him to devote himself to the problem +of reproducing sounds by mechanical means. Thus a new improvement in +the means of human communication was being sought and another pioneer +of science was at work. + +The death of the two brothers of the young scientist from +tuberculosis, and the physician's report that he himself was +threatened by the dread malady, forced a change in his plans and +withdrew him from an atmosphere which was so favorable to the +development of his great ideas. He was told that he must seek a new +climate and lead a more vigorous life in the open. Accompanied by his +father, he removed to America and at the age of twenty-six took up the +struggle for health in the little Canadian town of Brantford. + +He occupied himself by teaching his father's system of visible speech +among the Mohawk Indians. In this work he met with no little success. +At the same time he was gaining in bodily vigor and throwing off the +tendency to consumption which had threatened his life. He did not +forget the great idea which filled his imagination and eagerly sought +the telephone with such crude means as were at hand. He succeeded in +designing a piano which, with the aid of the electric current, could +transmit its music over a wire and reproduce it. + +While lecturing in Boston on his system of teaching visible speech, +the elder Bell received a request to locate in that city and take up +his work in its schools. He declined the offer, but recommended his +son as one entirely competent for the position. Alexander Graham +Bell received the offer, which he accepted, and he was soon at work +teaching the deaf mutes in the school which Boston had opened for +those thus afflicted. He met with the greatest success in his work, +and ere long achieved a national reputation. During the first year of +his work, 1871, he was the sensation of the educational world. Boston +University offered him a professorship, in which position he taught +others his system of teaching, with increased success. + +The demand for his services led him to open a School of Vocal +Physiology. He had made some improvements in his father's system for +teaching the deaf and dumb to speak and to understand spoken words, +and displayed great ability as a teacher. His experiments with +telegraphy and telephony had been laid aside, and there seemed little +chance that he would turn from the work in which he was accomplishing +so much for so many sufferers, and which was bringing a comfortable +financial return, and again undertake the tedious work in search for a +telephone. + +Fortunately, Bell was to establish close relationships with those who +understood and appreciated his abilities and gave him encouragement +in his search for a new means of communication. Thomas Sanders, a +resident of Salem, had a five-year-old son named Georgie who was a +deaf mute. Mr. Sanders sought Bell's tutelage for his son, and it was +agreed that Bell should give Georgie private lessons for the sum of +three hundred and fifty dollars a year. It was also arranged that Bell +was to reside at the Sanders home in Salem. He made arrangements to +conduct his future experiments there. + +Another pupil who came to him about this time was Mabel Hubbard, a +fifteen-year-old girl who had lost her hearing and consequently her +powers of speech, through an attack of scarlet fever when an infant. +She was a gentle and lovable girl, and Bell fell completely in love +with his pupil. Four years later he was to marry her and she was +to prove a large influence in helping him to success. She took the +liveliest interest in all of his experiments and encouraged him to new +endeavor after each failure. She kept his records and notes and wrote +his letters. Through her Bell secured the support of her father, +Gardiner G. Hubbard, who was widely known as one of Boston's ablest +lawyers. He was destined to become Bell's chief spokesman and +defender. + +Hubbard first became aware of Bell's inventive genius when the latter +was calling one evening at the Hubbard home in Cambridge. Bell was +illustrating some mysteries of acoustics with the aid of the piano. +"Do you know," he remarked, "that if I sing the note G close to the +strings of the piano, the G string will answer me?" + +This did not impress the lawyer, who asked its significance. + +"It is a fact of tremendous importance," answered Bell. "It is +evidence that we may some day have a musical telegraph which will +enable us to send as many messages simultaneously over one wire as +there are notes on that piano." + +From that time forward Hubbard took every occasion to encourage Bell +to carry forward his experiments in musical telegraphy. + +As a young man Bell was tall and slender, with jet-black eyes and +hair, the latter being pushed back into a curly tangle. He was +sensitive and high-strung, very much the artist and the man of +science. His enthusiasms were intense, and, once his mind was filled +with an idea, he followed it devotedly. He was very little the +practical business man and paid scant attention to the small, +practical details of life. He was so interested in visible speech, and +so keenly alert to the pathos of the lives of the deaf mutes, that he +many times seriously considered giving over all experiments with the +musical telegraph and devoting his entire life and energies to the +amelioration of their condition. + + + + +XII + +THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + + The Cellar at Sanderses'--Experimental Beginnings--Magic Revived in + Salem Town--The Dead Man's Ear--The Right Path--Trouble and + Discouragement--The Trip to Washington--Professor Joseph Henry--The + Boston Workshop--The First Faint Twang of the Telephone--Early + Development. + + +Alexander Graham Bell had not resided at the Sanderses' home very long +before he had fitted the basement up as a workshop. For three years he +haunted it, spending all of his leisure time in his experiments. Here +he had his apparatus, and the basement was littered with a curious +combination of electrical and acoustical devices--magnets, batteries, +coils of wire, tuning-forks, speaking-trumpets, etc. Bell had a great +horror that his ideas might be stolen and was very nervous over any +possible intrusion into his precious workshop. Only the members of +the Sanders family were allowed to enter the basement. He was equally +cautious in purchasing supplies and equipment lest his very purchases +reveal the nature of his experiments. He would go to a half-dozen +different stores for as many articles. He usually selected the night +for his experiments, and pounded and scraped away indefatigably, +oblivious of the fact that the family, as well as himself, was sorely +in need of rest. + +"Bell would often awaken me in the middle of the night," says Mr. +Sanders, "his black eyes blazing with excitement. Leaving me to go +down to the cellar, he would rush wildly to the barn and begin to send +me signals along his experimental wires. If I noticed any improvement +in his apparatus he would be delighted. He would leap and whirl around +in one of his 'war-dances,' and then go contentedly to bed. But if +the experiment was a failure he would go back to his work-bench to try +some different plan." + +In common with other experimenters who were searching for the +telephone, Bell was experimenting with a sort of musical telegraph. +Eagerly and persistently he sought the means that would replace the +telegraph with its cumbersome signals by a new device which would +enable the human voice itself to be transmitted. The longer he worked +the greater did the difficulties appear. His work with the deaf and +dumb was alluring, and on many occasions he seriously considered +giving over his other experiments and devoting himself entirely to the +instruction of the deaf and dumb and to the development of his system +of making speech visible by making the sound-vibrations visible to the +eye. But as he mused over the difficulties in enabling a deaf mute to +achieve speech nothing else seemed impossible. "If I can make a deaf +mute talk," said Bell, "I can make iron talk." + +One of his early ideas was to install a harp at one end of the wire +and a speaking-trumpet at the other. His plan was to transmit +the vibrations over the wire and have the voice reproduced by the +vibrations of the strings of the harp. By attaching a light pencil +or marker to a cord or membrane and causing the latter to vibrate by +talking against it, he could secure tracings of the sound-vibrations. +Different tracings were secured from different sounds. He thus sought +to teach the deaf to speak by sight. + +At this time Bell enjoyed the friendship of Dr. Clarence J. Blake, an +eminent Boston aurist, who suggested that the experiments be conducted +with a human ear instead of with a mechanical apparatus in imitation +of the ear. Bell eagerly accepted the idea, and Doctor Blake provided +him with an ear and connecting organs cut from a dead man's head. Bell +soon had the ghastly specimen set up in his workshop. He moistened the +drum with glycerine and water and, substituting a stylus of hay for +the stapes bone, he obtained a wonderful series of curves which showed +the vibrations of the human voice as recorded by the ear. One can +scarce imagine a stranger picture than Bell must have presented in the +conduct of those experiments. We can almost see him with his face the +paler in contrast with his black hair and flashing black eyes as he +shouted and whispered by turns into the ghastly ear. Surely he must +have looked the madman, and it is perhaps fortunate that he was not +observed by impressionable members of the public else they would have +been convinced that the witches had again visited old Salem town to +ply their magic anew. But it was a new and very real and practical +sort of magic which was being worked there. + +His experiments with the dead man's ear brought to Bell at least one +important idea. He noted that, though the ear-drum was thin and light, +it was capable of sending vibrations through the heavy bones that +lay back of it. And so he thought of using iron disks or membranes to +serve the purpose of the drum in the ear and arrange them so that +they would vibrate an iron rod. He thought of connecting two such +instruments with an electrified wire, one of which would receive the +sound-vibrations and the other of which would reproduce them after +they had been transmitted along the wire. At last the experimenter +was on the right track, with a conception of a practicable method of +transmitting sound. He now possessed a theoretical knowledge of what +the telephone he sought should be, but there yet remained before him +the enormous task of devising and constructing the apparatus which +would carry out the idea, and find the best way of utilizing the +electrical current for this work. + +Bell was now at a critical point in his career and was confronted by +the same difficulty which assails so many inventors. In his constant +efforts to achieve a telephone he had entirely neglected his school of +vocal physiology, which was now abandoned. Georgie Sanders and +Mabel Hubbard were his only pupils. Though Sanders and Hubbard were +genuinely interested in Bell and his work, they felt that he was +impractical, and were especially convinced that his experiments with +the ear and its imitations were entirely useless. They believed that +the electrical telegraph alone presented possibilities, and they told +Bell that unless he would devote himself entirely to the improvement +of this instrument and cease wasting time and money over ear toys +that had no commercial value they would no longer give him financial +support. Hubbard went even further, and insisted that if Bell did not +abandon his foolish notions he could not marry his daughter. + +Bell was almost without funds, his closest friends now seemed to turn +upon him, and altogether he was in a sorry plight. Of course Sanders +and Hubbard meant the best, yet in reality they were seeking to drive +their protege in exactly the wrong direction. As far back as 1860 a +German scientist named Philipp Reis produced a musical telephone +that even transmitted a few imperfect words. But it would not talk +successfully. Others had followed in his footsteps, using the musical +telephone to transmit messages with the Morse code by means of long +and short hums. Elisha Gray, of Chicago, also experimented with the +musical telegraph. At the transmitting end a vibrating steel tongue +served to interrupt the electric current which passed over the wire +in waves, and, passing through the coils of an electro-magnet at the +receiving end, caused another strip of steel located near the magnet +to vibrate and so produce a tone which varied with the current. + +All of these developments depended upon the interruption of the +current by some kind of a vibrating contact. The limitations which +Sanders and Hubbard sought to impose upon Bell, had they been obeyed +to the letter, must have prevented his ultimate success. In a letter +to his mother at this time, he said: + + I am now beginning to realize the cares and anxieties of being + an inventor. I have had to put off all pupils and classes, for + flesh and blood could not stand much longer such a strain as I + have had upon me. + +But good fortune was destined to come to Bell along with the bad. On +an enforced trip to Washington to consult his patent attorney--a trip +he could scarce raise funds to make--Bell met Prof. Joseph Henry. +We have seen the part which this eminent scientist had played in the +development of the telegraph. Now he was destined to aid Bell, as he +had aided Morse a generation earlier. The two men spent a day over the +apparatus which Bell had with him. Though Professor Henry was fifty +years his senior and the leading scientist in America, the youth was +able to demonstrate that he had made a real discovery. + +"You are in possession of the germ of a great invention," said +Henry, "and I would advise you to work at it until you have made it +complete." + +"But," replied Bell, "I have not got the electrical knowledge that is +necessary." + +"Get it," was Henry's reply. + +This proved just the stimulus Bell needed, and he returned to Boston +with a new determination to perfect his great idea. + +Bell was no longer experimenting in the Sanderses' cellar, having +rented a room in Boston in which to carry on his work. He had also +secured the services of an assistant, one Thomas Watson, who received +nine dollars a week for his services in Bell's behalf. The funds +for this work were supplied by Sanders and Hubbard jointly, but they +insisted that Bell should continue his experiments with the musical +telegraph. Though he was convinced that the opportunities lay in the +field of telephony, Bell labored faithfully for regular periods with +the devices in which his patrons were interested. The remainder of his +time and energy he put upon the telephone. The basis of his telephone +was still the disk or diaphragm which would vibrate when the +sound-waves of the voice were thrown against it. Behind this +were mounted various kinds of electro-magnets in series with the +electrified wire over which the inventor hoped to send his messages. +For three years they labored with this apparatus, trying every +conceivable sort of disk. It is easy to pass over those three years, +filled as they were with unceasing toil and patient effort, because +they were drab years when little of interest occurred. But these were +the years when Bell and Watson were "going to school," learning how +to apply electricity to this new use, striving to make their apparatus +talk. How dreary and trying these years must have been for the +experimenters we may well imagine. It requires no slight force of will +to hold oneself to such a task in the face of failure after failure. + +By June of 1875 Bell had completed a new Instrument. In this the +diaphragm was a piece of gold-beater's skin, which Bell had selected +as most closely resembling the drum in the human ear. This was +stretched tight to form a sort of drum, and an armature of magnetized +iron was fastened to its middle. Thus the bit of iron was free to +vibrate, and opposite it was an electro-magnet through which flowed +the current that passed over the line. This acted as the receiver. At +the other end of the wire was a sort of crude harmonica with a clock +spring, reed, and magnet. Bell and Watson had been working upon their +crude apparatus for months, and finally, on June 2d, sounds were +actually transmitted. Bell was afire with enthusiasm; the first great +step had been taken. The electric current had carried sound-vibrations +along the wire and had reproduced them. If this could be done a +telephone which would reproduce whole words and sentences could be +attained. + +[Illustration: ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL] + +[Illustration: THOMAS A. WATSON] + +So great was Bell's enthusiasm over this achievement that he succeeded +in convincing Sanders and Hubbard that his idea was practical, and +they at last agreed to finance him in his further experiments with the +telephone. A second membrane receiver was constructed, and for many +more weeks the experiments continued. It was found that sounds were +carried from instrument to instrument, but as a telephone they were +still far from perfection. It was not until March of 1876 that Bell, +speaking into the instrument in the workroom, was heard and understood +by Watson at the other instrument in the basement. The telephone had +carried and delivered an intelligible message. + +The telephone which Bell had invented, and on which he received a +patent on his twenty-ninth birthday, consisted of two instruments +similar in principle to what we would now call receivers. If you will +experiment with the receiver of a modern telephone you will find +that it will transmit as well as receive sound. The heart of the +transmitter was an electro-magnet in front of which was a drum-like +membrane with a piece of iron cemented to its center opposite the +magnet. A mouthpiece was arranged to throw the sounds of the voice +against the diaphragm, and as the membrane vibrated the bit of iron +upon it--acting as an armature--induced currents corresponding to the +sound-waves, in the coils of the electro-magnet. + +Passing over the line the current entered the coils of the tubular +electro-magnet in the receiver. A thin disk of soft iron was fastened +at the end of this. When the current-waves passed through the coils +of the magnet the iron disk was thrown into vibration, thus producing +sound. As it vibrated with the current produced by the iron on +the vibrating membrane in the transmitter acting as an armature, +transmitter and receiver vibrated in unison and so the same sound was +given off by the receiver and made audible to the human ear as was +thrown against the membrane of the transmitter by the voice. + +The patent issued to Bell has been described as "the most valuable +single patent ever issued." Certainly it was destined to be of +tremendous service to civilization. It was so entirely new and +original that Bell found difficulty in finding terms in which to +describe his invention to the patent officials. He called it "an +improvement on the telegraph," in order that it might be identified as +an improvement in transmitting intelligence by electricity. In reality +the telephone was very far from being a telegraph or anything in the +nature of a telegraph. + +As Bell himself stated, his success was in large part due to the fact +that he had approached the problem from the viewpoint of an expert +in sound rather than as an electrician. "Had I known more about +electricity and less about sound," he said, "I would never have +invented the telephone." As we have seen, those electricians who +worked from the viewpoint of the telegraph never got beyond the +limitations of the instrument and found that with it they could +transmit signals but not sounds. Bell, with his knowledge of the laws +of speech and sound, started with the principles of the +transmission of sound as a basis and set electricity to carrying the +sound-vibrations. + + + + +XIII + +THE TELEPHONE AT THE CENTENNIAL + + Boll's Impromptu Trip to the Exposition--The Table Under the + Stairs--Indifference of the Judges--Enter Don Pedro, Emperor of + Brazil--Attention and Amazement--Skepticism of the Public--The Aid + of Gardiner Hubbard--Publicity Campaign. + + +The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition--America's first great +exposition--opened within a month after the completion of the first +telephone. The public knew nothing of the telephone, and before it +could be made a commercial success and placed in general service +the interest of investors and possible users had to be aroused. +The Centennial seemed to offer an unusual opportunity to place the +telephone before the public. But Bell, like Morse, had no money with +which to push his invention. Hubbard was one of the commissioners of +the exposition, and exerted his influence sufficiently so that a small +table was placed in an odd corner in the Department of Education for +the exhibition of the apparatus. The space assigned was a narrow strip +between the stairway and the wall. + +But no provision was made to allow Bell himself to be present. The +young inventor was almost entirely without funds. Sanders and Hubbard +had paid nothing but his room rent and the cost of his experiments. He +had devoted himself to his inventions so entirely that he had lost all +of his professional income. So it was that he was forced to face +the prospect of staying in Boston and allowing this opportunity of +opportunities to pass unimproved. His fiancee, Miss Hubbard, expected +to attend the exposition, and had heard nothing of Bell's inability to +go. He went with her to the station, and as the train was leaving she +learned for the first time that he was not to accompany her. She burst +into tears at the disappointment. Seeing this, Bell dashed madly after +the train and succeeded in boarding it. Without money or baggage, he +nevertheless succeeded in arriving in Philadelphia. + +Bell arrived at the exposition but a few days before the judges were +to make their tour of inspection. With considerable difficulty +Hubbard had secured their promise that they would stop and examine +the telephone. They seemed to regard it as a toy not worth their +attention, and the public generally had displayed no interest in the +device. When the day for the inspection arrived Bell waited eagerly. +As the day passed his hope began to fall, as there seemed little +possibility that the judges would reach his exhibit. The Western +Union's exhibit of recording telegraphs, the self-binding harvester, +the first electric light, Gray's musical telegraph, and other +prominently displayed wonders had occupied the attention of the +scientists. It was well past supper-time when they came to Bell's +table behind the stairs, and most of the judges were tired out and +loudly announced their intention of quitting then and there. + +At this critical moment, while they were fingering Bell's apparatus +indifferently and preparing for their departure, a strange and +fortunate thing occurred. Followed by a group of brilliantly attired +courtiers, the Emperor of Brazil appeared. He rushed up to Bell +and greeted him with a warmth of affection that electrified the +indifferent judges. They watched the scene in astonishment, wondering +who this young Bell was that he could attract the attention and the +friendship of the Emperor. The Emperor had attended Bell's school for +deaf mutes in Boston when it was at the height of its success, and +had conceived a warm admiration for the young man and taken a +deep interest in his work. The Emperor was ready to examine Bell's +invention, though the judges were not. Bell showed him how to place +his ear to the receiver, and he then went to the transmitter which had +been placed at the other end of the wire strung along the room. The +Emperor waited expectantly, the judges watched curiously. Bell, at a +distance, spoke into the transmitter. In utter wonderment the Emperor +raised his head from the receiver. "My God," he cried, "it talks!" + +Skepticism and indifference were at an end among the judges, and they +eagerly followed the example of the Emperor. Joseph Henry, the most +venerable savant of them all, took his place at the receiver. Though +his previous talk with Bell, when the telephone was no more than an +idea, should perhaps have prepared him, he showed equal astonishment, +and instantly expressed his admiration. Next followed Sir William +Thomson, the hero of the cable and England's greatest scientist. After +his return to England Thomson described his sensations. + +"I heard," he said, "'To be or not to be ... there's the rub,' +through an electric wire; but, scorning monosyllables, the electric +articulation rose to higher flights, and gave me passages from the +New York newspapers. All this my own ears heard spoken to me with +unmistakable distinctness by the then circular-disk armature of just +such another little electro-magnet as this I hold in my hand." + +Thomson pronounced Bell's telephone "the most wonderful thing he had +seen in America." The judges had forgotten that they were hungry and +tired, and remained grouped about the telephone, talking and listening +in turn until far into the evening. With the coming of the next +morning Bell's exhibit was moved from its obscure corner and given the +most prominent place that could be found. From that time forward it +was the wonder of the Centennial. + +[Illustration: PROFESSOR BELL'S VIBRATING REED] + +[Illustration: PROFESSOR BELL'S FIRST TELEPHONE] + +[Illustration: THE FIRST TELEPHONE SWITCHBOARD USED IN NEW HAVEN, +CONN, FOR EIGHT SUBSCRIBERS] + +[Illustration: EARLY NEW YORK EXCHANGE + +Boys were employed as operators at first, but they were not adapted to +the work so well as girls.] + +[Illustration: PROFESSOR BELL IN SALEM, MASS., AND MR. WATSON IN +BOSTON, DEMONSTRATING THE TELEPHONE BEFORE AUDIENCES IN 1877] + +[Illustration: DR BELL AT THE TELEPHONE OPENING THE NEW YORK-CHICAGO +LINE, OCTOBER 18, 1892] + +Yet but a small part of the public could attend the exposition and +actually test the telephone for themselves. Many of these believed +that it was a hoax, and general skepticism still prevailed. Business +men, though they were convinced that the telephone would carry +spoken messages, nevertheless insisted that it presented no business +possibilities. Hubbard, however, had faith in the invention, and +as Bell was not a business man, he took upon himself the work of +promotion--the necessary, valuable work which must be accomplished +before any big idea or invention may be put at the service of the +public. Hubbard's first move was to plan a publicity campaign which +should bring the new invention favorably to the attention of all, +prove its claims, and silence the skeptics. They were too poor to +set up an experimental line of their own, and so telegraph lines were +borrowed for short periods wherever possible, demonstrations were +given and tests made. The assistance of the newspapers was invoked and +news stories of the tests did much to popularize the new idea. + +An opportunity then came to Bell to lecture and demonstrate the +telephone before a scientific body in Essex. He secured the use of a +telegraph line and connected the hall with the laboratory in Boston. +The equipment consisted of old-fashioned box 'phones over a foot long +and eight inches square, built about an immense horseshoe magnet. +Watson was stationed in the Boston laboratory. Bell started his +lecture, with Watson constantly listening over the telephone. Bell +would stop from time to time and ask that the ability of the +telephone to transmit certain kinds of sounds be illustrated. Musical +instruments were played in Boston and heard in Essex; then Watson +talked, and finally he was instructed to sing. He insisted that he was +not a singer, but the voices of others less experienced in speaking +over the crude instruments often failed to carry sufficiently well +for demonstration purposes. So Watson sang, as best he could, "Yankee +Doodle," "Auld Lang Syne," and other favorites. After the lecture had +been completed members of the audience were invited to talk over the +telephone. A few of them mustered confidence to talk with Watson +in Boston, and the newspaper reporters carefully noted down all the +details of the conversation. + +The lecture aroused so much interest that others were arranged. The +first one had been free, but admission was charged for the later +lectures and this income was the first revenue Bell had received for +his invention. The arrangements were generally the same for each of +the lectures about Boston. The names of Longfellow, of Holmes, and of +other famous American men of letters are found among the patrons of +some of the lectures in Boston. Bell desired to give lectures in New +York City, but was not certain that his apparatus would operate at +that distance over the lines available. The laboratory was on the +third floor of a rooming-house, and Watson shouted so loud in his +efforts to make his voice carry that the roomers complained. So he +took blankets and erected a sort of tent over the instruments to +muffle the sound. When the signal came from Bell that he was ready for +the test, Watson crawled into the tent and began his shoutings. The +day was a hot one, and by the time that the test had been completed +Watson was completely wilted. But the complaints of the roomers had +been avoided. For one of the New York demonstrations the services of +a negro singer with a rich barytone voice had been secured. Watson had +no little difficulty in rehearsing him for the part, as he objected to +placing his lips close to the transmitter. When the time for the test +arrived he persisted in backing away from the mouthpiece when he sang, +and, though Watson endeavored to hold the transmitter closer to him, +his efforts were of no avail. Finally Bell told Watson that as the +negro could not be heard he would have to sing himself. The girl +operator in the laboratory had assembled a number of her girl +friends to watch the test, and Watson, who did not consider himself +a vocalist, did not fancy the prospect. But there was no one else to +sing, the demonstration must proceed, and finally Watson struck up +"Yankee Doodle" in a quavering voice. + +The negro looked on in disgust. "Is that what you wanted me to do, +boss?" + +"Yes," replied the embarrassed Watson. + +"Well, boss, I couldn't sing like that." + +The telegraph wires which were borrowed to demonstrate the utility of +the telephone proved far from perfect for the work at hand. Many of +the wires were rusted and the insulation was poor. The stations along +the line were likely to cut in their relays when the test was in +progress, and Bell's instruments were not arranged to overcome this +retardation. However, the lectures were a success from the popular +viewpoint. The public flocked to them and the fame of the telephone +grew. So many cities desired the lecture that it finally became +necessary for Bell to employ an assistant to give the lecture for him. +Frederick Gower, a Providence newspaper man, was selected for this +task, and soon mastered Bell's lecture. It was then possible to give +two lectures on the same evening, Bell delivering one, Gower the +other, and Watson handling the laboratory end for both. + +Gower secured a contract for the exclusive use of the telephone in New +England, but failed to demonstrate much ability in establishing the +new device on a business basis. How little the possibilities of the +telephone were then appreciated we may understand from the fact that +Gower exchanged his immensely valuable New England rights for the +exclusive right to lecture on the telephone throughout the country. + +The success of these lectures made it possible for Bell to marry, and +he started for England on a wedding-trip. The lectures also aroused +the necessary interest and made it possible to secure capital for the +establishment of telephone lines. It also determined Hubbard in his +plan of leasing the telephones instead of selling them. This was +especially important, as it made possible the uniformity of the +efficient Bell system of the present day. + + + + +XIV + +IMPROVEMENT AND EXPANSION + + The First Telephone Exchange--The Bell Telephone + Association--Theodore N. Vail--The Fight with the Western + Union--Edison and Blake Invent Transmitters--Last Effort of the + Western Union--Mushroom Companies and Would-be Inventors--The + Controversy with Gray--Dolbear's Claims--The Drawbaugh Case--On a + Firm Footing. + + +Through public interest had been aroused in the telephone, it was +still very far from being at the service of the nation. The telephone +increases in usefulness just in proportion to the number of your +acquaintances and business associates who have telephones in their +homes or offices. Instruments had to be manufactured on a commercial +scale, telephone systems had to be built up. While the struggles of +the inventor who seeks to apply a new idea are often romantic, the +efforts of the business executives who place the invention, once it +is achieved, at the service of people everywhere, are not less +praiseworthy and interesting. + +A very few telephones had been leased to those who desired to +establish private lines, but it was not until May of 1877 that the +first telephone system was established with an exchange by means of +which those having telephones might talk with one another. There was a +burglar-alarm system in Boston which had wires running from six banks +to a central station. The owner of this suggested that telephones be +installed in the banks using the burglar-alarm wires. Hubbard gladly +loaned the instruments for the purpose. Instruments were installed in +the banks without saying anything to the bankers, or making any charge +for the service. One banker demanded that his telephone be removed, +insisting that it was a foolish toy. But even with the crude little +exchange the first system proved its worth. Others were established in +New York, Philadelphia, and other cities on a commercial basis. A man +from Michigan appeared and secured the perpetual rights for his State, +and for his foresight and enterprise he was later to be rewarded by +the sale of these rights for a quarter of a million dollars. The free +service to the Boston bankers was withdrawn and a commercial system +installed there. + +But these exchanges served but a few people, and were poorly equipped. +There was, of course, no provision for communication between cities. +With the telephone over a year old, less than a thousand instruments +were in use. But Hubbard, who was directing the destinies of the +enterprise during Bell's absence in Europe, decided that the time +had come to organize. Accordingly the Bell Telephone Association was +formed, with Bell, Hubbard, Sanders, and Watson as the shareholders. +Sanders was the only one of the four with any considerable sum of +money, and his resources were limited. He staked his entire credit in +the enterprise, and managed to furnish funds with which the fight for +existence could be carried on. But a business depression was upon the +land and it was not easy to secure support for the telephone. + +The entrance of the Western Union Telegraph Company into the telephone +field brought the affairs of the Bell company to a crisis. As we have +seen, the telegraph company had developed into a great and powerful +corporation with wires stretching across the length and breadth of +the land and agents and offices established in every city and town of +importance. Once the telephone began to be used as a substitute for +the telegraph in conveying messages, the telegraph officials awoke to +the fact that here, possibly, was a dangerous rival, and dropped the +viewpoint that Bell's telephone was a mere plaything. They acquired +the inventions of Edison, Gray, and Dolbear, and entered the telephone +field, announcing that they were prepared to furnish the very best +in telephonic communication. This sudden assault by the most powerful +corporation in America, while it served to arouse public confidence in +the telephone, made it necessary for Hubbard to reorganize his forces +and find a general capable of doing battle against such a foe. + +Hubbard's political activities had brought to him a Presidential +appointment as head of a commission on mail transportation. In the +course of the work for the Government he had come much in contact with +a young man named Theodore N. Vail, who was head of the Government +mail service. He had been impressed by Vail's ability and had in turn +introduced Vail to the telephone and aroused his enthusiasm in its +possibilities. This Vail was a cousin of the Alfred Vail who +was Morse's co-worker, and who played so prominent a part in the +development of the telegraph. His experience in the Post-office +Department had given him an understanding of the problems of +communication in the United States, and had developed his executive +ability. Realizing the possibilities of the telephone, he relinquished +his governmental post and cast his fortunes with the telephone +pioneers, becoming general manager of the Bell company. + +The Western Union strengthened its position by the introduction of a +new and improved transmitter. This was the work of Thomas Edison, and +was so much better than Bell's transmitter that it enabled the Western +Union to offer much better telephonic equipment. As we have seen, +Bell's transmitter and receiver were very similar, being about the +same as the receiver now in common use. In his transmitter Edison +placed tiny bits of carbon in contact with the diaphragm. As the +diaphragm vibrated under the sound-impulses the pressure upon the +carbon granules was varied. An electric current was passed through +the carbon particles, whose electrical resistance was varied by the +changing pressure from the diaphragm. Thus the current was thrown into +undulations corresponding to the sound-waves, and passed over the +line and produced corresponding sounds in the receiver. Much stronger +currents could be utilized than those generated by Bell's instrument, +and thus the transmitter was much more effective for longer distances. + +Bell returned from Europe to find the affairs of his company in a +sorry plight. Only the courage and generalship of Vail kept it in +the field at all. Bell was penniless, having failed to establish +the telephone abroad, even as Morse before him had failed to secure +foreign revenue from his invention. Bell's health failed him, and as +he lay helpless in the hospital his affairs were indeed at a low +ebb. At this juncture Francis Blake, of Boston, came forward with an +improved transmitter which he offered to the Bell company in exchange +for stock. The instrument proved a success and was gladly adopted, +proving just what was needed to make possible successful competition +with the Western Union. + +Prolonged patent litigation followed, and after a bitter legal +struggle the Western Union officials became convinced of two things: +one, that the Bell company, under Vail's leadership, would not +surrender; second, that Bell was the original inventor of the +telephone and that his patent was valid. The Western Union, however, +seemed to have strong basis for its claim that the new transmitter of +the Bell people was an infringement of Edison's patent. A compromise +was arranged between the contestants by which the two companies +divided the business of furnishing communication by wire in the +United States. This agreement proved of the greatest benefit to both +organizations, and did much to make possible the present development +and universal service of both the telephone and telegraph. By the +terms of the agreement the Western Union recognized Bell's patent +and agreed to withdraw from the telephone business. The Bell company +agreed not to engage in the telegraph business and to take over the +Western Union telephone system and apparatus, paying a royalty on all +telephone rentals. Experience has demonstrated that the two businesses +are not competitive, but supplement each other. It is therefore proper +that they should work side by side with mutual understanding. + +Success had come at last to the telephone pioneers. Other battles were +still to be fought before their position was to be made secure, +but from the moment when the Western Union admitted defeat the Bell +company was the leader. The stock of the company advanced to a point +where Bell, Hubbard, Sanders, and Watson found themselves in the +possession of wealth as a reward for their pioneering. + +The Western Union had no sooner withdrawn as a competitor of the Bell +organization than scores of small, local companies sprang up, all +ready to pirate the Bell patent and push the claims of some rival +inventor. A very few of them really tried to establish telephone +systems, but the majority were organized simply to sell stock to a +gullible public. They stirred up a continuous turmoil, and made +much trouble for the larger company, though their patent claims were +persistently defeated in the courts. + +Most of the rival claimants who sprang up, once the telephone had +become an established fact and had proved its value, were men of +neither prominence nor scientific attainments. Of a very different +type was Elisha Gray, whose work we have before noticed, and who +now came forward with the claim that he had invented a telephone +in advance of Bell. Gray was a practical man of real scientific +attainments, but, as we have noticed, his efforts in search of a +telephone were from the viewpoint of a musical telegraph and so +destined to failure. It has frequently been stated that Gray filed +his application for a patent on a telephone of his invention but a +few minutes after Bell, and so Bell wrested the honor from him by the +scantiest of margins. A careful reading of the testimony brought out +in Gray's suit against Bell does not support such a statement. While +Bell filed an application for a patent on a completed, invention, Gray +filed, a few moments later, a caveat. This was a document, stating +that he hoped to invent a telephone of a certain kind therein stated, +and would serve to protect his rights until he should have time to +perfect it. Thus Gray did not have a completed invention, and he later +failed to perfect a telephone along the lines described in his caveat. +The decision of the court supported Bell's claims in full. + +Another of the Western Union's telephone experts, Professor Dolbear, +of Tufts College, also sought to make capital of his knowledge of the +telephone. He based his claims upon an improvement of the Reis +musical telegraph, which had formed the starting-point for so many +experimenters. The case fell flat, however, for when the apparatus was +brought into court no one could make it talk. + +None of the attacks upon Bell's claim to be the original inventor +of the telephone aroused more popular interest at the time than the +famous Drawbaugh case. Daniel Drawbaugh was a country mechanic with a +habit of reading of the new inventions in the scientific journals. He +would work out models of many of these for himself, and, showing them +very proudly, often claim them as his own devices. Drawbaugh was +now put forward by the opponents of the Bell organization as having +invented a telephone before Bell. It was claimed that he had been too +poor to secure a patent or to bring his invention to popular notice. +Much sympathy was thus aroused for him and the legal battle was waged +to interminable length, with the usual result. Bell's patent was again +sustained, and Drawbaugh's claims were pronounced without merit. + +Many other legal battles followed, but the dominance of the Bell +organization, resting upon the indisputable fact that Bell was the +first man to conceive and execute a practical telephone, could not +be shaken. The telephone business was on a firm footing: it had +demonstrated its real service to the public; it had become a +necessity; and, under the able leadership of Vail, was fast extending +its field of usefulness. + + + + +XV + +TELEGRAPHING WITHOUT WIRES + + The First Suggestion--Morse Sends Messages Through the + Water--Trowbridge Telegraphs Through the Earth--Experiments of + Preece and Heaviside in England--Edison Telegraphs from Moving + Trains--Researches of Hertz Disclose the Hertzian Waves. + + +Great as are the possibilities of the telegraph and the telephone in +the service of man, these instruments are still limited to the wires +over which they must operate. Communication was not possible until +wires had been strung; where wires could not be strung communication +was impossible. Much yet remained to be done before perfection +in communication was attained, and, though the public generally +considered the telegraph, and the telephone the final achievement, men +of science were already searching for an even better way. + +The first suggestion that electric currents carrying messages might +some day travel without wires seems to have come from K.A. Steinheil, +of Munich. In 1838 he discovered that if the two ends of a single wire +carrying the electric current be connected with the ground a complete +circuit is formed, the earth acting as the return. Thus he was able +to dispense with one wire, and he suggested that some day it might be +possible to eliminate the wire altogether. The fact that the current +bearing messages could be sent through the water was demonstrated by +Morse as early as 1842. He placed plates at the termini of a circuit +and submerged them in water some distance apart on one side of a +canal. Other plates were placed on the opposite side of the waterway +and were connected by a wire with a sensitive galvanometer in series +to act as a receiver. Currents sent from the opposite side were +recorded by the galvanometer and the possibility of communication +through the water was established. Others carried these experiments +further, it being even suggested that messages might be sent across +the Atlantic by this method. + +But Bell's greatest contribution to the search for wireless telegraphy +was not his direct work in this field, but the telephone itself. +His telephone receiver provided the wireless experimenters with an +instrument of extreme sensitiveness by which they were able to detect +currents which the mirror galvanometer could not receive. While +experimenting with a telephone along a telegraph line a curious +phenomenon was noticed. The telephone experimenters heard music very +clearly. They investigated and found that another telegraph wire, +strung along the same poles, but at the usual distance and with +the usual insulation, was being used for a test of Edison's musical +telephone. Many other similar tests were made and the effect was +always noted. In some way the message on one line had been conveyed +across the air-gap and had been recorded by the telephones on the +other line. It was decided that this had been caused by induction. + +Prof. John Trowbridge, of Harvard University, might well be termed +the grandfather of wireless telegraphy. He made the first extensive +investigation of the subject, and his experiments in sending +messages without wires and his discoveries furnished information and +inspiration for those who were to follow. His early experiments tested +the possibility of using the earth as a conductor. He demonstrated +that when an electric current is sent into the earth it spreads from +that point in waves in all directions, just as when a stone is cast +into a pond the ripples widen out from that point, becoming fainter +and fainter until they reach the shore. He further found that these +currents could be detected by grounding the terminals of a telephone +circuit. Telegraphy through the earth was thus possible. However, the +farther the receiving station was from the sending station the wider +must be the distance between the telephone terminals and the smaller +the current received. Professor Trowbridge did not find it possible to +operate his system at a sufficient distance to make it of value, but +he did demonstrate that the currents do travel through the earth and +that they can be set to carrying messages. + +Professor Trowbridge also revived the idea of telegraphing across the +Atlantic by utilizing the conductivity of the sea-water to carry the +currents. In working out the plan theoretically he discovered that the +terminals on the American side would have to be widely separated--one +in Nova Scotia and the other in Florida--and that they would have to +be connected by an insulated cable. Two widely separated points on +the coast of France were suggested for the other terminals. He +also calculated that very high voltages would be necessary, and the +practical difficulties involved made it seem certain that such a +system would cost far too much to construct and to operate to be +profitable. + +Trowbridge suggested the possibility of using such a system +for establishing communication between ships at sea. Ship could +communicate with ship, over short distances, during a fog. A trailing +wire was to be used to increase the sending and receiving power, and +Trowbridge believed that with a dynamo capable of supplying current +for a hundred lights, communication could be established at a distance +of half a mile. + +Not satisfied with the earth or the sea as a medium for carrying the +current, Trowbridge essayed to use the air. He believed that this was +possible, and that it would be accomplished at no distant date. He +believed, however, that such a system could not be operated over +considerable distances because of the curvature of the earth. He +endeavored to establish communication through the air by induction. +He demonstrated that if one coil of wire be set up and a current sent +through it, a similar coil facing it will have like currents induced +within it, which may be detected with a telephone receiver. He also +determined that the currents were strongest in the receiving coil when +it was placed in a plane parallel with the sending coil. By turning +the receiving coil about until the sound was strongest in the +telephone receiver, it was thus possible to determine the direction +from which the messages were coming. Trowbridge recognized the great +value of this feature to a ship at sea. + +But these induced currents could only be detected at a distance by +the use of enormous coils. To receive at a half-mile a coil of eight +hundred feet radius would have been necessary, and this was obviously +impossible for use on shipboard. So these experiments also developed +no practical improvement in the existing means of communication. But +Professor Trowbridge had demonstrated new possibilities, and had set +men thinking along new lines. He was the pioneer who pointed the way +to a great invention, though he himself failed to attain it. + +Bell followed up Trowbridge's suggestions of using the water as a +medium of communication, and in a series of experiments conducted on +the Potomac River established communication between moving ships. + +Professor Dolbear also turned from telephone experimentation to the +search for the wireless. He grounded his wires and sent high currents +into the earth, but improved his system and took another step toward +the final achievement by adding a large induction coil to his sending +equipment. He suggested that the spoken word might be sent as well as +dots and dashes, and so sought the wireless telephone as well as +the wireless telegraph. Like his predecessors, his experiments were +successful only at short distances. + +The next application of the induction telegraph was to establish +communication with moving trains. Several experimenters had suggested +it, but it remained for Thomas A. Edison to actually accomplish it. +He set up a plate of tin-foil on the engine or cars, opposite the +telegraph wires. Currents could be induced across the gap, no matter +what the speed of the train, and, traveling along the wires to the +station, communication was thus established. Had Edison continued his +investigation further, instead of turning to other pursuits, he +might have achieved the means of communicating through the air at +considerable distances. + +These experiments by Americans in the early 'eighties seemed to +promise that America was to produce the wireless telegraph, as it had +produced the telegraph and the telephone. But the greatest activity +now shifted to Europe and the American men of science failed to push +their researches to a successful conclusion. Sir W.H. Preece, +an Englishman, brought himself to public notice by establishing +communication with the Isle of Wight by Morse's method. Messages were +sent and received during a period when the cable to the island was +out of commission, and thus telegraphing without wires was put to +practical use. + +Preece carried his experiments much further. In 1885 he laid out two +great squares of insulated wire, a quarter of a mile to the side, +and at a distance of a quarter of a mile from each other. Telephonic +communication was established between them, and thus he had attained +wireless telephony by induction. In 1887, another Englishman, A.W. +Heaviside, laid circuits over two miles long on the surface and other +circuits in the galleries of a coal-mine three hundred and fifty feet +below, and established communication between the circuits. Working +together, Preece and Heaviside extended the distances over which +they could communicate. Preece finally decided that a combination of +conduction and induction was the best means of wireless communication. +He grounded the wire of his circuit at two points and raised it to a +considerable height between these points. Preece's work was to put the +theories of Professor Trowbridge to practical use and thus bring the +final achievement a step nearer. + +But conduction and induction combined would not carry messages to a +distance that would enable extensive communication. A new medium had +yet to be found, and this was the work of Heinrich Hertz, a young +German scientist. He was experimenting with two flat coils of wire, +as had many others before him, but one of the coils had a small gap +in it. Passing the discharge from a condenser into this coil, Hertz +discovered that the spark caused when the current jumped the gap set +up electrical vibrations that excited powerful currents in the other +coil. These currents were noticeable, though the coils were a very +considerable distance apart. Thus Hertz had found out how to send out +electrical waves that would travel to a considerable distance. + +What was the medium that carried these waves? This was the question +that Hertz asked himself, and the answer was, the ether. We know that +light will pass through a vacuum, and these electric waves would do +likewise. It was evident that they did not pass through the air. The +answer, as evolved by Hertz and approved by other scientists, is that +they travel through the ether, a strange substance which pervades all +space. Hertz discovered that light and his electrical waves traveled +at the same speed, and so deduced that light consists of electrical +vibrations in the ether. + +With the knowledge that this all-pervading ether would carry electric +waves at the speed of light, that the waves could be set up by the +discharge of a spark across a spark-gap in a coil, and that they +could be received in another coil in resonance with the first, the +establishment of a practical wireless telegraph was not far away. + + + + +XVI + +AN ITALIAN BOY'S WORK + + The Italian Youth who Dreamed Wonderful Dreams--His Studies--Early + Detectors--Marconi Seeks an Efficient Detector--Devises New Sending + Methods--The Wireless Telegraph Takes Form--Experimental Success. + + +With the nineteenth century approaching its close, man had discovered +that the electric waves would travel through the ether; he had learned +something of how to propagate those waves, and something of how +to receive them. But no one had yet been able to combine these +discoveries in practical form, to apply them to the task of carrying +messages, to make the improvements necessary to make them available +for use at considerable distances. Though many mature scientists had +devoted themselves to the problem, it remained for a youth to solve +it. The youth was Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian. + +We have noticed that the telegraph, the cable, and the telephone were +the work of those of the Anglo-Saxon race--Englishmen or Americans--so +it came as a distinct surprise that an Italian youth should make +the next great application of electricity to communication. But +Anglo-Saxon blood flows in Marconi's veins. Though his father was an +Italian, his mother was an Irishwoman. He was born at Villa Griffone +near Bologna, Italy, on April 25, 1874. He studied in the schools of +Bologna and of Florence, and early showed his interest in scientific +affairs. From his mother he learned English, which he speaks as +fluently as he does his native tongue. As a boy he was allowed to +attend English schools for short periods, spending some time at +Bedford and at Rugby. + +One of his Italian teachers was Professor Righi, who had made a close +study of the Hertzian waves, and who was himself making no small +contributions to the advancement of the science. From him young +Marconi learned of the work which had been accomplished, and of the +apparatus which was then available. Marconi was a quiet boy--almost +shy. + +He did not display the aggressive energy so common with many promising +youths. But though he was quiet, he was not slothful. He entered into +his studies with a determination and an application that brought to +him great results. He was a student and a thinker. Any scientific book +or paper which came before him was eagerly devoured. It was this habit +of careful and persistent study that made it possible for Marconi to +accomplish such wonderful things at an early age. + +Marconi had learned of the Hertzian waves. It occurred to him that by +their aid wireless telegraphy might be accomplished. The boy saw the +wonderful possibilities; he dreamed dreams of how these waves might +carry messages from city to city, from ship to shore, and from +continent to continent without wires. He realized his own youth and +inexperience, and it seemed certain to him that many able scientists +had had the same vision and must be struggling toward its attainment. +For a year Marconi dreamed those dreams, studying the books and papers +which would tell him more of these wonderful waves. Each week he +expected the news that wireless telegraphy had been established, but +the news never came. Finally he concluded that others, despite their +greater opportunities, had not been so far-seeing as he had thought. + +Marconi attacked the problem himself with the dogged persistence and +the studious care so characteristic of him. He began his experiments +upon his father's farm, the elder Marconi encouraging the youth and +providing him with funds with which to purchase apparatus. He set +up poles at the opposite sides of the garden and on them mounted the +simple sending and receiving instruments which were then available, +using plates of tin for his aerials. He set up a simple spark-gap, as +had Hertz, and used a receiving device little more elaborate. A Morse +telegraph-key was placed in circuit with the spark-gap. When the key +was held down for a longer period a long spark passed between the +brass knobs of the spark-gap and a dash was thus transmitted. When +the key was depressed for a shorter period a dot in the Morse code was +sent forth. After much work and adjustment Marconi was able to send +a message across the garden. Others had accomplished this for similar +distances, but they lacked Marconi's imagination and persistence, and +failed to carry their experiments further. To the young Irish-Italian +this was but a starting-point. + +[Illustration: GUGLIELMO MARCONI + +Photographed in the uniform of an officer in the Italian army] + +Marconi quickly found that the receiver was the least effective part +of the existing apparatus. The waves spread in all directions from +the sending station and become feebler and feebler as the distance +increases. To make wireless telegraphy effective over any considerable +distance a highly efficient and extremely sensitive receiving device +is necessary. Some special means of detecting the feeble currents was +necessary. The coherer was the solution. As early as 1870 a Mr. S.A. +Varley, an Englishman, had discovered that when he endeavored to +send a current through a mass of carbon granules the tiny particles +arranged themselves in order under the influence of the electric +current, and offered a free path for the passage of the current. When +shaken apart they again resisted the flow of current until it became +powerful enough to cause them to again arrange themselves into a +sort of bridge for its passage. Thus was the principle of the coherer +discovered. + +An Italian scientist, Professor Calzecchi-Onesti, carried these +experiments still further. He used various substances in place of the +carbon granules and showed that some of them will arrange themselves +so as to allow the passage of a current under the influence of the +spark setting up the Hertzian waves. Professor E. Branly, of the +Catholic University of Paris, took up this work in 1890. He arranged +metal filings in a small glass tube six inches long and arranged a +tapper to disarrange the filings after they had been brought together +under the influence of the spark. + +With the Branly coherer as the basis Marconi sought to make +improvements which would result in the detector he was seeking. For +his powder he used nickel, mixed with a small proportion of fine +silver filings. This he placed between silver plugs in a small glass +tube. Platinum wires were connected to the silver plugs and brought +out at the opposite ends of the tube. It required long study to +determine just how to adjust the plugs between which the powder was +loosely arranged. If the particles were pressed together too tightly +they would not fall apart readily enough under the influence of the +tapper. If too much space was allowed they would not cohere readily +enough. Marconi also discovered that a larger proportion of silver +in the powder and a smaller amount between the plugs increased the +sensitiveness of the receiver. Yet he found it well not to have it +too sensitive lest it cohere for every stray current and so give false +signals. + +Under the influence of the electric waves set up from the spark-gap +those tiny particles so arranged themselves that they would readily +carry a current between the plugs. By placing these plugs with their +platinum terminals in circuit with a local battery the current from +this local battery was given a passage through the coherer by the +action of the electric waves coming through the ether. While these +waves themselves were too feeble to operate a receiving mechanism, +they were strong enough to arrange the particles of the sensitive +metal in the tube in order, so that the current from the local battery +could pass through them. This current operated a telegraph relay which +in turn operated a Morse receiving instrument. An electrical tapper +was also arranged in this circuit so that it would strike the tube a +light blow after each long or short wave representing a dot or a dash +had been received. Thus the particles were disarranged, ready to array +themselves when the next wave came through the ether and so form the +bridge over which the stronger local circuit could convey the signal. + +Marconi further discovered that the most effective arrangement was to +run a wire from one terminal of the coherer into the ground, and from +the other to an elevated metal plate or wire. The waves coming through +the ether were received by the elevated wire and were conducted down +to the coherer. Experimenting with his apparatus on the posts in +the garden, he discovered that an increase in the height of the wire +greatly increased the receiving distance. + +At his sending station he used the exciter of his teacher, Professor +Righi. This, too, he modified and perfected for his practical purpose. +As he used the device it consisted of two brass spheres a millimeter +apart. An envelope was provided so that the sides of the spheres +toward each other and the space between was occupied by vaseline oil +which served to keep the faces of the spheres clean and produce a more +uniform spark. Outside the two spheres, but in line with them, were +placed two smaller spheres at a distance of about two-fifths of a +centimeter. The terminals of the sending circuit were attached to +these. The secondary coil of a large induction coil was placed in +series with them, and batteries were wired in series with the primary +of the coil with a sending key to make and break the circuit. When the +key was closed a series of sparks sprang across the spark-gap, and +the waves were thus set up in the ether and carried the message to the +receiving station. + +As in the case of his receiving station, Marconi found that results +were much improved when he wired his sending apparatus so that one +terminal was grounded and the other connected with an elevated wire or +aerial, which is now called the antenna. By 1896 Marconi had brought +this apparatus to a state of perfection where he could transmit +messages to a distance of several miles. This Irish-Italian youth +of twenty-two had mastered the problem which had baffled veteran +scientists and was ready to place a new wonder at the service of the +world. + +The devices which Marconi thus assembled and put to practical use had +been, in the hands of others, little more than scientific toys. +Others had studied the Hertzian waves and the methods of sending and +detecting them from a purely scientific viewpoint. Marconi had the +vision to realize the practical possibilities, and, though little +more than a boy, had assembled the whole into a workable system of +communication. He richly deserves the laurels and the rewards as the +inventor of the wireless telegraph. + + + + +XVII + +WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY ESTABLISHED + + Marconi Goes to England--he Confounds the Skeptics--A Message to + France Without Wires--The Attempt to Span the Ocean--Marconi in + America Receives the First Message from Europe--Fame and Recognition + Achieved. + + +The time had now come for Marconi to introduce himself and his +discoveries to the attention of the world. He went to England, and +on June 2, 1896, applied for a patent on his system of wireless +telegraphy. Soon afterward his plans were submitted to the +postal-telegraph authorities. Fortunately for Marconi and for the +world, W.H. Preece was then in authority in this department. He +himself had experimented with some little success with wireless +messages. He was able enough to see the merit in Marconi's +discoveries and generous enough to give him full recognition and every +encouragement. + +The apparatus was first set up in the General Post-office in London, +another station being located on the roof but a hundred yards away. +Though several walls intervened, the Hertzian waves traversed them +without difficulty, and messages were sent and received. Stations +were then set up on Salisbury Plain, some two miles apart, and +communication was established between them. + +Though the postal-telegraph authorities received Marconi's statements +of his discoveries with open mind and put his apparatus to fair tests, +the public at large was much less tolerant. The skepticism which met +Morse and Bell faced Marconi. Men of science doubted his statements +and scoffed at his claims. The Hertzian waves might be all right to +operate scientific playthings, they thought, but they were far too +uncertain to furnish a medium for carrying messages in any practical +way. Then, as progress was made and Marconi began to prove his system, +the inevitable jealousies arose. Experimenters who might have invented +the wireless telegraph, but who did not, came forward to contest +Marconi's claims and to seek to snatch his laurels from him. + +The young inventor forged steadily ahead, studying and experimenting, +devising improved apparatus, meeting the difficulties one by one +as they arose. In most of his early experiments he had used a +modification of the little tin boxes which had been set up in his +father's garden as his original aerials. Having discovered that the +height of the aerials increased the range of the stations, he covered +a large kite with tin-foil and, sending it up with a wire, used this +as an aerial. Balloons were similarly employed. He soon recognized, +however, that a practical commercial system, which should be capable +of sending and receiving messages day and night, regardless of the +weather, could not be operated with kites or balloons. The height of +masts was limited, so he sought to increase the range by increasing +the electrical power of the current sending forth the sparks from the +sending station. Here he was on the right path, and another long step +forward had been taken. + +In the fall of 1897 he set up a mast on the Isle of Wight, one hundred +and twenty feet high. From the top of this was strung a single wire +and a new series of experiments was begun. Marconi had spent the +summer in Italy demonstrating his apparatus, and had established +communication between a station on the shore and a war-ship of the +Italian Navy equipped with his apparatus. He now secured a small +steamer for his experiments from his station on the Isle of Wight and +equipped it with a sixty-foot mast. Communication was maintained with +the boat day after day, regardless of weather conditions. The distance +at which communication could be maintained was steadily increased +until communication was established with the mainland. + +In July of 1898 the wireless demonstrated its utility as a conveyer of +news. An enterprising Dublin newspaper desired to cover the Kingstown +regatta with the aid of the wireless. In order to do this a land +station was erected at Kingstown, and another on board a steamer which +followed the yachts. A telephone wire connected the Kingstown station +with the newspaper office, and as the messages came by wireless from +the ship they were telephoned to Dublin and published in successive +editions of the evening papers. + +This feat attracted so much attention that Queen Victoria sought the +aid of the wireless for her own necessities. Her son, the Prince of +Wales, lay ill on his yacht, and the aged queen desired to keep +in constant communication with him. Marconi accordingly placed one +station on the prince's yacht and another at Osborne House, the +queen's residence. Communication was readily maintained, and one +hundred and fifty messages passed by wireless between the prince and +the royal mother. + +While the electric waves bearing the messages were found to pass +through wood, stone, or earth, it was soon noticed in practical +operation that when many buildings, or a hill, or any other solid +object of size intervened between the stations the waves were +greatly retarded and the messages seriously interfered with. When the +apparatus was placed on board steel vessels it was found that any part +of the vessel coming between the stations checked the communication. +Marconi sought to avoid these difficulties by erecting high aerials at +every point, so that the waves might pass through the clear air over +solid obstructions. + +Marconi's next effort was to connect France with England. He went to +France to demonstrate his apparatus to the French Government and set +up a station near Boulogne. The aerial was raised to a height of one +hundred and fifty feet. Another station was erected near Folkestone +on the English coast, across the Channel. A group of French officials +gathered in the little station near Folkestone for the test, which was +made on the 27th of March, 1899. Marconi sent the messages, which were +received by the station on the French shore without difficulty. Other +messages were received from France, and wireless communication between +the nations was an accomplished fact. + +The use of the wireless for ships and lighthouses sprang into favor, +and wireless stations were established all around the British coasts +so that ships equipped with wireless might keep in communication +with the land. The British Admiralty quickly recognized the value +of wireless telegraphy to war vessels. While field telegraphs and +telephones had served the armies, the navies were still dependent upon +primitive signals, since a wire cannot be strung from ship to ship +nor from ship to shore. So the British battle-ships were equipped with +wireless apparatus and a thorough test was made. A sham battle +was held in which all of the orders were sent by wireless, and +communication was constantly maintained both between the flag-ships +and the vessels of their fleets and between the flag-ships and the +shore. Marconi's invention had again proved itself. + +The wireless early demonstrated its great value as a means of saving +life at sea. Lightships off the English coast were equipped with the +wireless and were thus enabled to warn ships of impending storms, +and on several occasions the wireless was used to summon aid from the +shore when ships were sinking because of accidents near the lightship. + +Following the establishment of communication with France, Marconi +increased the range of his apparatus until he was able to cover most +of eastern Europe. In one of his demonstrations he sent messages +to Italy. His ambition, however, was to send messages across the +Atlantic, and he now attacked this stupendous task. On the coast of +Cornwall, England, he began the construction of a station which should +have sufficient power to send a message to America. Instead of using +a single wire for his aerial, he erected many tall poles and strung a +number of wires from pole to pole. The comparatively feeble batteries +which had furnished the currents used in the earlier efforts were +replaced with great power-driven dynamos, and converters were used +instead of the induction coil. Thus was the great Poldhu station +established. + +Late in 1901 Marconi crossed to America to superintend the +preparations there, and that he himself might be ready to receive +the first message, should it prove possible to span the ocean. Signal +Hill, near St. John's, Newfoundland was selected as the place for the +American station. The expense of building a great aerial for the test +was too great, and so dependence was had upon kites to send the wires +aloft. For many days Marconi's assistants struggled with the great +kites in an effort to get them aloft. At last they flew, carrying the +wire to a great height. The wire was carried into a small Government +building near by in which Marconi stationed himself. At his ear was a +telephone receiver, this having been substituted for the relay and the +Morse instrument because of its far greater sensitiveness. + +Marconi had instructed his operator at Poldhu to send simply the +letter "s" at an hour corresponding to 12.30 A.M. in Newfoundland. +Great was the excitement and suspense in Cornwall when the hour for +the test arrived. Forgetting that they were sleepy, the staff crowded +about the sending key, and the little building at the foot of the +ring of great masts supporting the aerial shook with the crash of the +blinding sparks as the three, dots which form the letter "s" were sent +forth. Even greater was the tension on the Newfoundland coast, where +Marconi sat eagerly waiting for the signal. Finally it came, three +faint ticks in the telephone receiver. The wireless had crossed the +Atlantic. Marconi had no sending apparatus, so that it was not until +the cable had carried the news that those in England knew that the +message had been received. + +Because Marconi had never made a statement or a claim he had not been +able to prove, he had attained a reputation for veracity which made +his statement that he had received a signal across the Atlantic carry +weight with the scientists. Many, of course, were skeptical, and +insisted that the simple signal had come by chance from some ship not +far away. But the inventor pushed quietly and steadily ahead, making +arrangements to perfect the system and establish it so that it would +be of commercial use. + +Marconi returned to England, but two months later set out for America +again on the liner _Philadelphia_ with improved apparatus. He kept in +constant communication with his station at Poldhu until the ship was +a hundred and fifty miles from shore. Beyond that point he could not +send messages, as the sending apparatus on the ship lacked sufficient +power. Messages were received, however, until the sending station +was over two thousand miles away. This seemed miraculous to those +on shipboard, but Marconi accepted it as a matter of course. He had +equipped the Poldhu station to send twenty-one hundred miles, and he +knew that it should accomplish the feat. + +A large station was set up at Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and regular +communication was established between there and Poldhu. With the +establishment of regular transatlantic communication the utility of +Marconi's invention, even for work at great distances, was no longer +open to question. By quiet, unassuming, conscientious work he had put +another great carrier of messages at the service of the world, and he +now reaped the fame and fortune which he so richly deserved. + + + + +XVIII + +THE WIRELESS SERVES THE WORLD + + Marconi Organized Wireless Telegraphy Commercially--The New Wonder + at the Service of the World--Marine Disasters Prevented--The + Extension of the Wireless on Shipboard--Improved Apparatus--The + Wireless in the World War--The Boy and the Wireless. + + +With his clear understanding of the possibilities of his invention, +Marconi was not long in establishing the wireless upon a commercial +basis. He is a man of keen business judgment, and as he brought his +invention forward and clearly demonstrated its worth at a time when +commercial enterprise was alert he found no great difficulty in +establishing his company. The first Marconi company was organized +as early as 1897 under the name of the Wireless Telegraph and Signal +Company, Limited. This was later displaced by the Marconi Telegraph +Company, which operates a regular system of stations on a commercial +basis, carrying messages in competition with the cable and telegraph +companies. It also erects stations for other companies which are +operated under the Marconi patents. + +With the telegraph and the telephone so well established and serving +the needs of ordinary communication on land, it was natural that the +wireless should make headway but slowly as a commercial proposition +between points on land. For communication at sea, however, it had no +competition, and merchant-ships as well as war vessels were rapidly +equipped with wireless apparatus. + +When the great liner _Republic_ was sinking as a result of a collision +off the port of New York in 1903 her wireless brought aid. Her +passengers and crew were taken off in safety, and what otherwise would +have been a terrible disaster was avoided by the use of the wireless. +The utility of the wireless was again brought sharply to the attention +of the world. It was realized that a wireless set on a passenger-ship +was necessary if the lives of the passengers were to be safeguarded. +The United States Government by its laws now requires that +passenger-ships shall be equipped with wireless apparatus in charge of +a competent operator. + +One of the early objections made to the wireless was its apparent lack +of secrecy, since any other receiving apparatus within range of the +waves sent forth by the sending station can receive the signals. It +was also realized that as soon as any considerable number of stations +were established about the world, and began sending messages to and +fro, there would be a perfect jumble of waves flying about in all +directions through the ether, so that no messages could be sent or +received. + +Marconi's answer to these difficulties was the tuning apparatus. The +electric waves carrying the messages may be sent out at widely varying +lengths. Marconi found that it was possible to adjust a receiving +station so that it would receive only waves of a certain length. +Thus stations which desired to communicate could select a certain +wave-length, and they could send and receive messages without +interfering with others using different wave-lengths, or without the +receiving station being confused by messages coming in from +other stations using different wave-lengths. You know that when a +tuning-fork is set in vibration another of the same pitch near it will +vibrate with it, but others of different pitch will not be affected. +The operation of wireless stations in tune with each other is similar. + +[Illustration: A REMARKABLE PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN OUTSIDE OF THE CLIFDEN +STATION WHILE MESSAGES WERE BEING SENT ACROSS TO CAPE RACE + +The camera was exposed for two hours, and the white bars show the +sparks leaving the wires for their journey through the air for +seventeen hundred miles.] + +[Illustration: MARCONI STATION AT CLIFDEN, IRELAND + +These dynamos send a message straight across the ocean.] + +An example of the value of tuning is afforded by the manner in which +press reports are sent from the great Marconi station at Poldhu. Each +night at a certain hour this station sends out news reports of the +events of the day, using a certain set wave-length. Each ship on the +Atlantic and every land station within range which is to receive the +reports at that hour adjusts its receiving set to receive waves of +that length. In this way they hear nothing but the Poldhu news reports +which they desire to receive, and are not troubled by messages from +other stations within range. + +Secrecy is also attained by the use of tuning. It is possible that +another station may discover the wave-length being used for a secret +message and "listen in," but there are so many possible wave-lengths +that this is difficult. Secrecy may also be secured by the use of code +messages. + +Many of the advantages of tuning were lost by the international +agreement which provided that but two wave-lengths should be used for +commercial work. This, however, enables ships to get in touch with +other ships in time of need. With his telephone receivers the operator +can hear the passage of the waves as they are brought to him by his +aerial and the dots and dashes sound as buzzes of greater or less +length. Out of the confusion of currents passing through the air he +can select the messages he wishes to read by sound. + +You may wonder how one wireless operator gets into communication with +another. He first listens in to determine whether messages are coming +through the ether within range in the wave-length he is to use. +Hearing nothing, he adjusts his sending apparatus to the desired +wave-length and switches this in with the signal aerial which +serves both his sending and his receiving set. This at the same time +disconnects his receiving set. He sends out the call letters of the +station to which he wishes to send a message, following them with +his own call letters, as a signature to show who is calling. After +repeating these signals several times he switches out his sending set +and listens in with his receiving set. If he then gets an answer from +the other station he can begin sending the message. + +Marconi was not allowed to hold the wireless field unmolested. +Many others set up wireless stations, some of them infringing upon +Marconi's patents. Others have devised wireless systems along +more original lines. Particularly we should mention two American +experimenters, Dr. de Forest and Professor Fessenden. Both have +established wireless systems with no little promise. The system of +Professor Fessenden is especially unique and original and may be +destined to work a revolution in the methods of wireless telegraphy. + +With an increase in the number of wireless stations and varieties +of apparatus came a wide increase in the uses to which wireless +telegraphy was applied. We have already noticed the press service +from Poldhu. The British Government makes use of this same station to +furnish daily news to its representatives in all parts of the +world. The wireless is also used to transmit the time from the great +observatories. + +Some of the railroads in the United States have equipped their trails +as well as their stations with wireless sets. It has proved its worth +in communicating between stations, taking the place in time of need +of either the telegraph or the telephone. In equipping the trains with +sets a difficulty was met in arranging the aerials. It is, of course, +impossible to arrange the wires at any height above the cars, since +they would be swept away in passing under bridges. Even with very low +aerials, however, communication has been successfully maintained at +a distance of over a hundred miles. The speed of the fastest train +affects the sending and receiving of messages not at all. It was also +found that messages passed without hindrance, even though the train +was passing through a tunnel. + +Another interesting application of wireless telegraphy is to the +needs of the fire-fighters. Fire stations in New York City have been +equipped with wireless telegraph sets, and they have proved so useful +in spreading alarms and transmitting news of fires that they seem +destined to come into universal use. + +The outbreak of the world war gave a tremendous impetus to the +development of wireless telegraphy. The German cable to the United +States was cut in the early days of the conflict. The sending power +of wireless stations had been sufficiently increased, however, so that +the great German stations could communicate with those in the United +States. Communication was readily maintained between the Allies by +means of wireless, the great stations at Poldhu and at the Eiffel +Tower in Paris being in constant communication with each other and +with the stations in Italy and in Russia. + +Portable field sets had been used with some slight success even in the +Boer War, and had definitely proved their worth in the Balkans. The +outbreak of the greater war found all of the nations equipped with +portable apparatus for the use of their armies. These proved of +great use. The field sets of the United States Army also proved their +utility in the campaign into Mexico in pursuit of Villa. By their +means it was possible for General Pershing's forces to keep in +constant touch with the headquarters in the United States. + +The wireless proved as valuable to the navies as had been anticipated. +The Germans in particular made great improvements in light wireless +sets designed for use on aircraft. The problem of placing an aerial on +an aeroplane is difficult, but no little headway has been made in this +direction. + +It is the American boy who has done the most interesting work with the +wireless in the United States. While the commercial development +has been comparatively slow, the boys have set up stations by the +thousands. Most of these stations were constructed by the boys +themselves, who have learned and are learning how best to apply this +modern wonder to the service of man. So many amateurs set up stations +that the Government found it necessary to regulate them by law. +The law now requires that amateur experimenters use only short +wave-lengths in their sending, which will not interfere with messages +from Government or commercial stations. It also provides for the +licensing of amateurs who prove competent. + +The stations owned and operated by boys have already proved of great +use. In times of storm and flood when wire communication failed they +have proved the only means of communicating with many districts. In +time of war these amateur stations, scattered in all parts of the +country, might prove immensely valuable. Means have now been taken to +so organize the amateurs that they can communicate with one another, +and by this means messages may be sent to any part of the country. + +One young American, John Hays Hammond, Jr., has applied the wireless +in novel and interesting ways. By means of special apparatus mounted +on a small boat he can by the means of a wireless station on shore +start or stop the vessel, or steer it in any direction by his wireless +control. He has applied the same system to the control of torpedoes. +By this means a torpedo may be controlled after it has left the shore +and may be directed in any direction as long as it is within sight. +This invention may prove of incalculable benefit should America be +attacked by a foreign power. + +What startling developments of wireless telegraphy lie still in the +future we do not know. Marconi has predicted that wireless messages +will circle the globe. "I believe," he has said, "that in the near +future a wireless message will be sent from New York completely around +the world without relaying, and will be received by an instrument +in the same office with the transmitter, in perhaps less time than +Shakespeare's forty minutes." + +Not long ago the United States battle-ship _Wyoming_, lying off Cape +Henry on the Atlantic coast, communicated with the _San Diego_ at +Guaymas, on the Pacific coast of Mexico. This distance, twenty-five +hundred miles across land, shows that Marconi's prediction may be +realized in the not distant future. + + + + +XIX + +SPEAKING ACROSS THE CONTINENT + + A New "Hello Boy" in Boston--Why the Boy Sought the Job--The Useful + Things the Boy Found to Do--Young Carty and the Multiple + Switchboard--Called to New York City--He Quiets the Roaring + Wires--Carty Made Engineer-in-Chief--Extending the Range of the + Human Voice--New York Talks to San Francisco Over a Wire. + + +It seemed to many that the wireless telegraph was to be the final word +in the development of communication, but two striking achievements +coming in 1915 proved this to be far from the case. While one group of +scientists had given themselves to experimentation with the Hertzian +waves which led to wireless telegraphy, other scientists and engineers +were busily engaged in bringing the telephone to a perfection +which would enable it to accomplish even more striking feats. These +electrical pioneers did not work as individuals, but were grouped +together as the engineering staff of the American Telephone and +Telegraph Company. At their head was John J. Carty, and it was under +his guiding genius that the great work was accomplished. John Carty +is the American son of Irish parents. He was born in Cambridge, +Massachusetts, on April 14, 1861. His father was a gun-maker and an +expert mechanic of marked intelligence and ingenuity who numbered +among his friends Howe, the creator of the sewing-machine. As a boy +John Carty displayed the liveliest interest in things electrical. When +the time came for him to go to school, physics was his favorite study. +He showed himself to be possessed of a keen mind and an infinite +capacity for work. To these advantages was added a good elementary +education. He was graduated from Cambridge Latin School, where he +prepared for Harvard University. Before he could enter the university +his eyesight failed, and the doctor forbade continuance of study. +Many a boy would have been discouraged by this physical handicap which +denied him complete scholastic preparation. But this boy was not +the kind that gives up. He had been supplementing his school work +in physics with experimentations upon his own behalf. Let us let Mr. +Carty tell in his own words how he next occupied himself. + + I had often visited the shop of Thomas Hall, at 19 Bromfield + Street, and looked in the window. I went in from time to time, + not to make large purchases, but mostly to make inquiries and + to buy some blue vitriol, wire, or something of the kind. It + was a store where apparatus was sold for experimentation in + schools, and on Saturdays a number of Harvard and Institute + of Technology professors could be found there. It was quite a + rendezvous for the scientific men in those days, just the + same as the Old Corner Bookstore at the corner of School and + Washington Streets was a place where the literary men used to + congregate. Don't think that I was an associate of these great + scientists, but I was very much attracted to the atmosphere of + that store. I wanted to get in and handle the apparatus. + + Finally it occurred to me that I would like to get into the + business, somehow. But I did not have the courage to go in + and ask them for a job. One day I was going by and saw a sign + hanging out, "Boy Wanted." I was about nineteen, and really + thought I was something of a scientist, not exactly a boy. I + was a boy, however. I walked by on one side of the street and + then on the other, looking in, and finally the idea possessed + me to go in and strike for that job. So I took down the sign, + which was outside the window, put it under my arm, and went in + and persuaded Tom Hall that I was the boy he wanted. + + He said, "When can you begin?" I said, "Now." There was no + talk of wages or duties. He said, "Take this package around + to Earle & Prew's express and hurry back, as I have another + errand for you to do." So I had to take a great, heavy box + around to the express-office and get a receipt for it. I + found, when Saturday night came around, that I had been + engaged at the rate of fifty cents a day. I would have been + glad to work for nothing. + + Well, I did not get near that apparatus in a hurry, not until + the time came for fixing up the window. My first talk in + regard to it had no reference to services in a scientific + capacity on my part. I had rather hoped that the boss would + come around and consult with, me as to how to adjust the + apparatus. But that was not it. He said: "John, clean out that + window. Everything is full of dust, and be careful and don't + break anything!" So I cleaned it out. I swept out the place, + cleaned about there, did errands, mixed battery solutions, and + got a great deal of experience there in one way or another. I + did whatever there was to do and got a good deal of fun out + of it, while becoming acquainted with the state of the art of + that day. I got to know intimately all the different sorts of + philosophical apparatus there were, and how to mix the various + battery solutions. In fact, I became really quite experienced + for those times in such matters. + +It was not long before young Carty lost his job. Being a regular boy, +he had been guilty of too much skylarking. This experience steadied +him, and he forthwith sought a new job. He had met some of the +employees of the telephone company and was naturally interested in +their work. At that time "hello boys" held sway in the crude telephone +exchanges, the "hello girl" having not yet appeared. So John Carty at +the age of nineteen went to work in the Boston telephone exchange. + +The switchboard at which they placed him had been good enough for +the other boys who had been called upon to operate it, and indeed +it represented the best thought and effort of the leaders in the +telephone world. But it did not satisfy Carty, who, not content +with simply-operating the board, studied its construction and began +planning improvements. As Mr. Carty himself puts it: + + The little switchboards of that day were a good deal like the + automobiles of some years ago--one was likely to spend more + time under the switchboard than, sitting at it! In that way I + learned a great deal about the arrangement and construction + of switchboards. Encountering the trouble first, I had an + advantage over others in being able to suggest a remedy. So I + have always thought it was a good thing to have troubles, as + long as they are not too serious or too numerous. Troubles are + certainly a great advantage, if we manage them correctly. + +Certainly Carty made these switchboard troubles the first +stepping-stone in his climb to the top in the field of telephone +engineering. The improvements which the youngster suggested were so +valuable that they were soon being made under his direction, and +ere long he installed in the Boston exchange the first multiple +switchboard, the fundamental features of which are in the switchboards +of to-day. In his work with the switchboards young Carty early got +in touch with Charles E. Scribner, another youngster who was doing +notable work in this field. The young men became fast friends and +worked much together. Scribner devoted himself almost exclusively +to switchboards and came to be known as the father of the modern +switchboard. + +Boston had her peculiar problems and an "express" service was needed. +How to handle this in the exchange was another problem, and this, too, +Carty solved. For this purpose he designed and installed the first +metallic circuit, multiple switchboard to go into service. The +problems of the exchange were among the most serious of the many which +troubled the early telephone companies. Of course every telephone-user +desired to be able to converse with any other who had a telephone in +his office or residence. The development of the switchboards had been +comparatively slow in the past, and the service rendered by the boys +proved far from satisfactory. The average boy proved himself +too little amenable to discipline, too inclined to "sass" the +telephone-users, and too careless. But the early use of "hello boys" +was at least a success for the telephone in that it brought to +its service John J. Carty. This boy pointed the way to the great +improvements that made it possible to handle the constantly growing +volume of calls expeditiously and effectively. + +The early telephones were operated with a single wire grounded at +either end, the earth return being used to complete the circuit +as with the telegraph. But while the currents used to operate the +telegraph are fairly strong and so can dominate the earth currents, +the tiny currents which represented the vibrations of the human voice +were all too often drowned by the earth currents which strayed on to +the lines. Telephone engineers were not then agreed that this caused +the difficulty; but they did know there was difficulty. Many weird +noises played over the lines and as often as not the spoken word was +twisted into the strangest gibberish and rendered unintelligible. If +the telephone was to satisfy its patrons and prove of real service +to the world, the difficulty had to be overcome. Some of the more +progressive engineers insisted that a double-wire system without a +ground was necessary. This, of course, involved tremendous expenses +in rebuilding every line and duplicating every wire. The more +conservative hesitated, but Carty forged ahead. + +In 1880 he was engaged in operating a new line out of Boston. He was +convinced that the double-wire system alone could be successful, and +he arranged to operate a line on this plan. Taking two single lines, +he instructed the operator at the other end to join them, forming a +two-wire circuit. The results justified him. At last a line had been +attained which could be depended upon to carry the conversation. + +No sooner was one problem solved than another presented itself. What +to do with the constantly increasing number of wires was a pressing +difficulty. All telephone circuits had been strung overhead, and with +the demand for telephones for office and residence rapidly increasing, +the streets of the great cities were becoming a perfect forest of +telephone poles, with the sky obscured by a maze of wires. Poles were +constantly increased in height until a line was strung along Wall +Street in New York City at a height of ninety feet. From the poles the +wires overflowed to the housetops, increasing the difficulty of the +engineers. How to protect the wires so that they could be placed +underground was the problem. + +We have noticed that Theodore Vail had been brought to the head of +the Bell system in its infancy and had led the fight against the rival +companies until it was thoroughly established. Now he was directing +his genius and executive ability to so improving the telephone that +it should serve every need of communication. While the engineers +discussed theories Vail began actual tests. A trench five miles long +was dug beside a railway track by the simple expedient of hitching a +plow to a locomotive. In this trench were laid a number of wires, each +with a different covering. The gutta-percha and the rubber coverings +which had been used in cable construction predominated. It was found +that these wires would carry the telephone currents, not as well as +might be desired, but well enough to assure Vail that he was on the +right track. The companies began to place their wires underground, and +Vail saw to it that the experiments with coverings for telephone wires +were continued. The result was the successful underground cables in +use to-day. + +At the same time Vail and his engineers were seeking to improve the +wires themselves. Iron and steel wires had been used, but they proved +unsatisfactory, as they rusted and were poor conductors. Copper was +an excellent conductor, but the metal in the pure state is soft and +no one then knew how to make a copper wire that would sustain its own +weight. But Vail kept his men at the problem and the hard-drawn copper +wire was at length evolved. This proved just what was needed for the +telephone circuits. The copper wire was four times as expensive as the +iron, but as it was four times as good Vail adopted it. + +John Carty had rather more than kept pace with these improvements. He +was but twenty-six years of age when Union N. Bethell, head of the New +York company, picked Carty to take charge of the telephone engineering +work in the metropolis. Bethell was Vail's chief executive officer, +and under him Carty received an invaluable training in executive work. +Carty's largest task was putting the wires underground, and here again +he was a tremendous success. He found ways to make cables cheaper +and better, and devised means of laying them at half the former cost. +Having solved the most pressing problems in this field, his employers, +who had come to recognize his marked genius, set him to work again on +the switchboard. He was placed in charge of the switchboard department +of the Western Electric Company, the concern which manufactures the +apparatus for the telephone company. The switchboard, as we have +seen, was Carty's first love, and again he pointed the way to great +improvements. Most of the large switchboards of that time were +installed under his direction, and they were better switchboards than +had ever been known before. + +Up to this time it had been thought necessary to have individual +batteries supplying current to each line. These were a constant source +of difficulty, and Carty directed his own attention, and that of his +associate engineers, to finding a satisfactory solution. He sought a +method of utilizing one common battery at the central station and the +way was found and the improvement accomplished. + +Though the telephone circuits were now protected from the earth, +telephone-users, at times when the lines were busy, were still +troubled with roarings and strange cross-talk. Though busy with the +many engineering problems which the telephone heads had assigned to +him, Carty found time for some original research. He showed that the +roarings in the wires were largely caused by electro-static induction. +In 1889 he read a paper before the Electric Club that startled the +engineers of that day. He demonstrated that in every telephone circuit +there is a particular point at which, if a telephone is inserted, no +cross-talk can be heard. He had worked out the rules for determining +this point. Thus he had at once discovered the trouble and prescribed +the cure. Of course it could not be expected that the sage experts +would all agree with young Carty right away; but they were forced to +in the end, for again he was proved right. + +By 1901 Carty was ready with another invention which was to place the +telephone in the homes of hundreds of thousands who, without it, could +scarcely have afforded this modern necessity. This was the "bridging +bell" which made possible the party line. By its use four telephones +could be placed on a single line, each with its own signal, so that +any one could be rung without ringing the others. Its introduction +inaugurated a new boom in the use of the telephone. + +Theodore Vail had resigned from his positions with the telephone +companies in 1890 with the determination to retire from business. But +when the panic of 1907 came the directors of the company went to him +on his Vermont farm and pleaded with him to return and again resume +the leadership. Other and younger men would not do in this business +crisis. They also pointed out that the nation's telephones had not +yet been molded into the national system which had been his dream--a +system of universal service in which any one at any point in the +country might talk by telephone with any other. So Vail re-entered +the telephone field and again took the presidency of the American +Telephone and Telegraph Company. + +One of his first official acts was to appoint John J. Carty his chief +engineer. Vail had selected the right man to make his dreams come +true; Carty now had the executive who would make it possible for +him to accomplish even larger things. He set about building up the +engineering organization which was to accomplish the work, selecting +the most brilliant graduates of American technical schools. He set +this organization to work upon the extension and development of the +long-distance telephone lines. + +As a "hello boy" Carty had believed in the possibility of the +long-distance telephone when others had scoffed. He has told of an +early experience while in the Boston exchange: + + One hot day an old lady toiled up the inevitable flights of + stairs which led to the telephone-office of those times. + Out of breath, she sat down, and when she had recovered + sufficiently to speak she said she wanted to talk to Chicago. + My colleagues of that time were all what the ethnologists + would rank a little bit lower than the wild Indian. These + youngsters set up a great laugh; and, indeed, the absurdity of + the old lady's project could hardly be overstated, because + at that time Salem was a long-distance line, Lowell sometimes + worked, and Worcester was the limit--that is, in every sense + of the word. The Lowell line was so unreliable that we had a + telegraph operator there, and when the talk was not possible, + he pushed the message through by Morse. It is no wonder that + the absurdity of the old lady's proposal was the cause + of poorly suppressed merriment. But I can remember that I + explained to her that our wires had not yet been extended to + Chicago, and that, after she had departed, I turned to the + other operators and said that the day would come when we could + talk to Chicago. My prophecy was received with what might + be called--putting it mildly--vociferous discourtesy. + Nevertheless, I remember very well the impression which that + old lady's request made upon me; and I really did believe + that, some day or other, in some way, we would be able to talk + to Chicago. + +By 1912 it was possible to talk from New York to Denver, a distance of +2,100 miles. No European engineers had achieved any such results, and +this feat brought to Carty and his wonderful staff the admiration +of foreign experts. But for the American engineers this was only a +starting-point. + +The next step was to link New York and California. This was more than +a matter of setting poles and stringing wires, stupendous though this +task was. The line crosses thirteen States, and is carried on 130,000 +poles. Three thousand tons of wire are used in the line. The Panama +Canal took nine years to complete, and cost over three hundred million +dollars; but within that time the telephone company spent twice that +amount in engineering construction work alone, extending the scope of +the telephone. + +The technical problems were even more difficult. Carty and his +engineers had to find a way to send something three thousand +miles with the breath as its motive power. It was a problem of the +conservation of the tiny electric current which carried the speech. +The power could not be augmented or speech would not result at the +destination. + +Added to the efforts of these able engineers was the work of Prof. +Michael I. Pupin, of Columbia University, whose brilliant invention +of the loading coil some ten years before had startled the scientific +world and had increased the range of telephonic transmission through +underground cables and through overhead wires far beyond what +had formerly been possible. Professor Pupin applied his masterful +knowledge of physics and his profound mathematical attainments +so successfully to the practical problems of the transmission of +telephone speech that he has been called "the telephone scientist." +It is impossible to talk over long-distance lines anywhere in America +without speaking through Pupin coils, which are distributed throughout +the hundreds of thousands of miles of wire covering the North American +continent. In the transcontinental telephone line Pupin coils play a +most important part, and they are distributed at eight-mile intervals +throughout its entire length from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In +speaking at a dinner of eminent scientists, Mr. Carty once said that +on account of his distinguished scientific attainments and wonderful +telephonic inventions, Professor Pupin would rank in history alongside +of Bell himself. + +We have seen how Alexander Graham Bell, standing in the little room in +Boston, spoke through the crude telephone he had constructed the first +words ever carried over a wire, and how these words were heard and +understood by his associate, Thomas Watson. This was in 1876, and it +was in January of 1915--less than forty years later--that these +two men talked across the continent. The transcontinental line was +complete. Bell in the offices of the company in New York talked freely +with Watson in San Francisco, and all in the most conversational +tone, without a trace of the difficulty that had attended their first +conversation over the short line. Thus, within the span of a single +life the telephone had been developed from a crude instrument which +transmitted speech with difficulty over a wire a hundred feet long, +until one could be heard perfectly, though over three thousand miles +of wire intervened. + +The spoken word travels across the continent almost instantaneously, +far faster than the speed of sound. If it were possible for one to be +heard in San Francisco as he shouted from New York through the air, +four hours would be required before the sound would arrive. Thus the +telephone has been brought to a point of perfection where it carries +sound by electricity and reproduces it again far more rapidly and +efficiently than sound can be transmitted through its natural medium. + + + + +XX + +TELEPHONING THROUGH SPACE + + The Search for the Wireless Telephone--Early Successes--Carty and + His Assistants Seek the Wireless Telephone--The Task Before Them--De + Forest's Amplifier--Experimental Success Achieved--The + Test--Honolulu and Paris Hear Arlington--The Future. + + +No sooner had Marconi placed the wireless telegraph at the service of +the world than men of science of all nations began the search for +the wireless telephone. But the vibrations necessary to reproduce the +sound of the human voice are so infinitely more complex than those +which will suffice to carry signals representing the dots and +dashes of the telegraph code that the problem long defied solution. +Scientists attacked the problem with vigor, and various means of +wireless telephony were developed, without any being produced which +were effective over sufficient ranges to make them really useful. + +Probably the earliest medium chosen to carry wireless speech was light +rays. A microphone transmitter was arranged so that the vibrations +of the voice would affect the stream of gas flowing in a sensitive +burner. The flame was thus thrown into vibrations corresponding to the +vibrations of sound. The rays from this flame were then directed by +mirrors to a distant receiving station and there concentrated on +a photo-electric selenium cell, which has the strange property of +varying its resistance according to the illumination. Thus a telephone +receiver arranged in series with it was made to reproduce the sounds. + +This strange, wireless telephone was so arranged that a search-light +beam could be used for the light path, and distances up to three miles +were covered. Even with this limited range the search-light telephone +had certain advantages. Its message could be received only by those in +the direct line of the light. Neither did it require aerial masts +or wires and a trained telegrapher who could send and receive the +telegraph code. It was put to some use between battle-ships and +smaller craft lying within a radius of a few miles. The sensitive +selenium cell proved unreliable, however, and this means of +communication was destined to failure. + +The experimenters realized that future success lay in making the ether +carry telephonic currents as it carried telegraphic currents. They +succeeded in establishing communication without wires, using the same +antenna as in wireless telegraphy, and the principles determined are +those used in the wireless telephone of to-day. The sending apparatus +was so arranged that continuous oscillations are set up in the ether, +either by a high-frequency machine or from an electric arc. Where +set up by spark discharges the spark frequency must be above twenty +thousand per second. This unbroken wave train does not affect the +telephone and is not audible in a telephone receiver inserted in the +radio receiving circuit. But when a microphone transmitter is inserted +in the sending circuit, instead of the make-and-break key used for +telegraphy, the waves of the voice, thrown against the transmitter +in speaking, break up the waves so that the telephone receiver in the +receiving circuit will reproduce sound. Here was and is the wireless +telephone. Marconi and many other scientists were able to operate +it successfully over comparatively short distances, and were busily +engaged in extending its range and improving the apparatus. One +great difficulty involved was in increasing the power of the sending +apparatus. Greater range has been secured in wireless telegraphy by +using stronger sending currents. But the delicate microphone would +not carry these stronger currents. Increased sensitiveness in the +receiving apparatus was also necessary. + +Not content with their accomplishments in increasing the scope of the +wire telephone, the engineers of the Bell organization, headed by +John J. Carty, turned their attention to the wireless transmission +of speech. Determined that the existing telephone system should be +extended and supplemented in every useful way, they attacked the +problem with vigor. It was a problem that had long baffled the keenest +of European scientists, including Marconi himself, but that did not +deter Carty and his associates. They were determined that the glory of +spanning the Atlantic by wireless telephone should come to America +and American engineers. They wanted history to record the wireless +telephone as an American achievement along with the telegraph and the +telephone. + +The methods used in achieving the wireless telephone were widely +different from those which brought forth the telegraph and the +telephone. Times had changed. Men had found that it was more effective +to work together through organizations than to struggle along as +individuals. The very physical scope of the undertakings made the old +methods impracticable. One cannot perfect a transcontinental telephone +line nor a transatlantic wireless telephone in a garret. And with a +powerful organization behind them it was not necessary for Carty +and his associates to starve and skimp through interminable years, +handicapped by the inadequate equipment, while they slowly achieved +results. This great organization, working with modern methods, +produced the most wonderful results with startling rapidity. + +Important work had already been done by Marconi, Fessenden, De Forest, +and others. But their results were still incomplete; they could not +talk for any considerable distance. Carty organized his staff with +care, Bancroft Gerhardi, Doctor Jewett, H.D. Arnold, and Colpitts +being prominent among the group of brilliant American scientists +who joined with Carty in his great undertaking. While much had +been accomplished, much still remained to be done, and the various +contributions had to be co-ordinated into a unified, workable whole. +In large part it was Carty's task to direct the work of this staff and +to see that all moved smoothly and in the right direction. Just as +the telephone was more complex than the telegraph, and the wireless +telegraph than the telephone, so the apparatus used in wireless +telephony is even more complex and technical. Working with the +intricate mechanisms and delicate apparatus, one part after another +was improved and adapted to the task at hand. + +To the devices of Carty and his associates was added the extremely +delicate detector that was needed. This was the invention of Dr. +Lee de Forest, an American inventor and a graduate of the Sheffield +Technical School of Yale University. De Forest's contribution was +a lamp instrument, a three-step audion amplifier. This is to the +wireless telephone what the coherer is to the wireless telegraph. It +is so delicate that the faintest currents coming through the ether +will stimulate it and serve to set in motion local sources of +electrical energy so that the waves received are magnified to a point +where they will produce sound. + +By the spring of 1915, but a few months after the transcontinental +telephone line had been put in operation, Carty had his wireless +telephone apparatus ready for extended tests. A small experimental +tower was set up at Montauk Point, Long Island, and another was +borrowed at Wilmington, Delaware. The tests were successful, and the +experimenters found that they could talk freely with each other. Soon +they talked over a thousand miles, from the tower at Montauk Point +to another at St. Simon's Island, Georgia. This in itself was a great +achievement, but the world was not told of it. "Do it first and then +talk about it" is the maxim with Theodore Vail and his telephone men. +This was but a beginning, and Carty had far more wonderful things in +mind. + +It was on the 29th of September, 1915, that Carty conducted the +demonstrations which thrilled the world and showed that wireless +telephony was an accomplished fact. Sitting in his office in New York, +President Theodore Vail spoke into his desk telephone of the familiar +type. The wires carried his words to the towers of the Navy wireless +station at Arlington, Virginia, where they were delivered to the +sending apparatus of the wireless telephone. Leaping into space, they +traveled in every direction through the ether. The antenna of the +wireless station at Mare Island, California, caught part of the waves +and they were amplified so that John Carty, sitting with his ear +to the receiver, could hear the voice of his chief. Carty and his +associates had not only developed a system which made it possible to +talk across the continent without wires, but they had made it possible +to combine wire and wireless telegraphy. He and Vail talked with each +other freely and easily, while the naval officers who verified the +tests marveled. + +But even more wonderful things were to come. Early in the morning of +the next day other messages were sent from the Arlington tower, +and these messages were heard by Lloyd Espenschied, one of Carty's +engineers, who was stationed at the wireless station at Pearl Harbor, +near Honolulu, Hawaii. The distance covered was nearly five thousand +miles, and half of it was across land, which is the more remarkable as +the wireless does not operate so readily over land as over water. +The distance covered in this test was greater than the distance +from Washington to London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, or Petrograd. The +successful completion of this test meant that the capitals of the +great nations of the world might communicate, might talk with +one another, by wireless telephone. Only a receiving set had been +installed at Hawaii, so that it was not possible for Espenschied to +reply to the message from Arlington, and it was not until his message +came by cable that those at Arlington knew that the words they had +spoken had traveled five thousand miles. Other receiving sets had been +located at San Diego and at Darien on the Isthmus of Panama, and at +these points also the words were distinctly heard. + +By the latter part of October all was in readiness for a transatlantic +test, and on the 20th of October American engineers, with American +apparatus installed at the great French station at the Eiffel Tower, +Paris, heard the words spoken at Arlington, Virginia. Carty and his +engineers had bridged the Atlantic for the spoken word. Because of +war-time conditions it was not possible to secure the use of the +French station for an extended test, but the fact was established that +once the apparatus is in place telephonic communication between Europe +and America may he carried on regularly. + +The apparatus used as developed by the engineers of the Bell system +was in a measure an outgrowth of their work with the long-distance +telephone. Wireless telephony, despite the wonders it has already +accomplished, is still in its infancy. With more perfect apparatus +and the knowledge that comes with experience we may expect that speech +will girdle the earth. + +It is natural that one should wonder whether the wireless telephone is +destined to displace our present apparatus. This does not seem at all +probable. In the first place, wireless telephony is now, and probably +always will be, very expensive. Where the wire will do it is the more +economical. There are many limitations to the use of the other for +talking purposes, and it cannot be drawn upon too strongly by the man +of science. It will accomplish miracles, but must not be overtaxed. +Millions of messages going in all directions, crossing and +recrossing one another, as is done every day by wire, are probably +an impossibility by wireless telephony. Weird and little-understood +conditions of the ether, static electricity, radio disturbances, make +wireless work uncertain, and such a thing as twenty-four-hour service, +seven days in the week, can probably never be guaranteed. In radio +communication all must use a common medium, and as its use increases, +so also do the difficulties. The privacy of the wire is also lacking +with the wireless telephone. + +But because a way was found to couple the wireless telephone with the +wire telephone, the new wonder has great possibilities as a supplement +to our existing system. Before so very long it may be possible for an +American business man sitting in his office to call up and converse +with a friend on a liner crossing the Atlantic. The advantages +of speaking between ship and ship as an improvement over wireless +telegraphy in time of need are obvious. A demonstration of the part +this great national telephone system would play in the country's +defense in case of attack was held in May of 1916. The Navy Department +at Washington was placed in communication with every navy-yard and +post in the United States, so that the executive officers could +instantly talk with those in charge of the posts throughout the +country. The wireless telephone was used in addition to the long +distance, and Secretary of the Navy Daniels, sitting at his desk at +Washington, talked with Captain Chandler, who was at his station on +the bridge of the U.S.S. _New Hampshire_ at Hampton Roads. + +Whatever the future limitations of wireless telephony, there is +no doubt as to the place it will take among the scientific +accomplishments of the age. Merely as a scientific discovery or +invention, it ranks among the wonders of civilization. Much as the +tremendous leap of human voice across the line from New York to San +Francisco appealed to the mind, there is something infinitely more +fascinating in this new triumph of the engineer. The human mind can +grasp the idea of the spoken word being carried along wires, though +that is difficult enough, but when we try to understand its flight +through space we are faced with something beyond the comprehension of +the layman and almost past belief. + +We have seen how communication has developed, very slowly at first, +and then, as electricity was discovered, with great rapidity until man +may converse with man at a distance of five thousand miles. What +the future will bring forth we do not know. The ether may be made to +accomplish even more wonderful things as a bearer of intelligence. +Though we cannot now see how it would be possible, the day may come +when every automobile and aeroplane will be equipped with its wireless +telephone, and the motorist and aviator, wherever they go, may +talk with anyone anywhere. The transmission of power by wireless is +confidently predicted. Pictures have been transmitted by telegraph. It +may be possible to transmit them by wireless. Then some one may find +out how to transmit moving pictures through the ether. Then one might +sit and see before him on a screen a representation of what was then +happening thousands of miles away, and, listening through a telephone, +hear all the sounds at the same place. Wonders that we cannot even now +imagine may lie before us. + + + + +APPENDIX A + +NEW DEVELOPMENTS OF THE TELEGRAPH + +_By F.W. Lienan, Superintendent Tariff Bureau, Western Union Telegraph +Company_ + + +The invention of Samuel F.B. Morse is unique in this, that the methods +and instruments of telegraph operation as he evolved them from his +first experimental apparatus were so simple, and yet so completely met +the requirements, that they have continued in use to the present day +in practically their original form. But this does not mean that there +has not been the same constant striving for betterment in this as in +every other art. Many minds have, since the birth of the telegraph, +occupied themselves with the problem of devising improved means of +telegraphic transmission. The results have varied according to the +point of view from which the subject was approached, but all, directly +or indirectly, sought the same goal (the obvious one, since speed is +the essence of telegraphy), to find the best means of sending more +messages over the wire in a given time. It will readily suggest +itself that the solution of this problem lies either in an arrangement +enabling the wire to carry more than one message at once, or in some +apparatus capable of transmitting messages over the wire more +rapidly than can be done by hand, or in a combination of both these +principles. + +Duplex and quadruples operations are perhaps the most generally known +methods by which increased utilization of the capacity of the line has +been achieved. Duplex operation permits of the sending of two messages +over one wire in opposite directions at the same time; and quadruples, +the simultaneous transmission of four messages, two going in each +direction. Truly a remarkable accomplishment; but, like many other +things that have found their permanent place in daily use, become so +familiar that we no longer pause to marvel at it. These expedients +constitute a direct and very effective attack on the problem how to +get more work out of the wire with the existing means of operation, +and on account of their fundamental character and the important place +which by reason thereof they have taken in the telegraphic art, are +entitled to first mention. + +The problem of increasing the rapidity of transmission has been met by +various automatic systems of telegraphy, so called because they embody +the idea of mechanical transmission with resulting gain in speed and +other advantages. The number of these which have from time to time +been devised is considerable. Not all have proven to be practicable, +but those which have failed to prove in under actual operating +conditions none the less display evidence of ingenuity which may well +excite our admiration. + +To mention one or two which may be interesting on account of the +oddity of their method--there was, for instance, an early device, +similar in principle to the calling apparatus of the automatic +telephone, which involved the turning of a movable disk so that a +projection on its circumference pointed successively to the letters to +be transmitted. Experiments were made with ordinary metal type set up +in a composing-stick, a series of brushes passing over the type faces +and producing similar characters on a tape at the other end of the +line. In another more recent ingenious device a pivoted mirror at the +receiving end was so manipulated by the electrical impulses that a ray +of light reflected from the surface of the mirror actually wrote the +message upon sensitized paper, like a pencil, in a fair handwriting. +In another the receiving apparatus printed vertical, horizontal, and +slanting lines in such manner that they combined to make letters, +rather angular, it is true, but legible. + +These and other kindred devices are interesting as efforts to +accomplish the direct production of legible messages. In experimental +tests they performed their function successfully, and in some cases +with considerable speed, but some of them required more than one line +wire, some were too sensitive to disturbance by inductive currents +and some developed other weaknesses which have prevented their +incorporation in the actual operating machinery of to-day. + +In the general development of the so-called automatic telegraph +devices which have been or now are in practical operation, two lines +have been pursued. One involves direct keyboard transmission; the +other, the use at the sending end of a perforated tape capable of +being run through a transmitting machine at high speed. One type of +the former is the so-called step-by-step process, in which a revolving +body in the transmitting apparatus, as, for instance, a cylinder +provided with pegs placed at intervals around its circumference in +spiral fashion, is arrested by the depression of the keys of the +keyboard in such a way that a type wheel in the receiving apparatus +at the distant end of the line prints the corresponding letter. +This method was employed in the House and Phelps printing telegraphs +operated by the Western Union Telegraph Company in its earlier days, +and is to-day used in the operation of the familiar ticker. In +another type of direct keyboard operation the manipulation of the +keys transmits the impulses directly to the line and the receiving +apparatus translates them by electrically controlled mechanical +devices into printed characters in message form. + +The systems best adapted to rapid telegraph work are predicated on the +use of a perforated tape on which, by means of a suitable perforating +apparatus, little round holes are produced in various groupings, each +group, when the tape is passed through the transmitter, causing a +certain combination of electrical impulses to pass over the wire. +The transmitter as a rule consists of a mechanically or motor driven +mechanism which causes the telegraph impulses to be transmitted to the +line, and the combination and character of the impulses are determined +by the tape perforations. The rapidity with which the tape may +be driven through the transmitter makes very high speed operation +possible. Of course it is necessary that there should be at the other +end of the wire apparatus capable of receiving and recording the +signals as speedily as they are sent. + +As early as 1848 Alexander Bain perfected a system involving the use +of the perforated transmitting tape; at the receiving station the +messages were recorded in dots and dashes upon a chemically prepared +strip of paper by means of iron pens, the metal of which was, through +the combined action of the electrical current and the chemical +preparation, decomposed, producing black marks in the form of dots and +dashes upon the paper. The Bain apparatus was in actual operation in +the younger days of the telegraph. Various systems, based on similar +principles, involving tape transmission and the production of dots and +dashes on a receiving tape, have from time to time been devised, but +have generally not succeeded in establishing any permanent usefulness +in competition with more effective instrumentalities which have been +perfected. + +The hardiest survivor of them is the Wheatstone apparatus, which +has been in successful operation for years. Originally the +perforating--or, to use the commonly current term, the punching--of +the Wheatstone sending tape was accomplished by a mechanism equipped +with three keys--one for the dot, one for the dash, and one for the +space. The keys were struck with rubber-tipped mallets held in the +hands of the operator and brought down with considerable force. Later +this rather primitive perforator was supplanted by one equipped with a +full keyboard on the order of a typewriter keyboard. At the receiving +end of the line the messages are produced on a tape in dots and dashes +of the Morse alphabet, and hence a further process of translation is +necessary. This system has proven very useful, particularly in times +of wire trouble and scarcity of facilities, when it is essential to +move as many messages as possible over the available lines. + +The schemes devised for combining automatic transmission by the +perforated-tape method with direct production of the message at +its destination in ordinary letters and figures, eliminating the +intervening step of translation from Morse characters, have been +many. Their individual enumeration is beyond the scope of the present +discussion, and would in any event involve a wearisome exposition of +their distinguishing technical features. Several of these systems are +at present in practical and very effective operation. + +One of the forerunners of the printing telegraph systems now in use +was the Buckingham system, for many years employed by the Western +Union Telegraph Company, but now for some time obsolete. The receiving +mechanism of this system printed the messages on telegraph blanks +placed upon a cylinder of just the right circumference to accommodate +two telegraph blanks. The blanks were arranged in pairs, rolled into +the form of a tube and placed around the cylinder. When two messages +had been written a new pair of blanks had to be substituted. This was +a rather awkward arrangement, but at a time when more highly developed +apparatus had not been perfected it served its purpose to good +advantage. + +The printing telegraphs of to-day produce their messages by the +direct operation of typewriting machines or mechanisms operating +substantially in the same manner as the ordinary typewriting machine. +The methods by which the electrical impulses coming over the line are +transformed into mechanical operation of the typewriter keys, or what +corresponds to the typewriter keys, vary. It would be difficult to +describe how this function is performed without entering upon much +detail of a highly technical character. Suffice it to say that means +have been devised by which each combination of electrical impulses +coming over the line wire causes a channel to be opened for the motor +operation of the typewriting key-bar operating the corresponding +letter upon the typewriter apparatus. These machines write the +messages with proper arrangement of the date line, address, text, and +signature, operating not only the type, but also the carriage shift +and the line spacing as required. A further step in advance has +been made by feeding the blanks into the receiving typewriter from +a continuous roll, an attendant tearing the messages off as they are +completed. The entire operation is automatic from beginning to end and +capable of considerable speed. + +There remained the problem of devising some means by which a number of +automatic units could be operated over the same line at the same +time. This is not by any means a new proposition. Here again various +solutions have been offered by the scientists both of Europe and of +this country, and different systems designed to accomplish the desired +object have been placed in operation. One of the most recent, and +we believe the most efficient so far developed, is the so-called +multiplex printer system, devised by the engineers of the Western +Union Telegraph Company and now being extensively used by that +company. Perhaps the best picture of what is accomplished by this +system can be given by an illustration. Let us assume a single wire +between New York and Chicago. At the New York end there are connected +with this wire four combined perforators and transmitters, and four +receiving machines operating on the typewriter principle. At the +Chicago end the wire is connected with a like number of sending and +receiving machines. All these machines are in simultaneous operation; +that is to say, four messages are being sent from New York to Chicago, +and four messages are being sent from Chicago to New York, all at the +same time and over a single wire, and the entire process is automatic. +The method by which eight messages can be sent over a single wire at +the same time without interfering with one another cannot readily +be described in simple terms. It may give some comprehension of the +underlying principle to say that the heart of the mechanism is in +two disks at each end of the line, which are divided into groups of +segments insulated from each other, each group being connected to one +of the sending or receiving machines, respectively. A rotating contact +brush connected to the line wire passes over the disk, so that, as it +comes into contact with each segment, the line wire is connected in +turn with the channel leading to the corresponding operating unit. The +brushes revolve in absolute unison of time and position. To use the +same illustration as before, the brush on the Chicago disk and the +brush on the New York disk not only move at exactly the same speed, +but at any given moment the two brushes are in exactly the same +position with regard to the respective group of segments of both +disks. If we now conceive of these brushes passing over the successive +segments of the disks at a very great rate of speed, it may be +understood that the effect is that the electrical impulses are +distributed, each receiving machine receiving only those produced by +the corresponding sending machine at the other end. In other words, +each of the sets of receiving and sending apparatus really gets the +use of the line for a fraction of the time during each revolution +of the brushes of the distributer or disk mechanism. The multiplex +automatic circuits are being extended all over the country and are +proving extremely valuable in handling the constantly growing volume +of telegraph traffic. + +What has thus been achieved in developing the technical side of +telegraph operation must be attributed in part to that impulse toward +improvement which is constantly at work everywhere and is the most +potent factor in the progress of all industries, but in large +measure it is the reflex of the growing--and recently very rapidly +growing--demands which are made upon the telegraph service. Emphasis +is placed on the larger ratio of growth in this demand in recent years +because it is peculiarly symptomatic of a noticeably wider realization +of the advantages which the telegraph offers as an effective medium +for business and social correspondence than has heretofore been in +evidence. It means that we have graduated from that state of mind +which saw in the telegraph something to be resorted to only under +the stress of emergency, which caused many good people to associate +a telegram with trouble and bad news and sudden calamity. There are +still some dear old ladies who, on receipt of a telegram, make a rapid +mental survey of the entire roster of their near and distant relatives +and wonder whose death or illness the message may announce before they +open the fateful envelope, only to find that up-to-date Cousin Mary, +who has learned that the telegraph is as readily used as the mail and +many times more rapid and efficient, wants to know whether they can +come out for the week-end. When Cousin Mary of to-day wants to know, +she wants to know right away--not only that she has her arrangements +to make, but also because she just does not propose to wait a day or +two to get a simple answer to a simple question. + +Therein she embodies the spirit of the times. Our ancestors were +content to jog along for days in a stuffy stage-coach; we complain +that the train which accomplishes the same distance in a few hours is +too slow. We act more quickly; we think more quickly. We have to if we +want to keep within earshot of the band. + +This speeding up makes itself quite obviously most apparent in our +business processes. No body of business men need be told how much +keener competition is becoming daily, how much narrower the margin by +which success must be won. Familiar phrases, these. But behind them +lies a wealth of tragedy. How many have fallen by the way? It is +estimated that something less than ten per cent. of those who engage +in business on their own account succeed. How terrible the percentage +of those who fail! The race has become too swift for them. Driven +by the lash of competition, business must perforce move faster and +faster. Time is becoming ever more precious. Negotiations must be +rapidly conducted, decisions arrived at quickly, transactions closed +on the moment. What wonder that all this makes for a vastly increased +use of the quickest method of communication? + +That is but one of the conditions which accounts for the growing use +of the telegraph. Another is to be found in the recognition of the +convenience of the night letter and day letter. This has brought +about a considerable increase in the volume of family and social +correspondence by telegraph, which will grow to very much greater +proportions as experience demonstrates its value. In business life the +night letter and day letter have likewise established a distinct place +for themselves. Here also the present development of this traffic can +be regarded as only rudimentary in comparison with the possibilities +of its future development, indications of which are already apparent. +It has been discovered that the telegram, on account of its peculiar +attention-compelling quality, is an effective medium not only for +the individual appeal, but for placing business propositions before +a number of people at once, the night letters and day letters being +particularly adapted to this purpose by reason of the greater scope of +expression which they offer. + +Again, business men are developing the habit of using the telegram +in keeping in touch with their field forces and their salesmen and +encouraging their activities, in cultivating closer contact with their +customers, in placing their orders, in replenishing their stocks, +and in any number of other ways calculated to further the profitable +conduct of their enterprises. + +All this means that the telegraph is increasingly being utilized as a +means of correspondence of every conceivable sort. It means also that +with the growing appreciation of its adaptability to the every-day +needs of social and business communication a very much larger public +demand upon it must be anticipated, and it is to meet this demand with +prompt and satisfactory service that the telegraph company has +been bending its efforts to the perfection of a highly developed +organization and of operating appliances of the most modern and +efficient type. + + + + +APPENDIX B + +Through the courtesy of J.J. Carty, Esq., Chief Engineer of the +American Telephone and Telegraph Company, there follows the clean-cut +survey of the evolution of the telephone presented in his address +before the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, May 17, 1916, when he +received the gold medal of the Institute. + + +More than any other, the telephone art is a product of American +institutions and reflects the genius of our people. The story of its +wonderful development is a story of our own country. It is a story +exclusively of American enterprise and American progress, for, +although the most powerful governments of Europe have devoted their +energies to the development and operation of telephone systems, great +contributions to the art have not been made by any of them. With very +few exceptions, the best that is used in telephony everywhere in the +world to-day has been contributed by workers here in America. + +It is of peculiar interest to recall the fact that the first words +ever transmitted by the electric telephone were spoken in a building +at Boston, not far from where Benjamin Franklin first saw the light. +The telephone, as well as Franklin, was born at Boston, and, like +Franklin, its first journey into the world brought it to Philadelphia, +where it was exhibited by its inventor, Alexander Graham Bell, at +the Centennial Exhibition in 1876, held here to commemorate the first +hundred years of our existence as a free and independent nation. + +It was a fitting contribution to American progress, representing the +highest product of American inventive genius, and a worthy continuance +of the labors of Franklin, one of the founders of the science of +electricity as well as of the Republic. + +Nothing could appeal more to the genius of Franklin than the +telephone, for not only have his countrymen built upon it an +electrical system of communication of transcendent magnitude and +usefulness, but they have made it into a powerful agency for the +advancement of civilization, eliminating barriers to speech, binding +together our people into one nation, and now reaching out to the +uttermost limits of the earth, with the grand aim of some day bringing +together the people of all the nations of the earth into one common +brotherhood. + +On the tenth day of March, 1876, the telephone art was born, when, +over a wire extending between two rooms on the top floor of a building +in Boston, Alexander Graham Bell spoke to his associate, Thomas A. +Watson, saying: "Mr. Watson, please come here. I want you." These +words, then heard by Mr. Watson in the instrument at his ear, +constitute the first sentence ever received by the electric telephone. +The instrument into which Doctor Bell spoke was a crude apparatus, and +the current which it generated was so feeble that, although the line +was about a hundred feet in length, the voice heard in the receiver +was so faint as to be audible only to such a trained and sensitive ear +as that of the young Mr. Watson, and then only when all surrounding +noises were excluded. + +Following the instructions given by Doctor Bell, Mr. Watson with his +own hands had constructed the first telephone instruments and ran the +first telephone wire. At that time all the knowledge of the telephone +art was possessed exclusively by those two men. There was no +experience to guide and no tradition to follow. The founders of the +telephone, with remarkable foresight, recognized that success depended +upon the highest scientific knowledge and technical skill, and at once +organized an experimental and research department. They also sought +the aid of university professors eminent for their scientific +attainments, although at that time there was no university giving the +degree of Electrical Engineer or teaching electrical engineering. + +From this small beginning there has been developed the present +engineering, experimental and research department which is under my +charge. From only two men in 1876 this staff has, in 1915, grown +to more than six hundred engineers and scientists, including former +professors, post-graduate students, and scientific investigators, +graduates of nearly a hundred American colleges and universities, thus +emphasizing in a special way the American character of the art. The +above number includes only those devoted to experimental and research +work and engineering development and standardization, and does +not include the very much larger body of engineers engaged in +manufacturing and in practical field work throughout the United +States. Not even the largest and most powerful government telephone +and telegraph administration of Europe has a staff to be compared with +this. It is in our great universities that anything like it is to +be found, but even here we find that it exceeds in number the entire +teaching staff of even our largest technical institutions. + +A good idea may spring up in the mind of man anywhere, but as applied +to such a complex entity as a telephone system, the countless parts of +which cover a continent, no individual unaided can bring the idea to +a successful conclusion. A comprehensive and effective engineering and +scientific and development organization such as this is necessary, and +years of expensive work are required before the idea can be rendered +useful to the public. + +But, vital as they are to its success, the, telephone art requires +more than engineers and scientists. So we find that in the building +and operation and maintenance of that vast continental telephone +system which bears the name of Bell, in honor of the great inventor, +there are at work each day more than 170,000 employees, of which +nearly 20,000 are engaged in the manufacture of telephones, +switchboards, cables, and all of the thousands and tens of thousands +of parts required for the operation of the telephone system of +America. + +The remaining 150,000 are distributed throughout all of the States +of the Union. About 80,000 of these are women, largely telephone +operators; 50,000 are linemen, installers, cable splicers, and the +like, engaged in the building and maintaining of the continental +plant. There are thousands of other employees in the accounting, +legal, commercial and other departments. There are 2,100 engineers +located in different parts of the country. The majority of these +engineers have received technical training in American technical +schools, colleges, and universities. This number does not include +by any means all of those in the other departments who have received +technical or college training. + +In view of the technical and scientific nature of the telephone art, +an unusually high-grade personnel is required in all departments, and +the amount of unskilled labor employed is relatively very small. +No other art calls forth in a higher degree those qualities of +initiative, judgment, skill, enterprise, and high character which have +in all times distinguished the great achievements of America. + +In 1876 the telephone plant of the whole world could be carried away +in the arms of one man. It consisted of two crude telephones like the +one now before you, connected together by a wire of about one hundred +feet in length. A piece cut from this wire by Mr. Watson himself is +here in this little glass case. + +At this time there was no practical telephone transmitter, no +hard-drawn copper wire, no transposed and balanced metallic circuits, +no multiple telephone switchboard, or telephone switchboard of any +kind, no telephone cable that would work satisfactorily; in fact, +there were none of the multitude of parts which now constitute the +telephone system. + +The first practical telephone line was a copy of the best telegraph +line of the day. A line wire was strung on the poles and housetops, +using the ground for the return circuit. Electrical disturbances, +coming from no one knows where, were picked up by this line. +Frequently the disturbances were so loud in the telephone as to +destroy conversation. When a second telephone line was strung +alongside the first, even though perfectly insulated, another surprise +awaited the telephone pioneers. Conversation carried on over one of +these wires could plainly be heard on the other. Another strange +thing was discovered. Iron wire was not so good a conductor for the +telephone current as it was for the telegraph current. The talking +distance, therefore, was limited by the imperfect carrying power of +the conductor and by the confusing effect of all sorts of disturbing +currents from the atmosphere and from neighboring telephone and +telegraph wires. + +These and a multitude of other difficulties, constituting problems of +the most intricate nature, impeded the progress of the telephone +art, but American engineers, by persistent study, incessant +experimentation, and the expenditure of immense sums of money, have +overcome these difficulties. They have created a new art, inventing, +developing, and perfecting, making improvements great and small in +telephone, transmitter, line, cable, switchboard, and every other +piece of apparatus and plant required for the transmission of speech. + +As the result of nearly forty years of this unceasing, organized +effort, on the 25th of January, 1915, there was dedicated to the +service of the American public a transcontinental telephone line, +3,600 miles long, joining the Atlantic and the Pacific, and carrying +the human voice instantly and distinctly between San Francisco and New +York and Philadelphia and Boston. On that day over this line Doctor +Bell again talked to Mr. Watson, who was now 3,400 miles away. It was +a day of romantic triumph for these two men and for their associates +and their thousands of successors who have built up the great American +telephone art. + +The 11th of February following was another day of triumph for the +telephone art as a product of American institutions, for, in the +presence of dignitaries of the city and State here at Philadelphia and +at San Francisco, the sound of the Liberty Bell, which had not been +heard since it tolled for the death of Chief-Justice Marshall, +was transmitted by telephone over the transcontinental line to San +Francisco, where it was plainly heard by all those there assembled. +Immediately after this the stirring tones of the "Star-spangled +Banner" played on the bugle at San Francisco were sent like lightning +back across the continent to salute the old bell in Philadelphia. + +It had often been pointed out that the words of the tenth verse of the +twenty-fifth chapter of Leviticus, added when the bell was recast in +1753, were peculiarly applicable to the part played by the old bell in +1776. But the words were still more prophetic. The old bell had been +silent for nearly eighty years, and it was thought forever, but by the +use of the telephone a gentle tap, which could be heard through the +air only a few feet away, was enough to transmit the tones of the +historic relic all the way across the continent from the Atlantic to +the Pacific. Thus, by the aid of the telephone art, the Liberty Bell +was enabled literally to fulfil its destiny and "Proclaim liberty +throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof." + +The two telephone instruments of 1876 had become many millions by +1916, and the first telephone line, a hundred feet long, had grown to +one of more than three thousand miles in length. This line is but part +of the American telephone system of twenty-one million miles of +wire, connecting more than nine million telephone stations located +everywhere throughout the United States, and giving telephone service +to one hundred million people. Universal telephone service throughout +the length and breadth of our land, that grand objective of Theodore +N. Vail, has been attained. + +While Alexander Graham Bell was the first to transmit the tones of +the human voice over a wire by electricity, he was also the first to +transmit the tones of the human voice by the wireless telephone, +for in 1880 he spoke along a beam of light to a point a considerable +distance away. While the method then used is different from that now +in vogue, the medium employed for the transmission is the same--the +ether, that mysterious, invisible, imponderable wave-conductor which +permeates all creation. + +While many great advances in the wireless art were made by Marconi and +many other scientists in America and elsewhere, it remained for that +distinguished group of American scientists and engineers working under +my charge to be the first to transmit the tones of the human voice in +the form of intelligible speech across the Atlantic Ocean. This great +event and those immediately preceding it are so fresh in the public +mind that I will make but a brief reference to them here. + +On April 4, 1915, we were successful in transmitting speech without +the use of wires from our radio station at Montauk Point on Long +Island to Wilmington, Delaware. + +On May 18th we talked by radio telephone from our station on Long +Island to St. Simon Island in the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of +Georgia. + +On the 27th of August, with our apparatus installed by permission of +the Navy Department at the Arlington, Virginia, radio station, speech +was successfully transmitted from that station to the Navy wireless +station equipped with our receiving apparatus at the Isthmus of +Panama. + +On September 29th, speech was successfully transmitted by wire from +New York City to the radio station at Arlington, Virginia, and thence +by wireless telephone across the continent to the radio station at +Mare Island Navy-yard, California, where I heard and understood the +words of Mr. Theodore N. Vail speaking to me from the telephone on his +desk at New York. + +On the next morning at about one o'clock, Washington time, we +established wireless telephone communication between Arlington, +Virginia, and Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands, where an engineer +of our staff, together with United States naval officers, distinctly +heard words spoken into the telephone at Arlington, Virginia. On +October 22d, from the Arlington tower in Virginia, we successfully +transmitted speech across the Atlantic Ocean to the Eiffel Tower at +Paris, where two of our engineers, in company with French military +officers, heard and understood the words spoken at Arlington. + +On the same day when speech was being transmitted by the apparatus at +Arlington to our engineers and to the French military officers at the +Eiffel Tower in Paris, our telephone engineer at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, +together with an officer of the United States Navy, heard the words +spoken from Arlington to Paris and recognized the voice of the +speaker. + +As a result of exhaustive researches, too extensive to describe here, +it has been ascertained that the function of the wireless telephone +is not to do away with the use of wires, but rather to be employed +in situations where wires are not available or practicable, such as +between ship and ship, and ship and shore, and across large bodies of +water. The ether is a universal conductor for wireless telephone +and telegraph impulses and must be used in common by all who wish to +employ those agencies of communication. In the case of the wireless +telegraph the number of messages which may be sent simultaneously is +much restricted. In the case of the wireless telephone, owing to the +thousands of separate wave-lengths required for the transmission of +speech, the number of telephone conversations which may be carried on +at the same time is still further restricted and is so small that +all who can employ wires will find it necessary to do so, leaving the +ether available for those who have no other means of communication. +This quality of the ether which thus restricts its use is really +a characteristic of the greatest value to mankind, for it forms a +universal party line, so to speak, connecting together all creation, +so that anybody anywhere, who connects with it in the proper manner, +may be heard by every one else so connected. Thus, a sinking ship or a +human being anywhere can send forth a cry for help which may be heard +and answered. + +No one can tell how far away are the limits of the telephone art, I +am certain that they are not to be found here upon the earth, for +I firmly believe in the fulfilment of that prophetic aspiration +expressed by Theodore N. Vail at a great gathering in Washington, that +some day we will build up a world telephone system, making necessary +to all peoples the use of a common language or a common understanding +of languages which will join all of the people of the earth into one +brotherhood. I believe that the time will come when the historic bell +which now rests in Independence Hall will again be sounded, and +that by means of the telephone art, which to-day has received such +distinguished recognition at your hands, it will proclaim liberty +once more, but this time throughout the whole world unto all the +inhabitants thereof. And, when this world is ready for the message, I +believe the telephone art will provide the means for transmitting to +all mankind a great voice saying, "Peace on earth, good will toward +men." + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +Ampere's telegraph, 42. +Anglo-American Telegraph Co., 134. +Ardois signal system, 30. +Atlantic cable projected, 109; + attempted, 117, 121, 123, 133; + completed, 124, 136. +Audion amplifier, 256. +Automatic telegraphy, 53, 105, 266. + + +B + +Baltimore-Washington Telegraph Line, 86. +Bell, Alexander Graham, parentage, 140; + youth, 141; + teaches elocution, 146; + experiments with speech, 151, 161; + meets Henry, 158; + invents telephone, 162; + at Centennial Exposition, 165; + demonstrates telephone, 170; + Bell Telephone Association, 178; + Bell-Western Union Settlement; + Bell and wireless telegraphy, 189; + Transcontinental telephone, 248. +Bethell, Union N., 241. +Blake, Clarence J., 154. +Blake, Francis, invents telephone transmitter, 182. +Branly coherer, 204. +Brett, J.W., 112. +Bright, Charles Tiltson, 112, 120, 125, 128. + + +C + +Cable laid across Channel, 108. +Carty, J.J., youth, 232; + enters telephone field, 234; + Carty and the switchboard, 235, 242; + uses metallic circuit, 238; + in New York City, 241; + invents bridging bell, 243; + chief engineer, 244; + extends long-distance telephone, 246; + seeks wireless telephone, 253; + talks across continent by wireless, 257. +Clepsydra, 18. +Code flags at sea, 24. +Coherer, 203. +Colomb's flashing lights, 25. +Congress votes funds for telegraph, 84. +Cooke, William P., 49, 52. +Cornell, Ezra, 86, 93, 107. + + +D + +Davy's needle telegraph, 44. +De Forest, Dr. Lee, 225, 256. +Dolbear and telephone, 185; + wireless telegraphy, 194. +Drawbaugh case, 186. +Duplex telegraphy, 104, 265. +Dyar, Harrison Gray, 41. + + +E + +Edison, and the telegraph, 104; + telephone transmitter 180; + wireless telegraphy, 195. +Ellsworth, Annie, 85. + + +F + +Field, Cyrus W., plans Transatlantic cable, 110; + honors, 125, 136; + develops cable, 130, 134. + + +G + +Gale, Professor, 67, 86. +Gauss and Weber's telegraph, 43. +Gisborne, F.N., 109. +Gray, Elisha, 157, 184. +_Great Eastern_, 132, 135, 139. +Guns as marine signals, 23. + + +H + +Hammond, John Hays, 229. +Heaviside, A.W., 196. +Heliograph, 29. +Henry, Joseph, 65, 67, 158, 169. +Hertz and the Hertzian waves, 197. +Hubbard, Gardiner G., 149, 159, 170, 178. +Hubbard, Mabel, 148, 166. + + +I + +Indian smoke signals, 20. + + +J + +Jackson, Dr. Charles T., 64, 79. + + +K + +Kelvin, Lord (See Thomson), 138. +"Kwaker" captured, 50. + + +L + +Long-distance telephone, 245. + + +M + +Magnetic Telegraph Co., 93. +Marconi, boyhood, 199; + accomplished wireless telegraphy, 202; + demonstration in England, 209; + Transatlantic telegraphy, 217; + Marconi Telegraph Company, 220. +Marine signals on Argonautic expedition, 15. +Mirror galvanometer, 127. +Mirrors of Pharaoh, 17. +Morse at University of New York, 66. +Morse, code in signals, 27; + parentage, 56; + at Yale, 57; + art student, 59; + artist, 62; + conceives the telegraph, 63; + exhibits telegraph, 75; + offers telegraph to Congress, 76, 91; + patents telegraph, 82; + submarine cable, 83, 107; + erects first line, 86; + dies, 104. +Multiplex printer telegraph, 274. +Mundy, Arthur J., 31. + + +O + +O'Reilly, Henry, 94. + + +P + +Preece, W.H., 196, 209. +Printing telegraph, 271. +Pupin, Michael I., 247. + + +Q + +Quadruplex telegraphy, 104, 265. + + +R + +Reis's musical telegraph, 157. + + +S + +Sanders, Thomas, 148, 159, 178. +Scribner, Charles E., 236. +Searchlight telephone, 251. +Semaphore signals, 27. +Shouting sentinels, 16. +Sibley, Hiram, 96, 99. +Signal columns, 19. +Siphon recorder, 137. +Smith, Francis O.J., 76. +Stentorophonic tube, 18. +Submarine signals, 31. + + +T + +Telegraph, first suggestion, 39; + patented, 82; + development, 264. +Telephone invented and patented, 162; + at Centennial, 165; + exchange, 177. +Thomson, youth, 144; + cable adviser, 121; + invents mirror galvanometer, 126; + knighted, 136; + invents siphon recorder, 137; + connection with telephone, 169. +Transatlantic cable (See Atlantic cable). +Transatlantic wireless telegraphy, 216. +Transatlantic wireless telephone, 259. +Transcontinental telegraph, 96. +Transcontinental telephone, 246. +Transcontinental wireless telephone, 257. +Trowbridge, John, 190. +Troy, signaling fall of, 14. +Tuning the wireless telegraph, 222. + + +V + +Vail, Alfred, arranges Morse code, joins Morse, 70; + makes telephone apparatus, 72; + operates first line, 90; + improves telegraph, 100. +Vail, Theodore, joins telephone forces, 180; + puts wires underground, 239; + adopts copper circuits, 240; + resumes telephone leadership, 244; + talks across continent without wires, 257. + + +W + +Watson, aids Bell with telephone, 159; + telephone partner, 175; + helps demonstrate telephone, 175; + telephones across continent, 248. +Western Union, organized, 96; + enters telephone field, 178. +Wheatstone, 1; + boyhood, 45; + five-needle telegraph, 49; + single-needle telegraph, 52; + Wheatstone-Cooke controversy, 52; + automatic transmitter, 53; + bridge, 53; + opposes Morse, 78; + encourages Bell, 145. +Wig-wag system, 26. +Wireless telegraphy suggested, 188; + invented, 202; + on shipboard, 221; + in the future, 230. +Wireless telephone, conceived, 250; + future, 260; + in navy, 261. + + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Masters of Space, by Walter Kellogg Towers + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MASTERS OF SPACE *** + +***** This file should be named 12375.txt or 12375.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/3/7/12375/ + +Produced by Leah Moser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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