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ADAMS, Editor</h3> +<center>History is past Politics and Politics present +History.—<i>Freeman</i></center> +<h3>NINTH SERIES</h3> +<h3>IX</h3> +<h1>THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN, 1853-1881</h1> +<h2>BY TOYOKICHI IYENAGA, PH. D.</h2> +<h3><i>Professor of Political Science in Tokio +Senmon-Gakko</i></h3> +<h3>September, 1891</h3> +<hr /> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> +<p>INTRODUCTORY</p> +<p>CHAP. I. (1853-1868). BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL +MOVEMENT</p> +<p>THE CIRCUMSTANCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE MOVEMENT</p> +<p>THE ACCOUNT OF COMMODORE PERRY'S ARRIVAL BY THE AUTHOR OF GENJE +YUME MONOGATARI</p> +<p>DISCUSSION BETWEEN THE PRINCE OF MITO AND THE TOKUGAWA OFFICIALS +AT THE COURT OF YEDO</p> +<p>CONCLUSION OF TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN</p> +<p>THE OLD PRINCE OF MITO, NARIAKI</p> +<p>II KAMON NO KAMI</p> +<p>BOMBARDMENTS OF KAGOSHIMA AND SHIMONOSHEKI</p> +<p>THE EFFECTS OF THE BOMBARDMENT</p> +<p>1. Showed the Weakness of the Daimios and the Strength of +foreigners</p> +<p>2. Showed the Necessity of National Union, and of the +Reconstruction of the Administrative Machinery of the Empire</p> +<p>GREAT COUNCILS OF KUGES AND DAIMIOS.</p> +<p>1. Their Nature and Organization</p> +<p>2. How they originated</p> +<p>3. In them lay the Germ of the future Constitutional Parliament +of Japan</p> +<p>CHAP. II. (1868-1869). THE RESTORATION</p> +<p>CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF THE SHOGUNATE</p> +<p>1. Revival of Learning</p> +<p>2. Revival of Shintoism</p> +<p>3. Jealousy and Cupidity of the Southern Daimios</p> +<p>THE RESIGNATION OF THE SHOGUN</p> +<p>THE MOTIVE OF HIS RESIGNATION</p> +<p>THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RESTORATION</p> +<p>1. Its Organization</p> +<p>2. Its Departments</p> +<p>FOREIGN POLICY OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT</p> +<p>REMOVAL OF THE CAPITAL TO TOKIO</p> +<p>THE CHARTER OATH OF THE EMPEROR, APRIL 17, 1869</p> +<p>THE KOGISHO</p> +<p>1. Its Origin</p> +<p>2. Its Composition</p> +<p>3. Its Nature</p> +<p>CHAP. III. (1869-1871). THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.</p> +<p>MEMORIAL OF PRESIDENT OF THE KOGISHO</p> +<p>ABOLITION SCHEME OF SCHOLARS IS BACKED BY THE SOUTHERN +DAIMIOS</p> +<p>MEMORIAL OF THE SOUTHERN DAIMIOS</p> +<p>IMPERIAL DECREE OF 1871, ABOLISHING FEUDALISM</p> +<p>CAUSES OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM</p> +<p>CHAP. IV. INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE +REPRESENTATIVE IDEA OF GOVERNMENT</p> +<p>JOHN STEWART MILL'S ENUMERATION OF THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS +NECESSARY FOR THE SUCCESS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT</p> +<p>JAPAN OF 1871 NOT YET READY FOR THE ADOPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE +GOVERNMENT</p> +<p>POLITICAL ACTIVITY OF A NATION NOT ISOLATED FROM OTHER SPHERES +OF ITS ACTIVITIES</p> +<p>JAPAN'S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT GREATLY AIDED BY HER SOCIAL, +EDUCATIONAL, INDUSTRIAL AND RELIGIOUS CHANGES</p> +<p>SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THESE NON-POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS +FROM 1868 TO 1881</p> +<p>1. Means of Communication</p> +<p><i>a</i>. Telegraph</p> +<p><i>b</i>. Postal System</p> +<p><i>c</i>. Railroad</p> +<p><i>d</i>. Steamers and the Coasting Trade</p> +<p>2. Educational Institutions</p> +<p>3. Newspapers</p> +<p>CHANGES IN LAW AND RELIGION</p> +<p>CHAP. V. (1871-1881). PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT +FROM THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, +1881</p> +<p>LEADERS OF THE RESTORATION</p> +<p>EFFECT OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM</p> +<p>THE IWAKURA EMBASSY</p> +<p>IWAKURA, ITO, INOUYE</p> +<p>FUKUZAWA</p> +<p>THE PRESS AND ITS INFLUENCES</p> +<p>RI-SHI-SHA AND COUNT ITAGAKI</p> +<p>MEMORIALS OF RI-SHI-SHA TO THE EMPEROR</p> +<p>ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCAL ASSEMBLIES</p> +<p>THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881, TO ESTABLISH A PARLIAMENT +IN 1890</p> +<hr /> +<h2>INTRODUCTORY.</h2> +<p>The power which destroyed Japanese feudalism and changed in that +country an absolute into a constitutional monarchy was a resultant +of manifold forces. The most apparent of these forces is the +foreign influence. Forces less visible but more potent, tending in +this direction, are those influences resulting from the growth of +commerce and trade, from the diffusion of western science and +knowledge among the people, and from the changes in social habits +and religious beliefs. The truth of the solidarity of the varied +interests of a social organism is nowhere so well exemplified as in +the history of modern Japan. Her remarkable political development +would have been impossible had there been no corresponding social, +educational, religious, economic and industrial changes. In order +to trace the constitutional development of New Japan, it is +therefore necessary:</p> +<p>1. To ascertain the political condition of the country at and +after the advent of foreigners in 1853.</p> +<p>2. To describe the form of government of the Restoration.</p> +<p>3. To examine the state of commerce, industry, education and +social life of Japan at each stage of her political +transformations.</p> +<p>4. To recount the constitutional changes from the Restoration to +the Promulgation of the New Constitution.</p> +<p>As a novice in travel marks the broad outlines, the general +features and more important products of the country he visits for +the first time, so I shall dwell upon the historic landmarks of +Japanese constitutional development. This development no writer, +native or foreign, has yet attempted to trace. I shall withstand as +much as possible the temptation to refer to the multitude of events +which are more or less associated with the constitutional movement. +I shall endeavor to ascertain from the edicts, decrees, and +proclamations of the Emperor, from the orders and manifestos of the +Shogun, from the native authors and journals, from the memorials +and correspondence of prominent men, both native and foreign, the +trend of our constitutional development. I shall also endeavor to +note the leading ideas and principles which, after manifesting +themselves in various forms, have at last crystallized into the New +Constitution of Japan.</p> +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> +<h3>BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT.</h3> +<p>The constitutional movement of Japan began in a spontaneous +agitation of the whole body politic when the nation was irritated +by the sudden contact with foreigners. The sense of national +weakness added a force to this agitation. Had not the foreigners +come, the Restoration might have been effected, feudalism might +have been abolished, but the new Japanese constitution would hardly +have seen the day. Had the government of Japan at the time of the +advent of foreigners been in the strong hand of a Taiko or an +Iyeyasu, the rulers might have been greatly exercised by the +extraordinary event, but public opinion for reform would hardly +have been called forth, and the birth of constitutional liberty +would long have been delayed. As the vices of King John and the +indifference and ignorance of the first two Georges of England +begat the strength and hope of the English Parliament, so the +public opinion of Japan sprouted out of the ruins of the Shogunate +régime. We must therefore seek for the beginning of the +Constitutional Movement of Japan in the peculiar circumstances in +which she found herself between 1853 and 1868.</p> +<p>The advent of Commodore Perry in 1853 was to Japan like the +intrusion of a foreign queen into a beehive. The country was +stirred to its depth. Let us note what a native chronicler<a id= +"footnotetag1-1" name="footnotetag1-1"></a><a href= +"#footnote1-1"><sup>1</sup></a> says about the condition of Japan +at the arrival of Perry:</p> +<p>"It was in the summer of 1853 that an individual named Perry, +who called himself the envoy of the United States of America, +suddenly arrived at Uraga, in the Province of Sagami, with four +ships of war, declaring that he brought a letter from his country +to Japan and that he wished to deliver it to the sovereign. The +governor of the place, Toda Idzu No Kami, much alarmed by this +extraordinary event, hastened to the spot to inform himself of its +meaning. The envoy stated, in reply to questions, that he desired +to see a chief minister in order to explain the object of his visit +and to hand over to him the letter with which he was charged. The +governor then despatched a messenger on horseback with all haste to +carry this information to the castle of Yedo, where a great scene +of confusion ensued on his arrival. Fresh messengers followed, and +the Shogun Iyeyoshi, on receiving them, was exceedingly troubled, +and summoned all the officials<a id="footnotetag1-2" name= +"footnotetag1-2"></a><a href="#footnote1-2"><sup>2</sup></a> to a +council. At first the affair seemed so sudden and so formidable +that they were too alarmed to open their mouths, but in the end +orders were issued to the great clans to keep strict watch at +various points on the shore, as it was possible that the +'barbarian' vessels might proceed to commit acts of violence. +Presently a learned Chinese scholar was sent to Uraga, had an +interview with the American envoy, and returned with the letter, +which expressed the desire of the United States to establish +friendship and intercourse with Japan, and said, according to this +account, that if they met with a refusal they should commence +hostilities. Thereupon the Shogun was greatly distressed, and again +summoned a council. He also asked the opinion of the Daimios. The +assembled officials were exceedingly disturbed, and nearly broke +their hearts over consultations which lasted all day and all night. +The nobles and retired nobles in Yedo were informed that they were +at liberty to state any ideas they might have on the subject, and, +although they all gave their opinions, the diversity of +propositions was so great that no decision was arrived at. The +military class had, during a long peace, neglected military arts; +they had given themselves up to pleasure and luxury, and there were +very few who had put on armor for many years, so that they were +greatly alarmed at the prospect that war might break out at a +moment's notice, and began to run hither and thither in search of +arms. The city of Yedo and the surrounding villages were in a great +tumult. And there was such a state of confusion among all classes +that the governors of the city were compelled to issue a +notification to the people, and this in the end had the effect of +quieting the general anxiety. But in the castle never was a +decision further from being arrived at, and, whilst time was being +thus idly wasted, the envoy was constantly demanding an answer. So +at last they decided that it would be best to arrange the affair +quietly, to give the foreigners the articles they wanted, and to +put off sending an answer to the letter—to tell the envoy +that in an affair of such importance to the state no decision could +be arrived at without mature consideration, and that he had better +go away; that in a short time he should get a definite answer. The +envoy agreed, and after sending a message to say that he should +return in the following spring for his answer, set sail from Uraga +with his four ships."<a id="footnotetag1-3" name= +"footnotetag1-3"></a><a href="#footnote1-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<p>Thus was the renowned commander kept away for awhile. He went, +however, of his own accord. Perry was an astute diplomatist. He +knew that time was needed for the impressions which he and his +magnificent fleet had made upon the country to produce their +natural effect.</p> +<p>The news of Perry's visit and demands spread far and wide with +remarkable rapidity. The government and the people were deeply +stirred. Soon the song of the "red-bearded barbarians" and of the +black ships was in everybody's mouth. The question "What shall +Japan do when the barbarians come next spring?" became the +absorbing theme of the day.</p> +<p>There was now but one of two policies which Japan could pursue, +either to shut up the country or to admit the foreigners' demand. +There was no middle course left. The American envoy would no longer +listen to the dilatory policy with which the Japanese had just +bought a few months' respite from anxiety.</p> +<p>The majority of the ruling class, the Samurai, were in favor of +the exclusion policy. So was the court of Kioto. But the views of +the court of Yedo were different. The court of Yedo had many men of +intelligence, common sense and experience—men who had seen +the American envoy and his squadron, equipped with all the +contrivances for killing men and devastating the country. These men +knew too well that resistance to the foreigners was futile and +perilous.</p> +<p>Thus was the country early divided into two clearly defined +parties, the Jo-i<a id="footnotetag1-4" name= +"footnotetag1-4"></a><a href="#footnote1-4"><sup>4</sup></a> party +and the Kai-Koku party.</p> +<p>Meanwhile, the autumn and winter of 1853 passed. The spring of +1854 soon came, and with it the intractable "barbarians." Let us +hear the author of Genje Yume Monogatari relate the return of Perry +and the great discussion that ensued at the court of Yedo:</p> +<p>"Early in 1854 Commodore Perry returned, and the question of +acceding to his demands was again hotly debated. The old prince of +Mito was opposed to it, and contended that the admission of +foreigners into Japan would ruin it. 'At first,' said he, 'they +will give us philosophical instruments, machinery and other +curiosities; will take ignorant people in, and, trade being their +chief object, they will manage bit by bit to impoverish the +country, after which they will treat us just as they +like—perhaps behave with the greatest rudeness and insult us, +and end by swallowing up Japan. If we do not drive them away now we +shall never have another opportunity. If we now resort to a +dilatory method of proceeding we shall regret it afterwards when it +will be of no use.'</p> +<p>"The officials (of the Shogun), however, argued otherwise and +said: 'If we try to drive them away they will immediately commence +hostilities, and then we shall be obliged to fight. If we once get +into a dispute we shall have an enemy to fight who will not be +easily disposed of. He does not care how long a time he must spend +over it, but he will come with myriads of men-of-war and surround +our shores completely; he will capture our junks and blockade our +ports, and deprive us of all hope of protecting our coasts. However +large a number of ships we might destroy, he is so accustomed to +that sort of thing that he would not care in the least. Even +supposing that our troops were animated by patriotic zeal in the +commencement of the war, after they had been fighting for several +years their patriotic zeal would naturally become relaxed, the +soldiers would become fatigued, and for this we should have to +thank ourselves. Soldiers who have distinguished themselves are +rewarded by grants of land, or else you attack and seize the +enemy's territory and that becomes your own property; so every man +is encouraged to fight his best. But in a war with foreign +countries a man may undergo hardships for years, may fight as if +his life were worth nothing, and, as all the land in this country +already has owners, there will be none to be given away as rewards; +so we shall have to give rewards in words or money. In time the +country would be put to an immense expense and the people be +plunged into misery. Rather than allow this, as we are not the +equals of foreigners in the mechanical arts, let us have +intercourse with foreign countries, learn their drill and tactics, +and when we have made the nation as united as one family, we shall +be able to go abroad and give lands in foreign countries to those +who have distinguished themselves in battle. The soldiers will vie +with one another in displaying their intrepidity, and it will not +be too late then to declare war. Now we shall have to defend +ourselves against these foreign enemies, skilled in the use of +mechanical appliances, with our soldiers whose military skill has +considerably diminished during a long peace of three hundred years, +and we certainly could not feel sure of victory, especially in a +naval war.'"<a id="footnotetag1-5" name= +"footnotetag1-5"></a><a href="#footnote1-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p> +<p>The Kai-Koku party, the party in favor of opening the country, +triumphed, and the treaty was finally concluded between the United +States and Japan on the 31st of March, 1854. After the return of +Commodore Perry to America, Townsend Harris was sent by the United +States Government as Consul-General to Japan. He negotiated the +commercial treaty between the United States and Japan on July 29, +1858.</p> +<p>At the heels of the Americans followed the English, French, +Russians, Dutch, and other nations. Japan's foreign relations +became more and more complicated and therefore difficult to +manage.</p> +<p>The discussion quoted above is a type of the arguments used by +the Jo-i party and the Kai-Koku party. The history of Japanese +politics from 1853 to 1868 is the history of the struggle between +these two parties, each of which soon changed its name. As the Jo-i +party allied itself with the court of Kioto, it became the O-sei or +Restoration party. As the Kai-Koku party was associated with the +court of Shogun, it became the Bakufu party. The struggle ended in +the triumph of the Restoration party. But by that time the Jo-i +party, from a cause which I shall soon mention, had been completely +transformed and converted to the Western ideas.</p> +<p>Among the leaders of the Jo-i party was Nariaki, the old prince +of Mito. He belonged to one of the San Kay (three families), out of +which Iyeyasu ordered the Shogun to be chosen. He was connected by +marriage with the families of the Emperor and the highest Kuges in +Miako, and with the wealthiest Daimios. In power the Mito family +thus ranked high among the Daimios. Among the scholars the Prince +of Mito was popular. The prestige of his great ancestor, the +compiler of Dai-Nihon-Shi, had not yet died out. The Prince of Mito +was thus naturally looked up to by the scholars as the man of right +principles and of noble ideas. A shrewd, clever, and scheming old +man, the Prince of Mito now became the defender of the cause of the +Emperor and the mouthpiece of the conservative party.</p> +<p>At the head of the Bakufu party was a man of iron and fertile +resources, Ii Kamon No Kami. He was the Daimio of Hikone, a castled +town and fief on Lake Biwa, in Mino. His revenue was small, being +only three hundred and fifty thousand koku. But in position and +power none in the empire could rival him. He was the head of the +Fudai Daimios. His family was called the Dodai or foundation-stone +of the power of the Tokugawa dynasty. His ancestor, Ii Nawo Massa, +had been lieutenant-general and right-hand man of Iyeyas. Ii Kamon +No Kami, owing to the mental infirmity of the reigning Shogun, had +lately become his regent. Bold, ambitious, able, and unscrupulous, +Ii was the Richelieu of Japan. From this time on till his +assassination on March 23, 1860, he virtually ruled the empire, +and, in direct contravention to the imperial will, negotiated with +foreign nations, as we have seen, for the opening of ports for +trade with them. He was styled the "swaggering prime minister," and +his name was long pronounced with contempt and odium. Lately, +however, his good name has been rescued and his fame restored by +the noble effort of an able writer, Mr. Saburo Shimada.<a id= +"footnotetag1-6" name="footnotetag1-6"></a><a href= +"#footnote1-6"><sup>6</sup></a> But this able prime minister fell +on March 23, 1860, by the sword of Mito ronins, who alleged, as the +pretext of their crime, that "Ii Kamon No Kami had insulted the +imperial decree and, careless of the misery of the people, but +making foreign intercourse his chief aim, had opened ports." "The +position of the government upon the death of the regent was that of +helpless inactivity. The sudden removal of the foremost man of the +empire was as the removal of the fly-wheel from a piece of +complicated machinery. The whole empire stood aghast, expecting and +fearing some great political convulsion."<a id="footnotetag1-7" +name="footnotetag1-7"></a><a href= +"#footnote1-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p> +<p>The Shogun began to make a compromise to unite the Emperor's +power and the Shogun's, by taking the sister of the Emperor for his +wife.</p> +<p>Meanwhile great events were taking place in the southern corner +of Kiushiu and on the promontory of Shikoku, events which were to +effect great changes in men's ideas. These were the bombardments of +Kagoshima and of Shimonosheki, the first on August 11, 1863, the +second on September 5, 1864. I shall not dwell here on the +injustice of these barbarous and heathenish acts of the so-called +civilized and Christian nations; for I am not writing a political +pamphlet. But impartially let us note the great effects of these +bombardments.</p> +<p>I. These conflicts showed on a grand but sad scale the weakness +of the Daimios, even the most powerful of them, and, on the other +hand, the power of the foreigners and their rifled cannon and +steamers. The following Japanese memorandum expresses this point: +"Satsuma's eyes were opened since the fight of Kagoshima, and +affairs appeared to him in a new light; he changed in favor of +foreigners, and thought now of making his country powerful and +completing his armaments."<a id="footnotetag1-8" name= +"footnotetag1-8"></a><a href="#footnote1-8"><sup>8</sup></a></p> +<p>The Emperor also wrote in a rather pathetic tone to the Shogun +touching the relative strength of the Japanese and the foreigners: +"I held a council the other day with my military nobility (Daimios +and nobles), but unfortunately inured to the habits of peace, which +for more than two hundred years has existed in our country, we are +unable to exclude and subdue our foreign enemies by the forcible +means of war....</p> +<p>"If we compare our Japanese ships of war and cannon to those of +the barbarians, we feel certain that they are not sufficient to +inflict terror upon the foreign barbarians, and are also +insufficient to make the splendor of Japan shine in foreign +countries. I should think that we only should make ourselves +ridiculous in the eyes of the barbarians."<a id="footnotetag1-9" +name="footnotetag1-9"></a><a href= +"#footnote1-9"><sup>9</sup></a></p> +<p>From the time of the bombardment, Satsuma and Choshiu began to +introduce European machinery and inventions, to employ skilled +Europeans to teach them, and to send their young men to Europe and +America.</p> +<p>II. These bombardments showed the necessity of national union. +Whether she would repel or receive the foreigner, Japan must +present a united front. To this end, great change in the internal +constitution of the empire was needed; the internal resources of +the nation had to be gathered into a common treasury; the police +and the taxes had to be recognized as national, not as belonging to +petty local chieftains; the power of the feudal lords had to be +broken in order to reconstitute Japan as a single strong state +under a single head. These are the ideas which led the way to the +Restoration of 1868. Thus the bombardments of Kagoshima and +Shimonosheki may be said to have helped indirectly in the +Restoration of that year. But before we proceed to the history of +the Restoration, let us examine what were the great Councils of +Kuges and Daimios, which were sometimes convened during the period +from 1857 to 1868.</p> +<p>The Council of Kuges was occasionally convened by the order of +the Emperor. It was composed of the princes of the blood, nobles, +and courtiers. The Council of Daimios was now and then summoned +either by the Emperor or by the Shogun. It was composed mostly of +the Daimios. These councils were like the Witenagemot of England, +formed of the wise and influential men of the kingdom. As the +Daimios had far more weight in the political scale of the realm +than the Kuges, so the council of the Daimios was of far more +importance than that of the Kuges. But it must not be understood +that these councils were regular meetings held in the modern +parliamentary way; nor that they had anything like the powers of +the British Parliament or of the American Congress. These councils +of Japan were called into spasmodic life simply by the necessity of +the time. They were held either at the court of Kioto or that of +Yedo, or at other places appointed for the purpose. The Kuges or +Daimios assembled rather in an informal way, measured by modern +parliamentary procedure, but in accordance with the court etiquette +of the time, whose most minute regulations and rules have often +embarrassed and plagued the modern ministers accredited to the +court of the Emperor. Then these councils proceeded to discuss the +burning questions of the day, among which the most prominent was, +of course, the foreign policy. The earliest instance of the meeting +of the Council of Kuges was immediately after the news of Perry's +arrival had reached the court of Kioto. "Upon this," says the +author of Genje Yume Monogatari, "the Emperor was much disturbed, +and called a council, which was attended by a number of princes of +the blood and Kuges, and much violent language was uttered."</p> +<p>From this time on we meet often with the record of these +councils.<a id="footnotetag1-10" name= +"footnotetag1-10"></a><a href="#footnote1-10"><sup>10</sup></a> A +native chronicler records that on the 29th day of the 12th month of +1857 "a meeting of all Daimios (present in Yedo) was held in the +Haku-sho-in, a large hall in the castle of Yedo. The deliberations +were not over till two o'clock on the morning of the 30th."</p> +<p>Soon after this the Emperor ordered the Shogun to come to Kioto +with all the Daimios and ascertain the opinion of the country. But +the Shogun did not come, so the Emperor sent his envoy, Ohara +Sammi, and called the meeting of the Daimios at Yedo in 1862, in +which the noted Shimadzu Saburo was also present.</p> +<p>In 1864 the council of Daimios was again held, and Minister +Pruyn, in his letter to Mr. Seward, bears witness of the +proceeding: "It is understood the great council of Daimios is again +in session; that the question of the foreign policy of the +government is again under consideration, and that the opposite +parties are pretty evenly balanced."<a id="footnotetag1-11" name= +"footnotetag1-11"></a><a href="#footnote1-11"><sup>11</sup></a></p> +<p>From this time the council of Daimios was held every year, +sometimes many times in the year, till the Revolution of 1868. +These examples will suffice to show the nature and purpose of these +councils of Kuges and Daimios. Let us next consider how these +councils originated.</p> +<p>The political development of Japan gives another illustration of +one of the truths which Mr. Herbert Spencer unfolds in his +Principles of Sociology. "Everywhere the wars between societies," +says he, "originate governmental structures, and are causes of all +such improvements in those structures as increase the efficiency of +corporate action against environing societies."<a id= +"footnotetag1-12" name="footnotetag1-12"></a><a href= +"#footnote1-12"><sup>12</sup></a></p> +<p>Experience has shown that representative government is the most +efficient in securing the corporate action of the various members +of the body politic against foreign enemies. When a country is +threatened with foreign invasion, when the corporate action of its +citizens against their enemy is needed, it becomes an imperative +necessity to consult public opinion. In such a time centralization +is needed. Hence the first move of Japan after the advent of +foreigners was to bring the scattered parts of the country together +and unite them under one head.</p> +<p>Japan had hitherto no formidable foreign enemy on her shores. So +her governmental system—the regulating system of the social +organism—received no impetus for self-development. But as +soon as a formidable people, either as allies or foes, appeared on +the scene in 1853, we immediately see the remarkable change in the +state system of regulation in Japan. It became necessary to consult +public opinion. Councils of Kuges and Daimios and meetings of +Samurai sprung forth spontaneously.</p> +<p>I believe, with Guizot, that the germ of representative +government was not necessarily "in the woods of Germany," as +Montesquieu asserts, or in the Witenagemot of England; that the +glory of having a free government is not necessarily confined to +the Aryan family or to its more favored branch, the Anglo-Saxons. I +believe that the seed of representative government is implanted in +the very nature of human society and of the human mind. When the +human mind and the social organism reach a certain stage of +development, when they are placed in such an environment as to call +forth a united and harmonious action of the body politic, when +education is diffused among the masses and every member of the +community attains a certain degree of his individuality and +importance, when the military form of society transforms itself +into the industrial, then the representative idea of government +springs forth naturally and irresistibly. And no tyrant, no despot, +can obstruct the triumphal march of liberty.</p> +<p>Whatever may be said about the soundness of the above +speculation, it is certain that in the great councils of Kuges and +Daimios and in the discussions of the Samurai, which the advent of +the foreigners called into being, lay the germ of the future +constitutional parliament of Japan.</p> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-1" name= +"footnote1-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-1">(return)</a> +<p>Genje Yume Monogatari. Translated by Mr. Ernest Satow, and +published in the columns of the <i>Japan Mail</i>.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-2" name= +"footnote1-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-2">(return)</a> +<p>The original gives names of some prominent officials thus +summoned.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-3" name= +"footnote1-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-3">(return)</a> +<p>This is also quoted in F.O. Adams's History of Japan, Vol. I., +p. 109. I have compared the passage with the original and quote +here with some modifications in the translation.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-4" name= +"footnote1-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-4">(return)</a> +<p>Jo-i means to expel the barbarians; Kai-Koku means to open the +country.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-5" name= +"footnote1-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-5">(return)</a> +<p>Given also in Kai-Koku Simatsu, p. 166; Ansei-Kiji, pp. 219, +220.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-6" name= +"footnote1-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-6">(return)</a> +<p>Life of Ii Nawosuke Tokyo, 1888.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-7" name= +"footnote1-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-7">(return)</a> +<p>Dickson's Japan, p. 454.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-8" name= +"footnote1-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-8">(return)</a> +<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Part 3, +1865-66, p. 233, 1st Sess. 39th Cong.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-9" name= +"footnote1-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-9">(return)</a> +<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Part 3, +1864-65, p. 502, 2d Sess. 38th Cong.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-10" name= +"footnote1-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-10">(return)</a> +<p>See Ansei-Kiji, pages 1, 3, 57, 59, 61, 174, 192, 352; +Bosin-Simatsu, Vol. II., pp. 4, 69; Vol. III., pp. 379, 414; Vol. +IV., pp. 121, 152.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-11" name= +"footnote1-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-11">(return)</a> +<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Part 3, +1864-65, p. 486, 3d Sess. 38th Cong.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-12" name= +"footnote1-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag1-12">(return)</a> +<p>Principles of Sociology, p. 540.</p> +</blockquote> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> +<h3>THE RESTORATION.</h3> +<p>In the last chapter we have noticed what a commotion had been +caused in Japan by the sudden advent of Commodore Perry, how the +councils of Kuges and Daimios were called into spontaneous life by +the dread of foreigners and by the sense of national weakness, and +how the bombardments of Kagoshima and Shimonosheki tested these +fears and taught the necessity of national union. I have remarked +that free government is not necessarily the sole heritage of the +Aryan race, but that the presence of foreigners, the change of the +military form of society into the industrial form, the increase in +importance of the individual in the community, are sure to breed a +free and representative system of government.</p> +<p>In the following chapter we shall see the downfall of the +Shogunate, the restoration of the imperial power to its pristine +vigor, and the destruction of feudalism.</p> +<p>"The study of constitutional history is essentially a tracing of +causes and consequences," says Bishop Stubbs, "not the collection +of a multitude of facts and views, but the piecing of links of a +perfect chain."</p> +<p>I shall therefore not dwell upon the details of the events which +led to the downfall of the Shogunate, but immediately enter into an +inquiry concerning the causes.</p> +<p>Three causes led to the final overthrow of the Shogunate:</p> +<p>I. The Revival of Learning. The last half of the eighteenth and +the first half of the present century witnessed in Japan an unusual +intellectual activity. The long peace and prosperity of the country +under the rule of the Tokugawa dynasties had fostered in every way +the growth of literature and art. The Shoguns, from policy or from +taste, either to find a harmless vent for the restless spirit of +the Samura or from pure love of learning, have been constant +patrons of literature. The Daimios, too, as a means of spending +their leisure hours when they were not out hawking or revelling +with their mistresses, gave no inattentive ear to the readings and +lectures of learned men. Each Daimioate took pride in the number +and fame of her own learned sons. Thus throughout the country +eminent scholars arose. With them a new era of literature dawned +upon the land. The new literature changed its tone. Instead of the +servility, faint suggestiveness, and restrained politeness +characteristic of the literature from the Gen-hei period to the +first half of the Tokugawa period, that of the Revival Era began to +wear a bolder and freer aspect. History came to be recorded with +more truthfulness and boldness than ever before.</p> +<p>But as the ancient histories were studied and the old +constitution was brought into light, the real nature of the +Shogunate began to reveal itself. To the eyes of the historians it +became clear that the Shogunate was nothing but a military +usurpation, sustained by fraud and corruption; that the Emperor, +who was at that time, in plain words, imprisoned at the court of +Kioto, was the real source of power and honor. "If this be the +case, what ought we do?" was the natural question of these loyal +subjects of the Emperor. The natural conclusion followed: the +military usurper must be overthrown and the rightful ruler +recognized. This was the sum and substance of the political +programme of the Imperialists. The first sound of the trumpet +against the Shogunate rose from the learned hall of the Prince of +Mito, Komon. He, with the assistance of a host of scholars, +finished his great work, the Dai Nihon Shi, or History of Japan, in +1715. It was not printed till 1851, but was copied from hand to +hand by eager students, like the Bible by the medieval monks, or +the works of Plato and Aristotle by the Humanists. The Dai Nihon +Shi soon became a classic, and had such an influence in restoring +the power of the Emperor that Mr. Ernest Satow justly calls its +composer "the real author of the movement which culminated in the +revolution of 1868." The voice of the Prince of Mito was soon +caught up by the more celebrated scholar Rai Sanyo (1780-1833). A +poet, an historian, and a zealous patriot, Rai Sanyo was the Arndt +of Japan. He outlined in his Nihon Guai Shi the rise and fall of +the Minister of State and the Shoguns, and with satire, invective, +and the enthusiasm of a patriot, urged the unlawfulness of the +usurpation of the imperial power by these mayors of the palace. In +his Sei-Ki, or political history of Japan, he traced the history of +the imperial family, and mourned with characteristic pathos the +decadence of the imperial power. The labors of these historians and +scholars bore in time abundant fruit. Some of their disciples +became men of will and action: Sakuma Shozan, Yoshida Toraziro, +Gesho, Yokoi Heishiro, and later Saigo, Okubo, Kido, and hosts of +others, who ultimately realized the dreams of their masters. Out of +the literary seed which scholars like Rai Sanyo spread broadcast +over the country thus grew hands of iron and hearts of steel. This +process shows how closely related are history and politics, and +affords another illustration of the significance of the +epigrammatic expression of Professor Freeman: "History is past +politics, and politics present history."</p> +<p>II. Another tributary stream which helped to swell the tide +flowing toward the Emperor was the revival of Shintoism. The +revival of learning is sure to be followed by the revival of +religion. This is shown in the history of the Reformation in +Europe, which was preceded by the revival of learning. Since the +expulsion of Christianity from Japan in the sixteenth century, +which was effected more from political than religious motives, +laissez-faire was the steadfast policy of the Japanese rulers +toward religious matters. The founder of the Tokugawa dynasty had +laid down in his "Legacy" the policy to be pursued by his +descendants. "Now any one of the people," says Iyeyasu, "can adhere +to which (religion) he pleases (except the Christian); and there +must be no wrangling among sects to the disturbance of the peace of +the Empire." Thus while the people in the West, who worshipped the +Prince of Peace, in his abused name were cutting each other's +throat, destroying each other's property, torturing and proselyting +by rack and flames, the islanders on the West Pacific coast were +enjoying complete religious toleration. Three +religions—Shintoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism—lived +together in peace. In such a state of unrestricted competition +among various religions, the universal law of the survival of the +fittest acts freely. Buddhism was the fittest and became the +predominant religion. Shintoism was the weakest and sank into +helpless desuetude. But with the revival of learning, as Kojiki and +other ancient literature were studied with assiduity, Shintoism +began to revive. Its cause found worthy defenders in Motoori and +Hirata. They are among the greatest Shintoists Japan has ever +seen.</p> +<p>Now, according to Shintoism, Japan is a holy land. It was made +by the gods, whose lineal descendant is the Emperor. Hence he must +be revered and worshipped as a god. This is the substance of +Shintoism. The political bearing of such a doctrine upon the then +existing status of the country is apparent. The Emperor, who is a +god, the fountain of all virtue, honor, and authority, is now a +prisoner at the court of Kioto, under the iron hand of the Tokugawa +Shoguns. This state of impiety and irreverence can never be +tolerated by the devout Shintoists. The Shogun must be dethroned +and the Emperor raised to power. Here the line of arguments of the +Shintoists meets with that of the scholars we have noted above. +Thus both scholars and Shintoists have converted themselves into +politicians who have at heart the restoration of the Emperor.</p> +<p>III. Another cause which led to the overthrow of the Shogunate +was the jealousy and cupidity of the Southern Daimios. Notably +among them were the Daimios of Satsuma, Choshiu, Tosa, and Hizen. +Their ancestors "had of old held equal rank and power with Iyeyasu, +until the fortunes of war turned against them. They had been +overcome by force, or had sullenly surrendered in face of +overwhelming odds. Their adherence to the Tokugawas was but +nominal, and only the strong pressure of superior power was able to +wring from them a haughty semblance of obedience. They chafed +perpetually under the rule of one who was in reality a vassal like +themselves."<a id="footnotetag2-1" name= +"footnotetag2-1"></a><a href="#footnote2-1"><sup>1</sup></a> They +now saw in the rising tide of public sentiment against the Tokugawa +Shogunate a rare opportunity of accomplishing their cherished aim. +They lent their arms and money for the support of the patriots in +carrying out their plan. Satsuma and Choshiu became the rendezvous +of eminent scholars and zealous patriots. And in the council-halls +of Satsuma and Choshiu were hatched the plots which were soon to +overthrow the effete Shogunate.</p> +<p>Thus everything was ready for the revolution of 1868 before +Perry came. We saw the Shogun, under the bombastic title of Tycoon, +in spite of the remonstrance of the Emperor and his court, conclude +a treaty with Perry at Kanagawa in 1854. Here at last was found a +pretext for the Imperialists to raise arms against the Shogun. The +Shogun or his ministers had no right to make treaties with +foreigners. Such an act was, in the eyes of the patriots, heinous +treason. The cry of "Destroy the Shogunate and raise the Emperor to +his proper throne!" rang from one end of the empire to the other. +The constant disturbance of the country, the difficulty of foreign +intercourse, the sense of necessity of a single and undoubted +authority over the land, and the outcry of the Samurai thus raised +against the Shogun, finally led to his resignation on November 19, +1867. His letter of resignation, in the form of a manifesto to the +Daimios, runs thus:</p> +<p>"A retrospect of the various changes through which the empire +has passed shows us that after the decadence of the monarchical +authority, power passed into the hands of the Minister of State; +that by the wars of 1156 to 1159 the governmental power came into +the hands of the military class. My ancestor received greater marks +of confidence than any before him, and his descendants have +succeeded him for more than two hundred years. Though I perform the +same duties, the objects of government and the penal laws have not +been attained, and it is with feelings of greatest humiliation that +I find myself obliged to ackowledge my own want of virtue as the +cause of the present state of things. Moreover, our intercourse +with foreign powers becomes daily more extensive, and our foreign +policy cannot be pursued unless directed by the whole power of the +country.</p> +<p>"If, therefore, the old régime be changed and the +governmental authority be restored to the imperial court, if the +councils of the whole empire be collected and the wise decisions +received, and if we unite with all our heart and with all our +strength to protect and maintain the empire, it will be able to +range itself with the nations of the earth. This comprises our +whole duty towards our country.</p> +<p>"However, if you (the Daimios) have any particular ideas on the +subject, you may state them without reserve."<a id="footnotetag2-2" +name="footnotetag2-2"></a><a href= +"#footnote2-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p>The resignation of the Shogun was accepted by the Emperor by the +following imperial order, issued on the 10th day of the 12th month: +"It has pleased the Emperor to dismiss the present Shogun, at his +request, from the office of Shogun."</p> +<p>As to the full intent and motive of the Shogun in resigning his +power, let him further speak himself. In the interview of the +British minister, Sir Harry S. Parkes, and the French minister, M. +Leon Koches, with the Shogun, it is stated that he said: "I became +convinced last autumn that the country would no longer be +successfully governed while the power was divided between the +Emperor and myself. The country had two centres, from which orders +of an opposite nature proceeded. Thus, in the matter of the opening +of Hiogo and Osako, which I quote as an example of this conflict of +authority, I was myself convinced that the stipulations of the +treaties must be observed, but the assent of the Emperor to my +representations on this subject was given reluctantly. I therefore, +for the good of my country, informed the Emperor that I resigned +the governing power, with the understanding that an assembly of +Daimios was convened for the purpose of deciding in what manner, +and by whom, the government in future should be carried on. In +acting thus, I sunk my own interests and power handed down to me by +my ancestors, in the more important interests of the country.<a id= +"footnotetag2-3" name="footnotetag2-3"></a><a href= +"#footnote2-3"><sup>3</sup></a>....</p> +<p>"My policy, from the commencement, has been to determine this +question of the future form of government in a peaceful manner, and +it is in pursuance of the same object that, instead of opposing +force by force, I have retired from the scene of dispute.....</p> +<p>"As to who is the sovereign of Japan, it is a question on which +no one in Japan can entertain a doubt. The Emperor is the +sovereign. My object from the first has been to take the will of +the nation as to the future government. If the nation should decide +that I ought to resign my powers, I am prepared to resign them for +the good of my country.....</p> +<p>"I have no other motive but the following: With an honest love +for my country and the people, I resigned the governing power which +I inherited from my ancestors, and with the mutual understanding +that I should assemble all the nobles of the empire to discuss the +question disinterestedly, and adopting the opinion of the majority, +decide upon the reformation of the national constitution, I left +the matter in the hands of the imperial court."<a id= +"footnotetag2-4" name="footnotetag2-4"></a><a href= +"#footnote2-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<p>Thus was the Shogunate overthrown and the Restoration effected. +The civil war which soon followed need not detain us, for the war +itself had no great consequence as regards the constitutional +development of the country.</p> +<p>Let us now consider the form of the new government. It is +essentially that which prevailed in Japan before the development of +feudalism. It is modelled on the form of government of the Osei +era.</p> +<p>The new government was composed of:</p> +<p>1. Sosai ("Supreme Administrator"). He was assisted by Fuku, or +Vice-Sosai. The Sosai resembled the British Premier, was the head +of the chief council of the government.</p> +<p>2. Gijio, or "Supreme Council," whose function was to discuss +all questions and suggest the method of their settlement to the +Sosai. It was composed of ten members, five of whom were selected +from the list of Kuges and five from the great Daimios.</p> +<p>3. Sanyo, or "Associate Council." They were subordinate +officers, and were selected from the Daimios as well as from the +retainers. This council finally came to have great influence, and +ultimately transformed itself into the present cabinet.</p> +<p>The government was divided into eight departments:</p> +<p>1. The Sosai Department. This soon changed into Dai-jo-Kuan.</p> +<p>2. Jingi-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of the Shinto Religion. This +department had charge of the Shinto temples, priests, and +festivals.</p> +<p>3. Naikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Home Affairs. This +department had charge of the capital and the five home provinces, +of land and water transport in all the provinces, of post-towns and +post-roads, of barriers and fairs, and of the governors of castles, +towns, ports, etc.</p> +<p>4. Guaikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Foreign Affairs. This +department had charge of foreign relations, treaties, trade, +recovery of lands, and sustenance of the people.</p> +<p>5. Gumbu-Jimu-Kioku, or War Department. This department had +charge of the naval and military forces, drilling, protection of +the Emperor, and military defences in general.</p> +<p>6. Kuaikei-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Finance. This department +had charge of the registers of houses and population, of tariff and +taxes, money, corn, accounts, tribute, building and repairs, +salaries, public storehouses, and internal trade.</p> +<p>7. Keiho-Jimu-Kioku, or Judicial Department. This department had +charge of the censorate, of inquisitions, arrests, trials, and the +penal laws in general.</p> +<p>8. Seido-Jimu-Kioku, or Legislative Department. This department +had charge of the superintendence of offices, enactments, sumptuary +regulations, appointments, and all other laws and regulations,</p> +<p>"It is easy to destroy, but difficult to construct," is an old +adage of statesmen. The truth of this utterance was soon realized +by the leaders of the new government.</p> +<p>The first thing which the new government had to settle was its +attitude toward foreign nations. The leaders of the government who +had once opposed with such vehemence, as we have seen, the foreign +policy of the Tokugawa Shogun, now that he had been overthrown, +urged the necessity of amicable relations with foreign powers in +the following memorable memorial<a id="footnotetag2-5" name= +"footnotetag2-5"></a><a href="#footnote2-5"><sup>5</sup></a> to the +Dai-jo-Kuan (Government):</p> +<p>"The undersigned, servants of the Crown, respectfully believe +that from ancient times decisions upon important questions +concerning the welfare of the empire were arrived at after +consideration of the actual political condition and its +necessities, and that thus results were obtained, not of mere +temporary brilliancy, but which bore good fruits in all +time....</p> +<p>"Among other pressing duties of the present moment we venture to +believe it to be pre-eminently important to set the question of +foreign intercourse in a clear light.</p> +<p>"His Majesty's object in creating the office of administrator of +foreign affairs, and selecting persons to fill it, and otherwise +exerting himself in that direction, has been to show the people of +his empire in what light to look on this matter, and we have felt +the greatest pleasure in thinking that the imperial glory would now +be made to shine forth before all nations. An ancient proverb says +that 'Men's minds resemble each other as little as their faces,' +nor have the upper and lower classes been able, up to the present, +to hold with confidence a uniform opinion. It gives us some anxiety +to feel that perhaps we may be following the bad example of the +Chinese, who, fancying themselves alone great and worthy of +respect, and despising foreigners as little better than beasts, +have come to suffer defeats at their hands and to have it lorded +over themselves by those foreigners.</p> +<p>"It appears to us, therefore, after mature reflection, that the +most important duty we have at present is for high and low to unite +harmoniously in understanding the condition of the age, in +effecting a national reformation and commencing a great work, and +that for this reason it is of the greatest necessity that we +determine upon the attitude to be observed towards this +question.</p> +<p>"Hitherto the empire has held itself aloof from other countries +and is ignorant of the affairs of the world; the only object sought +has been to give ourselves the least trouble, and by daily +retrogression we are in danger of falling under foreign rule.</p> +<p>"By travelling to foreign countries and observing what good +there is in them, by comparing their daily progress, the +universality of enlightened government, of a sufficiency of +military defences, and of abundant food for the people among them, +with our present condition, the causes of prosperity and degeneracy +may be plainly traced....</p> +<p>"Of late years the question of expelling the barbarians has been +constantly agitated, and one or two Daimios have tried to expel +them, but it is unnecessary to prove that this was more than the +strength of a single clan could accomplish....</p> +<p>"How ever, in order to restore the fallen fortunes of the empire +and to make the imperial dignity respected abroad, it is necessary +to make a firm resolution, and to get rid of the narrow-minded +ideas which have prevailed hitherto. We pray that the important +personages of the court will open their eyes and unite with those +below them in establishing relations of amity in a single-minded +manner, and that our deficiencies being supplied with what +foreigners are superior in, an enduring government be established +for future ages. Assist the Emperor in forming his decision wisely +and in understanding the condition of the empire; let the foolish +argument which has hitherto styled foreigners dogs and goats and +barbarians be abandoned; let the court ceremonies, hitherto +imitated from the Chinese, be reformed, and the foreign +representatives be bidden to court in the manner prescribed by the +rules current amongst all nations; and let this be publicly +notified throughout the country, so that the countless people may +be taught what is the light in which they are to regard this +subject. This is our most earnest prayer, presented with all +reverence and humility.</p> +<p class="i2">"ECHIZEN SAISHO,<br /> +TOSA SAKIO NO SHOSHO,<br /> +NAGATO SHOSHO,<br /> +SATSUMA SHOSHO,<br /> +AKI SHOSHO,<br /> +HOSO KAWA UKIO DAIBU."</p> +<p>The advice of these notables was well received. A formal +invitation to an audience with the Emperor was extended to the +foreign ambassadors. They soon accepted the invitation. Their +appearance in the old anti-foreign city of Kioto, before the +personage who was considered by the masses as divine, was +significant. It put an end to the all-absorbing, all-perplexing +theme of the day. The question of foreign policy was settled.</p> +<p>The next act of the statesmen of the Restoration was to sweep +away the abuses of the court, and to establish the basis of a firm +internal administration. The most effectual means of accomplishing +this, it seemed to the sagacious statesmen, was to move the court +from the place where those abuses had their roots. Ichizo +Okubo,<a id="footnotetag2-6" name="footnotetag2-6"></a><a href= +"#footnote2-6"><sup>6</sup></a> a guiding spirit of the +Restoration, presented the following memorial to the Emperor:</p> +<p>"The most pressing of your Majesty's pressing duties at the +present moment is not to look at the empire alone and judge +carelessly by appearances, but to consider carefully the actual +state of the whole world; to reform the inveterate and slothful +habits induced during several hundred years, and to give union to +the nation....</p> +<p>"Hitherto the person whom we designate the sovereign has lived +behind a screen, and, as if he were different from other human +beings, has not been seen by more than a very limited number of +Kuge; and as his heaven-conferred office of father to his people +has been thereby unfulfilled, it is necessary that his office +should be ascertained in accordance with this fundamental +principle, and then the laws governing internal affairs may be +established....</p> +<p>"In the present period of reformation and restoration of the +government to its ancient monarchical form, the way to carry out +the resolution of imitating the example of Japanese sages, and of +surpassing the excellent governments of foreign nations, is to +change the site of the capital....</p> +<p>"Osako is the fittest place for the capital ... For the conduct +of foreign relations, for enriching the country and strengthening +its military power, for adopting successful means of offense and +defense, for establishing an army and navy, the place is peculiarly +fitted by its position ... I most humbly pray your Majesty to open +your eyes and make this reform....</p> +<p>"OKUBO ICHIZO."<a id="footnotetag2-7" name= +"footnotetag2-7"></a><a href="#footnote2-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p> +<p>The result of the memorial was the ultimate removal of the seat +of government from Kioto to Yedo, which afterwards changed its name +to Tokio, meaning eastern capital.</p> +<p>But the most important event of the Restoration, from the +constitutional point of view, was the charter oath of five +articles, taken by the present Emperor on the 17th of April, 1869, +before the court and the assembly of Daimios. These articles were +in substance as follows:</p> +<p>1. A deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be +decided by public opinion.</p> +<p>2. The principles of social and political economics should be +diligently studied by both the superior and inferior classes of our +people.</p> +<p>3. Every one in the community shall be assisted to persevere in +carrying out his will for all good purposes.</p> +<p>4. All the old absurd usages of former times should be +disregarded, and the impartiality and justice displayed in the +workings of nature be adopted as a basis of action.</p> +<p>5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of +the world for the purpose of firmly establishing the foundations of +the empire.</p> +<p>The Emperor's promise henceforth became the watchword of the +nation.</p> +<p>And this resolution to form a deliberative assembly was soon put +into practice. In 1869 was convened the Kogisho or "Parliament," as +Sir Harry Parkes translates it in his despatch to the Earl of +Clarendon. But before we proceed to the description of the nature +and working of the Kogisho it is necessary to state that this plan +had been already suggested by the Shogunate. A proclamation of the +Shogun Keiki, issued on February 20, 1868, says: "As it is proper +to determine the principle of the constitution of Japan with due +regard to the wishes of the majority, I have resigned the supreme +power to the Emperor's court, and advised that the opinions of all +the Daimios should be taken.... On examination of my household +affairs (the administration of Shogun's territories), many +irregularities may exist which may dissatisfy the people, and which +I therefore greatly deplore. Hence I intend to establish a Kogijio +and to accept the opinion of the majority. Any one, therefore, who +has an opinion to express may do so at that place and be free of +apprehension."<a id="footnotetag2-8" name= +"footnotetag2-8"></a><a href="#footnote2-8"><sup>8</sup></a></p> +<p>But this attempt of the Shogun to establish a sort of Parliament +came to an end with his fall. This idea, however, was transmitted +through the Shogunate officials to the government of the +Restoration. In fact, this idea of consulting public opinion was, +as I have repeatedly said, in the air. The leaders of the new +government all felt, as one of them said to Messrs. F.O. Adams and +Ernest Satow, that "the only way to allay the jealousies hitherto +existing between several of the most powerful clans, and to ensure +a solid and lasting union of conflicting interests, was to search +for the nearest approach to an ideal constitution among those of +Western countries ... that the opinion of the majority was the only +criterion of a public measure."<a id="footnotetag2-9" name= +"footnotetag2-9"></a><a href="#footnote2-9"><sup>9</sup></a></p> +<p>Sir Harry Parkes was right when he told the Earl of Clarendon +that "the establishment of such an institution (the Kogisho) formed +one of the first objects of the promoters of the recent +revolution."<a id="footnotetag2-10" name= +"footnotetag2-10"></a><a href="#footnote2-10"><sup>10</sup></a></p> +<p>The Kogisho was opened on the 18th of April, 1869,<a id= +"footnotetag2-11" name="footnotetag2-11"></a><a href= +"#footnote2-11"><sup>11</sup></a> and the following message<a id= +"footnotetag2-12" name="footnotetag2-12"></a><a href= +"#footnote2-12"><sup>12</sup></a> from the throne was then +delivered:</p> +<p>"Being on the point of visiting our eastern capital, we have +convened the nobles of our court and the various princes in order +to consult them upon the means of establishing the foundations of +peaceful government. The laws and institutions are the basis of +government. The petitions of the people at large cannot be lightly +decided. It has been reported to us that brief rules and +regulations have been fixed upon for the Parliament, and it seems +good to us that the House should be opened at once. We exhort you +to respect the laws of the House, to lay aside all private and +selfish considerations, to conduct your debates with minuteness and +firmness; above all things, to take the laws of our ancestors as +'basis,' and adapt yourselves to the feelings of men and to the +spirit of the times. Distinguish clearly between those matters +which are of immediate importance and those which may be delayed; +between things which are less urgent and those which are pressing. +In your several capacities argue with careful attention. When the +results of your debate are communicated to us it shall be our duty +to confirm them."</p> +<p>The Kogisho was composed mostly of the retainers of the Daimios, +for the latter, having no experience of the earnest business of +life, "were not eager to devote themselves to the labors of an +onerous and voluntary office." Akidzuki Ukio No Suke was appointed +President of the Kogisho.</p> +<p>The object of the Kogisho was to enable the government to sound +public opinion on the various topics of the day, and to obtain the +assistance of the country in the work of legislation by +ascertaining whether the projects of the government were likely to +be favorably received.</p> +<p>The Kogisho, like the Councils of Kuges and Daimios, was nothing +but an experiment, a mere germ of a deliberative assembly, which +only time and experience could bring to maturity. Still Kogisho was +an advance over the council of Daimios. It had passed the stage +resembling a mere deliberative meeting or quiet Quaker conference, +where, for hours perhaps, nobody opens his mouth. It now bore an +aspect of a political club meeting. But it was a quiet, peaceful, +obedient debating society. It has left the record of its abortive +undertakings in the "Kogisho Nishi" or journal of "Parliament." The +Kogisho was dissolved in the year of its birth. And the +indifference of the public about its dissolution proves how small +an influence it really had.</p> +<p>But a greater event than the dissolution of the Kogisho was +pending before the public gaze. This was the abolition of +feudalism, which we shall consider in the next chapter.</p> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-1" name= +"footnote2-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-1">(return)</a> +<p>The Mikado's Empire. Griffis, p. 301.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-2" name= +"footnote2-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-2">(return)</a> +<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, 1867, +Part II., p. 78, 2d Sess. 40th Cong. See also Bosin-Simatsu, Vol. +I., p. 2.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-3" name= +"footnote2-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-3">(return)</a> +<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I., +1868-69, p. 620, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-4" name= +"footnote2-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-4">(return)</a> +<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I., +1868-69, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-5" name= +"footnote2-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-5">(return)</a> +<p>Translation from the Kioto Government Gazette of March, 1868. It +is given in Diplomatic Correspondence of the U.S.A., 3d Sess. 40th +Cong., Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 725.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-6" name= +"footnote2-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-6">(return)</a> +<p>He afterwards changed his name into Toshimitsu Okubo.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-7" name= +"footnote2-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-7">(return)</a> +<p>Translation is given in American Executive Document, Diplomatic +Correspondence, Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 728, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-8" name= +"footnote2-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-8">(return)</a> +<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I., +1868-69, p. 687, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-9" name= +"footnote2-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-9">(return)</a> +<p>F.O. Adams' History of Japan, Vol. II., p. 128.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-10" name= +"footnote2-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-10">(return)</a> +<p>English State Papers, Vol. LXX., 1870, p. 9.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-11" name= +"footnote2-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-11">(return)</a> +<p>29th of the 2d month in the second year of Meiji, according to +the old calendar.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-12" name= +"footnote2-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag2-12">(return)</a> +<p>Translation is given in English State Papers, Vol. LXX., 1871, +p. 12.</p> +</blockquote> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> +<h3>THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.</h3> +<p>The measure to abolish feudalism was much discussed in the +Kogisho before its dissolution. Prince Akidzuki, President of the +Kogisho, had sent in the following memorial:</p> +<p>"After the government had been returned by the Tokugawa family +into the hands of the Emperor, the calamity of war ensued, and the +excellence of the newly established administration has not yet been +able to perfect itself; if this continues, I am grieved to think +how the people will give up their allegiance. Happily, the eastern +and northern provinces have already been pacified and the country +at large has at last recovered from its troubles. The government of +the Emperor is taking new steps every day; this is truly a noble +thing for the country. And yet when I reflect, I see that although +there are many who profess loyalty, none have yet shown proof of +it. The various princes have used their lands and their people for +their own purposes; different laws have obtained in different +places; the civil and criminal codes have been various in the +various provinces. The clans have been called the screen of the +country, but in truth they have caused its division. The internal +relations having been confused, the strength of the country has +been disunited and severed. How can our small country of Japan +enter into fellowship with the countries beyond the sea? How can +she hold up an example of a flourishing country? Let those who wish +to show their faith and loyalty act in the following manner, that +they may firmly establish the foundations of the Imperial +Government:</p> +<p>"1. Let them restore the territories which they have received +from the Emperor and return to a constitutional and undivided +nation.</p> +<p>"2. Let them abandon their titles, and under the name of Kuazoku +(persons of honor) receive such small properties as may suffice for +their wants.</p> +<p>"3. Let the officers of the clans abandoning that title call +themselves officers of the Emperor, receiving property equal to +that which they have hitherto held.</p> +<p>"Let these three important measures be adopted forthwith, that +the empire may be raised on a basis imperishable for ages ... 2nd +year of Meiji (1869).</p> +<p class="i2">(Signed) "AKIDZUKI UKIO NO SUKE."<a id= +"footnotetag3-1" name="footnotetag3-1"></a><a href= +"#footnote3-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<p>But politics is not an easy game—a game which a pedant or +a sentimental scholar or an orator can leisurely play. It has to +deal with passions, ambitions, and selfish interests of men, as +well as with the moral and intellectual consciousness of the +people. Tongue and pen wield, undoubtedly, a great influence in +shaping the thought of the nation and impressing them with the +importance of any political measure. But the tongue is as sounding +brass and the pen as useless steel unless they are backed by force +and money. Even in such a country as England, where tongue and pen +seem to reign supreme, a prime minister before he forms his cabinet +has to be closeted for hours with Mr. Rothschild. Fortunately this +important measure of abolishing feudalism, which a few patriots had +secretly plotted and which the scholars had noised abroad, was +taken up first by the most powerful and wealthy Daimios of the +country.</p> +<p>In the following noted memorial, after reviewing the political +history of Japan during the past few hundred years, these Daimios +said: "Now the great Government has been newly restored and the +Emperor himself undertakes the direction of affairs. This is, +indeed, a rare and mighty event. We have the name (of an Imperial +Government), we must also have the fact. Our first duty is to +illustrate our faithfulness and to prove our loyalty. When the line +of Tokugawa arose it divided the country amongst its kinsfolk, and +there were many who founded the fortunes of their families upon it. +They waited not to ask whether the lands and men that they received +were the gift of the Emperor; for ages they continued to inherit +these lands until this day. Others said that their possessions were +the prize of their spears and bows, as if they had entered +storehouses and stolen the treasure therein, boasting to the +soldiers by whom they were surrounded that they had done this +regardless of their lives. Those who enter storehouses are known by +all men to be thieves, but those who rob lands and steal men are +not looked upon with suspicion. How are loyalty and faith confused +and destroyed!</p> +<p>"The place where we live is the Emperor's land and the food +which we eat is grown by the Emperor's men. How can we make it our +own? We now reverently offer up the list of our possessions and +men, with the prayer that the Emperor will take good measures for +rewarding those to whom reward is due and for taking from those to +whom punishment is due. Let the imperial orders be issued for +altering and remodelling the territories of the various clans. Let +the civil and penal codes, the military laws down to the rules for +uniform and the construction of engines of war, all proceed from +the Emperor; let all the affairs of the empire, great and small, be +referred to him."</p> +<p>This memorial was signed by the Daimios of Kago, Hizen, Satsuma, +Choshiu, Tosa, and some other Daimios of the west. But the real +author of the memorial is believed to have been Kido, the brain of +the Restoration.</p> +<p>Thus were the fiefs of the most powerful and most wealthy +Daimios voluntarily offered to the Emperor. The other Daimios soon +followed the example of their colleagues. And the feudalism which +had existed in Japan for over eight centuries was abolished by the +following laconic imperial decree of August, 1871:</p> +<p>"The clans are abolished, and prefectures are established in +their places."</p> +<p>This rather off-hand way of destroying an institution, whose +overthrow in Europe required the combined efforts of ambitious +kings and emperors, of free cities, of zealous religious sects, and +cost centuries of bloodshed, has been made a matter of much comment +in the West. One writer exclaims, "History does not record another +instance where changes of such magnitude ever occurred within so +short a time, and it is astonishing that it only required eleven +words to destroy the ambition and power of a proud nobility that +had with imperious will directed the destiny of Japan for more than +five hundred years."<a id="footnotetag3-2" name= +"footnotetag3-2"></a><a href="#footnote3-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p>But when we examine closely the circumstances which led to the +overthrow of feudalism and the influences which acted upon it, we +cannot but regard it as the natural terminus of the political flood +which was sweeping over the country. When such a revolution of +thought as that expressed in the proclamation of 1868 had taken +place in the minds of the leaders of society, when contact with +foreigners had fostered the necessity of national union, when the +spirit of loyalty of the Samurai had changed to loyalty to his +Emperor, when his patriotic devotion to his province had changed to +patriotic devotion to his country, then it became apparent that the +petty social organization, which was antagonistic to these national +principles, would soon be crushed.</p> +<p>If there is any form of society which is diametrically opposed +to the spirit of national union, of liberal thought, of free +intercourse, it is feudal society. A monarchical or a democratic +society encourages the spirit of union, but feudal society must, +from its very nature, smother it. Seclusion is the parent of +feudalism. In our enlightened and progressive century seclusion is +no longer possible. Steam and electricity alone would have been +sufficient to destroy our Japanese feudalism. But long before its +fall our Japanese feudalism "was an empty shell." Its leaders, the +Daimios of provinces, were, with a few exceptions, men of no +commanding importance. "The real power in each clan lay in the +hands of able men of inferior rank, who ruled their masters." From +these men came the present advisers of the Emperor. Their chief +object at that time was the thorough unification of Japan. Why, +then, should they longer trouble themselves to uphold feudalism, +this mother of sectionalism, this colossal sham?</p> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-1" name= +"footnote3-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag3-1">(return)</a> +<p>Translation given in the English State Papers.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-2" name= +"footnote3-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag3-2">(return)</a> +<p>Consular Report of the U.S.A., No. 75, p. 626.</p> +</blockquote> +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> +<h3>INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE REPRESENTATIVE IDEA OF +GOVERNMENT.</h3> +<p>We have seen in the last two chapters how the Shogunate and +feudalism fell, and how the Meiji government was inaugurated. We +have also observed in the memorials of leading statesmen abundant +proof of their willingness and zeal to introduce a representative +system of government. We have also seen the Kogisho convened and +dissolved.</p> +<p>John Stuart Mill has pointed out, in his Representative +Government, several social conditions when representative +government is inapplicable or unsuitable:</p> +<p>1. When the people are not willing to receive it.</p> +<p>2. When the people are not willing and able to do what is +necessary for its preservation.</p> +<p>"Representative institutions necessarily depend for permanence +upon the readiness of the people to fight for them in case of their +being endangered."</p> +<p>3. When the people are not willing and able to fulfil the duties +and discharge the functions which it imposes on them.</p> +<p>4. When the people have not learned the first lesson of +obedience.</p> +<p>5. When the people are too passive; when they are ready to +submit to tyranny.</p> +<p>Now when we look at the Japan of 1871, even her greatest +admirers must admit that she was far from being able to fulfil the +social conditions necessary for the success of representative +government. Japan was obedient, but too submissive. She had not yet +learned the first lesson of freedom, that is, when and how to +resist, in the faith that resistance to tyrants is obedience to +truth; that the irrepressible kicker against tyranny, as Dr. Wilson +observes, is the only true freeman. In her conservative, almost +abject submission, Japan was yet unfit for free government. The +Japanese people were willing to do almost anything suggested by +their Emperor, but they had first to learn what was meant by +representative government, "to understand its processes and +requirements." The Japanese had to discard many old habits and +prejudices, reform many defects of national character, and undergo +many stages of moral and mental discipline before they could +acclimatize themselves to the free atmosphere of representative +institutions. This preparation required a period of little over two +decades, and was effected not only through political discipline, +but by corresponding development in the moral, intellectual, +social, and industrial life of the nation.</p> +<p>I remarked in the beginning that the political activity of a +nation is not isolated from other spheres of its activities, but +that there is a mutual interchange of action and reaction among the +different factors of social life, so that to trace the political +life of a nation it is not only necessary to describe the organ +through which it acts, the governmental machinery, and the methods +by which it is worked, but to know "the forces which move it and +direct its course." Now these forces are political as well as +non-political. This truth is now generally acknowledged by +constitutional writers. Thus, the English author of "The American +Commonwealth" devotes over one-third of his second volume to the +account of non-political institutions, and says "there are certain +non-political institutions, certain aspects of society, certain +intellectual or spiritual forces which count for so much in the +total life of the country, in the total impression it makes and the +hopes for the future which it raises, that they cannot be left +unnoticed."<a id="footnotetag4-1" name= +"footnotetag4-1"></a><a href="#footnote4-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<p>If this be the case in the study of the American commonwealth, +it is more so in that of Japanese politics. For nowhere else in the +history of nations do we see "non-political institutions" exerting +such a powerful influence upon the body politic as in New Japan. In +this chapter we shall therefore note briefly the growth of +so-called "non-political institutions" during a period of about a +decade and a half, between 1868 and 1881, and mark their influence +upon the development of representative ideas.</p> +<p>I.—MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.</p> +<p>1. <i>Telegraph</i>. At the time of the Restoration there was no +telegraph in operation, and "for expresses the only available means +were men and horses." In 1868 the government began to construct +telegraphs, and the report of the Bureau of Statistics in 1881 +shows the following increase in each successive year:</p> +<pre> + Telegraph Number + Year. Offices. Miles. of Telegrams. + Ri Cho. + 1869-1871 8 26.04 19,448 + 1872 29 33.11 80,639 + 1873 40 1,099.00 186,448 + 1874 57 1,333.20 356,539 + 1875 94 1,904.32 611,866 + 1876 100 2,214.07 680,939 + 1877 122 2,827.08 1,045,442 + 1878 147 3,380.05 1,272,756 + 1879 195 3,842.31 1,935,320 + 1880 195 4,484.30 2,168,201 +</pre> +<p>All the more important towns in the country were thus made able +to communicate with one another as early as 1880.</p> +<p>In 1879 Japan joined the International Telegraph Convention, and +since then she can communicate easily with the great powers of the +world through the great submarine cable system. "Compared with the +state of ten years ago, when the ignorant people cut down the +telegraph poles and severed the wires," exclaims Count Okuma, "we +seem rather to have made a century's advance."</p> +<p>2. <i>Postal System</i>. "Previous to the Restoration," to quote +further from Count Okuma, "with the exception of the posts sent by +the Daimios from their residences at the capital to their +territories, there was no regularly established post for the +general public and private convenience. Letters had to be sent by +any opportunity that occurred, and a single letter cost over 25 sen +for a distance of 150 ri. But since the Restoration the government +for the first time established a general postal service, and in +1879 the length of postal lines was 15,700 ri (nearly 40,000 +English miles), and a letter can at any time be sent for two sen to +any part of the country. In 1874 we entered the International +Postal Convention, and have thus obtained great facilities for +communicating with foreign countries."<a id="footnotetag4-2" name= +"footnotetag4-2"></a><a href="#footnote4-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p>3. <i>Railroad</i>. The first railway Japan ever saw was the +model railway constructed by Commodore Perry to excite the +curiosity of the people. But it was not until 1870 that the +railroad was really introduced into Japan. The first rail was laid +on the road between Tokio and Yokohama. This road was opened in +1872. It is 18 miles long. The second line was constructed in 1876, +and runs between Hiogo and Kioto via Osako. And the year 1880 saw +the opening of the railroad between Kioto and Otsu. This line +between Hiogo and Otsu is 58 miles long. So at the end of the +period which we are surveying Japan had a railway system of 31 ri +and 5 cho (about 78 English miles).</p> +<p>This was nothing but a child-play compared with the railroad +activity which the later years brought forth, for now we have a +railway system extending over one thousand two hundred miles. But +this concerns the later period, so we shall not dwell upon it at +present.</p> +<p>4. <i>Steamers and the coasting trade</i>. In 1871 the number of +ships of foreign build was only 74, but by 1878 they had reached +377. The number of vessels of native build in 1876 was 450,000, and +in 1878 had reached 460,000.<a id="footnotetag4-3" name= +"footnotetag4-3"></a><a href="#footnote4-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<p>"Since the Restoration the use of steamers has daily increased, +and the inland sea, the lakes and large rivers are now constantly +navigated by small steamers employed in the carrying trade."</p> +<p>With the increased facility of communication, commerce and trade +were stimulated. In 1869 the total amount of imports and exports +was 33,680,000 yen, and in 1879 64,120,000 yen. Imports had grown +from 20,780,000 yen to 36,290,000 yen, and exports from 12,909,000 +yen to 27,830,000 yen; in the one case showing an advance from 2 to +3-1/2, in the other from 2 to 5.<a id="footnotetag4-4" name= +"footnotetag4-4"></a><a href="#footnote4-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<p>II.—EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.</p> +<p>Previous to the Restoration, the schools supported by Daimios +and the private schools were few in number; but since that epoch +the educational system has been vastly improved, with a resulting +increase in the number of schools and pupils. In 1878, of high, +middle, and primary schools there were altogether 27,600, with +68,000 teachers and 2,319,000 pupils.<a id="footnotetag4-5" name= +"footnotetag4-5"></a><a href="#footnote4-5"><sup>5</sup></a> The +following table shows the comparative history of educational +institutions within three years, 1878-1880 (inclusive):</p> +<pre> + Teachers. Pupils. + Year. Institutions. Male. Female. Male. Female. + 1878 27,672 66,309 2,374 1,715,425 610,214 + 1879 29,362 71,757 2,803 1,771,641 608,205 + 1880 30,799 74,747 2,923 1,844,564 605,781 +</pre> +<p>Furthermore, hundreds of students went abroad yearly, and +returning, powerfully influenced the destiny of their country.</p> +<p>III.—NEWSPAPERS.</p> +<p>It was in 1869 that the Emperor sanctioned the publication of +newspapers. Magazines, journals, periodicals and newspapers sprung +up in a night. The number of newspapers published in 1882 was about +113, and of miscellaneous publications about 133. It is to be noted +that the newspapers defied the old censorship of prohibition under +very sanguinary pains and penalties. Their circulation increased +every year. The total newspaper circulation in 1874 was but +8,470,269, while in 1877 it was 33,449,529. In his consular report +of 1882, Consul-General Van Buren makes an approximate estimate of +the annual aggregate circulation of a dozen noted papers of Tokio +to be not less than 29,000,000 copies.<a id="footnotetag4-6" name= +"footnotetag4-6"></a><a href="#footnote4-6"><sup>6</sup></a></p> +<p>The publication of books and translations kept pace with the +growth of newspapers. Observing the effects of these literary +activities, Mr. Griffis well says: "It is the writer's firm belief, +after nearly four years of life in Japan, mingling among the +progressive men of the empire, that the reading and study of books +printed in the Japanese language have done more to transform the +Japanese mind and to develop an impulse in the direction of modern +civilization than any other cause or series of causes."</p> +<p>Meanwhile, great changes were affecting law and religion. Here +it is sufficient to observe that the old law which had been +hitherto altogether arbitrary—either the will of the Emperor +or of the Shogun—was revised on the model of the Napoleonic +code and soon published throughout the land. The use of torture to +obtain testimony was wholly and forever abolished.</p> +<p>With the incoming of Western science and Christianity, old +faiths began to lose their hold upon the people. The new religion +spread yearly. Missionary schools were instituted in several parts +of the country. Christian churches were built in almost all of the +large cities and towns, and their number increased constantly. +Missionaries and Christian schools had no inconsiderable influence +in changing the ideas of the people.</p> +<p>Such, in brief, have been the changes in the industrial, social +and religious condition of Japan from 1868 to 1881. After this +study we shall not much wonder at the remarkable political change +of Japan during the same period, which I shall endeavor to describe +in the next chapter.</p> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-1" name= +"footnote4-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag4-1">(return)</a> +<p>The American Commonwealth, Bryce, Vol. I., p. 7.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-2" name= +"footnote4-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag4-2">(return)</a> +<p>A Survey of Financial Policy during Thirteen Years (1868-1880), +by Count Okuma.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-3" name= +"footnote4-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag4-3">(return)</a> +<p>Count Okuma's pamphlet.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-4" name= +"footnote4-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag4-4">(return)</a> +<p>Count Okuma's pamphlet.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-5" name= +"footnote4-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag4-5">(return)</a> +<p>Count Okuma's pamphlet.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-6" name= +"footnote4-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag4-6">(return)</a> +<p>Consular Report of the U.S., No. 25, p. 182.</p> +</blockquote> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> +<h3>PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT FROM THE ABOLITION OF +FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881.</h3> +<p>The leaders of the Restoration were of an entirely different +type from the court nobles of former days. They were, with a few +exceptions, men of humble origin. They had raised themselves from +obscurity to the highest places of the state by sheer force of +native ability. They had studied much and travelled far. Their +experiences were diverse; they had seen almost every phase of +society. If they were now drinking the cup of glory, most of them +had also tasted the bitterness of exile, imprisonment, and fear of +death. Patriotic, sagacious, and daring, they combined the rare +qualities of magnanimity and urbanity. If they looked with +indifference upon private morality, they were keenly sensitive to +the feeling of honor and to public morals. If they made mistakes +and did not escape the charge of inconsistency in their policy, +these venial faults were, for the most part, due to the rapidly +changing conditions of the country. No other set of statesmen of +Japan or of any other country, ancient or modern, have witnessed +within their lifetime so many social and political transformations. +They saw the days when feudalism flourished—the grandeur of +its rulers, its antique chivalry, its stately etiquette, its +ceremonial costumes, its codes of honor, its rigid social order, +formal politeness, and measured courtesies. They also saw the days +when all these were swept away and replaced by the simplicity and +stir of modern life. They accordingly "have had to cast away every +tradition, every habit, and every principle and mode of action with +which even the youngest of them had to begin official life."</p> +<p>The ranks of this noble body of statesmen and reformers are now +gradually diminishing. Saigo and Gesho are no more. Kido and +Iwakura have been borne to their graves. Okubo and Mori have fallen +under the sword of fanatics. But, thanks be to God, many of them +yet remain and bear the burdens of the day.</p> +<p>I have mentioned in Chapter III. the overthrow of feudalism and +its causes. Its immediate effect on the nation, in unifying their +thoughts, customs, and habits, was most remarkable. From this time +we see the marked growth of common sentiment, common manners, +common interest among the people, together with a love of peace and +order.</p> +<p>While the government at home was thus tearing down the old +framework of state, the Iwakura Embassy in foreign lands was +gathering materials for the new. This was significant, inasmuch as +five of the best statesmen of the time, with their staff of +forty-four able men, came into association for over a year with +western peoples, and beheld in operation their social, political +and religious institutions. These men became fully convinced that +"the wealth, the power, and the happiness of a people," as +President Grant told them, "are advanced by the encouragement of +trade and commercial intercourse with other powers, by the +elevation and dignity of labor, by the practical adaptation of +science to the manufactures and the arts, by increased facilities +of frequent and rapid communication between different parts of the +country, by the encouragement of immigration, which brings with it +the varied habits and diverse genius and industry of other lands, +by a free press, by freedom of thought and of conscience, and a +liberal toleration in matters of religion."<a id="footnotetag5-1" +name="footnotetag5-1"></a><a href= +"#footnote5-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<p>The impressions and opinions of these men on the importance of a +free and liberal policy can be gleaned from the speeches they made +during the western tour, and some of their writings and utterances +on other occasions.</p> +<p>The chief ambassador, Iwakura, in reply to a toast made to him +in England, said: "Having now become more intimately acquainted +with her (England's) many institutions, we have discovered that +their success is due to the <i>liberal</i> and energetic spirit by +which they are animated."<a id="footnotetag5-2" name= +"footnotetag5-2"></a><a href="#footnote5-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p>Count Ito, the present President of the Privy Council, in his +speech at San Francisco, said: "While held in absolute obedience by +despotic sovereigns through many thousand years, our people knew no +freedom or liberty of thought. With our material improvement they +learned to understand their rightful privileges, which for ages +have been denied them."<a id="footnotetag5-3" name= +"footnotetag5-3"></a><a href="#footnote5-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<p>Count Inouye, the ex-Minister of State for Agriculture and +Commerce, in his memorial to the government in 1873, said: "The +people of European and American countries are for the most part +rich in intelligence and knowledge, and they preserve the spirit of +independence. And owing to the nature of their polity they share in +the counsels of their government. Government and people thus +mutually aid and support each other, as hand and foot protect the +head and eye. The merits of each question that arises are +distinctly comprehended by the nation at home, and the government +is merely its outward representative. But our people are different. +Accustomed for ages to despotic rule, they have remained content +with their prejudices and ignorance. Their knowledge and +intelligence are undeveloped and their spirit is feeble. In every +movement of their being they submit to the will of the government, +and have not the shadow of an idea of what 'a right' is. If the +government makes an order, the whole country obeys it as one man. +If the government takes a certain view, the whole nation adopts it +unanimously.... The people must be recalled to life, and the Empire +be made to comprehend with clearness that the objects which the +government has in view are widely different from those of former +times."<a id="footnotetag5-4" name="footnotetag5-4"></a><a href= +"#footnote5-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<p>If the passages quoted illustrate statesmen's zeal to introduce +western civilization, and to educate the people gradually to +political freedom and privileges, their actions speak more +eloquently than their words. In order to crush that social evil, +the class system, which for ages had been a curse, the government +declared all classes of men equal before the law, delivered the +<i>eta</i>—the class of outcasts—from its position of +contempt, abolished the marriage limitations existing between +different classes of society, prohibited the wearing of swords, +which was the peculiar privilege of the nobles and the Samurai; +while to facilitate means of communication and to open the eyes of +the people to the wonders of mechanical art, they incessantly +applied themselves to the construction of railroads, docks, +lighthouses, mining, iron, and copper factories, and to the +establishment of telegraphic and postal systems. They also codified +the laws, abolished the use of torture in obtaining testimony, +revoked the edict against Christianity, sanctioned the publication +of newspapers, established by the decree of 1875 the "Genro-in (a +kind of Senate) to enact laws for the Empire, and the Daishin-in to +consolidate the judicial authority of the courts,"<a id= +"footnotetag5-5" name="footnotetag5-5"></a><a href= +"#footnote5-5"><sup>5</sup></a> and called an assembly of the +prefects, which, however, held but one session in Tokio.</p> +<p>While the current of thought among the official circles was thus +flowing, there was also a stream, in the lower region of the social +life, soon to swell into a mighty river. Social inequality, that +barrier which prevents the flow of popular feeling, being already +levelled, merchants, agriculturists, tradesmen, artisans and +laborers were now set at liberty to assert their rights and to use +their talents. They were no longer debarred from places of high +honor.</p> +<p>The great colleges and schools, both public and private, which +were hitherto established and carried on exclusively for the +benefit of the nobles and the Samurai, were now open to all. And in +this democracy of letters, where there is no rank or honor but that +of talent and industry, a sentiment was fast growing that the son +of a Daimio is not necessarily wiser than the son of a peasant.</p> +<p>Teachers of these institutions were not slow to infuse the +spirit of independence and liberty into their pupils and to +instruct the people in their natural and political rights. Mr. +Fukuzawa, a schoolmaster, an author, and a lecturer, the man who +exercised an immense influence in shaping the mind of young Japan, +gave a deathblow to the old ideas of despotic government, and of +the blind obedience of the people, when he declared that +<i>government exists for the people and not the people for the +government</i>, that the government officials are the servants of +the people, and the people their employer. He also struck a heavy +blow at the arrogance and extreme love of military glory of the +Samurai class, with whom to die for the cause of his sovereign, +whatever that cause might be, was the highest act of patriotism, by +advocating that "Death is a democrat, and that the Samurai who died +fighting for his country, and the servant who was slain while +caught stealing from his master, were alike dead and useless."</p> +<p>In a letter to one of his disciples, Mr. Fukuzawa said: "The +liberty of which I have spoken is of such great importance that +everything should be done to secure its blessings in the family and +in the nation, without any respect to persons. When every +individual, every family and every province shall obtain this +liberty, then, and not till then, can we expect to witness the true +independence of the nation; then the military, the farming, the +mechanical, and mercantile classes will not live in hostility to +each other; then peace will reign throughout the land, and all men +will be respected according to their conduct and real +character."<a id="footnotetag5-6" name= +"footnotetag5-6"></a><a href="#footnote5-6"><sup>6</sup></a></p> +<p>The extent of the influence exercised with pen and tongue by +these teachers upon the nation showed that the reign of sword and +brutal force was over and the day of peace and reason had dawned. +The press has at last become a power. The increase during that +period of publications, both original and translations, and of +newspapers, both in their number and circulation, is marvellous. To +give an illustration, the number of newspapers transmitted in the +mails increased from 514,610 in the year 1873 to 2,629,648 in the +year 1874—an increase of 411 per cent in one year—"a +fact which speaks volumes for the progress of civilization."<a id= +"footnotetag5-7" name="footnotetag5-7"></a><a href= +"#footnote5-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p> +<p>These newspapers were soon to become the organs of political +parties which were in the process of formation. The most prominent +among these political societies was the <i>Ri-shi-sha</i>, which +finally developed into the present Liberal party. At the head of +this party was Count Itagaki, a man of noble character and of +marked ability, who had rendered many useful services to the +country in the time of the Restoration and had for some years been +a member of the cabinet, but who in 1875 resigned his office and +became "the man of the people." He and his party contributed +greatly to the development of constitutional ideas. Whatever may be +said as to the extreme radicalism and childish freaks of the rude +elements of this party, the presence of its sober members, who +sincerely longed to see the adoption of a constitutional form of +government and used only proper and peaceful means for the +furtherance of their aim, and boldly and frankly told what they +deemed the defects of the government; the presence of such a party +in the country, whose masses knew nothing but slavish obedience to +every act of the government, was certainly a source of great +benefit to the nation at large.</p> +<p>In 1873, Count Itagaki with his friends had sent in a memorial +to the government praying for the establishment of a representative +assembly, but they had not been heeded by the government. In July, +1877, Count Itagaki with his Ri-shi-sha again addressed a memorial +to the Emperor, "praying for a change in the form of government, +and setting forth the reasons which, in the opinion of the members +of the society, rendered such a change necessary."</p> +<p>These reasons were nine in number and were developed at great +length. Eight of them formed a direct impeachment of the present +government, and the ninth was a reminder that the solemn promise of +1868 had never been fulfilled. "Nothing," they conclude, "could +more tend to the well-being of the country than for your Majesty to +put an end to all despotic and oppressive measures, and to consult +public opinion in the conduct of the government. To this end a +representative assembly should be established, so that the +government may become constitutional in form. The people would then +become more interested and zealous in looking after the affairs of +the country; public opinion would find expression, and despotism +and confusion cease. The nation would advance in civilization; +wealth would accumulate in the country; troubles from within and +contempt from without would cease, and the happiness of your +Imperial Majesty and of your Majesty's subjects would be +secured."</p> +<p>But again the government heeded not, its attention at the time +being fully occupied with the suppression of the Satsuma Rebellion. +The civil war being ended, in 1878, the year which marked a decade +from the establishment of the new regime, the government, persuaded +that the time for popular institutions was fast approaching, not +alone through representations of the Tosa memorialists, but through +many other signs of the times, decided to take a step in the +direction of establishing a national assembly. But the government +acted cautiously. Thinking that to bring together hundreds of +members unaccustomed to parliamentary debate and its excitement, +and to allow them a hand in the administration of affairs of the +state, might be attended with serious dangers, as a preparation for +the national assembly the government established first local +assemblies. Certainly this was a wise course.</p> +<p>These local assemblies have not only been good training schools +for popular government, but also proved reasonably successful. They +hold their sessions every year, in the month of March, in their +respective electoral districts, and there discuss all questions of +local taxation. They may also petition the central government on +other matters of local interest. The members must be males of the +full age of twenty-five years, who have been resident for three +years in the district and pay the sum of $10 as a land tax within +their district. The qualifications for electors (males only) are: +an age of twenty years, registration, and payment of a land tax of +$5. Voting is by ballot, but the names of the voters are to be +written by themselves on the voting papers. There are now 2172 +members who sit in these local assemblies, and it was from the more +experienced members of these assemblies that the majority of the +members of the House of Representatives of the Imperial Diet, +convened for the first time last year, were chosen.</p> +<p>The gulf between absolute government and popular government was +thus widened more and more by the institution of local government. +The popular tide raised by these local assemblies was swelling in +volume year by year. New waves were set in motion by the younger +generation of thinkers. Toward the close of the year 1881 the flood +rose so high that the government thought it wise not to resist +longer. His Imperial Majesty hearing the petitions of the people, +graciously confirmed and expanded his promise of 1868 by the famous +proclamation of October 12, 1881:</p> +<p>"We have long had it in view to gradually establish a +constitutional form of government.... It was with this object in +view that in the eighth year of Meiji (1875) we established the +Senate, and in the eleventh year of Meiji (1878) authorized the +formation of local assemblies.... We therefore hereby declare that +we shall, in the twenty-third year of Meiji (1890) establish a +parliament, in order to carry into full effect the determination we +have announced; and we charge our faithful subjects bearing our +commissions to make, in the meantime, all necessary preparations to +that end."</p> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-1" name= +"footnote5-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag5-1">(return)</a> +<p>C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 38.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-2" name= +"footnote5-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag5-2">(return)</a> +<p>Mossman's New Japan, p. 442.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-3" name= +"footnote5-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag5-3">(return)</a> +<p>C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 14.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-4" name= +"footnote5-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag5-4">(return)</a> +<p>The translation of the whole memorial is given in C. Lanman's +Leading Men of Japan, p. 87.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-5" name= +"footnote5-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag5-5">(return)</a> +<p>The Imperial decree of 1875.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-6" name= +"footnote5-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag5-6">(return)</a> +<p>The translation given in C. Lanman, Leading Men of Japan. p. +47.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-7" name= +"footnote5-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b> <a href= +"#footnotetag5-7">(return)</a> +<p>See the Appendix of Griffis' The Mikado's Empire.</p> +</blockquote> +<hr class="full" /> +<br /> +<br /> +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12355 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |