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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Constitutional Development of Japan
+1863-1881, by Toyokichi Iyenaga
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Constitutional Development of Japan 1863-1881
+
+Author: Toyokichi Iyenaga
+
+Release Date: May 15, 2004  [eBook #12355]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: iso-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
+JAPAN 1863-1881***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Louise Valmoria, David King, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES IN HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
+
+HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor
+
+
+
+
+History is past Politics and Politics present History.--_Freeman_
+
+NINTH SERIES
+
+IX
+
+THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN, 1853-1881
+
+BY TOYOKICHI IYENAGA, PH. D.
+
+Professor of Political Science in Tokio Senmon-Gakko
+
+September, 1891
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+CHAP. I. (1853-1868). BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT
+
+THE CIRCUMSTANCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE MOVEMENT
+
+THE ACCOUNT OF COMMODORE PERRY'S ARRIVAL BY THE AUTHOR OF GENJE YUME
+MONOGATARI
+
+DISCUSSION BETWEEN THE PRINCE OF MITO AND THE TOKUGAWA OFFICIALS AT
+THE COURT OF YEDO
+
+CONCLUSION OF TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN
+
+THE OLD PRINCE OF MITO, NARIAKI
+
+II KAMON NO KAMI
+
+BOMBARDMENTS OF KAGOSHIMA AND SHIMONOSHEKI
+
+THE EFFECTS OF THE BOMBARDMENT
+
+1. Showed the Weakness of the Daimios and the Strength of foreigners
+
+2. Showed the Necessity of National Union, and of the Reconstruction
+of the Administrative Machinery of the Empire
+
+GREAT COUNCILS OF KUGES AND DAIMIOS.
+
+1. Their Nature and Organization
+
+2. How they originated
+
+3. In them lay the Germ of the future Constitutional Parliament of
+Japan
+
+
+CHAP. II. (1868-1869). THE RESTORATION
+
+CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF THE SHOGUNATE
+
+1. Revival of Learning
+
+2. Revival of Shintoism
+
+3. Jealousy and Cupidity of the Southern Daimios
+
+THE RESIGNATION OF THE SHOGUN
+
+THE MOTIVE OF HIS RESIGNATION
+
+THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RESTORATION
+
+1. Its Organization
+
+2. Its Departments
+
+FOREIGN POLICY OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT
+
+REMOVAL OF THE CAPITAL TO TOKIO
+
+THE CHARTER OATH OF THE EMPEROR, APRIL 17, 1869
+
+THE KOGISHO
+
+1. Its Origin
+
+2. Its Composition
+
+3. Its Nature
+
+
+CHAP. III. (1869-1871). THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.
+
+MEMORIAL OF PRESIDENT OF THE KOGISHO
+
+ABOLITION SCHEME OF SCHOLARS IS BACKED BY THE SOUTHERN DAIMIOS
+
+MEMORIAL OF THE SOUTHERN DAIMIOS
+
+IMPERIAL DECREE OF 1871, ABOLISHING FEUDALISM
+
+CAUSES OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM
+
+
+CHAP. IV. INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE REPRESENTATIVE IDEA
+OF GOVERNMENT
+
+JOHN STEWART MILL'S ENUMERATION OF THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR
+THE SUCCESS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
+
+JAPAN OF 1871 NOT YET READY FOR THE ADOPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE
+GOVERNMENT
+
+POLITICAL ACTIVITY OF A NATION NOT ISOLATED FROM OTHER SPHERES OF ITS
+ACTIVITIES
+
+JAPAN'S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT GREATLY AIDED BY HER SOCIAL,
+EDUCATIONAL, INDUSTRIAL AND RELIGIOUS CHANGES
+
+SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THESE NON-POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS FROM
+1868 TO 1881
+
+1. Means of Communication
+
+a. Telegraph
+b. Postal System
+c. Railroad
+d. Steamers and the Coasting Trade
+
+2. Educational Institutions
+
+3. Newspapers
+
+CHANGES IN LAW AND RELIGION
+
+
+CHAP. V. (1871-1881). PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT FROM THE
+ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881
+
+LEADERS OF THE RESTORATION
+
+EFFECT OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM
+
+THE IWAKURA EMBASSY
+
+IWAKURA, ITO, INOUYE
+
+FUKUZAWA
+
+THE PRESS AND ITS INFLUENCES
+
+RI-SHI-SHA AND COUNT ITAGAKI
+
+MEMORIALS OF RI-SHI-SHA TO THE EMPEROR
+
+ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCAL ASSEMBLIES
+
+THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881, TO ESTABLISH A PARLIAMENT IN
+1890
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+The power which destroyed Japanese feudalism and changed in that
+country an absolute into a constitutional monarchy was a resultant
+of manifold forces. The most apparent of these forces is the foreign
+influence. Forces less visible but more potent, tending in this
+direction, are those influences resulting from the growth of commerce
+and trade, from the diffusion of western science and knowledge among
+the people, and from the changes in social habits and religious
+beliefs. The truth of the solidarity of the varied interests of a
+social organism is nowhere so well exemplified as in the history of
+modern Japan. Her remarkable political development would have been
+impossible had there been no corresponding social, educational,
+religious, economic and industrial changes. In order to trace the
+constitutional development of New Japan, it is therefore necessary:
+
+1. To ascertain the political condition of the country at and after
+the advent of foreigners in 1853.
+
+2. To describe the form of government of the Restoration.
+
+3. To examine the state of commerce, industry, education and social
+life of Japan at each stage of her political transformations.
+
+4. To recount the constitutional changes from the Restoration to the
+Promulgation of the New Constitution.
+
+As a novice in travel marks the broad outlines, the general features
+and more important products of the country he visits for the first
+time, so I shall dwell upon the historic landmarks of Japanese
+constitutional development. This development no writer, native or
+foreign, has yet attempted to trace. I shall withstand as much as
+possible the temptation to refer to the multitude of events which
+are more or less associated with the constitutional movement. I shall
+endeavor to ascertain from the edicts, decrees, and proclamations of
+the Emperor, from the orders and manifestos of the Shogun, from the
+native authors and journals, from the memorials and correspondence
+of prominent men, both native and foreign, the trend of our
+constitutional development. I shall also endeavor to note the leading
+ideas and principles which, after manifesting themselves in various
+forms, have at last crystallized into the New Constitution of Japan.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT.
+
+
+The constitutional movement of Japan began in a spontaneous agitation
+of the whole body politic when the nation was irritated by the sudden
+contact with foreigners. The sense of national weakness added a force
+to this agitation. Had not the foreigners come, the Restoration might
+have been effected, feudalism might have been abolished, but the
+new Japanese constitution would hardly have seen the day. Had the
+government of Japan at the time of the advent of foreigners been in
+the strong hand of a Taiko or an Iyeyasu, the rulers might have been
+greatly exercised by the extraordinary event, but public opinion
+for reform would hardly have been called forth, and the birth of
+constitutional liberty would long have been delayed. As the vices of
+King John and the indifference and ignorance of the first two Georges
+of England begat the strength and hope of the English Parliament, so
+the public opinion of Japan sprouted out of the ruins of the Shogunate
+régime. We must therefore seek for the beginning of the Constitutional
+Movement of Japan in the peculiar circumstances in which she found
+herself between 1853 and 1868.
+
+The advent of Commodore Perry in 1853 was to Japan like the intrusion
+of a foreign queen into a beehive. The country was stirred to
+its depth. Let us note what a native chronicler[1] says about the
+condition of Japan at the arrival of Perry:
+
+"It was in the summer of 1853 that an individual named Perry, who
+called himself the envoy of the United States of America, suddenly
+arrived at Uraga, in the Province of Sagami, with four ships of war,
+declaring that he brought a letter from his country to Japan and that
+he wished to deliver it to the sovereign. The governor of the place,
+Toda Idzu No Kami, much alarmed by this extraordinary event, hastened
+to the spot to inform himself of its meaning. The envoy stated, in
+reply to questions, that he desired to see a chief minister in order
+to explain the object of his visit and to hand over to him the letter
+with which he was charged. The governor then despatched a messenger
+on horseback with all haste to carry this information to the castle
+of Yedo, where a great scene of confusion ensued on his arrival. Fresh
+messengers followed, and the Shogun Iyeyoshi, on receiving them, was
+exceedingly troubled, and summoned all the officials[2] to a council.
+At first the affair seemed so sudden and so formidable that they were
+too alarmed to open their mouths, but in the end orders were issued to
+the great clans to keep strict watch at various points on the shore,
+as it was possible that the 'barbarian' vessels might proceed to
+commit acts of violence. Presently a learned Chinese scholar was sent
+to Uraga, had an interview with the American envoy, and returned
+with the letter, which expressed the desire of the United States to
+establish friendship and intercourse with Japan, and said, according
+to this account, that if they met with a refusal they should commence
+hostilities. Thereupon the Shogun was greatly distressed, and again
+summoned a council. He also asked the opinion of the Daimios. The
+assembled officials were exceedingly disturbed, and nearly broke their
+hearts over consultations which lasted all day and all night. The
+nobles and retired nobles in Yedo were informed that they were at
+liberty to state any ideas they might have on the subject, and,
+although they all gave their opinions, the diversity of propositions
+was so great that no decision was arrived at. The military class
+had, during a long peace, neglected military arts; they had given
+themselves up to pleasure and luxury, and there were very few who had
+put on armor for many years, so that they were greatly alarmed at the
+prospect that war might break out at a moment's notice, and began to
+run hither and thither in search of arms. The city of Yedo and the
+surrounding villages were in a great tumult. And there was such a
+state of confusion among all classes that the governors of the city
+were compelled to issue a notification to the people, and this in the
+end had the effect of quieting the general anxiety. But in the castle
+never was a decision further from being arrived at, and, whilst time
+was being thus idly wasted, the envoy was constantly demanding an
+answer. So at last they decided that it would be best to arrange the
+affair quietly, to give the foreigners the articles they wanted, and
+to put off sending an answer to the letter--to tell the envoy that in
+an affair of such importance to the state no decision could be arrived
+at without mature consideration, and that he had better go away; that
+in a short time he should get a definite answer. The envoy agreed, and
+after sending a message to say that he should return in the following
+spring for his answer, set sail from Uraga with his four ships."[3]
+
+Thus was the renowned commander kept away for awhile. He went,
+however, of his own accord. Perry was an astute diplomatist. He knew
+that time was needed for the impressions which he and his magnificent
+fleet had made upon the country to produce their natural effect.
+
+The news of Perry's visit and demands spread far and wide with
+remarkable rapidity. The government and the people were deeply
+stirred. Soon the song of the "red-bearded barbarians" and of the
+black ships was in everybody's mouth. The question "What shall Japan
+do when the barbarians come next spring?" became the absorbing theme
+of the day.
+
+There was now but one of two policies which Japan could pursue, either
+to shut up the country or to admit the foreigners' demand. There was
+no middle course left. The American envoy would no longer listen to
+the dilatory policy with which the Japanese had just bought a few
+months' respite from anxiety.
+
+The majority of the ruling class, the Samurai, were in favor of the
+exclusion policy. So was the court of Kioto. But the views of the
+court of Yedo were different. The court of Yedo had many men of
+intelligence, common sense and experience--men who had seen the
+American envoy and his squadron, equipped with all the contrivances
+for killing men and devastating the country. These men knew too well
+that resistance to the foreigners was futile and perilous.
+
+Thus was the country early divided into two clearly defined parties,
+the Jo-i[4] party and the Kai-Koku party.
+
+Meanwhile, the autumn and winter of 1853 passed. The spring of 1854
+soon came, and with it the intractable "barbarians." Let us hear the
+author of Genje Yume Monogatari relate the return of Perry and the
+great discussion that ensued at the court of Yedo:
+
+"Early in 1854 Commodore Perry returned, and the question of acceding
+to his demands was again hotly debated. The old prince of Mito was
+opposed to it, and contended that the admission of foreigners
+into Japan would ruin it. 'At first,' said he, 'they will give us
+philosophical instruments, machinery and other curiosities; will take
+ignorant people in, and, trade being their chief object, they will
+manage bit by bit to impoverish the country, after which they will
+treat us just as they like--perhaps behave with the greatest rudeness
+and insult us, and end by swallowing up Japan. If we do not drive them
+away now we shall never have another opportunity. If we now resort to
+a dilatory method of proceeding we shall regret it afterwards when it
+will be of no use.'
+
+"The officials (of the Shogun), however, argued otherwise and
+said: 'If we try to drive them away they will immediately commence
+hostilities, and then we shall be obliged to fight. If we once get
+into a dispute we shall have an enemy to fight who will not be easily
+disposed of. He does not care how long a time he must spend over it,
+but he will come with myriads of men-of-war and surround our shores
+completely; he will capture our junks and blockade our ports, and
+deprive us of all hope of protecting our coasts. However large a
+number of ships we might destroy, he is so accustomed to that sort
+of thing that he would not care in the least. Even supposing that our
+troops were animated by patriotic zeal in the commencement of the war,
+after they had been fighting for several years their patriotic zeal
+would naturally become relaxed, the soldiers would become fatigued,
+and for this we should have to thank ourselves. Soldiers who have
+distinguished themselves are rewarded by grants of land, or else
+you attack and seize the enemy's territory and that becomes your own
+property; so every man is encouraged to fight his best. But in a war
+with foreign countries a man may undergo hardships for years, may
+fight as if his life were worth nothing, and, as all the land in this
+country already has owners, there will be none to be given away as
+rewards; so we shall have to give rewards in words or money. In time
+the country would be put to an immense expense and the people be
+plunged into misery. Rather than allow this, as we are not the equals
+of foreigners in the mechanical arts, let us have intercourse with
+foreign countries, learn their drill and tactics, and when we have
+made the nation as united as one family, we shall be able to go abroad
+and give lands in foreign countries to those who have distinguished
+themselves in battle. The soldiers will vie with one another in
+displaying their intrepidity, and it will not be too late then to
+declare war. Now we shall have to defend ourselves against these
+foreign enemies, skilled in the use of mechanical appliances, with
+our soldiers whose military skill has considerably diminished during
+a long peace of three hundred years, and we certainly could not feel
+sure of victory, especially in a naval war.'"[5]
+
+The Kai-Koku party, the party in favor of opening the country,
+triumphed, and the treaty was finally concluded between the United
+States and Japan on the 31st of March, 1854. After the return of
+Commodore Perry to America, Townsend Harris was sent by the United
+States Government as Consul-General to Japan. He negotiated the
+commercial treaty between the United States and Japan on July 29,
+1858.
+
+At the heels of the Americans followed the English, French, Russians,
+Dutch, and other nations. Japan's foreign relations became more and
+more complicated and therefore difficult to manage.
+
+The discussion quoted above is a type of the arguments used by the
+Jo-i party and the Kai-Koku party. The history of Japanese politics
+from 1853 to 1868 is the history of the struggle between these two
+parties, each of which soon changed its name. As the Jo-i party allied
+itself with the court of Kioto, it became the O-sei or Restoration
+party. As the Kai-Koku party was associated with the court of Shogun,
+it became the Bakufu party. The struggle ended in the triumph of the
+Restoration party. But by that time the Jo-i party, from a cause which
+I shall soon mention, had been completely transformed and converted to
+the Western ideas.
+
+Among the leaders of the Jo-i party was Nariaki, the old prince of
+Mito. He belonged to one of the San Kay (three families), out of which
+Iyeyasu ordered the Shogun to be chosen. He was connected by marriage
+with the families of the Emperor and the highest Kuges in Miako, and
+with the wealthiest Daimios. In power the Mito family thus ranked high
+among the Daimios. Among the scholars the Prince of Mito was popular.
+The prestige of his great ancestor, the compiler of Dai-Nihon-Shi, had
+not yet died out. The Prince of Mito was thus naturally looked up to
+by the scholars as the man of right principles and of noble ideas. A
+shrewd, clever, and scheming old man, the Prince of Mito now became
+the defender of the cause of the Emperor and the mouthpiece of the
+conservative party.
+
+At the head of the Bakufu party was a man of iron and fertile
+resources, Ii Kamon No Kami. He was the Daimio of Hikone, a castled
+town and fief on Lake Biwa, in Mino. His revenue was small, being only
+three hundred and fifty thousand koku. But in position and power none
+in the empire could rival him. He was the head of the Fudai Daimios.
+His family was called the Dodai or foundation-stone of the power
+of the Tokugawa dynasty. His ancestor, Ii Nawo Massa, had been
+lieutenant-general and right-hand man of Iyeyas. Ii Kamon No Kami,
+owing to the mental infirmity of the reigning Shogun, had lately
+become his regent. Bold, ambitious, able, and unscrupulous, Ii was the
+Richelieu of Japan. From this time on till his assassination on March
+23, 1860, he virtually ruled the empire, and, in direct contravention
+to the imperial will, negotiated with foreign nations, as we have
+seen, for the opening of ports for trade with them. He was styled the
+"swaggering prime minister," and his name was long pronounced with
+contempt and odium. Lately, however, his good name has been rescued
+and his fame restored by the noble effort of an able writer, Mr.
+Saburo Shimada.[6] But this able prime minister fell on March 23,
+1860, by the sword of Mito ronins, who alleged, as the pretext of
+their crime, that "Ii Kamon No Kami had insulted the imperial
+decree and, careless of the misery of the people, but making foreign
+intercourse his chief aim, had opened ports." "The position of
+the government upon the death of the regent was that of helpless
+inactivity. The sudden removal of the foremost man of the empire was
+as the removal of the fly-wheel from a piece of complicated machinery.
+The whole empire stood aghast, expecting and fearing some great
+political convulsion."[7]
+
+The Shogun began to make a compromise to unite the Emperor's power and
+the Shogun's, by taking the sister of the Emperor for his wife.
+
+Meanwhile great events were taking place in the southern corner of
+Kiushiu and on the promontory of Shikoku, events which were to effect
+great changes in men's ideas. These were the bombardments of Kagoshima
+and of Shimonosheki, the first on August 11, 1863, the second on
+September 5, 1864. I shall not dwell here on the injustice of these
+barbarous and heathenish acts of the so-called civilized and Christian
+nations; for I am not writing a political pamphlet. But impartially
+let us note the great effects of these bombardments.
+
+I. These conflicts showed on a grand but sad scale the weakness of the
+Daimios, even the most powerful of them, and, on the other hand, the
+power of the foreigners and their rifled cannon and steamers. The
+following Japanese memorandum expresses this point: "Satsuma's eyes
+were opened since the fight of Kagoshima, and affairs appeared to him
+in a new light; he changed in favor of foreigners, and thought now of
+making his country powerful and completing his armaments."[8]
+
+The Emperor also wrote in a rather pathetic tone to the Shogun
+touching the relative strength of the Japanese and the foreigners: "I
+held a council the other day with my military nobility (Daimios and
+nobles), but unfortunately inured to the habits of peace, which for
+more than two hundred years has existed in our country, we are unable
+to exclude and subdue our foreign enemies by the forcible means of
+war....
+
+"If we compare our Japanese ships of war and cannon to those of the
+barbarians, we feel certain that they are not sufficient to inflict
+terror upon the foreign barbarians, and are also insufficient to make
+the splendor of Japan shine in foreign countries. I should think
+that we only should make ourselves ridiculous in the eyes of the
+barbarians."[9]
+
+From the time of the bombardment, Satsuma and Choshiu began to
+introduce European machinery and inventions, to employ skilled
+Europeans to teach them, and to send their young men to Europe and
+America.
+
+II. These bombardments showed the necessity of national union. Whether
+she would repel or receive the foreigner, Japan must present a united
+front. To this end, great change in the internal constitution of the
+empire was needed; the internal resources of the nation had to be
+gathered into a common treasury; the police and the taxes had to be
+recognized as national, not as belonging to petty local chieftains;
+the power of the feudal lords had to be broken in order to
+reconstitute Japan as a single strong state under a single head. These
+are the ideas which led the way to the Restoration of 1868. Thus the
+bombardments of Kagoshima and Shimonosheki may be said to have helped
+indirectly in the Restoration of that year. But before we proceed to
+the history of the Restoration, let us examine what were the great
+Councils of Kuges and Daimios, which were sometimes convened during
+the period from 1857 to 1868.
+
+The Council of Kuges was occasionally convened by the order of the
+Emperor. It was composed of the princes of the blood, nobles, and
+courtiers. The Council of Daimios was now and then summoned either by
+the Emperor or by the Shogun. It was composed mostly of the Daimios.
+These councils were like the Witenagemot of England, formed of the
+wise and influential men of the kingdom. As the Daimios had far more
+weight in the political scale of the realm than the Kuges, so the
+council of the Daimios was of far more importance than that of the
+Kuges. But it must not be understood that these councils were regular
+meetings held in the modern parliamentary way; nor that they had
+anything like the powers of the British Parliament or of the American
+Congress. These councils of Japan were called into spasmodic life
+simply by the necessity of the time. They were held either at the
+court of Kioto or that of Yedo, or at other places appointed for the
+purpose. The Kuges or Daimios assembled rather in an informal way,
+measured by modern parliamentary procedure, but in accordance with the
+court etiquette of the time, whose most minute regulations and rules
+have often embarrassed and plagued the modern ministers accredited to
+the court of the Emperor. Then these councils proceeded to discuss the
+burning questions of the day, among which the most prominent was, of
+course, the foreign policy. The earliest instance of the meeting of
+the Council of Kuges was immediately after the news of Perry's arrival
+had reached the court of Kioto. "Upon this," says the author of
+Genje Yume Monogatari, "the Emperor was much disturbed, and called a
+council, which was attended by a number of princes of the blood and
+Kuges, and much violent language was uttered."
+
+From this time on we meet often with the record of these councils.[10]
+A native chronicler records that on the 29th day of the 12th month
+of 1857 "a meeting of all Daimios (present in Yedo) was held in the
+Haku-sho-in, a large hall in the castle of Yedo. The deliberations
+were not over till two o'clock on the morning of the 30th."
+
+Soon after this the Emperor ordered the Shogun to come to Kioto with
+all the Daimios and ascertain the opinion of the country. But the
+Shogun did not come, so the Emperor sent his envoy, Ohara Sammi, and
+called the meeting of the Daimios at Yedo in 1862, in which the noted
+Shimadzu Saburo was also present.
+
+In 1864 the council of Daimios was again held, and Minister Pruyn,
+in his letter to Mr. Seward, bears witness of the proceeding: "It is
+understood the great council of Daimios is again in session; that
+the question of the foreign policy of the government is again under
+consideration, and that the opposite parties are pretty evenly
+balanced."[11]
+
+From this time the council of Daimios was held every year, sometimes
+many times in the year, till the Revolution of 1868. These examples
+will suffice to show the nature and purpose of these councils of Kuges
+and Daimios. Let us next consider how these councils originated.
+
+The political development of Japan gives another illustration of one
+of the truths which Mr. Herbert Spencer unfolds in his Principles
+of Sociology. "Everywhere the wars between societies," says he,
+"originate governmental structures, and are causes of all such
+improvements in those structures as increase the efficiency of
+corporate action against environing societies."[12]
+
+Experience has shown that representative government is the most
+efficient in securing the corporate action of the various members of
+the body politic against foreign enemies. When a country is threatened
+with foreign invasion, when the corporate action of its citizens
+against their enemy is needed, it becomes an imperative necessity to
+consult public opinion. In such a time centralization is needed. Hence
+the first move of Japan after the advent of foreigners was to bring
+the scattered parts of the country together and unite them under one
+head.
+
+Japan had hitherto no formidable foreign enemy on her shores. So
+her governmental system--the regulating system of the social
+organism--received no impetus for self-development. But as soon as a
+formidable people, either as allies or foes, appeared on the scene in
+1853, we immediately see the remarkable change in the state system of
+regulation in Japan. It became necessary to consult public opinion.
+Councils of Kuges and Daimios and meetings of Samurai sprung forth
+spontaneously.
+
+I believe, with Guizot, that the germ of representative government was
+not necessarily "in the woods of Germany," as Montesquieu asserts,
+or in the Witenagemot of England; that the glory of having a free
+government is not necessarily confined to the Aryan family or to its
+more favored branch, the Anglo-Saxons. I believe that the seed of
+representative government is implanted in the very nature of human
+society and of the human mind. When the human mind and the social
+organism reach a certain stage of development, when they are placed in
+such an environment as to call forth a united and harmonious action
+of the body politic, when education is diffused among the masses
+and every member of the community attains a certain degree of his
+individuality and importance, when the military form of society
+transforms itself into the industrial, then the representative idea of
+government springs forth naturally and irresistibly. And no tyrant, no
+despot, can obstruct the triumphal march of liberty.
+
+Whatever may be said about the soundness of the above speculation, it
+is certain that in the great councils of Kuges and Daimios and in the
+discussions of the Samurai, which the advent of the foreigners called
+into being, lay the germ of the future constitutional parliament of
+Japan.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Genje Yume Monogatari. Translated by Mr. Ernest Satow,
+and published in the columns of the _Japan Mail_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The original gives names of some prominent officials thus
+summoned.]
+
+[Footnote 3: This is also quoted in F.O. Adams's History of Japan,
+Vol. I., p. 109. I have compared the passage with the original and
+quote here with some modifications in the translation.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Jo-i means to expel the barbarians; Kai-Koku means to
+open the country.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Given also in Kai-Koku Simatsu, p. 166; Ansei-Kiji, pp.
+219, 220.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Life of Ii Nawosuke Tokyo, 1888.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Dickson's Japan, p. 454.]
+
+[Footnote 8: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Part 3, 1865-66, p. 233, 1st Sess. 39th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 9: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Part 3, 1864-65, p. 502, 2d Sess. 38th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 10: See Ansei-Kiji, pages 1, 3, 57, 59, 61, 174, 192, 352;
+Bosin-Simatsu, Vol. II., pp. 4, 69; Vol. III., pp. 379, 414; Vol. IV.,
+pp. 121, 152.]
+
+[Footnote 11: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Part 3, 1864-65, p. 486, 3d Sess. 38th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Principles of Sociology, p. 540.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE RESTORATION.
+
+
+In the last chapter we have noticed what a commotion had been caused
+in Japan by the sudden advent of Commodore Perry, how the councils of
+Kuges and Daimios were called into spontaneous life by the dread
+of foreigners and by the sense of national weakness, and how the
+bombardments of Kagoshima and Shimonosheki tested these fears and
+taught the necessity of national union. I have remarked that free
+government is not necessarily the sole heritage of the Aryan race, but
+that the presence of foreigners, the change of the military form of
+society into the industrial form, the increase in importance of
+the individual in the community, are sure to breed a free and
+representative system of government.
+
+In the following chapter we shall see the downfall of the Shogunate,
+the restoration of the imperial power to its pristine vigor, and the
+destruction of feudalism.
+
+"The study of constitutional history is essentially a tracing of
+causes and consequences," says Bishop Stubbs, "not the collection of
+a multitude of facts and views, but the piecing of links of a perfect
+chain."
+
+I shall therefore not dwell upon the details of the events which
+led to the downfall of the Shogunate, but immediately enter into an
+inquiry concerning the causes.
+
+Three causes led to the final overthrow of the Shogunate:
+
+I. The Revival of Learning. The last half of the eighteenth and
+the first half of the present century witnessed in Japan an unusual
+intellectual activity. The long peace and prosperity of the country
+under the rule of the Tokugawa dynasties had fostered in every way the
+growth of literature and art. The Shoguns, from policy or from taste,
+either to find a harmless vent for the restless spirit of the
+Samura or from pure love of learning, have been constant patrons of
+literature. The Daimios, too, as a means of spending their leisure
+hours when they were not out hawking or revelling with their
+mistresses, gave no inattentive ear to the readings and lectures of
+learned men. Each Daimioate took pride in the number and fame of her
+own learned sons. Thus throughout the country eminent scholars arose.
+With them a new era of literature dawned upon the land. The new
+literature changed its tone. Instead of the servility, faint
+suggestiveness, and restrained politeness characteristic of the
+literature from the Gen-hei period to the first half of the Tokugawa
+period, that of the Revival Era began to wear a bolder and freer
+aspect. History came to be recorded with more truthfulness and
+boldness than ever before.
+
+But as the ancient histories were studied and the old constitution was
+brought into light, the real nature of the Shogunate began to reveal
+itself. To the eyes of the historians it became clear that the
+Shogunate was nothing but a military usurpation, sustained by fraud
+and corruption; that the Emperor, who was at that time, in plain
+words, imprisoned at the court of Kioto, was the real source of power
+and honor. "If this be the case, what ought we do?" was the natural
+question of these loyal subjects of the Emperor. The natural
+conclusion followed: the military usurper must be overthrown and
+the rightful ruler recognized. This was the sum and substance of
+the political programme of the Imperialists. The first sound of the
+trumpet against the Shogunate rose from the learned hall of the
+Prince of Mito, Komon. He, with the assistance of a host of scholars,
+finished his great work, the Dai Nihon Shi, or History of Japan, in
+1715. It was not printed till 1851, but was copied from hand to hand
+by eager students, like the Bible by the medieval monks, or the works
+of Plato and Aristotle by the Humanists. The Dai Nihon Shi soon became
+a classic, and had such an influence in restoring the power of the
+Emperor that Mr. Ernest Satow justly calls its composer "the real
+author of the movement which culminated in the revolution of 1868."
+The voice of the Prince of Mito was soon caught up by the more
+celebrated scholar Rai Sanyo (1780-1833). A poet, an historian, and a
+zealous patriot, Rai Sanyo was the Arndt of Japan. He outlined in
+his Nihon Guai Shi the rise and fall of the Minister of State and the
+Shoguns, and with satire, invective, and the enthusiasm of a patriot,
+urged the unlawfulness of the usurpation of the imperial power by
+these mayors of the palace. In his Sei-Ki, or political history of
+Japan, he traced the history of the imperial family, and mourned with
+characteristic pathos the decadence of the imperial power. The labors
+of these historians and scholars bore in time abundant fruit. Some of
+their disciples became men of will and action: Sakuma Shozan, Yoshida
+Toraziro, Gesho, Yokoi Heishiro, and later Saigo, Okubo, Kido, and
+hosts of others, who ultimately realized the dreams of their masters.
+Out of the literary seed which scholars like Rai Sanyo spread
+broadcast over the country thus grew hands of iron and hearts
+of steel. This process shows how closely related are history and
+politics, and affords another illustration of the significance of
+the epigrammatic expression of Professor Freeman: "History is past
+politics, and politics present history."
+
+II. Another tributary stream which helped to swell the tide flowing
+toward the Emperor was the revival of Shintoism. The revival of
+learning is sure to be followed by the revival of religion. This is
+shown in the history of the Reformation in Europe, which was preceded
+by the revival of learning. Since the expulsion of Christianity from
+Japan in the sixteenth century, which was effected more from political
+than religious motives, laissez-faire was the steadfast policy of the
+Japanese rulers toward religious matters. The founder of the Tokugawa
+dynasty had laid down in his "Legacy" the policy to be pursued by his
+descendants. "Now any one of the people," says Iyeyasu, "can adhere to
+which (religion) he pleases (except the Christian); and there must
+be no wrangling among sects to the disturbance of the peace of the
+Empire." Thus while the people in the West, who worshipped the
+Prince of Peace, in his abused name were cutting each other's throat,
+destroying each other's property, torturing and proselyting by rack
+and flames, the islanders on the West Pacific coast were enjoying
+complete religious toleration. Three religions--Shintoism, Buddhism,
+and Confucianism--lived together in peace. In such a state of
+unrestricted competition among various religions, the universal law of
+the survival of the fittest acts freely. Buddhism was the fittest and
+became the predominant religion. Shintoism was the weakest and sank
+into helpless desuetude. But with the revival of learning, as Kojiki
+and other ancient literature were studied with assiduity, Shintoism
+began to revive. Its cause found worthy defenders in Motoori and
+Hirata. They are among the greatest Shintoists Japan has ever seen.
+
+Now, according to Shintoism, Japan is a holy land. It was made by the
+gods, whose lineal descendant is the Emperor. Hence he must be revered
+and worshipped as a god. This is the substance of Shintoism. The
+political bearing of such a doctrine upon the then existing status of
+the country is apparent. The Emperor, who is a god, the fountain of
+all virtue, honor, and authority, is now a prisoner at the court of
+Kioto, under the iron hand of the Tokugawa Shoguns. This state
+of impiety and irreverence can never be tolerated by the devout
+Shintoists. The Shogun must be dethroned and the Emperor raised to
+power. Here the line of arguments of the Shintoists meets with that
+of the scholars we have noted above. Thus both scholars and Shintoists
+have converted themselves into politicians who have at heart the
+restoration of the Emperor.
+
+III. Another cause which led to the overthrow of the Shogunate was the
+jealousy and cupidity of the Southern Daimios. Notably among them were
+the Daimios of Satsuma, Choshiu, Tosa, and Hizen. Their ancestors "had
+of old held equal rank and power with Iyeyasu, until the fortunes
+of war turned against them. They had been overcome by force, or had
+sullenly surrendered in face of overwhelming odds. Their adherence
+to the Tokugawas was but nominal, and only the strong pressure of
+superior power was able to wring from them a haughty semblance of
+obedience. They chafed perpetually under the rule of one who was in
+reality a vassal like themselves."[1] They now saw in the rising tide
+of public sentiment against the Tokugawa Shogunate a rare opportunity
+of accomplishing their cherished aim. They lent their arms and money
+for the support of the patriots in carrying out their plan. Satsuma
+and Choshiu became the rendezvous of eminent scholars and zealous
+patriots. And in the council-halls of Satsuma and Choshiu were hatched
+the plots which were soon to overthrow the effete Shogunate.
+
+Thus everything was ready for the revolution of 1868 before Perry
+came. We saw the Shogun, under the bombastic title of Tycoon, in spite
+of the remonstrance of the Emperor and his court, conclude a treaty
+with Perry at Kanagawa in 1854. Here at last was found a pretext for
+the Imperialists to raise arms against the Shogun. The Shogun or his
+ministers had no right to make treaties with foreigners. Such an act
+was, in the eyes of the patriots, heinous treason. The cry of "Destroy
+the Shogunate and raise the Emperor to his proper throne!" rang from
+one end of the empire to the other. The constant disturbance of the
+country, the difficulty of foreign intercourse, the sense of necessity
+of a single and undoubted authority over the land, and the outcry
+of the Samurai thus raised against the Shogun, finally led to his
+resignation on November 19, 1867. His letter of resignation, in the
+form of a manifesto to the Daimios, runs thus:
+
+"A retrospect of the various changes through which the empire has
+passed shows us that after the decadence of the monarchical authority,
+power passed into the hands of the Minister of State; that by the
+wars of 1156 to 1159 the governmental power came into the hands of the
+military class. My ancestor received greater marks of confidence than
+any before him, and his descendants have succeeded him for more than
+two hundred years. Though I perform the same duties, the objects of
+government and the penal laws have not been attained, and it is
+with feelings of greatest humiliation that I find myself obliged to
+ackowledge my own want of virtue as the cause of the present state of
+things. Moreover, our intercourse with foreign powers becomes daily
+more extensive, and our foreign policy cannot be pursued unless
+directed by the whole power of the country.
+
+"If, therefore, the old régime be changed and the governmental
+authority be restored to the imperial court, if the councils of the
+whole empire be collected and the wise decisions received, and if
+we unite with all our heart and with all our strength to protect and
+maintain the empire, it will be able to range itself with the nations
+of the earth. This comprises our whole duty towards our country.
+
+"However, if you (the Daimios) have any particular ideas on the
+subject, you may state them without reserve."[2]
+
+The resignation of the Shogun was accepted by the Emperor by the
+following imperial order, issued on the 10th day of the 12th month:
+"It has pleased the Emperor to dismiss the present Shogun, at his
+request, from the office of Shogun."
+
+As to the full intent and motive of the Shogun in resigning his
+power, let him further speak himself. In the interview of the British
+minister, Sir Harry S. Parkes, and the French minister, M. Leon
+Koches, with the Shogun, it is stated that he said: "I became
+convinced last autumn that the country would no longer be successfully
+governed while the power was divided between the Emperor and myself.
+The country had two centres, from which orders of an opposite nature
+proceeded. Thus, in the matter of the opening of Hiogo and Osako,
+which I quote as an example of this conflict of authority, I was
+myself convinced that the stipulations of the treaties must be
+observed, but the assent of the Emperor to my representations on
+this subject was given reluctantly. I therefore, for the good of my
+country, informed the Emperor that I resigned the governing power,
+with the understanding that an assembly of Daimios was convened for
+the purpose of deciding in what manner, and by whom, the government in
+future should be carried on. In acting thus, I sunk my own interests
+and power handed down to me by my ancestors, in the more important
+interests of the country.[3]....
+
+"My policy, from the commencement, has been to determine this question
+of the future form of government in a peaceful manner, and it is in
+pursuance of the same object that, instead of opposing force by force,
+I have retired from the scene of dispute.....
+
+"As to who is the sovereign of Japan, it is a question on which no
+one in Japan can entertain a doubt. The Emperor is the sovereign. My
+object from the first has been to take the will of the nation as to
+the future government. If the nation should decide that I ought to
+resign my powers, I am prepared to resign them for the good of my
+country.....
+
+"I have no other motive but the following: With an honest love for
+my country and the people, I resigned the governing power which I
+inherited from my ancestors, and with the mutual understanding that I
+should assemble all the nobles of the empire to discuss the question
+disinterestedly, and adopting the opinion of the majority, decide upon
+the reformation of the national constitution, I left the matter in the
+hands of the imperial court."[4]
+
+Thus was the Shogunate overthrown and the Restoration effected. The
+civil war which soon followed need not detain us, for the war itself
+had no great consequence as regards the constitutional development of
+the country.
+
+Let us now consider the form of the new government. It is essentially
+that which prevailed in Japan before the development of feudalism. It
+is modelled on the form of government of the Osei era.
+
+The new government was composed of:
+
+1. Sosai ("Supreme Administrator"). He was assisted by Fuku, or
+Vice-Sosai. The Sosai resembled the British Premier, was the head of
+the chief council of the government.
+
+2. Gijio, or "Supreme Council," whose function was to discuss all
+questions and suggest the method of their settlement to the Sosai. It
+was composed of ten members, five of whom were selected from the list
+of Kuges and five from the great Daimios.
+
+3. Sanyo, or "Associate Council." They were subordinate officers, and
+were selected from the Daimios as well as from the retainers.
+This council finally came to have great influence, and ultimately
+transformed itself into the present cabinet.
+
+The government was divided into eight departments:
+
+1. The Sosai Department. This soon changed into Dai-jo-Kuan.
+
+2. Jingi-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of the Shinto Religion. This
+department had charge of the Shinto temples, priests, and festivals.
+
+3. Naikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Home Affairs. This department
+had charge of the capital and the five home provinces, of land and
+water transport in all the provinces, of post-towns and post-roads,
+of barriers and fairs, and of the governors of castles, towns, ports,
+etc.
+
+4. Guaikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Foreign Affairs. This
+department had charge of foreign relations, treaties, trade, recovery
+of lands, and sustenance of the people.
+
+5. Gumbu-Jimu-Kioku, or War Department. This department had charge of
+the naval and military forces, drilling, protection of the Emperor,
+and military defences in general.
+
+6. Kuaikei-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Finance. This department had
+charge of the registers of houses and population, of tariff and taxes,
+money, corn, accounts, tribute, building and repairs, salaries, public
+storehouses, and internal trade.
+
+7. Keiho-Jimu-Kioku, or Judicial Department. This department had
+charge of the censorate, of inquisitions, arrests, trials, and the
+penal laws in general.
+
+8. Seido-Jimu-Kioku, or Legislative Department. This department
+had charge of the superintendence of offices, enactments, sumptuary
+regulations, appointments, and all other laws and regulations,
+
+"It is easy to destroy, but difficult to construct," is an old adage
+of statesmen. The truth of this utterance was soon realized by the
+leaders of the new government.
+
+The first thing which the new government had to settle was its
+attitude toward foreign nations. The leaders of the government who had
+once opposed with such vehemence, as we have seen, the foreign policy
+of the Tokugawa Shogun, now that he had been overthrown, urged the
+necessity of amicable relations with foreign powers in the following
+memorable memorial[5] to the Dai-jo-Kuan (Government):
+
+"The undersigned, servants of the Crown, respectfully believe that
+from ancient times decisions upon important questions concerning
+the welfare of the empire were arrived at after consideration of the
+actual political condition and its necessities, and that thus results
+were obtained, not of mere temporary brilliancy, but which bore good
+fruits in all time....
+
+"Among other pressing duties of the present moment we venture to
+believe it to be pre-eminently important to set the question of
+foreign intercourse in a clear light.
+
+"His Majesty's object in creating the office of administrator of
+foreign affairs, and selecting persons to fill it, and otherwise
+exerting himself in that direction, has been to show the people of
+his empire in what light to look on this matter, and we have felt the
+greatest pleasure in thinking that the imperial glory would now be
+made to shine forth before all nations. An ancient proverb says that
+'Men's minds resemble each other as little as their faces,' nor have
+the upper and lower classes been able, up to the present, to hold with
+confidence a uniform opinion. It gives us some anxiety to feel that
+perhaps we may be following the bad example of the Chinese, who,
+fancying themselves alone great and worthy of respect, and despising
+foreigners as little better than beasts, have come to suffer defeats
+at their hands and to have it lorded over themselves by those
+foreigners.
+
+"It appears to us, therefore, after mature reflection, that the
+most important duty we have at present is for high and low to unite
+harmoniously in understanding the condition of the age, in effecting
+a national reformation and commencing a great work, and that for this
+reason it is of the greatest necessity that we determine upon the
+attitude to be observed towards this question.
+
+"Hitherto the empire has held itself aloof from other countries and is
+ignorant of the affairs of the world; the only object sought has been
+to give ourselves the least trouble, and by daily retrogression we are
+in danger of falling under foreign rule.
+
+"By travelling to foreign countries and observing what good there
+is in them, by comparing their daily progress, the universality of
+enlightened government, of a sufficiency of military defences, and of
+abundant food for the people among them, with our present condition,
+the causes of prosperity and degeneracy may be plainly traced....
+
+"Of late years the question of expelling the barbarians has been
+constantly agitated, and one or two Daimios have tried to expel them,
+but it is unnecessary to prove that this was more than the strength of
+a single clan could accomplish....
+
+"How ever, in order to restore the fallen fortunes of the empire and
+to make the imperial dignity respected abroad, it is necessary to make
+a firm resolution, and to get rid of the narrow-minded ideas which
+have prevailed hitherto. We pray that the important personages of
+the court will open their eyes and unite with those below them in
+establishing relations of amity in a single-minded manner, and that
+our deficiencies being supplied with what foreigners are superior
+in, an enduring government be established for future ages. Assist
+the Emperor in forming his decision wisely and in understanding the
+condition of the empire; let the foolish argument which has hitherto
+styled foreigners dogs and goats and barbarians be abandoned; let the
+court ceremonies, hitherto imitated from the Chinese, be reformed,
+and the foreign representatives be bidden to court in the manner
+prescribed by the rules current amongst all nations; and let this be
+publicly notified throughout the country, so that the countless people
+may be taught what is the light in which they are to regard this
+subject. This is our most earnest prayer, presented with all reverence
+and humility.
+
+  "ECHIZEN SAISHO,
+  TOSA SAKIO NO SHOSHO,
+  NAGATO SHOSHO,
+  SATSUMA SHOSHO,
+  AKI SHOSHO,
+  HOSO KAWA UKIO DAIBU."
+
+The advice of these notables was well received. A formal invitation to
+an audience with the Emperor was extended to the foreign ambassadors.
+They soon accepted the invitation. Their appearance in the old
+anti-foreign city of Kioto, before the personage who was considered
+by the masses as divine, was significant. It put an end to the
+all-absorbing, all-perplexing theme of the day. The question of
+foreign policy was settled.
+
+The next act of the statesmen of the Restoration was to sweep away
+the abuses of the court, and to establish the basis of a firm internal
+administration. The most effectual means of accomplishing this, it
+seemed to the sagacious statesmen, was to move the court from the
+place where those abuses had their roots. Ichizo Okubo,[6] a guiding
+spirit of the Restoration, presented the following memorial to the
+Emperor:
+
+"The most pressing of your Majesty's pressing duties at the present
+moment is not to look at the empire alone and judge carelessly by
+appearances, but to consider carefully the actual state of the whole
+world; to reform the inveterate and slothful habits induced during
+several hundred years, and to give union to the nation....
+
+"Hitherto the person whom we designate the sovereign has lived behind
+a screen, and, as if he were different from other human beings, has
+not been seen by more than a very limited number of Kuge; and as
+his heaven-conferred office of father to his people has been thereby
+unfulfilled, it is necessary that his office should be ascertained
+in accordance with this fundamental principle, and then the laws
+governing internal affairs may be established....
+
+"In the present period of reformation and restoration of the
+government to its ancient monarchical form, the way to carry out
+the resolution of imitating the example of Japanese sages, and of
+surpassing the excellent governments of foreign nations, is to change
+the site of the capital....
+
+"Osako is the fittest place for the capital ... For the conduct of
+foreign relations, for enriching the country and strengthening its
+military power, for adopting successful means of offense and defense,
+for establishing an army and navy, the place is peculiarly fitted by
+its position ... I most humbly pray your Majesty to open your eyes and
+make this reform....
+
+"OKUBO ICHIZO."[7]
+
+The result of the memorial was the ultimate removal of the seat of
+government from Kioto to Yedo, which afterwards changed its name to
+Tokio, meaning eastern capital.
+
+But the most important event of the Restoration, from the
+constitutional point of view, was the charter oath of five articles,
+taken by the present Emperor on the 17th of April, 1869, before the
+court and the assembly of Daimios. These articles were in substance as
+follows:
+
+1. A deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be
+decided by public opinion.
+
+2. The principles of social and political economics should be
+diligently studied by both the superior and inferior classes of our
+people.
+
+3. Every one in the community shall be assisted to persevere in
+carrying out his will for all good purposes.
+
+4. All the old absurd usages of former times should be disregarded,
+and the impartiality and justice displayed in the workings of nature
+be adopted as a basis of action.
+
+5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of the
+world for the purpose of firmly establishing the foundations of the
+empire.
+
+The Emperor's promise henceforth became the watchword of the nation.
+
+And this resolution to form a deliberative assembly was soon put into
+practice. In 1869 was convened the Kogisho or "Parliament," as Sir
+Harry Parkes translates it in his despatch to the Earl of Clarendon.
+But before we proceed to the description of the nature and working of
+the Kogisho it is necessary to state that this plan had been already
+suggested by the Shogunate. A proclamation of the Shogun Keiki,
+issued on February 20, 1868, says: "As it is proper to determine the
+principle of the constitution of Japan with due regard to the wishes
+of the majority, I have resigned the supreme power to the Emperor's
+court, and advised that the opinions of all the Daimios should be
+taken.... On examination of my household affairs (the administration
+of Shogun's territories), many irregularities may exist which may
+dissatisfy the people, and which I therefore greatly deplore. Hence
+I intend to establish a Kogijio and to accept the opinion of the
+majority. Any one, therefore, who has an opinion to express may do so
+at that place and be free of apprehension."[8]
+
+But this attempt of the Shogun to establish a sort of Parliament came
+to an end with his fall. This idea, however, was transmitted through
+the Shogunate officials to the government of the Restoration. In fact,
+this idea of consulting public opinion was, as I have repeatedly said,
+in the air. The leaders of the new government all felt, as one of them
+said to Messrs. F.O. Adams and Ernest Satow, that "the only way to
+allay the jealousies hitherto existing between several of the most
+powerful clans, and to ensure a solid and lasting union of conflicting
+interests, was to search for the nearest approach to an ideal
+constitution among those of Western countries ... that the opinion of
+the majority was the only criterion of a public measure."[9]
+
+Sir Harry Parkes was right when he told the Earl of Clarendon that
+"the establishment of such an institution (the Kogisho) formed one of
+the first objects of the promoters of the recent revolution."[10]
+
+The Kogisho was opened on the 18th of April, 1869,[11] and the
+following message[12] from the throne was then delivered:
+
+"Being on the point of visiting our eastern capital, we have convened
+the nobles of our court and the various princes in order to consult
+them upon the means of establishing the foundations of peaceful
+government. The laws and institutions are the basis of government.
+The petitions of the people at large cannot be lightly decided. It has
+been reported to us that brief rules and regulations have been fixed
+upon for the Parliament, and it seems good to us that the House should
+be opened at once. We exhort you to respect the laws of the House,
+to lay aside all private and selfish considerations, to conduct your
+debates with minuteness and firmness; above all things, to take the
+laws of our ancestors as 'basis,' and adapt yourselves to the feelings
+of men and to the spirit of the times. Distinguish clearly between
+those matters which are of immediate importance and those which may
+be delayed; between things which are less urgent and those which are
+pressing. In your several capacities argue with careful attention.
+When the results of your debate are communicated to us it shall be our
+duty to confirm them."
+
+The Kogisho was composed mostly of the retainers of the Daimios, for
+the latter, having no experience of the earnest business of life,
+"were not eager to devote themselves to the labors of an onerous and
+voluntary office." Akidzuki Ukio No Suke was appointed President of
+the Kogisho.
+
+The object of the Kogisho was to enable the government to sound public
+opinion on the various topics of the day, and to obtain the assistance
+of the country in the work of legislation by ascertaining whether the
+projects of the government were likely to be favorably received.
+
+The Kogisho, like the Councils of Kuges and Daimios, was nothing but
+an experiment, a mere germ of a deliberative assembly, which only time
+and experience could bring to maturity. Still Kogisho was an advance
+over the council of Daimios. It had passed the stage resembling a
+mere deliberative meeting or quiet Quaker conference, where, for hours
+perhaps, nobody opens his mouth. It now bore an aspect of a political
+club meeting. But it was a quiet, peaceful, obedient debating society.
+It has left the record of its abortive undertakings in the "Kogisho
+Nishi" or journal of "Parliament." The Kogisho was dissolved in
+the year of its birth. And the indifference of the public about its
+dissolution proves how small an influence it really had.
+
+But a greater event than the dissolution of the Kogisho was pending
+before the public gaze. This was the abolition of feudalism, which we
+shall consider in the next chapter.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The Mikado's Empire. Griffis, p. 301.]
+
+[Footnote 2: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+1867, Part II., p. 78, 2d Sess. 40th Cong. See also Bosin-Simatsu,
+Vol. I., p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 3: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Vol. I., 1868-69, p. 620, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 4: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Vol. I., 1868-69, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Translation from the Kioto Government Gazette of March,
+1868. It is given in Diplomatic Correspondence of the U.S.A., 3d Sess.
+40th Cong., Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 725.]
+
+[Footnote 6: He afterwards changed his name into Toshimitsu Okubo.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Translation is given in American Executive Document,
+Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 728, 3d Sess. 40th
+Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 8: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Vol. I., 1868-69, p. 687, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 9: F.O. Adams' History of Japan, Vol. II., p. 128.]
+
+[Footnote 10: English State Papers, Vol. LXX., 1870, p. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 11: 29th of the 2d month in the second year of Meiji,
+according to the old calendar.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Translation is given in English State Papers, Vol. LXX.,
+1871, p. 12.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.
+
+
+The measure to abolish feudalism was much discussed in the Kogisho
+before its dissolution. Prince Akidzuki, President of the Kogisho, had
+sent in the following memorial:
+
+"After the government had been returned by the Tokugawa family
+into the hands of the Emperor, the calamity of war ensued, and the
+excellence of the newly established administration has not yet been
+able to perfect itself; if this continues, I am grieved to think how
+the people will give up their allegiance. Happily, the eastern and
+northern provinces have already been pacified and the country at large
+has at last recovered from its troubles. The government of the Emperor
+is taking new steps every day; this is truly a noble thing for the
+country. And yet when I reflect, I see that although there are many
+who profess loyalty, none have yet shown proof of it. The various
+princes have used their lands and their people for their own purposes;
+different laws have obtained in different places; the civil and
+criminal codes have been various in the various provinces. The clans
+have been called the screen of the country, but in truth they have
+caused its division. The internal relations having been confused, the
+strength of the country has been disunited and severed. How can our
+small country of Japan enter into fellowship with the countries beyond
+the sea? How can she hold up an example of a flourishing country? Let
+those who wish to show their faith and loyalty act in the following
+manner, that they may firmly establish the foundations of the Imperial
+Government:
+
+"1. Let them restore the territories which they have received from the
+Emperor and return to a constitutional and undivided nation.
+
+"2. Let them abandon their titles, and under the name of Kuazoku
+(persons of honor) receive such small properties as may suffice for
+their wants.
+
+"3. Let the officers of the clans abandoning that title call themselves
+officers of the Emperor, receiving property equal to that which they
+have hitherto held.
+
+"Let these three important measures be adopted forthwith, that the
+empire may be raised on a basis imperishable for ages ... 2nd year of
+Meiji (1869).
+
+  (Signed) "AKIDZUKI UKIO NO SUKE."[1]
+
+But politics is not an easy game--a game which a pedant or a
+sentimental scholar or an orator can leisurely play. It has to deal
+with passions, ambitions, and selfish interests of men, as well as
+with the moral and intellectual consciousness of the people. Tongue
+and pen wield, undoubtedly, a great influence in shaping the thought
+of the nation and impressing them with the importance of any political
+measure. But the tongue is as sounding brass and the pen as useless
+steel unless they are backed by force and money. Even in such a
+country as England, where tongue and pen seem to reign supreme, a
+prime minister before he forms his cabinet has to be closeted for
+hours with Mr. Rothschild. Fortunately this important measure of
+abolishing feudalism, which a few patriots had secretly plotted and
+which the scholars had noised abroad, was taken up first by the most
+powerful and wealthy Daimios of the country.
+
+In the following noted memorial, after reviewing the political history
+of Japan during the past few hundred years, these Daimios said: "Now
+the great Government has been newly restored and the Emperor himself
+undertakes the direction of affairs. This is, indeed, a rare and
+mighty event. We have the name (of an Imperial Government), we must
+also have the fact. Our first duty is to illustrate our faithfulness
+and to prove our loyalty. When the line of Tokugawa arose it divided
+the country amongst its kinsfolk, and there were many who founded the
+fortunes of their families upon it. They waited not to ask whether
+the lands and men that they received were the gift of the Emperor; for
+ages they continued to inherit these lands until this day. Others said
+that their possessions were the prize of their spears and bows, as if
+they had entered storehouses and stolen the treasure therein, boasting
+to the soldiers by whom they were surrounded that they had done this
+regardless of their lives. Those who enter storehouses are known by
+all men to be thieves, but those who rob lands and steal men are not
+looked upon with suspicion. How are loyalty and faith confused and
+destroyed!
+
+"The place where we live is the Emperor's land and the food which we
+eat is grown by the Emperor's men. How can we make it our own? We
+now reverently offer up the list of our possessions and men, with the
+prayer that the Emperor will take good measures for rewarding those
+to whom reward is due and for taking from those to whom punishment is
+due. Let the imperial orders be issued for altering and remodelling
+the territories of the various clans. Let the civil and penal codes,
+the military laws down to the rules for uniform and the construction
+of engines of war, all proceed from the Emperor; let all the affairs
+of the empire, great and small, be referred to him."
+
+This memorial was signed by the Daimios of Kago, Hizen, Satsuma,
+Choshiu, Tosa, and some other Daimios of the west. But the real
+author of the memorial is believed to have been Kido, the brain of the
+Restoration.
+
+Thus were the fiefs of the most powerful and most wealthy Daimios
+voluntarily offered to the Emperor. The other Daimios soon followed
+the example of their colleagues. And the feudalism which had existed
+in Japan for over eight centuries was abolished by the following
+laconic imperial decree of August, 1871:
+
+"The clans are abolished, and prefectures are established in their
+places."
+
+This rather off-hand way of destroying an institution, whose overthrow
+in Europe required the combined efforts of ambitious kings and
+emperors, of free cities, of zealous religious sects, and cost
+centuries of bloodshed, has been made a matter of much comment in the
+West. One writer exclaims, "History does not record another instance
+where changes of such magnitude ever occurred within so short a time,
+and it is astonishing that it only required eleven words to destroy
+the ambition and power of a proud nobility that had with imperious
+will directed the destiny of Japan for more than five hundred
+years."[2]
+
+But when we examine closely the circumstances which led to the
+overthrow of feudalism and the influences which acted upon it, we
+cannot but regard it as the natural terminus of the political flood
+which was sweeping over the country. When such a revolution of thought
+as that expressed in the proclamation of 1868 had taken place in the
+minds of the leaders of society, when contact with foreigners had
+fostered the necessity of national union, when the spirit of loyalty
+of the Samurai had changed to loyalty to his Emperor, when his
+patriotic devotion to his province had changed to patriotic devotion
+to his country, then it became apparent that the petty social
+organization, which was antagonistic to these national principles,
+would soon be crushed.
+
+If there is any form of society which is diametrically opposed to the
+spirit of national union, of liberal thought, of free intercourse, it
+is feudal society. A monarchical or a democratic society encourages
+the spirit of union, but feudal society must, from its very nature,
+smother it. Seclusion is the parent of feudalism. In our enlightened
+and progressive century seclusion is no longer possible. Steam and
+electricity alone would have been sufficient to destroy our Japanese
+feudalism. But long before its fall our Japanese feudalism "was an
+empty shell." Its leaders, the Daimios of provinces, were, with a few
+exceptions, men of no commanding importance. "The real power in each
+clan lay in the hands of able men of inferior rank, who ruled their
+masters." From these men came the present advisers of the Emperor.
+Their chief object at that time was the thorough unification of Japan.
+Why, then, should they longer trouble themselves to uphold feudalism,
+this mother of sectionalism, this colossal sham?
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Translation given in the English State Papers.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Consular Report of the U.S.A., No. 75, p. 626.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE REPRESENTATIVE IDEA OF
+GOVERNMENT.
+
+
+We have seen in the last two chapters how the Shogunate and feudalism
+fell, and how the Meiji government was inaugurated. We have also
+observed in the memorials of leading statesmen abundant proof of
+their willingness and zeal to introduce a representative system of
+government. We have also seen the Kogisho convened and dissolved.
+
+John Stuart Mill has pointed out, in his Representative Government,
+several social conditions when representative government is
+inapplicable or unsuitable:
+
+1. When the people are not willing to receive it.
+
+2. When the people are not willing and able to do what is necessary
+for its preservation.
+
+"Representative institutions necessarily depend for permanence upon
+the readiness of the people to fight for them in case of their being
+endangered."
+
+3. When the people are not willing and able to fulfil the duties and
+discharge the functions which it imposes on them.
+
+4. When the people have not learned the first lesson of obedience.
+
+5. When the people are too passive; when they are ready to submit to
+tyranny.
+
+Now when we look at the Japan of 1871, even her greatest admirers must
+admit that she was far from being able to fulfil the social conditions
+necessary for the success of representative government. Japan was
+obedient, but too submissive. She had not yet learned the first
+lesson of freedom, that is, when and how to resist, in the faith that
+resistance to tyrants is obedience to truth; that the irrepressible
+kicker against tyranny, as Dr. Wilson observes, is the only true
+freeman. In her conservative, almost abject submission, Japan was
+yet unfit for free government. The Japanese people were willing to
+do almost anything suggested by their Emperor, but they had first to
+learn what was meant by representative government, "to understand
+its processes and requirements." The Japanese had to discard many old
+habits and prejudices, reform many defects of national character, and
+undergo many stages of moral and mental discipline before they could
+acclimatize themselves to the free atmosphere of representative
+institutions. This preparation required a period of little over two
+decades, and was effected not only through political discipline, but
+by corresponding development in the moral, intellectual, social, and
+industrial life of the nation.
+
+I remarked in the beginning that the political activity of a nation is
+not isolated from other spheres of its activities, but that there is a
+mutual interchange of action and reaction among the different factors
+of social life, so that to trace the political life of a nation it is
+not only necessary to describe the organ through which it acts, the
+governmental machinery, and the methods by which it is worked, but
+to know "the forces which move it and direct its course." Now these
+forces are political as well as non-political. This truth is now
+generally acknowledged by constitutional writers. Thus, the English
+author of "The American Commonwealth" devotes over one-third of his
+second volume to the account of non-political institutions, and says
+"there are certain non-political institutions, certain aspects of
+society, certain intellectual or spiritual forces which count for
+so much in the total life of the country, in the total impression it
+makes and the hopes for the future which it raises, that they cannot
+be left unnoticed."[1]
+
+If this be the case in the study of the American commonwealth, it is
+more so in that of Japanese politics. For nowhere else in the history
+of nations do we see "non-political institutions" exerting such a
+powerful influence upon the body politic as in New Japan. In this
+chapter we shall therefore note briefly the growth of so-called
+"non-political institutions" during a period of about a decade and
+a half, between 1868 and 1881, and mark their influence upon the
+development of representative ideas.
+
+
+I.--MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.
+
+1. Telegraph. At the time of the Restoration there was no telegraph
+in operation, and "for expresses the only available means were men and
+horses." In 1868 the government began to construct telegraphs, and
+the report of the Bureau of Statistics in 1881 shows the following
+increase in each successive year:
+
+           Telegraph          Number
+  Year.    Offices. Miles.    of Telegrams.
+                    Ri Cho.
+  1869-1871  8         26.04    19,448
+  1872      29         33.11    80,639
+  1873      40      1,099.00   186,448
+  1874      57      1,333.20   356,539
+  1875      94      1,904.32   611,866
+  1876     100      2,214.07   680,939
+  1877     122      2,827.08 1,045,442
+  1878     147      3,380.05 1,272,756
+  1879     195      3,842.31 1,935,320
+  1880     195      4,484.30 2,168,201
+
+All the more important towns in the country were thus made able to
+communicate with one another as early as 1880.
+
+In 1879 Japan joined the International Telegraph Convention, and since
+then she can communicate easily with the great powers of the world
+through the great submarine cable system. "Compared with the state of
+ten years ago, when the ignorant people cut down the telegraph poles
+and severed the wires," exclaims Count Okuma, "we seem rather to have
+made a century's advance."
+
+2. Postal System. "Previous to the Restoration," to quote further
+from Count Okuma, "with the exception of the posts sent by the Daimios
+from their residences at the capital to their territories, there
+was no regularly established post for the general public and private
+convenience. Letters had to be sent by any opportunity that occurred,
+and a single letter cost over 25 sen for a distance of 150 ri. But
+since the Restoration the government for the first time established
+a general postal service, and in 1879 the length of postal lines was
+15,700 ri (nearly 40,000 English miles), and a letter can at any time
+be sent for two sen to any part of the country. In 1874 we entered
+the International Postal Convention, and have thus obtained great
+facilities for communicating with foreign countries."[2]
+
+3. Railroad. The first railway Japan ever saw was the model railway
+constructed by Commodore Perry to excite the curiosity of the people.
+But it was not until 1870 that the railroad was really introduced into
+Japan. The first rail was laid on the road between Tokio and Yokohama.
+This road was opened in 1872. It is 18 miles long. The second line was
+constructed in 1876, and runs between Hiogo and Kioto via Osako. And
+the year 1880 saw the opening of the railroad between Kioto and Otsu.
+This line between Hiogo and Otsu is 58 miles long. So at the end of
+the period which we are surveying Japan had a railway system of 31 ri
+and 5 cho (about 78 English miles).
+
+This was nothing but a child-play compared with the railroad activity
+which the later years brought forth, for now we have a railway system
+extending over one thousand two hundred miles. But this concerns the
+later period, so we shall not dwell upon it at present.
+
+4. Steamers and the coasting trade. In 1871 the number of ships
+of foreign build was only 74, but by 1878 they had reached 377. The
+number of vessels of native build in 1876 was 450,000, and in 1878 had
+reached 460,000.[3]
+
+"Since the Restoration the use of steamers has daily increased,
+and the inland sea, the lakes and large rivers are now constantly
+navigated by small steamers employed in the carrying trade."
+
+With the increased facility of communication, commerce and trade
+were stimulated. In 1869 the total amount of imports and exports was
+33,680,000 yen, and in 1879 64,120,000 yen. Imports had grown from
+20,780,000 yen to 36,290,000 yen, and exports from 12,909,000 yen to
+27,830,000 yen; in the one case showing an advance from 2 to 3-1/2, in
+the other from 2 to 5.[4]
+
+
+II.--EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
+
+Previous to the Restoration, the schools supported by Daimios and
+the private schools were few in number; but since that epoch the
+educational system has been vastly improved, with a resulting increase
+in the number of schools and pupils. In 1878, of high, middle, and
+primary schools there were altogether 27,600, with 68,000 teachers and
+2,319,000 pupils.[5] The following table shows the comparative history
+of educational institutions within three years, 1878-1880 (inclusive):
+
+                          Teachers.                Pupils.
+  Year. Institutions.   Male.   Female.        Male.    Female.
+  1878    27,672       66,309     2,374    1,715,425    610,214
+  1879    29,362       71,757     2,803    1,771,641    608,205
+  1880    30,799       74,747     2,923    1,844,564    605,781
+
+Furthermore, hundreds of students went abroad yearly, and returning,
+powerfully influenced the destiny of their country.
+
+
+III.--NEWSPAPERS.
+
+It was in 1869 that the Emperor sanctioned the publication of
+newspapers. Magazines, journals, periodicals and newspapers sprung up
+in a night. The number of newspapers published in 1882 was about 113,
+and of miscellaneous publications about 133. It is to be noted that
+the newspapers defied the old censorship of prohibition under very
+sanguinary pains and penalties. Their circulation increased every
+year. The total newspaper circulation in 1874 was but 8,470,269,
+while in 1877 it was 33,449,529. In his consular report of 1882,
+Consul-General Van Buren makes an approximate estimate of the annual
+aggregate circulation of a dozen noted papers of Tokio to be not less
+than 29,000,000 copies.[6]
+
+The publication of books and translations kept pace with the growth
+of newspapers. Observing the effects of these literary activities, Mr.
+Griffis well says: "It is the writer's firm belief, after nearly four
+years of life in Japan, mingling among the progressive men of the
+empire, that the reading and study of books printed in the Japanese
+language have done more to transform the Japanese mind and to develop
+an impulse in the direction of modern civilization than any other
+cause or series of causes."
+
+Meanwhile, great changes were affecting law and religion. Here it
+is sufficient to observe that the old law which had been hitherto
+altogether arbitrary--either the will of the Emperor or of the
+Shogun--was revised on the model of the Napoleonic code and soon
+published throughout the land. The use of torture to obtain testimony
+was wholly and forever abolished.
+
+With the incoming of Western science and Christianity, old faiths
+began to lose their hold upon the people. The new religion spread
+yearly. Missionary schools were instituted in several parts of the
+country. Christian churches were built in almost all of the large
+cities and towns, and their number increased constantly. Missionaries
+and Christian schools had no inconsiderable influence in changing the
+ideas of the people.
+
+Such, in brief, have been the changes in the industrial, social and
+religious condition of Japan from 1868 to 1881. After this study we
+shall not much wonder at the remarkable political change of Japan
+during the same period, which I shall endeavor to describe in the next
+chapter.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The American Commonwealth, Bryce, Vol. I., p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A Survey of Financial Policy during Thirteen Years
+(1868-1880), by Count Okuma.]
+
+[Footnotes 3, 4, 5: Count Okuma's pamphlet.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Consular Report of the U.S., No. 25, p. 182.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT FROM THE ABOLITION OF
+FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881.
+
+
+The leaders of the Restoration were of an entirely different type from
+the court nobles of former days. They were, with a few exceptions,
+men of humble origin. They had raised themselves from obscurity to the
+highest places of the state by sheer force of native ability. They had
+studied much and travelled far. Their experiences were diverse; they
+had seen almost every phase of society. If they were now drinking the
+cup of glory, most of them had also tasted the bitterness of exile,
+imprisonment, and fear of death. Patriotic, sagacious, and daring,
+they combined the rare qualities of magnanimity and urbanity. If
+they looked with indifference upon private morality, they were keenly
+sensitive to the feeling of honor and to public morals. If they made
+mistakes and did not escape the charge of inconsistency in their
+policy, these venial faults were, for the most part, due to the
+rapidly changing conditions of the country. No other set of statesmen
+of Japan or of any other country, ancient or modern, have witnessed
+within their lifetime so many social and political transformations.
+They saw the days when feudalism flourished--the grandeur of its
+rulers, its antique chivalry, its stately etiquette, its ceremonial
+costumes, its codes of honor, its rigid social order, formal
+politeness, and measured courtesies. They also saw the days when
+all these were swept away and replaced by the simplicity and stir of
+modern life. They accordingly "have had to cast away every tradition,
+every habit, and every principle and mode of action with which even
+the youngest of them had to begin official life."
+
+The ranks of this noble body of statesmen and reformers are now
+gradually diminishing. Saigo and Gesho are no more. Kido and Iwakura
+have been borne to their graves. Okubo and Mori have fallen under the
+sword of fanatics. But, thanks be to God, many of them yet remain and
+bear the burdens of the day.
+
+I have mentioned in Chapter III. the overthrow of feudalism and
+its causes. Its immediate effect on the nation, in unifying their
+thoughts, customs, and habits, was most remarkable. From this time
+we see the marked growth of common sentiment, common manners, common
+interest among the people, together with a love of peace and order.
+
+While the government at home was thus tearing down the old framework
+of state, the Iwakura Embassy in foreign lands was gathering materials
+for the new. This was significant, inasmuch as five of the best
+statesmen of the time, with their staff of forty-four able men, came
+into association for over a year with western peoples, and beheld in
+operation their social, political and religious institutions. These
+men became fully convinced that "the wealth, the power, and the
+happiness of a people," as President Grant told them, "are advanced
+by the encouragement of trade and commercial intercourse with other
+powers, by the elevation and dignity of labor, by the practical
+adaptation of science to the manufactures and the arts, by increased
+facilities of frequent and rapid communication between different parts
+of the country, by the encouragement of immigration, which brings with
+it the varied habits and diverse genius and industry of other lands,
+by a free press, by freedom of thought and of conscience, and a
+liberal toleration in matters of religion."[1]
+
+The impressions and opinions of these men on the importance of a free
+and liberal policy can be gleaned from the speeches they made during
+the western tour, and some of their writings and utterances on other
+occasions.
+
+The chief ambassador, Iwakura, in reply to a toast made to him in
+England, said: "Having now become more intimately acquainted with her
+(England's) many institutions, we have discovered that their success
+is due to the _liberal_ and energetic spirit by which they are
+animated."[2]
+
+Count Ito, the present President of the Privy Council, in his speech
+at San Francisco, said: "While held in absolute obedience by despotic
+sovereigns through many thousand years, our people knew no freedom
+or liberty of thought. With our material improvement they learned to
+understand their rightful privileges, which for ages have been denied
+them."[3]
+
+Count Inouye, the ex-Minister of State for Agriculture and Commerce,
+in his memorial to the government in 1873, said: "The people of
+European and American countries are for the most part rich in
+intelligence and knowledge, and they preserve the spirit of
+independence. And owing to the nature of their polity they share in
+the counsels of their government. Government and people thus mutually
+aid and support each other, as hand and foot protect the head and eye.
+The merits of each question that arises are distinctly comprehended
+by the nation at home, and the government is merely its outward
+representative. But our people are different. Accustomed for ages to
+despotic rule, they have remained content with their prejudices and
+ignorance. Their knowledge and intelligence are undeveloped and their
+spirit is feeble. In every movement of their being they submit to the
+will of the government, and have not the shadow of an idea of what 'a
+right' is. If the government makes an order, the whole country obeys
+it as one man. If the government takes a certain view, the whole
+nation adopts it unanimously.... The people must be recalled to life,
+and the Empire be made to comprehend with clearness that the objects
+which the government has in view are widely different from those of
+former times."[4]
+
+If the passages quoted illustrate statesmen's zeal to introduce
+western civilization, and to educate the people gradually to political
+freedom and privileges, their actions speak more eloquently than their
+words. In order to crush that social evil, the class system, which
+for ages had been a curse, the government declared all classes of men
+equal before the law, delivered the _eta_--the class of outcasts--from
+its position of contempt, abolished the marriage limitations existing
+between different classes of society, prohibited the wearing of
+swords, which was the peculiar privilege of the nobles and the
+Samurai; while to facilitate means of communication and to open the
+eyes of the people to the wonders of mechanical art, they incessantly
+applied themselves to the construction of railroads, docks,
+lighthouses, mining, iron, and copper factories, and to the
+establishment of telegraphic and postal systems. They also codified
+the laws, abolished the use of torture in obtaining testimony,
+revoked the edict against Christianity, sanctioned the publication of
+newspapers, established by the decree of 1875 the "Genro-in (a kind
+of Senate) to enact laws for the Empire, and the Daishin-in to
+consolidate the judicial authority of the courts,"[5] and called an
+assembly of the prefects, which, however, held but one session in
+Tokio.
+
+While the current of thought among the official circles was thus
+flowing, there was also a stream, in the lower region of the social
+life, soon to swell into a mighty river. Social inequality, that
+barrier which prevents the flow of popular feeling, being already
+levelled, merchants, agriculturists, tradesmen, artisans and laborers
+were now set at liberty to assert their rights and to use their
+talents. They were no longer debarred from places of high honor.
+
+The great colleges and schools, both public and private, which were
+hitherto established and carried on exclusively for the benefit of the
+nobles and the Samurai, were now open to all. And in this democracy
+of letters, where there is no rank or honor but that of talent and
+industry, a sentiment was fast growing that the son of a Daimio is not
+necessarily wiser than the son of a peasant.
+
+Teachers of these institutions were not slow to infuse the spirit of
+independence and liberty into their pupils and to instruct the people
+in their natural and political rights. Mr. Fukuzawa, a schoolmaster,
+an author, and a lecturer, the man who exercised an immense influence
+in shaping the mind of young Japan, gave a deathblow to the old ideas
+of despotic government, and of the blind obedience of the people, when
+he declared that _government exists for the people and not the people
+for the government_, that the government officials are the servants of
+the people, and the people their employer. He also struck a heavy blow
+at the arrogance and extreme love of military glory of the Samurai
+class, with whom to die for the cause of his sovereign, whatever that
+cause might be, was the highest act of patriotism, by advocating that
+"Death is a democrat, and that the Samurai who died fighting for his
+country, and the servant who was slain while caught stealing from his
+master, were alike dead and useless."
+
+In a letter to one of his disciples, Mr. Fukuzawa said: "The liberty
+of which I have spoken is of such great importance that everything
+should be done to secure its blessings in the family and in the
+nation, without any respect to persons. When every individual, every
+family and every province shall obtain this liberty, then, and not
+till then, can we expect to witness the true independence of the
+nation; then the military, the farming, the mechanical, and mercantile
+classes will not live in hostility to each other; then peace will
+reign throughout the land, and all men will be respected according to
+their conduct and real character."[6]
+
+The extent of the influence exercised with pen and tongue by these
+teachers upon the nation showed that the reign of sword and brutal
+force was over and the day of peace and reason had dawned. The
+press has at last become a power. The increase during that period of
+publications, both original and translations, and of newspapers,
+both in their number and circulation, is marvellous. To give an
+illustration, the number of newspapers transmitted in the mails
+increased from 514,610 in the year 1873 to 2,629,648 in the year
+1874--an increase of 411 per cent in one year--"a fact which speaks
+volumes for the progress of civilization."[7]
+
+These newspapers were soon to become the organs of political parties
+which were in the process of formation. The most prominent among these
+political societies was the _Ri-shi-sha_, which finally developed
+into the present Liberal party. At the head of this party was Count
+Itagaki, a man of noble character and of marked ability, who had
+rendered many useful services to the country in the time of the
+Restoration and had for some years been a member of the cabinet, but
+who in 1875 resigned his office and became "the man of the people." He
+and his party contributed greatly to the development of constitutional
+ideas. Whatever may be said as to the extreme radicalism and childish
+freaks of the rude elements of this party, the presence of its sober
+members, who sincerely longed to see the adoption of a constitutional
+form of government and used only proper and peaceful means for the
+furtherance of their aim, and boldly and frankly told what they deemed
+the defects of the government; the presence of such a party in the
+country, whose masses knew nothing but slavish obedience to every
+act of the government, was certainly a source of great benefit to the
+nation at large.
+
+In 1873, Count Itagaki with his friends had sent in a memorial to the
+government praying for the establishment of a representative assembly,
+but they had not been heeded by the government. In July, 1877, Count
+Itagaki with his Ri-shi-sha again addressed a memorial to the Emperor,
+"praying for a change in the form of government, and setting forth the
+reasons which, in the opinion of the members of the society, rendered
+such a change necessary."
+
+These reasons were nine in number and were developed at great length.
+Eight of them formed a direct impeachment of the present government,
+and the ninth was a reminder that the solemn promise of 1868 had never
+been fulfilled. "Nothing," they conclude, "could more tend to the
+well-being of the country than for your Majesty to put an end to all
+despotic and oppressive measures, and to consult public opinion in
+the conduct of the government. To this end a representative
+assembly should be established, so that the government may become
+constitutional in form. The people would then become more interested
+and zealous in looking after the affairs of the country; public
+opinion would find expression, and despotism and confusion cease. The
+nation would advance in civilization; wealth would accumulate in the
+country; troubles from within and contempt from without would cease,
+and the happiness of your Imperial Majesty and of your Majesty's
+subjects would be secured."
+
+But again the government heeded not, its attention at the time being
+fully occupied with the suppression of the Satsuma Rebellion. The
+civil war being ended, in 1878, the year which marked a decade from
+the establishment of the new regime, the government, persuaded that
+the time for popular institutions was fast approaching, not alone
+through representations of the Tosa memorialists, but through many
+other signs of the times, decided to take a step in the direction of
+establishing a national assembly. But the government acted cautiously.
+Thinking that to bring together hundreds of members unaccustomed to
+parliamentary debate and its excitement, and to allow them a hand in
+the administration of affairs of the state, might be attended with
+serious dangers, as a preparation for the national assembly the
+government established first local assemblies. Certainly this was a
+wise course.
+
+These local assemblies have not only been good training schools for
+popular government, but also proved reasonably successful. They hold
+their sessions every year, in the month of March, in their respective
+electoral districts, and there discuss all questions of local
+taxation. They may also petition the central government on other
+matters of local interest. The members must be males of the full age
+of twenty-five years, who have been resident for three years in the
+district and pay the sum of $10 as a land tax within their district.
+The qualifications for electors (males only) are: an age of twenty
+years, registration, and payment of a land tax of $5. Voting is by
+ballot, but the names of the voters are to be written by themselves on
+the voting papers. There are now 2172 members who sit in these local
+assemblies, and it was from the more experienced members of
+these assemblies that the majority of the members of the House of
+Representatives of the Imperial Diet, convened for the first time last
+year, were chosen.
+
+The gulf between absolute government and popular government was thus
+widened more and more by the institution of local government. The
+popular tide raised by these local assemblies was swelling in volume
+year by year. New waves were set in motion by the younger generation
+of thinkers. Toward the close of the year 1881 the flood rose so high
+that the government thought it wise not to resist longer. His Imperial
+Majesty hearing the petitions of the people, graciously confirmed and
+expanded his promise of 1868 by the famous proclamation of October 12,
+1881:
+
+"We have long had it in view to gradually establish a constitutional
+form of government.... It was with this object in view that in the
+eighth year of Meiji (1875) we established the Senate, and in the
+eleventh year of Meiji (1878) authorized the formation of local
+assemblies.... We therefore hereby declare that we shall, in the
+twenty-third year of Meiji (1890) establish a parliament, in order
+to carry into full effect the determination we have announced; and we
+charge our faithful subjects bearing our commissions to make, in the
+meantime, all necessary preparations to that end."
+
+
+[Footnote 1: C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Mossman's New Japan, p. 442.]
+
+[Footnote 3: C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The translation of the whole memorial is given in C.
+Lanman's Leading Men of Japan, p. 87.]
+
+[Footnote 5: The Imperial decree of 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The translation given in C. Lanman, Leading Men of Japan.
+p. 47.]
+
+[Footnote 7: See the Appendix of Griffis' The Mikado's Empire.]
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Constitutional Development of Japan
+1863-1881, by Toyokichi Iyenaga</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Constitutional Development of Japan 1863-1881</p>
+<p>Author: Toyokichi Iyenaga</p>
+<p>Release Date: May 15, 2004  [eBook #12355]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: iso-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN 1863-1881***</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<center><b>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Louise Valmoria, David King,<br />
+           and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</b></center>
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr class="full" />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<h1>JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES IN HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL
+SCIENCE</h1>
+<h3>HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor</h3>
+<center>History is past Politics and Politics present
+History.&mdash;<i>Freeman</i></center>
+<h3>NINTH SERIES</h3>
+<h3>IX</h3>
+<h1>THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN, 1853-1881</h1>
+<h2>BY TOYOKICHI IYENAGA, PH. D.</h2>
+<h3><i>Professor of Political Science in Tokio
+Senmon-Gakko</i></h3>
+<h3>September, 1891</h3>
+<hr />
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<p>INTRODUCTORY</p>
+<p>CHAP. I. (1853-1868). BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL
+MOVEMENT</p>
+<p>THE CIRCUMSTANCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE MOVEMENT</p>
+<p>THE ACCOUNT OF COMMODORE PERRY'S ARRIVAL BY THE AUTHOR OF GENJE
+YUME MONOGATARI</p>
+<p>DISCUSSION BETWEEN THE PRINCE OF MITO AND THE TOKUGAWA OFFICIALS
+AT THE COURT OF YEDO</p>
+<p>CONCLUSION OF TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN</p>
+<p>THE OLD PRINCE OF MITO, NARIAKI</p>
+<p>II KAMON NO KAMI</p>
+<p>BOMBARDMENTS OF KAGOSHIMA AND SHIMONOSHEKI</p>
+<p>THE EFFECTS OF THE BOMBARDMENT</p>
+<p>1. Showed the Weakness of the Daimios and the Strength of
+foreigners</p>
+<p>2. Showed the Necessity of National Union, and of the
+Reconstruction of the Administrative Machinery of the Empire</p>
+<p>GREAT COUNCILS OF KUGES AND DAIMIOS.</p>
+<p>1. Their Nature and Organization</p>
+<p>2. How they originated</p>
+<p>3. In them lay the Germ of the future Constitutional Parliament
+of Japan</p>
+<p>CHAP. II. (1868-1869). THE RESTORATION</p>
+<p>CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF THE SHOGUNATE</p>
+<p>1. Revival of Learning</p>
+<p>2. Revival of Shintoism</p>
+<p>3. Jealousy and Cupidity of the Southern Daimios</p>
+<p>THE RESIGNATION OF THE SHOGUN</p>
+<p>THE MOTIVE OF HIS RESIGNATION</p>
+<p>THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RESTORATION</p>
+<p>1. Its Organization</p>
+<p>2. Its Departments</p>
+<p>FOREIGN POLICY OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT</p>
+<p>REMOVAL OF THE CAPITAL TO TOKIO</p>
+<p>THE CHARTER OATH OF THE EMPEROR, APRIL 17, 1869</p>
+<p>THE KOGISHO</p>
+<p>1. Its Origin</p>
+<p>2. Its Composition</p>
+<p>3. Its Nature</p>
+<p>CHAP. III. (1869-1871). THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.</p>
+<p>MEMORIAL OF PRESIDENT OF THE KOGISHO</p>
+<p>ABOLITION SCHEME OF SCHOLARS IS BACKED BY THE SOUTHERN
+DAIMIOS</p>
+<p>MEMORIAL OF THE SOUTHERN DAIMIOS</p>
+<p>IMPERIAL DECREE OF 1871, ABOLISHING FEUDALISM</p>
+<p>CAUSES OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM</p>
+<p>CHAP. IV. INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE
+REPRESENTATIVE IDEA OF GOVERNMENT</p>
+<p>JOHN STEWART MILL'S ENUMERATION OF THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS
+NECESSARY FOR THE SUCCESS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT</p>
+<p>JAPAN OF 1871 NOT YET READY FOR THE ADOPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE
+GOVERNMENT</p>
+<p>POLITICAL ACTIVITY OF A NATION NOT ISOLATED FROM OTHER SPHERES
+OF ITS ACTIVITIES</p>
+<p>JAPAN'S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT GREATLY AIDED BY HER SOCIAL,
+EDUCATIONAL, INDUSTRIAL AND RELIGIOUS CHANGES</p>
+<p>SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THESE NON-POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
+FROM 1868 TO 1881</p>
+<p>1. Means of Communication</p>
+<p><i>a</i>. Telegraph</p>
+<p><i>b</i>. Postal System</p>
+<p><i>c</i>. Railroad</p>
+<p><i>d</i>. Steamers and the Coasting Trade</p>
+<p>2. Educational Institutions</p>
+<p>3. Newspapers</p>
+<p>CHANGES IN LAW AND RELIGION</p>
+<p>CHAP. V. (1871-1881). PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT
+FROM THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12,
+1881</p>
+<p>LEADERS OF THE RESTORATION</p>
+<p>EFFECT OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM</p>
+<p>THE IWAKURA EMBASSY</p>
+<p>IWAKURA, ITO, INOUYE</p>
+<p>FUKUZAWA</p>
+<p>THE PRESS AND ITS INFLUENCES</p>
+<p>RI-SHI-SHA AND COUNT ITAGAKI</p>
+<p>MEMORIALS OF RI-SHI-SHA TO THE EMPEROR</p>
+<p>ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCAL ASSEMBLIES</p>
+<p>THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881, TO ESTABLISH A PARLIAMENT
+IN 1890</p>
+<hr />
+<h2>INTRODUCTORY.</h2>
+<p>The power which destroyed Japanese feudalism and changed in that
+country an absolute into a constitutional monarchy was a resultant
+of manifold forces. The most apparent of these forces is the
+foreign influence. Forces less visible but more potent, tending in
+this direction, are those influences resulting from the growth of
+commerce and trade, from the diffusion of western science and
+knowledge among the people, and from the changes in social habits
+and religious beliefs. The truth of the solidarity of the varied
+interests of a social organism is nowhere so well exemplified as in
+the history of modern Japan. Her remarkable political development
+would have been impossible had there been no corresponding social,
+educational, religious, economic and industrial changes. In order
+to trace the constitutional development of New Japan, it is
+therefore necessary:</p>
+<p>1. To ascertain the political condition of the country at and
+after the advent of foreigners in 1853.</p>
+<p>2. To describe the form of government of the Restoration.</p>
+<p>3. To examine the state of commerce, industry, education and
+social life of Japan at each stage of her political
+transformations.</p>
+<p>4. To recount the constitutional changes from the Restoration to
+the Promulgation of the New Constitution.</p>
+<p>As a novice in travel marks the broad outlines, the general
+features and more important products of the country he visits for
+the first time, so I shall dwell upon the historic landmarks of
+Japanese constitutional development. This development no writer,
+native or foreign, has yet attempted to trace. I shall withstand as
+much as possible the temptation to refer to the multitude of events
+which are more or less associated with the constitutional movement.
+I shall endeavor to ascertain from the edicts, decrees, and
+proclamations of the Emperor, from the orders and manifestos of the
+Shogun, from the native authors and journals, from the memorials
+and correspondence of prominent men, both native and foreign, the
+trend of our constitutional development. I shall also endeavor to
+note the leading ideas and principles which, after manifesting
+themselves in various forms, have at last crystallized into the New
+Constitution of Japan.</p>
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+<h3>BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT.</h3>
+<p>The constitutional movement of Japan began in a spontaneous
+agitation of the whole body politic when the nation was irritated
+by the sudden contact with foreigners. The sense of national
+weakness added a force to this agitation. Had not the foreigners
+come, the Restoration might have been effected, feudalism might
+have been abolished, but the new Japanese constitution would hardly
+have seen the day. Had the government of Japan at the time of the
+advent of foreigners been in the strong hand of a Taiko or an
+Iyeyasu, the rulers might have been greatly exercised by the
+extraordinary event, but public opinion for reform would hardly
+have been called forth, and the birth of constitutional liberty
+would long have been delayed. As the vices of King John and the
+indifference and ignorance of the first two Georges of England
+begat the strength and hope of the English Parliament, so the
+public opinion of Japan sprouted out of the ruins of the Shogunate
+r&eacute;gime. We must therefore seek for the beginning of the
+Constitutional Movement of Japan in the peculiar circumstances in
+which she found herself between 1853 and 1868.</p>
+<p>The advent of Commodore Perry in 1853 was to Japan like the
+intrusion of a foreign queen into a beehive. The country was
+stirred to its depth. Let us note what a native chronicler<a id=
+"footnotetag1-1" name="footnotetag1-1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-1"><sup>1</sup></a> says about the condition of Japan
+at the arrival of Perry:</p>
+<p>"It was in the summer of 1853 that an individual named Perry,
+who called himself the envoy of the United States of America,
+suddenly arrived at Uraga, in the Province of Sagami, with four
+ships of war, declaring that he brought a letter from his country
+to Japan and that he wished to deliver it to the sovereign. The
+governor of the place, Toda Idzu No Kami, much alarmed by this
+extraordinary event, hastened to the spot to inform himself of its
+meaning. The envoy stated, in reply to questions, that he desired
+to see a chief minister in order to explain the object of his visit
+and to hand over to him the letter with which he was charged. The
+governor then despatched a messenger on horseback with all haste to
+carry this information to the castle of Yedo, where a great scene
+of confusion ensued on his arrival. Fresh messengers followed, and
+the Shogun Iyeyoshi, on receiving them, was exceedingly troubled,
+and summoned all the officials<a id="footnotetag1-2" name=
+"footnotetag1-2"></a><a href="#footnote1-2"><sup>2</sup></a> to a
+council. At first the affair seemed so sudden and so formidable
+that they were too alarmed to open their mouths, but in the end
+orders were issued to the great clans to keep strict watch at
+various points on the shore, as it was possible that the
+'barbarian' vessels might proceed to commit acts of violence.
+Presently a learned Chinese scholar was sent to Uraga, had an
+interview with the American envoy, and returned with the letter,
+which expressed the desire of the United States to establish
+friendship and intercourse with Japan, and said, according to this
+account, that if they met with a refusal they should commence
+hostilities. Thereupon the Shogun was greatly distressed, and again
+summoned a council. He also asked the opinion of the Daimios. The
+assembled officials were exceedingly disturbed, and nearly broke
+their hearts over consultations which lasted all day and all night.
+The nobles and retired nobles in Yedo were informed that they were
+at liberty to state any ideas they might have on the subject, and,
+although they all gave their opinions, the diversity of
+propositions was so great that no decision was arrived at. The
+military class had, during a long peace, neglected military arts;
+they had given themselves up to pleasure and luxury, and there were
+very few who had put on armor for many years, so that they were
+greatly alarmed at the prospect that war might break out at a
+moment's notice, and began to run hither and thither in search of
+arms. The city of Yedo and the surrounding villages were in a great
+tumult. And there was such a state of confusion among all classes
+that the governors of the city were compelled to issue a
+notification to the people, and this in the end had the effect of
+quieting the general anxiety. But in the castle never was a
+decision further from being arrived at, and, whilst time was being
+thus idly wasted, the envoy was constantly demanding an answer. So
+at last they decided that it would be best to arrange the affair
+quietly, to give the foreigners the articles they wanted, and to
+put off sending an answer to the letter&mdash;to tell the envoy
+that in an affair of such importance to the state no decision could
+be arrived at without mature consideration, and that he had better
+go away; that in a short time he should get a definite answer. The
+envoy agreed, and after sending a message to say that he should
+return in the following spring for his answer, set sail from Uraga
+with his four ships."<a id="footnotetag1-3" name=
+"footnotetag1-3"></a><a href="#footnote1-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<p>Thus was the renowned commander kept away for awhile. He went,
+however, of his own accord. Perry was an astute diplomatist. He
+knew that time was needed for the impressions which he and his
+magnificent fleet had made upon the country to produce their
+natural effect.</p>
+<p>The news of Perry's visit and demands spread far and wide with
+remarkable rapidity. The government and the people were deeply
+stirred. Soon the song of the "red-bearded barbarians" and of the
+black ships was in everybody's mouth. The question "What shall
+Japan do when the barbarians come next spring?" became the
+absorbing theme of the day.</p>
+<p>There was now but one of two policies which Japan could pursue,
+either to shut up the country or to admit the foreigners' demand.
+There was no middle course left. The American envoy would no longer
+listen to the dilatory policy with which the Japanese had just
+bought a few months' respite from anxiety.</p>
+<p>The majority of the ruling class, the Samurai, were in favor of
+the exclusion policy. So was the court of Kioto. But the views of
+the court of Yedo were different. The court of Yedo had many men of
+intelligence, common sense and experience&mdash;men who had seen
+the American envoy and his squadron, equipped with all the
+contrivances for killing men and devastating the country. These men
+knew too well that resistance to the foreigners was futile and
+perilous.</p>
+<p>Thus was the country early divided into two clearly defined
+parties, the Jo-i<a id="footnotetag1-4" name=
+"footnotetag1-4"></a><a href="#footnote1-4"><sup>4</sup></a> party
+and the Kai-Koku party.</p>
+<p>Meanwhile, the autumn and winter of 1853 passed. The spring of
+1854 soon came, and with it the intractable "barbarians." Let us
+hear the author of Genje Yume Monogatari relate the return of Perry
+and the great discussion that ensued at the court of Yedo:</p>
+<p>"Early in 1854 Commodore Perry returned, and the question of
+acceding to his demands was again hotly debated. The old prince of
+Mito was opposed to it, and contended that the admission of
+foreigners into Japan would ruin it. 'At first,' said he, 'they
+will give us philosophical instruments, machinery and other
+curiosities; will take ignorant people in, and, trade being their
+chief object, they will manage bit by bit to impoverish the
+country, after which they will treat us just as they
+like&mdash;perhaps behave with the greatest rudeness and insult us,
+and end by swallowing up Japan. If we do not drive them away now we
+shall never have another opportunity. If we now resort to a
+dilatory method of proceeding we shall regret it afterwards when it
+will be of no use.'</p>
+<p>"The officials (of the Shogun), however, argued otherwise and
+said: 'If we try to drive them away they will immediately commence
+hostilities, and then we shall be obliged to fight. If we once get
+into a dispute we shall have an enemy to fight who will not be
+easily disposed of. He does not care how long a time he must spend
+over it, but he will come with myriads of men-of-war and surround
+our shores completely; he will capture our junks and blockade our
+ports, and deprive us of all hope of protecting our coasts. However
+large a number of ships we might destroy, he is so accustomed to
+that sort of thing that he would not care in the least. Even
+supposing that our troops were animated by patriotic zeal in the
+commencement of the war, after they had been fighting for several
+years their patriotic zeal would naturally become relaxed, the
+soldiers would become fatigued, and for this we should have to
+thank ourselves. Soldiers who have distinguished themselves are
+rewarded by grants of land, or else you attack and seize the
+enemy's territory and that becomes your own property; so every man
+is encouraged to fight his best. But in a war with foreign
+countries a man may undergo hardships for years, may fight as if
+his life were worth nothing, and, as all the land in this country
+already has owners, there will be none to be given away as rewards;
+so we shall have to give rewards in words or money. In time the
+country would be put to an immense expense and the people be
+plunged into misery. Rather than allow this, as we are not the
+equals of foreigners in the mechanical arts, let us have
+intercourse with foreign countries, learn their drill and tactics,
+and when we have made the nation as united as one family, we shall
+be able to go abroad and give lands in foreign countries to those
+who have distinguished themselves in battle. The soldiers will vie
+with one another in displaying their intrepidity, and it will not
+be too late then to declare war. Now we shall have to defend
+ourselves against these foreign enemies, skilled in the use of
+mechanical appliances, with our soldiers whose military skill has
+considerably diminished during a long peace of three hundred years,
+and we certainly could not feel sure of victory, especially in a
+naval war.'"<a id="footnotetag1-5" name=
+"footnotetag1-5"></a><a href="#footnote1-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Kai-Koku party, the party in favor of opening the country,
+triumphed, and the treaty was finally concluded between the United
+States and Japan on the 31st of March, 1854. After the return of
+Commodore Perry to America, Townsend Harris was sent by the United
+States Government as Consul-General to Japan. He negotiated the
+commercial treaty between the United States and Japan on July 29,
+1858.</p>
+<p>At the heels of the Americans followed the English, French,
+Russians, Dutch, and other nations. Japan's foreign relations
+became more and more complicated and therefore difficult to
+manage.</p>
+<p>The discussion quoted above is a type of the arguments used by
+the Jo-i party and the Kai-Koku party. The history of Japanese
+politics from 1853 to 1868 is the history of the struggle between
+these two parties, each of which soon changed its name. As the Jo-i
+party allied itself with the court of Kioto, it became the O-sei or
+Restoration party. As the Kai-Koku party was associated with the
+court of Shogun, it became the Bakufu party. The struggle ended in
+the triumph of the Restoration party. But by that time the Jo-i
+party, from a cause which I shall soon mention, had been completely
+transformed and converted to the Western ideas.</p>
+<p>Among the leaders of the Jo-i party was Nariaki, the old prince
+of Mito. He belonged to one of the San Kay (three families), out of
+which Iyeyasu ordered the Shogun to be chosen. He was connected by
+marriage with the families of the Emperor and the highest Kuges in
+Miako, and with the wealthiest Daimios. In power the Mito family
+thus ranked high among the Daimios. Among the scholars the Prince
+of Mito was popular. The prestige of his great ancestor, the
+compiler of Dai-Nihon-Shi, had not yet died out. The Prince of Mito
+was thus naturally looked up to by the scholars as the man of right
+principles and of noble ideas. A shrewd, clever, and scheming old
+man, the Prince of Mito now became the defender of the cause of the
+Emperor and the mouthpiece of the conservative party.</p>
+<p>At the head of the Bakufu party was a man of iron and fertile
+resources, Ii Kamon No Kami. He was the Daimio of Hikone, a castled
+town and fief on Lake Biwa, in Mino. His revenue was small, being
+only three hundred and fifty thousand koku. But in position and
+power none in the empire could rival him. He was the head of the
+Fudai Daimios. His family was called the Dodai or foundation-stone
+of the power of the Tokugawa dynasty. His ancestor, Ii Nawo Massa,
+had been lieutenant-general and right-hand man of Iyeyas. Ii Kamon
+No Kami, owing to the mental infirmity of the reigning Shogun, had
+lately become his regent. Bold, ambitious, able, and unscrupulous,
+Ii was the Richelieu of Japan. From this time on till his
+assassination on March 23, 1860, he virtually ruled the empire,
+and, in direct contravention to the imperial will, negotiated with
+foreign nations, as we have seen, for the opening of ports for
+trade with them. He was styled the "swaggering prime minister," and
+his name was long pronounced with contempt and odium. Lately,
+however, his good name has been rescued and his fame restored by
+the noble effort of an able writer, Mr. Saburo Shimada.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-6" name="footnotetag1-6"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-6"><sup>6</sup></a> But this able prime minister fell
+on March 23, 1860, by the sword of Mito ronins, who alleged, as the
+pretext of their crime, that "Ii Kamon No Kami had insulted the
+imperial decree and, careless of the misery of the people, but
+making foreign intercourse his chief aim, had opened ports." "The
+position of the government upon the death of the regent was that of
+helpless inactivity. The sudden removal of the foremost man of the
+empire was as the removal of the fly-wheel from a piece of
+complicated machinery. The whole empire stood aghast, expecting and
+fearing some great political convulsion."<a id="footnotetag1-7"
+name="footnotetag1-7"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Shogun began to make a compromise to unite the Emperor's
+power and the Shogun's, by taking the sister of the Emperor for his
+wife.</p>
+<p>Meanwhile great events were taking place in the southern corner
+of Kiushiu and on the promontory of Shikoku, events which were to
+effect great changes in men's ideas. These were the bombardments of
+Kagoshima and of Shimonosheki, the first on August 11, 1863, the
+second on September 5, 1864. I shall not dwell here on the
+injustice of these barbarous and heathenish acts of the so-called
+civilized and Christian nations; for I am not writing a political
+pamphlet. But impartially let us note the great effects of these
+bombardments.</p>
+<p>I. These conflicts showed on a grand but sad scale the weakness
+of the Daimios, even the most powerful of them, and, on the other
+hand, the power of the foreigners and their rifled cannon and
+steamers. The following Japanese memorandum expresses this point:
+"Satsuma's eyes were opened since the fight of Kagoshima, and
+affairs appeared to him in a new light; he changed in favor of
+foreigners, and thought now of making his country powerful and
+completing his armaments."<a id="footnotetag1-8" name=
+"footnotetag1-8"></a><a href="#footnote1-8"><sup>8</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Emperor also wrote in a rather pathetic tone to the Shogun
+touching the relative strength of the Japanese and the foreigners:
+"I held a council the other day with my military nobility (Daimios
+and nobles), but unfortunately inured to the habits of peace, which
+for more than two hundred years has existed in our country, we are
+unable to exclude and subdue our foreign enemies by the forcible
+means of war....</p>
+<p>"If we compare our Japanese ships of war and cannon to those of
+the barbarians, we feel certain that they are not sufficient to
+inflict terror upon the foreign barbarians, and are also
+insufficient to make the splendor of Japan shine in foreign
+countries. I should think that we only should make ourselves
+ridiculous in the eyes of the barbarians."<a id="footnotetag1-9"
+name="footnotetag1-9"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-9"><sup>9</sup></a></p>
+<p>From the time of the bombardment, Satsuma and Choshiu began to
+introduce European machinery and inventions, to employ skilled
+Europeans to teach them, and to send their young men to Europe and
+America.</p>
+<p>II. These bombardments showed the necessity of national union.
+Whether she would repel or receive the foreigner, Japan must
+present a united front. To this end, great change in the internal
+constitution of the empire was needed; the internal resources of
+the nation had to be gathered into a common treasury; the police
+and the taxes had to be recognized as national, not as belonging to
+petty local chieftains; the power of the feudal lords had to be
+broken in order to reconstitute Japan as a single strong state
+under a single head. These are the ideas which led the way to the
+Restoration of 1868. Thus the bombardments of Kagoshima and
+Shimonosheki may be said to have helped indirectly in the
+Restoration of that year. But before we proceed to the history of
+the Restoration, let us examine what were the great Councils of
+Kuges and Daimios, which were sometimes convened during the period
+from 1857 to 1868.</p>
+<p>The Council of Kuges was occasionally convened by the order of
+the Emperor. It was composed of the princes of the blood, nobles,
+and courtiers. The Council of Daimios was now and then summoned
+either by the Emperor or by the Shogun. It was composed mostly of
+the Daimios. These councils were like the Witenagemot of England,
+formed of the wise and influential men of the kingdom. As the
+Daimios had far more weight in the political scale of the realm
+than the Kuges, so the council of the Daimios was of far more
+importance than that of the Kuges. But it must not be understood
+that these councils were regular meetings held in the modern
+parliamentary way; nor that they had anything like the powers of
+the British Parliament or of the American Congress. These councils
+of Japan were called into spasmodic life simply by the necessity of
+the time. They were held either at the court of Kioto or that of
+Yedo, or at other places appointed for the purpose. The Kuges or
+Daimios assembled rather in an informal way, measured by modern
+parliamentary procedure, but in accordance with the court etiquette
+of the time, whose most minute regulations and rules have often
+embarrassed and plagued the modern ministers accredited to the
+court of the Emperor. Then these councils proceeded to discuss the
+burning questions of the day, among which the most prominent was,
+of course, the foreign policy. The earliest instance of the meeting
+of the Council of Kuges was immediately after the news of Perry's
+arrival had reached the court of Kioto. "Upon this," says the
+author of Genje Yume Monogatari, "the Emperor was much disturbed,
+and called a council, which was attended by a number of princes of
+the blood and Kuges, and much violent language was uttered."</p>
+<p>From this time on we meet often with the record of these
+councils.<a id="footnotetag1-10" name=
+"footnotetag1-10"></a><a href="#footnote1-10"><sup>10</sup></a> A
+native chronicler records that on the 29th day of the 12th month of
+1857 "a meeting of all Daimios (present in Yedo) was held in the
+Haku-sho-in, a large hall in the castle of Yedo. The deliberations
+were not over till two o'clock on the morning of the 30th."</p>
+<p>Soon after this the Emperor ordered the Shogun to come to Kioto
+with all the Daimios and ascertain the opinion of the country. But
+the Shogun did not come, so the Emperor sent his envoy, Ohara
+Sammi, and called the meeting of the Daimios at Yedo in 1862, in
+which the noted Shimadzu Saburo was also present.</p>
+<p>In 1864 the council of Daimios was again held, and Minister
+Pruyn, in his letter to Mr. Seward, bears witness of the
+proceeding: "It is understood the great council of Daimios is again
+in session; that the question of the foreign policy of the
+government is again under consideration, and that the opposite
+parties are pretty evenly balanced."<a id="footnotetag1-11" name=
+"footnotetag1-11"></a><a href="#footnote1-11"><sup>11</sup></a></p>
+<p>From this time the council of Daimios was held every year,
+sometimes many times in the year, till the Revolution of 1868.
+These examples will suffice to show the nature and purpose of these
+councils of Kuges and Daimios. Let us next consider how these
+councils originated.</p>
+<p>The political development of Japan gives another illustration of
+one of the truths which Mr. Herbert Spencer unfolds in his
+Principles of Sociology. "Everywhere the wars between societies,"
+says he, "originate governmental structures, and are causes of all
+such improvements in those structures as increase the efficiency of
+corporate action against environing societies."<a id=
+"footnotetag1-12" name="footnotetag1-12"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-12"><sup>12</sup></a></p>
+<p>Experience has shown that representative government is the most
+efficient in securing the corporate action of the various members
+of the body politic against foreign enemies. When a country is
+threatened with foreign invasion, when the corporate action of its
+citizens against their enemy is needed, it becomes an imperative
+necessity to consult public opinion. In such a time centralization
+is needed. Hence the first move of Japan after the advent of
+foreigners was to bring the scattered parts of the country together
+and unite them under one head.</p>
+<p>Japan had hitherto no formidable foreign enemy on her shores. So
+her governmental system&mdash;the regulating system of the social
+organism&mdash;received no impetus for self-development. But as
+soon as a formidable people, either as allies or foes, appeared on
+the scene in 1853, we immediately see the remarkable change in the
+state system of regulation in Japan. It became necessary to consult
+public opinion. Councils of Kuges and Daimios and meetings of
+Samurai sprung forth spontaneously.</p>
+<p>I believe, with Guizot, that the germ of representative
+government was not necessarily "in the woods of Germany," as
+Montesquieu asserts, or in the Witenagemot of England; that the
+glory of having a free government is not necessarily confined to
+the Aryan family or to its more favored branch, the Anglo-Saxons. I
+believe that the seed of representative government is implanted in
+the very nature of human society and of the human mind. When the
+human mind and the social organism reach a certain stage of
+development, when they are placed in such an environment as to call
+forth a united and harmonious action of the body politic, when
+education is diffused among the masses and every member of the
+community attains a certain degree of his individuality and
+importance, when the military form of society transforms itself
+into the industrial, then the representative idea of government
+springs forth naturally and irresistibly. And no tyrant, no despot,
+can obstruct the triumphal march of liberty.</p>
+<p>Whatever may be said about the soundness of the above
+speculation, it is certain that in the great councils of Kuges and
+Daimios and in the discussions of the Samurai, which the advent of
+the foreigners called into being, lay the germ of the future
+constitutional parliament of Japan.</p>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-1" name=
+"footnote1-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-1">(return)</a>
+<p>Genje Yume Monogatari. Translated by Mr. Ernest Satow, and
+published in the columns of the <i>Japan Mail</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-2" name=
+"footnote1-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-2">(return)</a>
+<p>The original gives names of some prominent officials thus
+summoned.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-3" name=
+"footnote1-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-3">(return)</a>
+<p>This is also quoted in F.O. Adams's History of Japan, Vol. I.,
+p. 109. I have compared the passage with the original and quote
+here with some modifications in the translation.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-4" name=
+"footnote1-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-4">(return)</a>
+<p>Jo-i means to expel the barbarians; Kai-Koku means to open the
+country.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-5" name=
+"footnote1-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-5">(return)</a>
+<p>Given also in Kai-Koku Simatsu, p. 166; Ansei-Kiji, pp. 219,
+220.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-6" name=
+"footnote1-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-6">(return)</a>
+<p>Life of Ii Nawosuke Tokyo, 1888.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-7" name=
+"footnote1-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-7">(return)</a>
+<p>Dickson's Japan, p. 454.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-8" name=
+"footnote1-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-8">(return)</a>
+<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Part 3,
+1865-66, p. 233, 1st Sess. 39th Cong.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-9" name=
+"footnote1-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-9">(return)</a>
+<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Part 3,
+1864-65, p. 502, 2d Sess. 38th Cong.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-10" name=
+"footnote1-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-10">(return)</a>
+<p>See Ansei-Kiji, pages 1, 3, 57, 59, 61, 174, 192, 352;
+Bosin-Simatsu, Vol. II., pp. 4, 69; Vol. III., pp. 379, 414; Vol.
+IV., pp. 121, 152.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-11" name=
+"footnote1-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-11">(return)</a>
+<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Part 3,
+1864-65, p. 486, 3d Sess. 38th Cong.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-12" name=
+"footnote1-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1-12">(return)</a>
+<p>Principles of Sociology, p. 540.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+<h3>THE RESTORATION.</h3>
+<p>In the last chapter we have noticed what a commotion had been
+caused in Japan by the sudden advent of Commodore Perry, how the
+councils of Kuges and Daimios were called into spontaneous life by
+the dread of foreigners and by the sense of national weakness, and
+how the bombardments of Kagoshima and Shimonosheki tested these
+fears and taught the necessity of national union. I have remarked
+that free government is not necessarily the sole heritage of the
+Aryan race, but that the presence of foreigners, the change of the
+military form of society into the industrial form, the increase in
+importance of the individual in the community, are sure to breed a
+free and representative system of government.</p>
+<p>In the following chapter we shall see the downfall of the
+Shogunate, the restoration of the imperial power to its pristine
+vigor, and the destruction of feudalism.</p>
+<p>"The study of constitutional history is essentially a tracing of
+causes and consequences," says Bishop Stubbs, "not the collection
+of a multitude of facts and views, but the piecing of links of a
+perfect chain."</p>
+<p>I shall therefore not dwell upon the details of the events which
+led to the downfall of the Shogunate, but immediately enter into an
+inquiry concerning the causes.</p>
+<p>Three causes led to the final overthrow of the Shogunate:</p>
+<p>I. The Revival of Learning. The last half of the eighteenth and
+the first half of the present century witnessed in Japan an unusual
+intellectual activity. The long peace and prosperity of the country
+under the rule of the Tokugawa dynasties had fostered in every way
+the growth of literature and art. The Shoguns, from policy or from
+taste, either to find a harmless vent for the restless spirit of
+the Samura or from pure love of learning, have been constant
+patrons of literature. The Daimios, too, as a means of spending
+their leisure hours when they were not out hawking or revelling
+with their mistresses, gave no inattentive ear to the readings and
+lectures of learned men. Each Daimioate took pride in the number
+and fame of her own learned sons. Thus throughout the country
+eminent scholars arose. With them a new era of literature dawned
+upon the land. The new literature changed its tone. Instead of the
+servility, faint suggestiveness, and restrained politeness
+characteristic of the literature from the Gen-hei period to the
+first half of the Tokugawa period, that of the Revival Era began to
+wear a bolder and freer aspect. History came to be recorded with
+more truthfulness and boldness than ever before.</p>
+<p>But as the ancient histories were studied and the old
+constitution was brought into light, the real nature of the
+Shogunate began to reveal itself. To the eyes of the historians it
+became clear that the Shogunate was nothing but a military
+usurpation, sustained by fraud and corruption; that the Emperor,
+who was at that time, in plain words, imprisoned at the court of
+Kioto, was the real source of power and honor. "If this be the
+case, what ought we do?" was the natural question of these loyal
+subjects of the Emperor. The natural conclusion followed: the
+military usurper must be overthrown and the rightful ruler
+recognized. This was the sum and substance of the political
+programme of the Imperialists. The first sound of the trumpet
+against the Shogunate rose from the learned hall of the Prince of
+Mito, Komon. He, with the assistance of a host of scholars,
+finished his great work, the Dai Nihon Shi, or History of Japan, in
+1715. It was not printed till 1851, but was copied from hand to
+hand by eager students, like the Bible by the medieval monks, or
+the works of Plato and Aristotle by the Humanists. The Dai Nihon
+Shi soon became a classic, and had such an influence in restoring
+the power of the Emperor that Mr. Ernest Satow justly calls its
+composer "the real author of the movement which culminated in the
+revolution of 1868." The voice of the Prince of Mito was soon
+caught up by the more celebrated scholar Rai Sanyo (1780-1833). A
+poet, an historian, and a zealous patriot, Rai Sanyo was the Arndt
+of Japan. He outlined in his Nihon Guai Shi the rise and fall of
+the Minister of State and the Shoguns, and with satire, invective,
+and the enthusiasm of a patriot, urged the unlawfulness of the
+usurpation of the imperial power by these mayors of the palace. In
+his Sei-Ki, or political history of Japan, he traced the history of
+the imperial family, and mourned with characteristic pathos the
+decadence of the imperial power. The labors of these historians and
+scholars bore in time abundant fruit. Some of their disciples
+became men of will and action: Sakuma Shozan, Yoshida Toraziro,
+Gesho, Yokoi Heishiro, and later Saigo, Okubo, Kido, and hosts of
+others, who ultimately realized the dreams of their masters. Out of
+the literary seed which scholars like Rai Sanyo spread broadcast
+over the country thus grew hands of iron and hearts of steel. This
+process shows how closely related are history and politics, and
+affords another illustration of the significance of the
+epigrammatic expression of Professor Freeman: "History is past
+politics, and politics present history."</p>
+<p>II. Another tributary stream which helped to swell the tide
+flowing toward the Emperor was the revival of Shintoism. The
+revival of learning is sure to be followed by the revival of
+religion. This is shown in the history of the Reformation in
+Europe, which was preceded by the revival of learning. Since the
+expulsion of Christianity from Japan in the sixteenth century,
+which was effected more from political than religious motives,
+laissez-faire was the steadfast policy of the Japanese rulers
+toward religious matters. The founder of the Tokugawa dynasty had
+laid down in his "Legacy" the policy to be pursued by his
+descendants. "Now any one of the people," says Iyeyasu, "can adhere
+to which (religion) he pleases (except the Christian); and there
+must be no wrangling among sects to the disturbance of the peace of
+the Empire." Thus while the people in the West, who worshipped the
+Prince of Peace, in his abused name were cutting each other's
+throat, destroying each other's property, torturing and proselyting
+by rack and flames, the islanders on the West Pacific coast were
+enjoying complete religious toleration. Three
+religions&mdash;Shintoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism&mdash;lived
+together in peace. In such a state of unrestricted competition
+among various religions, the universal law of the survival of the
+fittest acts freely. Buddhism was the fittest and became the
+predominant religion. Shintoism was the weakest and sank into
+helpless desuetude. But with the revival of learning, as Kojiki and
+other ancient literature were studied with assiduity, Shintoism
+began to revive. Its cause found worthy defenders in Motoori and
+Hirata. They are among the greatest Shintoists Japan has ever
+seen.</p>
+<p>Now, according to Shintoism, Japan is a holy land. It was made
+by the gods, whose lineal descendant is the Emperor. Hence he must
+be revered and worshipped as a god. This is the substance of
+Shintoism. The political bearing of such a doctrine upon the then
+existing status of the country is apparent. The Emperor, who is a
+god, the fountain of all virtue, honor, and authority, is now a
+prisoner at the court of Kioto, under the iron hand of the Tokugawa
+Shoguns. This state of impiety and irreverence can never be
+tolerated by the devout Shintoists. The Shogun must be dethroned
+and the Emperor raised to power. Here the line of arguments of the
+Shintoists meets with that of the scholars we have noted above.
+Thus both scholars and Shintoists have converted themselves into
+politicians who have at heart the restoration of the Emperor.</p>
+<p>III. Another cause which led to the overthrow of the Shogunate
+was the jealousy and cupidity of the Southern Daimios. Notably
+among them were the Daimios of Satsuma, Choshiu, Tosa, and Hizen.
+Their ancestors "had of old held equal rank and power with Iyeyasu,
+until the fortunes of war turned against them. They had been
+overcome by force, or had sullenly surrendered in face of
+overwhelming odds. Their adherence to the Tokugawas was but
+nominal, and only the strong pressure of superior power was able to
+wring from them a haughty semblance of obedience. They chafed
+perpetually under the rule of one who was in reality a vassal like
+themselves."<a id="footnotetag2-1" name=
+"footnotetag2-1"></a><a href="#footnote2-1"><sup>1</sup></a> They
+now saw in the rising tide of public sentiment against the Tokugawa
+Shogunate a rare opportunity of accomplishing their cherished aim.
+They lent their arms and money for the support of the patriots in
+carrying out their plan. Satsuma and Choshiu became the rendezvous
+of eminent scholars and zealous patriots. And in the council-halls
+of Satsuma and Choshiu were hatched the plots which were soon to
+overthrow the effete Shogunate.</p>
+<p>Thus everything was ready for the revolution of 1868 before
+Perry came. We saw the Shogun, under the bombastic title of Tycoon,
+in spite of the remonstrance of the Emperor and his court, conclude
+a treaty with Perry at Kanagawa in 1854. Here at last was found a
+pretext for the Imperialists to raise arms against the Shogun. The
+Shogun or his ministers had no right to make treaties with
+foreigners. Such an act was, in the eyes of the patriots, heinous
+treason. The cry of "Destroy the Shogunate and raise the Emperor to
+his proper throne!" rang from one end of the empire to the other.
+The constant disturbance of the country, the difficulty of foreign
+intercourse, the sense of necessity of a single and undoubted
+authority over the land, and the outcry of the Samurai thus raised
+against the Shogun, finally led to his resignation on November 19,
+1867. His letter of resignation, in the form of a manifesto to the
+Daimios, runs thus:</p>
+<p>"A retrospect of the various changes through which the empire
+has passed shows us that after the decadence of the monarchical
+authority, power passed into the hands of the Minister of State;
+that by the wars of 1156 to 1159 the governmental power came into
+the hands of the military class. My ancestor received greater marks
+of confidence than any before him, and his descendants have
+succeeded him for more than two hundred years. Though I perform the
+same duties, the objects of government and the penal laws have not
+been attained, and it is with feelings of greatest humiliation that
+I find myself obliged to ackowledge my own want of virtue as the
+cause of the present state of things. Moreover, our intercourse
+with foreign powers becomes daily more extensive, and our foreign
+policy cannot be pursued unless directed by the whole power of the
+country.</p>
+<p>"If, therefore, the old r&eacute;gime be changed and the
+governmental authority be restored to the imperial court, if the
+councils of the whole empire be collected and the wise decisions
+received, and if we unite with all our heart and with all our
+strength to protect and maintain the empire, it will be able to
+range itself with the nations of the earth. This comprises our
+whole duty towards our country.</p>
+<p>"However, if you (the Daimios) have any particular ideas on the
+subject, you may state them without reserve."<a id="footnotetag2-2"
+name="footnotetag2-2"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>The resignation of the Shogun was accepted by the Emperor by the
+following imperial order, issued on the 10th day of the 12th month:
+"It has pleased the Emperor to dismiss the present Shogun, at his
+request, from the office of Shogun."</p>
+<p>As to the full intent and motive of the Shogun in resigning his
+power, let him further speak himself. In the interview of the
+British minister, Sir Harry S. Parkes, and the French minister, M.
+Leon Koches, with the Shogun, it is stated that he said: "I became
+convinced last autumn that the country would no longer be
+successfully governed while the power was divided between the
+Emperor and myself. The country had two centres, from which orders
+of an opposite nature proceeded. Thus, in the matter of the opening
+of Hiogo and Osako, which I quote as an example of this conflict of
+authority, I was myself convinced that the stipulations of the
+treaties must be observed, but the assent of the Emperor to my
+representations on this subject was given reluctantly. I therefore,
+for the good of my country, informed the Emperor that I resigned
+the governing power, with the understanding that an assembly of
+Daimios was convened for the purpose of deciding in what manner,
+and by whom, the government in future should be carried on. In
+acting thus, I sunk my own interests and power handed down to me by
+my ancestors, in the more important interests of the country.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-3" name="footnotetag2-3"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-3"><sup>3</sup></a>....</p>
+<p>"My policy, from the commencement, has been to determine this
+question of the future form of government in a peaceful manner, and
+it is in pursuance of the same object that, instead of opposing
+force by force, I have retired from the scene of dispute.....</p>
+<p>"As to who is the sovereign of Japan, it is a question on which
+no one in Japan can entertain a doubt. The Emperor is the
+sovereign. My object from the first has been to take the will of
+the nation as to the future government. If the nation should decide
+that I ought to resign my powers, I am prepared to resign them for
+the good of my country.....</p>
+<p>"I have no other motive but the following: With an honest love
+for my country and the people, I resigned the governing power which
+I inherited from my ancestors, and with the mutual understanding
+that I should assemble all the nobles of the empire to discuss the
+question disinterestedly, and adopting the opinion of the majority,
+decide upon the reformation of the national constitution, I left
+the matter in the hands of the imperial court."<a id=
+"footnotetag2-4" name="footnotetag2-4"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p>
+<p>Thus was the Shogunate overthrown and the Restoration effected.
+The civil war which soon followed need not detain us, for the war
+itself had no great consequence as regards the constitutional
+development of the country.</p>
+<p>Let us now consider the form of the new government. It is
+essentially that which prevailed in Japan before the development of
+feudalism. It is modelled on the form of government of the Osei
+era.</p>
+<p>The new government was composed of:</p>
+<p>1. Sosai ("Supreme Administrator"). He was assisted by Fuku, or
+Vice-Sosai. The Sosai resembled the British Premier, was the head
+of the chief council of the government.</p>
+<p>2. Gijio, or "Supreme Council," whose function was to discuss
+all questions and suggest the method of their settlement to the
+Sosai. It was composed of ten members, five of whom were selected
+from the list of Kuges and five from the great Daimios.</p>
+<p>3. Sanyo, or "Associate Council." They were subordinate
+officers, and were selected from the Daimios as well as from the
+retainers. This council finally came to have great influence, and
+ultimately transformed itself into the present cabinet.</p>
+<p>The government was divided into eight departments:</p>
+<p>1. The Sosai Department. This soon changed into Dai-jo-Kuan.</p>
+<p>2. Jingi-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of the Shinto Religion. This
+department had charge of the Shinto temples, priests, and
+festivals.</p>
+<p>3. Naikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Home Affairs. This
+department had charge of the capital and the five home provinces,
+of land and water transport in all the provinces, of post-towns and
+post-roads, of barriers and fairs, and of the governors of castles,
+towns, ports, etc.</p>
+<p>4. Guaikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Foreign Affairs. This
+department had charge of foreign relations, treaties, trade,
+recovery of lands, and sustenance of the people.</p>
+<p>5. Gumbu-Jimu-Kioku, or War Department. This department had
+charge of the naval and military forces, drilling, protection of
+the Emperor, and military defences in general.</p>
+<p>6. Kuaikei-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Finance. This department
+had charge of the registers of houses and population, of tariff and
+taxes, money, corn, accounts, tribute, building and repairs,
+salaries, public storehouses, and internal trade.</p>
+<p>7. Keiho-Jimu-Kioku, or Judicial Department. This department had
+charge of the censorate, of inquisitions, arrests, trials, and the
+penal laws in general.</p>
+<p>8. Seido-Jimu-Kioku, or Legislative Department. This department
+had charge of the superintendence of offices, enactments, sumptuary
+regulations, appointments, and all other laws and regulations,</p>
+<p>"It is easy to destroy, but difficult to construct," is an old
+adage of statesmen. The truth of this utterance was soon realized
+by the leaders of the new government.</p>
+<p>The first thing which the new government had to settle was its
+attitude toward foreign nations. The leaders of the government who
+had once opposed with such vehemence, as we have seen, the foreign
+policy of the Tokugawa Shogun, now that he had been overthrown,
+urged the necessity of amicable relations with foreign powers in
+the following memorable memorial<a id="footnotetag2-5" name=
+"footnotetag2-5"></a><a href="#footnote2-5"><sup>5</sup></a> to the
+Dai-jo-Kuan (Government):</p>
+<p>"The undersigned, servants of the Crown, respectfully believe
+that from ancient times decisions upon important questions
+concerning the welfare of the empire were arrived at after
+consideration of the actual political condition and its
+necessities, and that thus results were obtained, not of mere
+temporary brilliancy, but which bore good fruits in all
+time....</p>
+<p>"Among other pressing duties of the present moment we venture to
+believe it to be pre-eminently important to set the question of
+foreign intercourse in a clear light.</p>
+<p>"His Majesty's object in creating the office of administrator of
+foreign affairs, and selecting persons to fill it, and otherwise
+exerting himself in that direction, has been to show the people of
+his empire in what light to look on this matter, and we have felt
+the greatest pleasure in thinking that the imperial glory would now
+be made to shine forth before all nations. An ancient proverb says
+that 'Men's minds resemble each other as little as their faces,'
+nor have the upper and lower classes been able, up to the present,
+to hold with confidence a uniform opinion. It gives us some anxiety
+to feel that perhaps we may be following the bad example of the
+Chinese, who, fancying themselves alone great and worthy of
+respect, and despising foreigners as little better than beasts,
+have come to suffer defeats at their hands and to have it lorded
+over themselves by those foreigners.</p>
+<p>"It appears to us, therefore, after mature reflection, that the
+most important duty we have at present is for high and low to unite
+harmoniously in understanding the condition of the age, in
+effecting a national reformation and commencing a great work, and
+that for this reason it is of the greatest necessity that we
+determine upon the attitude to be observed towards this
+question.</p>
+<p>"Hitherto the empire has held itself aloof from other countries
+and is ignorant of the affairs of the world; the only object sought
+has been to give ourselves the least trouble, and by daily
+retrogression we are in danger of falling under foreign rule.</p>
+<p>"By travelling to foreign countries and observing what good
+there is in them, by comparing their daily progress, the
+universality of enlightened government, of a sufficiency of
+military defences, and of abundant food for the people among them,
+with our present condition, the causes of prosperity and degeneracy
+may be plainly traced....</p>
+<p>"Of late years the question of expelling the barbarians has been
+constantly agitated, and one or two Daimios have tried to expel
+them, but it is unnecessary to prove that this was more than the
+strength of a single clan could accomplish....</p>
+<p>"How ever, in order to restore the fallen fortunes of the empire
+and to make the imperial dignity respected abroad, it is necessary
+to make a firm resolution, and to get rid of the narrow-minded
+ideas which have prevailed hitherto. We pray that the important
+personages of the court will open their eyes and unite with those
+below them in establishing relations of amity in a single-minded
+manner, and that our deficiencies being supplied with what
+foreigners are superior in, an enduring government be established
+for future ages. Assist the Emperor in forming his decision wisely
+and in understanding the condition of the empire; let the foolish
+argument which has hitherto styled foreigners dogs and goats and
+barbarians be abandoned; let the court ceremonies, hitherto
+imitated from the Chinese, be reformed, and the foreign
+representatives be bidden to court in the manner prescribed by the
+rules current amongst all nations; and let this be publicly
+notified throughout the country, so that the countless people may
+be taught what is the light in which they are to regard this
+subject. This is our most earnest prayer, presented with all
+reverence and humility.</p>
+<p class="i2">"ECHIZEN SAISHO,<br />
+TOSA SAKIO NO SHOSHO,<br />
+NAGATO SHOSHO,<br />
+SATSUMA SHOSHO,<br />
+AKI SHOSHO,<br />
+HOSO KAWA UKIO DAIBU."</p>
+<p>The advice of these notables was well received. A formal
+invitation to an audience with the Emperor was extended to the
+foreign ambassadors. They soon accepted the invitation. Their
+appearance in the old anti-foreign city of Kioto, before the
+personage who was considered by the masses as divine, was
+significant. It put an end to the all-absorbing, all-perplexing
+theme of the day. The question of foreign policy was settled.</p>
+<p>The next act of the statesmen of the Restoration was to sweep
+away the abuses of the court, and to establish the basis of a firm
+internal administration. The most effectual means of accomplishing
+this, it seemed to the sagacious statesmen, was to move the court
+from the place where those abuses had their roots. Ichizo
+Okubo,<a id="footnotetag2-6" name="footnotetag2-6"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-6"><sup>6</sup></a> a guiding spirit of the
+Restoration, presented the following memorial to the Emperor:</p>
+<p>"The most pressing of your Majesty's pressing duties at the
+present moment is not to look at the empire alone and judge
+carelessly by appearances, but to consider carefully the actual
+state of the whole world; to reform the inveterate and slothful
+habits induced during several hundred years, and to give union to
+the nation....</p>
+<p>"Hitherto the person whom we designate the sovereign has lived
+behind a screen, and, as if he were different from other human
+beings, has not been seen by more than a very limited number of
+Kuge; and as his heaven-conferred office of father to his people
+has been thereby unfulfilled, it is necessary that his office
+should be ascertained in accordance with this fundamental
+principle, and then the laws governing internal affairs may be
+established....</p>
+<p>"In the present period of reformation and restoration of the
+government to its ancient monarchical form, the way to carry out
+the resolution of imitating the example of Japanese sages, and of
+surpassing the excellent governments of foreign nations, is to
+change the site of the capital....</p>
+<p>"Osako is the fittest place for the capital ... For the conduct
+of foreign relations, for enriching the country and strengthening
+its military power, for adopting successful means of offense and
+defense, for establishing an army and navy, the place is peculiarly
+fitted by its position ... I most humbly pray your Majesty to open
+your eyes and make this reform....</p>
+<p>"OKUBO ICHIZO."<a id="footnotetag2-7" name=
+"footnotetag2-7"></a><a href="#footnote2-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p>
+<p>The result of the memorial was the ultimate removal of the seat
+of government from Kioto to Yedo, which afterwards changed its name
+to Tokio, meaning eastern capital.</p>
+<p>But the most important event of the Restoration, from the
+constitutional point of view, was the charter oath of five
+articles, taken by the present Emperor on the 17th of April, 1869,
+before the court and the assembly of Daimios. These articles were
+in substance as follows:</p>
+<p>1. A deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be
+decided by public opinion.</p>
+<p>2. The principles of social and political economics should be
+diligently studied by both the superior and inferior classes of our
+people.</p>
+<p>3. Every one in the community shall be assisted to persevere in
+carrying out his will for all good purposes.</p>
+<p>4. All the old absurd usages of former times should be
+disregarded, and the impartiality and justice displayed in the
+workings of nature be adopted as a basis of action.</p>
+<p>5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of
+the world for the purpose of firmly establishing the foundations of
+the empire.</p>
+<p>The Emperor's promise henceforth became the watchword of the
+nation.</p>
+<p>And this resolution to form a deliberative assembly was soon put
+into practice. In 1869 was convened the Kogisho or "Parliament," as
+Sir Harry Parkes translates it in his despatch to the Earl of
+Clarendon. But before we proceed to the description of the nature
+and working of the Kogisho it is necessary to state that this plan
+had been already suggested by the Shogunate. A proclamation of the
+Shogun Keiki, issued on February 20, 1868, says: "As it is proper
+to determine the principle of the constitution of Japan with due
+regard to the wishes of the majority, I have resigned the supreme
+power to the Emperor's court, and advised that the opinions of all
+the Daimios should be taken.... On examination of my household
+affairs (the administration of Shogun's territories), many
+irregularities may exist which may dissatisfy the people, and which
+I therefore greatly deplore. Hence I intend to establish a Kogijio
+and to accept the opinion of the majority. Any one, therefore, who
+has an opinion to express may do so at that place and be free of
+apprehension."<a id="footnotetag2-8" name=
+"footnotetag2-8"></a><a href="#footnote2-8"><sup>8</sup></a></p>
+<p>But this attempt of the Shogun to establish a sort of Parliament
+came to an end with his fall. This idea, however, was transmitted
+through the Shogunate officials to the government of the
+Restoration. In fact, this idea of consulting public opinion was,
+as I have repeatedly said, in the air. The leaders of the new
+government all felt, as one of them said to Messrs. F.O. Adams and
+Ernest Satow, that "the only way to allay the jealousies hitherto
+existing between several of the most powerful clans, and to ensure
+a solid and lasting union of conflicting interests, was to search
+for the nearest approach to an ideal constitution among those of
+Western countries ... that the opinion of the majority was the only
+criterion of a public measure."<a id="footnotetag2-9" name=
+"footnotetag2-9"></a><a href="#footnote2-9"><sup>9</sup></a></p>
+<p>Sir Harry Parkes was right when he told the Earl of Clarendon
+that "the establishment of such an institution (the Kogisho) formed
+one of the first objects of the promoters of the recent
+revolution."<a id="footnotetag2-10" name=
+"footnotetag2-10"></a><a href="#footnote2-10"><sup>10</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Kogisho was opened on the 18th of April, 1869,<a id=
+"footnotetag2-11" name="footnotetag2-11"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-11"><sup>11</sup></a> and the following message<a id=
+"footnotetag2-12" name="footnotetag2-12"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-12"><sup>12</sup></a> from the throne was then
+delivered:</p>
+<p>"Being on the point of visiting our eastern capital, we have
+convened the nobles of our court and the various princes in order
+to consult them upon the means of establishing the foundations of
+peaceful government. The laws and institutions are the basis of
+government. The petitions of the people at large cannot be lightly
+decided. It has been reported to us that brief rules and
+regulations have been fixed upon for the Parliament, and it seems
+good to us that the House should be opened at once. We exhort you
+to respect the laws of the House, to lay aside all private and
+selfish considerations, to conduct your debates with minuteness and
+firmness; above all things, to take the laws of our ancestors as
+'basis,' and adapt yourselves to the feelings of men and to the
+spirit of the times. Distinguish clearly between those matters
+which are of immediate importance and those which may be delayed;
+between things which are less urgent and those which are pressing.
+In your several capacities argue with careful attention. When the
+results of your debate are communicated to us it shall be our duty
+to confirm them."</p>
+<p>The Kogisho was composed mostly of the retainers of the Daimios,
+for the latter, having no experience of the earnest business of
+life, "were not eager to devote themselves to the labors of an
+onerous and voluntary office." Akidzuki Ukio No Suke was appointed
+President of the Kogisho.</p>
+<p>The object of the Kogisho was to enable the government to sound
+public opinion on the various topics of the day, and to obtain the
+assistance of the country in the work of legislation by
+ascertaining whether the projects of the government were likely to
+be favorably received.</p>
+<p>The Kogisho, like the Councils of Kuges and Daimios, was nothing
+but an experiment, a mere germ of a deliberative assembly, which
+only time and experience could bring to maturity. Still Kogisho was
+an advance over the council of Daimios. It had passed the stage
+resembling a mere deliberative meeting or quiet Quaker conference,
+where, for hours perhaps, nobody opens his mouth. It now bore an
+aspect of a political club meeting. But it was a quiet, peaceful,
+obedient debating society. It has left the record of its abortive
+undertakings in the "Kogisho Nishi" or journal of "Parliament." The
+Kogisho was dissolved in the year of its birth. And the
+indifference of the public about its dissolution proves how small
+an influence it really had.</p>
+<p>But a greater event than the dissolution of the Kogisho was
+pending before the public gaze. This was the abolition of
+feudalism, which we shall consider in the next chapter.</p>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-1" name=
+"footnote2-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-1">(return)</a>
+<p>The Mikado's Empire. Griffis, p. 301.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-2" name=
+"footnote2-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-2">(return)</a>
+<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, 1867,
+Part II., p. 78, 2d Sess. 40th Cong. See also Bosin-Simatsu, Vol.
+I., p. 2.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-3" name=
+"footnote2-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-3">(return)</a>
+<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I.,
+1868-69, p. 620, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-4" name=
+"footnote2-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-4">(return)</a>
+<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I.,
+1868-69, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-5" name=
+"footnote2-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-5">(return)</a>
+<p>Translation from the Kioto Government Gazette of March, 1868. It
+is given in Diplomatic Correspondence of the U.S.A., 3d Sess. 40th
+Cong., Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 725.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-6" name=
+"footnote2-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-6">(return)</a>
+<p>He afterwards changed his name into Toshimitsu Okubo.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-7" name=
+"footnote2-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-7">(return)</a>
+<p>Translation is given in American Executive Document, Diplomatic
+Correspondence, Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 728, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-8" name=
+"footnote2-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-8">(return)</a>
+<p>American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I.,
+1868-69, p. 687, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-9" name=
+"footnote2-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-9">(return)</a>
+<p>F.O. Adams' History of Japan, Vol. II., p. 128.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-10" name=
+"footnote2-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-10">(return)</a>
+<p>English State Papers, Vol. LXX., 1870, p. 9.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-11" name=
+"footnote2-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-11">(return)</a>
+<p>29th of the 2d month in the second year of Meiji, according to
+the old calendar.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-12" name=
+"footnote2-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2-12">(return)</a>
+<p>Translation is given in English State Papers, Vol. LXX., 1871,
+p. 12.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+<h3>THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.</h3>
+<p>The measure to abolish feudalism was much discussed in the
+Kogisho before its dissolution. Prince Akidzuki, President of the
+Kogisho, had sent in the following memorial:</p>
+<p>"After the government had been returned by the Tokugawa family
+into the hands of the Emperor, the calamity of war ensued, and the
+excellence of the newly established administration has not yet been
+able to perfect itself; if this continues, I am grieved to think
+how the people will give up their allegiance. Happily, the eastern
+and northern provinces have already been pacified and the country
+at large has at last recovered from its troubles. The government of
+the Emperor is taking new steps every day; this is truly a noble
+thing for the country. And yet when I reflect, I see that although
+there are many who profess loyalty, none have yet shown proof of
+it. The various princes have used their lands and their people for
+their own purposes; different laws have obtained in different
+places; the civil and criminal codes have been various in the
+various provinces. The clans have been called the screen of the
+country, but in truth they have caused its division. The internal
+relations having been confused, the strength of the country has
+been disunited and severed. How can our small country of Japan
+enter into fellowship with the countries beyond the sea? How can
+she hold up an example of a flourishing country? Let those who wish
+to show their faith and loyalty act in the following manner, that
+they may firmly establish the foundations of the Imperial
+Government:</p>
+<p>"1. Let them restore the territories which they have received
+from the Emperor and return to a constitutional and undivided
+nation.</p>
+<p>"2. Let them abandon their titles, and under the name of Kuazoku
+(persons of honor) receive such small properties as may suffice for
+their wants.</p>
+<p>"3. Let the officers of the clans abandoning that title call
+themselves officers of the Emperor, receiving property equal to
+that which they have hitherto held.</p>
+<p>"Let these three important measures be adopted forthwith, that
+the empire may be raised on a basis imperishable for ages ... 2nd
+year of Meiji (1869).</p>
+<p class="i2">(Signed) "AKIDZUKI UKIO NO SUKE."<a id=
+"footnotetag3-1" name="footnotetag3-1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+<p>But politics is not an easy game&mdash;a game which a pedant or
+a sentimental scholar or an orator can leisurely play. It has to
+deal with passions, ambitions, and selfish interests of men, as
+well as with the moral and intellectual consciousness of the
+people. Tongue and pen wield, undoubtedly, a great influence in
+shaping the thought of the nation and impressing them with the
+importance of any political measure. But the tongue is as sounding
+brass and the pen as useless steel unless they are backed by force
+and money. Even in such a country as England, where tongue and pen
+seem to reign supreme, a prime minister before he forms his cabinet
+has to be closeted for hours with Mr. Rothschild. Fortunately this
+important measure of abolishing feudalism, which a few patriots had
+secretly plotted and which the scholars had noised abroad, was
+taken up first by the most powerful and wealthy Daimios of the
+country.</p>
+<p>In the following noted memorial, after reviewing the political
+history of Japan during the past few hundred years, these Daimios
+said: "Now the great Government has been newly restored and the
+Emperor himself undertakes the direction of affairs. This is,
+indeed, a rare and mighty event. We have the name (of an Imperial
+Government), we must also have the fact. Our first duty is to
+illustrate our faithfulness and to prove our loyalty. When the line
+of Tokugawa arose it divided the country amongst its kinsfolk, and
+there were many who founded the fortunes of their families upon it.
+They waited not to ask whether the lands and men that they received
+were the gift of the Emperor; for ages they continued to inherit
+these lands until this day. Others said that their possessions were
+the prize of their spears and bows, as if they had entered
+storehouses and stolen the treasure therein, boasting to the
+soldiers by whom they were surrounded that they had done this
+regardless of their lives. Those who enter storehouses are known by
+all men to be thieves, but those who rob lands and steal men are
+not looked upon with suspicion. How are loyalty and faith confused
+and destroyed!</p>
+<p>"The place where we live is the Emperor's land and the food
+which we eat is grown by the Emperor's men. How can we make it our
+own? We now reverently offer up the list of our possessions and
+men, with the prayer that the Emperor will take good measures for
+rewarding those to whom reward is due and for taking from those to
+whom punishment is due. Let the imperial orders be issued for
+altering and remodelling the territories of the various clans. Let
+the civil and penal codes, the military laws down to the rules for
+uniform and the construction of engines of war, all proceed from
+the Emperor; let all the affairs of the empire, great and small, be
+referred to him."</p>
+<p>This memorial was signed by the Daimios of Kago, Hizen, Satsuma,
+Choshiu, Tosa, and some other Daimios of the west. But the real
+author of the memorial is believed to have been Kido, the brain of
+the Restoration.</p>
+<p>Thus were the fiefs of the most powerful and most wealthy
+Daimios voluntarily offered to the Emperor. The other Daimios soon
+followed the example of their colleagues. And the feudalism which
+had existed in Japan for over eight centuries was abolished by the
+following laconic imperial decree of August, 1871:</p>
+<p>"The clans are abolished, and prefectures are established in
+their places."</p>
+<p>This rather off-hand way of destroying an institution, whose
+overthrow in Europe required the combined efforts of ambitious
+kings and emperors, of free cities, of zealous religious sects, and
+cost centuries of bloodshed, has been made a matter of much comment
+in the West. One writer exclaims, "History does not record another
+instance where changes of such magnitude ever occurred within so
+short a time, and it is astonishing that it only required eleven
+words to destroy the ambition and power of a proud nobility that
+had with imperious will directed the destiny of Japan for more than
+five hundred years."<a id="footnotetag3-2" name=
+"footnotetag3-2"></a><a href="#footnote3-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>But when we examine closely the circumstances which led to the
+overthrow of feudalism and the influences which acted upon it, we
+cannot but regard it as the natural terminus of the political flood
+which was sweeping over the country. When such a revolution of
+thought as that expressed in the proclamation of 1868 had taken
+place in the minds of the leaders of society, when contact with
+foreigners had fostered the necessity of national union, when the
+spirit of loyalty of the Samurai had changed to loyalty to his
+Emperor, when his patriotic devotion to his province had changed to
+patriotic devotion to his country, then it became apparent that the
+petty social organization, which was antagonistic to these national
+principles, would soon be crushed.</p>
+<p>If there is any form of society which is diametrically opposed
+to the spirit of national union, of liberal thought, of free
+intercourse, it is feudal society. A monarchical or a democratic
+society encourages the spirit of union, but feudal society must,
+from its very nature, smother it. Seclusion is the parent of
+feudalism. In our enlightened and progressive century seclusion is
+no longer possible. Steam and electricity alone would have been
+sufficient to destroy our Japanese feudalism. But long before its
+fall our Japanese feudalism "was an empty shell." Its leaders, the
+Daimios of provinces, were, with a few exceptions, men of no
+commanding importance. "The real power in each clan lay in the
+hands of able men of inferior rank, who ruled their masters." From
+these men came the present advisers of the Emperor. Their chief
+object at that time was the thorough unification of Japan. Why,
+then, should they longer trouble themselves to uphold feudalism,
+this mother of sectionalism, this colossal sham?</p>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-1" name=
+"footnote3-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3-1">(return)</a>
+<p>Translation given in the English State Papers.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-2" name=
+"footnote3-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3-2">(return)</a>
+<p>Consular Report of the U.S.A., No. 75, p. 626.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+<h3>INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE REPRESENTATIVE IDEA OF
+GOVERNMENT.</h3>
+<p>We have seen in the last two chapters how the Shogunate and
+feudalism fell, and how the Meiji government was inaugurated. We
+have also observed in the memorials of leading statesmen abundant
+proof of their willingness and zeal to introduce a representative
+system of government. We have also seen the Kogisho convened and
+dissolved.</p>
+<p>John Stuart Mill has pointed out, in his Representative
+Government, several social conditions when representative
+government is inapplicable or unsuitable:</p>
+<p>1. When the people are not willing to receive it.</p>
+<p>2. When the people are not willing and able to do what is
+necessary for its preservation.</p>
+<p>"Representative institutions necessarily depend for permanence
+upon the readiness of the people to fight for them in case of their
+being endangered."</p>
+<p>3. When the people are not willing and able to fulfil the duties
+and discharge the functions which it imposes on them.</p>
+<p>4. When the people have not learned the first lesson of
+obedience.</p>
+<p>5. When the people are too passive; when they are ready to
+submit to tyranny.</p>
+<p>Now when we look at the Japan of 1871, even her greatest
+admirers must admit that she was far from being able to fulfil the
+social conditions necessary for the success of representative
+government. Japan was obedient, but too submissive. She had not yet
+learned the first lesson of freedom, that is, when and how to
+resist, in the faith that resistance to tyrants is obedience to
+truth; that the irrepressible kicker against tyranny, as Dr. Wilson
+observes, is the only true freeman. In her conservative, almost
+abject submission, Japan was yet unfit for free government. The
+Japanese people were willing to do almost anything suggested by
+their Emperor, but they had first to learn what was meant by
+representative government, "to understand its processes and
+requirements." The Japanese had to discard many old habits and
+prejudices, reform many defects of national character, and undergo
+many stages of moral and mental discipline before they could
+acclimatize themselves to the free atmosphere of representative
+institutions. This preparation required a period of little over two
+decades, and was effected not only through political discipline,
+but by corresponding development in the moral, intellectual,
+social, and industrial life of the nation.</p>
+<p>I remarked in the beginning that the political activity of a
+nation is not isolated from other spheres of its activities, but
+that there is a mutual interchange of action and reaction among the
+different factors of social life, so that to trace the political
+life of a nation it is not only necessary to describe the organ
+through which it acts, the governmental machinery, and the methods
+by which it is worked, but to know "the forces which move it and
+direct its course." Now these forces are political as well as
+non-political. This truth is now generally acknowledged by
+constitutional writers. Thus, the English author of "The American
+Commonwealth" devotes over one-third of his second volume to the
+account of non-political institutions, and says "there are certain
+non-political institutions, certain aspects of society, certain
+intellectual or spiritual forces which count for so much in the
+total life of the country, in the total impression it makes and the
+hopes for the future which it raises, that they cannot be left
+unnoticed."<a id="footnotetag4-1" name=
+"footnotetag4-1"></a><a href="#footnote4-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+<p>If this be the case in the study of the American commonwealth,
+it is more so in that of Japanese politics. For nowhere else in the
+history of nations do we see "non-political institutions" exerting
+such a powerful influence upon the body politic as in New Japan. In
+this chapter we shall therefore note briefly the growth of
+so-called "non-political institutions" during a period of about a
+decade and a half, between 1868 and 1881, and mark their influence
+upon the development of representative ideas.</p>
+<p>I.&mdash;MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.</p>
+<p>1. <i>Telegraph</i>. At the time of the Restoration there was no
+telegraph in operation, and "for expresses the only available means
+were men and horses." In 1868 the government began to construct
+telegraphs, and the report of the Bureau of Statistics in 1881
+shows the following increase in each successive year:</p>
+<pre>
+           Telegraph          Number
+  Year.    Offices. Miles.    of Telegrams.
+                    Ri Cho.
+  1869-1871  8         26.04    19,448
+  1872      29         33.11    80,639
+  1873      40      1,099.00   186,448
+  1874      57      1,333.20   356,539
+  1875      94      1,904.32   611,866
+  1876     100      2,214.07   680,939
+  1877     122      2,827.08 1,045,442
+  1878     147      3,380.05 1,272,756
+  1879     195      3,842.31 1,935,320
+  1880     195      4,484.30 2,168,201
+</pre>
+<p>All the more important towns in the country were thus made able
+to communicate with one another as early as 1880.</p>
+<p>In 1879 Japan joined the International Telegraph Convention, and
+since then she can communicate easily with the great powers of the
+world through the great submarine cable system. "Compared with the
+state of ten years ago, when the ignorant people cut down the
+telegraph poles and severed the wires," exclaims Count Okuma, "we
+seem rather to have made a century's advance."</p>
+<p>2. <i>Postal System</i>. "Previous to the Restoration," to quote
+further from Count Okuma, "with the exception of the posts sent by
+the Daimios from their residences at the capital to their
+territories, there was no regularly established post for the
+general public and private convenience. Letters had to be sent by
+any opportunity that occurred, and a single letter cost over 25 sen
+for a distance of 150 ri. But since the Restoration the government
+for the first time established a general postal service, and in
+1879 the length of postal lines was 15,700 ri (nearly 40,000
+English miles), and a letter can at any time be sent for two sen to
+any part of the country. In 1874 we entered the International
+Postal Convention, and have thus obtained great facilities for
+communicating with foreign countries."<a id="footnotetag4-2" name=
+"footnotetag4-2"></a><a href="#footnote4-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>3. <i>Railroad</i>. The first railway Japan ever saw was the
+model railway constructed by Commodore Perry to excite the
+curiosity of the people. But it was not until 1870 that the
+railroad was really introduced into Japan. The first rail was laid
+on the road between Tokio and Yokohama. This road was opened in
+1872. It is 18 miles long. The second line was constructed in 1876,
+and runs between Hiogo and Kioto via Osako. And the year 1880 saw
+the opening of the railroad between Kioto and Otsu. This line
+between Hiogo and Otsu is 58 miles long. So at the end of the
+period which we are surveying Japan had a railway system of 31 ri
+and 5 cho (about 78 English miles).</p>
+<p>This was nothing but a child-play compared with the railroad
+activity which the later years brought forth, for now we have a
+railway system extending over one thousand two hundred miles. But
+this concerns the later period, so we shall not dwell upon it at
+present.</p>
+<p>4. <i>Steamers and the coasting trade</i>. In 1871 the number of
+ships of foreign build was only 74, but by 1878 they had reached
+377. The number of vessels of native build in 1876 was 450,000, and
+in 1878 had reached 460,000.<a id="footnotetag4-3" name=
+"footnotetag4-3"></a><a href="#footnote4-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<p>"Since the Restoration the use of steamers has daily increased,
+and the inland sea, the lakes and large rivers are now constantly
+navigated by small steamers employed in the carrying trade."</p>
+<p>With the increased facility of communication, commerce and trade
+were stimulated. In 1869 the total amount of imports and exports
+was 33,680,000 yen, and in 1879 64,120,000 yen. Imports had grown
+from 20,780,000 yen to 36,290,000 yen, and exports from 12,909,000
+yen to 27,830,000 yen; in the one case showing an advance from 2 to
+3-1/2, in the other from 2 to 5.<a id="footnotetag4-4" name=
+"footnotetag4-4"></a><a href="#footnote4-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p>
+<p>II.&mdash;EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.</p>
+<p>Previous to the Restoration, the schools supported by Daimios
+and the private schools were few in number; but since that epoch
+the educational system has been vastly improved, with a resulting
+increase in the number of schools and pupils. In 1878, of high,
+middle, and primary schools there were altogether 27,600, with
+68,000 teachers and 2,319,000 pupils.<a id="footnotetag4-5" name=
+"footnotetag4-5"></a><a href="#footnote4-5"><sup>5</sup></a> The
+following table shows the comparative history of educational
+institutions within three years, 1878-1880 (inclusive):</p>
+<pre>
+                          Teachers.                Pupils.
+  Year. Institutions.   Male.   Female.        Male.    Female.
+  1878    27,672       66,309     2,374    1,715,425    610,214
+  1879    29,362       71,757     2,803    1,771,641    608,205
+  1880    30,799       74,747     2,923    1,844,564    605,781
+</pre>
+<p>Furthermore, hundreds of students went abroad yearly, and
+returning, powerfully influenced the destiny of their country.</p>
+<p>III.&mdash;NEWSPAPERS.</p>
+<p>It was in 1869 that the Emperor sanctioned the publication of
+newspapers. Magazines, journals, periodicals and newspapers sprung
+up in a night. The number of newspapers published in 1882 was about
+113, and of miscellaneous publications about 133. It is to be noted
+that the newspapers defied the old censorship of prohibition under
+very sanguinary pains and penalties. Their circulation increased
+every year. The total newspaper circulation in 1874 was but
+8,470,269, while in 1877 it was 33,449,529. In his consular report
+of 1882, Consul-General Van Buren makes an approximate estimate of
+the annual aggregate circulation of a dozen noted papers of Tokio
+to be not less than 29,000,000 copies.<a id="footnotetag4-6" name=
+"footnotetag4-6"></a><a href="#footnote4-6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+<p>The publication of books and translations kept pace with the
+growth of newspapers. Observing the effects of these literary
+activities, Mr. Griffis well says: "It is the writer's firm belief,
+after nearly four years of life in Japan, mingling among the
+progressive men of the empire, that the reading and study of books
+printed in the Japanese language have done more to transform the
+Japanese mind and to develop an impulse in the direction of modern
+civilization than any other cause or series of causes."</p>
+<p>Meanwhile, great changes were affecting law and religion. Here
+it is sufficient to observe that the old law which had been
+hitherto altogether arbitrary&mdash;either the will of the Emperor
+or of the Shogun&mdash;was revised on the model of the Napoleonic
+code and soon published throughout the land. The use of torture to
+obtain testimony was wholly and forever abolished.</p>
+<p>With the incoming of Western science and Christianity, old
+faiths began to lose their hold upon the people. The new religion
+spread yearly. Missionary schools were instituted in several parts
+of the country. Christian churches were built in almost all of the
+large cities and towns, and their number increased constantly.
+Missionaries and Christian schools had no inconsiderable influence
+in changing the ideas of the people.</p>
+<p>Such, in brief, have been the changes in the industrial, social
+and religious condition of Japan from 1868 to 1881. After this
+study we shall not much wonder at the remarkable political change
+of Japan during the same period, which I shall endeavor to describe
+in the next chapter.</p>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-1" name=
+"footnote4-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4-1">(return)</a>
+<p>The American Commonwealth, Bryce, Vol. I., p. 7.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-2" name=
+"footnote4-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4-2">(return)</a>
+<p>A Survey of Financial Policy during Thirteen Years (1868-1880),
+by Count Okuma.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-3" name=
+"footnote4-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4-3">(return)</a>
+<p>Count Okuma's pamphlet.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-4" name=
+"footnote4-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4-4">(return)</a>
+<p>Count Okuma's pamphlet.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-5" name=
+"footnote4-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4-5">(return)</a>
+<p>Count Okuma's pamphlet.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-6" name=
+"footnote4-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4-6">(return)</a>
+<p>Consular Report of the U.S., No. 25, p. 182.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+<h3>PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT FROM THE ABOLITION OF
+FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881.</h3>
+<p>The leaders of the Restoration were of an entirely different
+type from the court nobles of former days. They were, with a few
+exceptions, men of humble origin. They had raised themselves from
+obscurity to the highest places of the state by sheer force of
+native ability. They had studied much and travelled far. Their
+experiences were diverse; they had seen almost every phase of
+society. If they were now drinking the cup of glory, most of them
+had also tasted the bitterness of exile, imprisonment, and fear of
+death. Patriotic, sagacious, and daring, they combined the rare
+qualities of magnanimity and urbanity. If they looked with
+indifference upon private morality, they were keenly sensitive to
+the feeling of honor and to public morals. If they made mistakes
+and did not escape the charge of inconsistency in their policy,
+these venial faults were, for the most part, due to the rapidly
+changing conditions of the country. No other set of statesmen of
+Japan or of any other country, ancient or modern, have witnessed
+within their lifetime so many social and political transformations.
+They saw the days when feudalism flourished&mdash;the grandeur of
+its rulers, its antique chivalry, its stately etiquette, its
+ceremonial costumes, its codes of honor, its rigid social order,
+formal politeness, and measured courtesies. They also saw the days
+when all these were swept away and replaced by the simplicity and
+stir of modern life. They accordingly "have had to cast away every
+tradition, every habit, and every principle and mode of action with
+which even the youngest of them had to begin official life."</p>
+<p>The ranks of this noble body of statesmen and reformers are now
+gradually diminishing. Saigo and Gesho are no more. Kido and
+Iwakura have been borne to their graves. Okubo and Mori have fallen
+under the sword of fanatics. But, thanks be to God, many of them
+yet remain and bear the burdens of the day.</p>
+<p>I have mentioned in Chapter III. the overthrow of feudalism and
+its causes. Its immediate effect on the nation, in unifying their
+thoughts, customs, and habits, was most remarkable. From this time
+we see the marked growth of common sentiment, common manners,
+common interest among the people, together with a love of peace and
+order.</p>
+<p>While the government at home was thus tearing down the old
+framework of state, the Iwakura Embassy in foreign lands was
+gathering materials for the new. This was significant, inasmuch as
+five of the best statesmen of the time, with their staff of
+forty-four able men, came into association for over a year with
+western peoples, and beheld in operation their social, political
+and religious institutions. These men became fully convinced that
+"the wealth, the power, and the happiness of a people," as
+President Grant told them, "are advanced by the encouragement of
+trade and commercial intercourse with other powers, by the
+elevation and dignity of labor, by the practical adaptation of
+science to the manufactures and the arts, by increased facilities
+of frequent and rapid communication between different parts of the
+country, by the encouragement of immigration, which brings with it
+the varied habits and diverse genius and industry of other lands,
+by a free press, by freedom of thought and of conscience, and a
+liberal toleration in matters of religion."<a id="footnotetag5-1"
+name="footnotetag5-1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+<p>The impressions and opinions of these men on the importance of a
+free and liberal policy can be gleaned from the speeches they made
+during the western tour, and some of their writings and utterances
+on other occasions.</p>
+<p>The chief ambassador, Iwakura, in reply to a toast made to him
+in England, said: "Having now become more intimately acquainted
+with her (England's) many institutions, we have discovered that
+their success is due to the <i>liberal</i> and energetic spirit by
+which they are animated."<a id="footnotetag5-2" name=
+"footnotetag5-2"></a><a href="#footnote5-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>Count Ito, the present President of the Privy Council, in his
+speech at San Francisco, said: "While held in absolute obedience by
+despotic sovereigns through many thousand years, our people knew no
+freedom or liberty of thought. With our material improvement they
+learned to understand their rightful privileges, which for ages
+have been denied them."<a id="footnotetag5-3" name=
+"footnotetag5-3"></a><a href="#footnote5-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<p>Count Inouye, the ex-Minister of State for Agriculture and
+Commerce, in his memorial to the government in 1873, said: "The
+people of European and American countries are for the most part
+rich in intelligence and knowledge, and they preserve the spirit of
+independence. And owing to the nature of their polity they share in
+the counsels of their government. Government and people thus
+mutually aid and support each other, as hand and foot protect the
+head and eye. The merits of each question that arises are
+distinctly comprehended by the nation at home, and the government
+is merely its outward representative. But our people are different.
+Accustomed for ages to despotic rule, they have remained content
+with their prejudices and ignorance. Their knowledge and
+intelligence are undeveloped and their spirit is feeble. In every
+movement of their being they submit to the will of the government,
+and have not the shadow of an idea of what 'a right' is. If the
+government makes an order, the whole country obeys it as one man.
+If the government takes a certain view, the whole nation adopts it
+unanimously.... The people must be recalled to life, and the Empire
+be made to comprehend with clearness that the objects which the
+government has in view are widely different from those of former
+times."<a id="footnotetag5-4" name="footnotetag5-4"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p>
+<p>If the passages quoted illustrate statesmen's zeal to introduce
+western civilization, and to educate the people gradually to
+political freedom and privileges, their actions speak more
+eloquently than their words. In order to crush that social evil,
+the class system, which for ages had been a curse, the government
+declared all classes of men equal before the law, delivered the
+<i>eta</i>&mdash;the class of outcasts&mdash;from its position of
+contempt, abolished the marriage limitations existing between
+different classes of society, prohibited the wearing of swords,
+which was the peculiar privilege of the nobles and the Samurai;
+while to facilitate means of communication and to open the eyes of
+the people to the wonders of mechanical art, they incessantly
+applied themselves to the construction of railroads, docks,
+lighthouses, mining, iron, and copper factories, and to the
+establishment of telegraphic and postal systems. They also codified
+the laws, abolished the use of torture in obtaining testimony,
+revoked the edict against Christianity, sanctioned the publication
+of newspapers, established by the decree of 1875 the "Genro-in (a
+kind of Senate) to enact laws for the Empire, and the Daishin-in to
+consolidate the judicial authority of the courts,"<a id=
+"footnotetag5-5" name="footnotetag5-5"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-5"><sup>5</sup></a> and called an assembly of the
+prefects, which, however, held but one session in Tokio.</p>
+<p>While the current of thought among the official circles was thus
+flowing, there was also a stream, in the lower region of the social
+life, soon to swell into a mighty river. Social inequality, that
+barrier which prevents the flow of popular feeling, being already
+levelled, merchants, agriculturists, tradesmen, artisans and
+laborers were now set at liberty to assert their rights and to use
+their talents. They were no longer debarred from places of high
+honor.</p>
+<p>The great colleges and schools, both public and private, which
+were hitherto established and carried on exclusively for the
+benefit of the nobles and the Samurai, were now open to all. And in
+this democracy of letters, where there is no rank or honor but that
+of talent and industry, a sentiment was fast growing that the son
+of a Daimio is not necessarily wiser than the son of a peasant.</p>
+<p>Teachers of these institutions were not slow to infuse the
+spirit of independence and liberty into their pupils and to
+instruct the people in their natural and political rights. Mr.
+Fukuzawa, a schoolmaster, an author, and a lecturer, the man who
+exercised an immense influence in shaping the mind of young Japan,
+gave a deathblow to the old ideas of despotic government, and of
+the blind obedience of the people, when he declared that
+<i>government exists for the people and not the people for the
+government</i>, that the government officials are the servants of
+the people, and the people their employer. He also struck a heavy
+blow at the arrogance and extreme love of military glory of the
+Samurai class, with whom to die for the cause of his sovereign,
+whatever that cause might be, was the highest act of patriotism, by
+advocating that "Death is a democrat, and that the Samurai who died
+fighting for his country, and the servant who was slain while
+caught stealing from his master, were alike dead and useless."</p>
+<p>In a letter to one of his disciples, Mr. Fukuzawa said: "The
+liberty of which I have spoken is of such great importance that
+everything should be done to secure its blessings in the family and
+in the nation, without any respect to persons. When every
+individual, every family and every province shall obtain this
+liberty, then, and not till then, can we expect to witness the true
+independence of the nation; then the military, the farming, the
+mechanical, and mercantile classes will not live in hostility to
+each other; then peace will reign throughout the land, and all men
+will be respected according to their conduct and real
+character."<a id="footnotetag5-6" name=
+"footnotetag5-6"></a><a href="#footnote5-6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+<p>The extent of the influence exercised with pen and tongue by
+these teachers upon the nation showed that the reign of sword and
+brutal force was over and the day of peace and reason had dawned.
+The press has at last become a power. The increase during that
+period of publications, both original and translations, and of
+newspapers, both in their number and circulation, is marvellous. To
+give an illustration, the number of newspapers transmitted in the
+mails increased from 514,610 in the year 1873 to 2,629,648 in the
+year 1874&mdash;an increase of 411 per cent in one year&mdash;"a
+fact which speaks volumes for the progress of civilization."<a id=
+"footnotetag5-7" name="footnotetag5-7"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p>
+<p>These newspapers were soon to become the organs of political
+parties which were in the process of formation. The most prominent
+among these political societies was the <i>Ri-shi-sha</i>, which
+finally developed into the present Liberal party. At the head of
+this party was Count Itagaki, a man of noble character and of
+marked ability, who had rendered many useful services to the
+country in the time of the Restoration and had for some years been
+a member of the cabinet, but who in 1875 resigned his office and
+became "the man of the people." He and his party contributed
+greatly to the development of constitutional ideas. Whatever may be
+said as to the extreme radicalism and childish freaks of the rude
+elements of this party, the presence of its sober members, who
+sincerely longed to see the adoption of a constitutional form of
+government and used only proper and peaceful means for the
+furtherance of their aim, and boldly and frankly told what they
+deemed the defects of the government; the presence of such a party
+in the country, whose masses knew nothing but slavish obedience to
+every act of the government, was certainly a source of great
+benefit to the nation at large.</p>
+<p>In 1873, Count Itagaki with his friends had sent in a memorial
+to the government praying for the establishment of a representative
+assembly, but they had not been heeded by the government. In July,
+1877, Count Itagaki with his Ri-shi-sha again addressed a memorial
+to the Emperor, "praying for a change in the form of government,
+and setting forth the reasons which, in the opinion of the members
+of the society, rendered such a change necessary."</p>
+<p>These reasons were nine in number and were developed at great
+length. Eight of them formed a direct impeachment of the present
+government, and the ninth was a reminder that the solemn promise of
+1868 had never been fulfilled. "Nothing," they conclude, "could
+more tend to the well-being of the country than for your Majesty to
+put an end to all despotic and oppressive measures, and to consult
+public opinion in the conduct of the government. To this end a
+representative assembly should be established, so that the
+government may become constitutional in form. The people would then
+become more interested and zealous in looking after the affairs of
+the country; public opinion would find expression, and despotism
+and confusion cease. The nation would advance in civilization;
+wealth would accumulate in the country; troubles from within and
+contempt from without would cease, and the happiness of your
+Imperial Majesty and of your Majesty's subjects would be
+secured."</p>
+<p>But again the government heeded not, its attention at the time
+being fully occupied with the suppression of the Satsuma Rebellion.
+The civil war being ended, in 1878, the year which marked a decade
+from the establishment of the new regime, the government, persuaded
+that the time for popular institutions was fast approaching, not
+alone through representations of the Tosa memorialists, but through
+many other signs of the times, decided to take a step in the
+direction of establishing a national assembly. But the government
+acted cautiously. Thinking that to bring together hundreds of
+members unaccustomed to parliamentary debate and its excitement,
+and to allow them a hand in the administration of affairs of the
+state, might be attended with serious dangers, as a preparation for
+the national assembly the government established first local
+assemblies. Certainly this was a wise course.</p>
+<p>These local assemblies have not only been good training schools
+for popular government, but also proved reasonably successful. They
+hold their sessions every year, in the month of March, in their
+respective electoral districts, and there discuss all questions of
+local taxation. They may also petition the central government on
+other matters of local interest. The members must be males of the
+full age of twenty-five years, who have been resident for three
+years in the district and pay the sum of $10 as a land tax within
+their district. The qualifications for electors (males only) are:
+an age of twenty years, registration, and payment of a land tax of
+$5. Voting is by ballot, but the names of the voters are to be
+written by themselves on the voting papers. There are now 2172
+members who sit in these local assemblies, and it was from the more
+experienced members of these assemblies that the majority of the
+members of the House of Representatives of the Imperial Diet,
+convened for the first time last year, were chosen.</p>
+<p>The gulf between absolute government and popular government was
+thus widened more and more by the institution of local government.
+The popular tide raised by these local assemblies was swelling in
+volume year by year. New waves were set in motion by the younger
+generation of thinkers. Toward the close of the year 1881 the flood
+rose so high that the government thought it wise not to resist
+longer. His Imperial Majesty hearing the petitions of the people,
+graciously confirmed and expanded his promise of 1868 by the famous
+proclamation of October 12, 1881:</p>
+<p>"We have long had it in view to gradually establish a
+constitutional form of government.... It was with this object in
+view that in the eighth year of Meiji (1875) we established the
+Senate, and in the eleventh year of Meiji (1878) authorized the
+formation of local assemblies.... We therefore hereby declare that
+we shall, in the twenty-third year of Meiji (1890) establish a
+parliament, in order to carry into full effect the determination we
+have announced; and we charge our faithful subjects bearing our
+commissions to make, in the meantime, all necessary preparations to
+that end."</p>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-1" name=
+"footnote5-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5-1">(return)</a>
+<p>C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 38.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-2" name=
+"footnote5-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5-2">(return)</a>
+<p>Mossman's New Japan, p. 442.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-3" name=
+"footnote5-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5-3">(return)</a>
+<p>C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 14.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-4" name=
+"footnote5-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5-4">(return)</a>
+<p>The translation of the whole memorial is given in C. Lanman's
+Leading Men of Japan, p. 87.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-5" name=
+"footnote5-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5-5">(return)</a>
+<p>The Imperial decree of 1875.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-6" name=
+"footnote5-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5-6">(return)</a>
+<p>The translation given in C. Lanman, Leading Men of Japan. p.
+47.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-7" name=
+"footnote5-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5-7">(return)</a>
+<p>See the Appendix of Griffis' The Mikado's Empire.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr class="full" />
+<br />
+<br />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN 1863-1881***</p>
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+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Constitutional Development of Japan
+1863-1881, by Toyokichi Iyenaga
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Constitutional Development of Japan 1863-1881
+
+Author: Toyokichi Iyenaga
+
+Release Date: May 15, 2004  [eBook #12355]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
+JAPAN 1863-1881***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Louise Valmoria, David King, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES IN HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
+
+HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor
+
+
+
+
+History is past Politics and Politics present History.--_Freeman_
+
+NINTH SERIES
+
+IX
+
+THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN, 1853-1881
+
+BY TOYOKICHI IYENAGA, PH. D.
+
+Professor of Political Science in Tokio Senmon-Gakko
+
+September, 1891
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+CHAP. I. (1853-1868). BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT
+
+THE CIRCUMSTANCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE MOVEMENT
+
+THE ACCOUNT OF COMMODORE PERRY'S ARRIVAL BY THE AUTHOR OF GENJE YUME
+MONOGATARI
+
+DISCUSSION BETWEEN THE PRINCE OF MITO AND THE TOKUGAWA OFFICIALS AT
+THE COURT OF YEDO
+
+CONCLUSION OF TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN
+
+THE OLD PRINCE OF MITO, NARIAKI
+
+II KAMON NO KAMI
+
+BOMBARDMENTS OF KAGOSHIMA AND SHIMONOSHEKI
+
+THE EFFECTS OF THE BOMBARDMENT
+
+1. Showed the Weakness of the Daimios and the Strength of foreigners
+
+2. Showed the Necessity of National Union, and of the Reconstruction
+of the Administrative Machinery of the Empire
+
+GREAT COUNCILS OF KUGES AND DAIMIOS.
+
+1. Their Nature and Organization
+
+2. How they originated
+
+3. In them lay the Germ of the future Constitutional Parliament of
+Japan
+
+
+CHAP. II. (1868-1869). THE RESTORATION
+
+CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF THE SHOGUNATE
+
+1. Revival of Learning
+
+2. Revival of Shintoism
+
+3. Jealousy and Cupidity of the Southern Daimios
+
+THE RESIGNATION OF THE SHOGUN
+
+THE MOTIVE OF HIS RESIGNATION
+
+THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RESTORATION
+
+1. Its Organization
+
+2. Its Departments
+
+FOREIGN POLICY OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT
+
+REMOVAL OF THE CAPITAL TO TOKIO
+
+THE CHARTER OATH OF THE EMPEROR, APRIL 17, 1869
+
+THE KOGISHO
+
+1. Its Origin
+
+2. Its Composition
+
+3. Its Nature
+
+
+CHAP. III. (1869-1871). THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.
+
+MEMORIAL OF PRESIDENT OF THE KOGISHO
+
+ABOLITION SCHEME OF SCHOLARS IS BACKED BY THE SOUTHERN DAIMIOS
+
+MEMORIAL OF THE SOUTHERN DAIMIOS
+
+IMPERIAL DECREE OF 1871, ABOLISHING FEUDALISM
+
+CAUSES OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM
+
+
+CHAP. IV. INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE REPRESENTATIVE IDEA
+OF GOVERNMENT
+
+JOHN STEWART MILL'S ENUMERATION OF THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR
+THE SUCCESS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
+
+JAPAN OF 1871 NOT YET READY FOR THE ADOPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE
+GOVERNMENT
+
+POLITICAL ACTIVITY OF A NATION NOT ISOLATED FROM OTHER SPHERES OF ITS
+ACTIVITIES
+
+JAPAN'S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT GREATLY AIDED BY HER SOCIAL,
+EDUCATIONAL, INDUSTRIAL AND RELIGIOUS CHANGES
+
+SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THESE NON-POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS FROM
+1868 TO 1881
+
+1. Means of Communication
+
+a. Telegraph
+b. Postal System
+c. Railroad
+d. Steamers and the Coasting Trade
+
+2. Educational Institutions
+
+3. Newspapers
+
+CHANGES IN LAW AND RELIGION
+
+
+CHAP. V. (1871-1881). PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT FROM THE
+ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881
+
+LEADERS OF THE RESTORATION
+
+EFFECT OF THE OVERTHROW OF FEUDALISM
+
+THE IWAKURA EMBASSY
+
+IWAKURA, ITO, INOUYE
+
+FUKUZAWA
+
+THE PRESS AND ITS INFLUENCES
+
+RI-SHI-SHA AND COUNT ITAGAKI
+
+MEMORIALS OF RI-SHI-SHA TO THE EMPEROR
+
+ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCAL ASSEMBLIES
+
+THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881, TO ESTABLISH A PARLIAMENT IN
+1890
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+The power which destroyed Japanese feudalism and changed in that
+country an absolute into a constitutional monarchy was a resultant
+of manifold forces. The most apparent of these forces is the foreign
+influence. Forces less visible but more potent, tending in this
+direction, are those influences resulting from the growth of commerce
+and trade, from the diffusion of western science and knowledge among
+the people, and from the changes in social habits and religious
+beliefs. The truth of the solidarity of the varied interests of a
+social organism is nowhere so well exemplified as in the history of
+modern Japan. Her remarkable political development would have been
+impossible had there been no corresponding social, educational,
+religious, economic and industrial changes. In order to trace the
+constitutional development of New Japan, it is therefore necessary:
+
+1. To ascertain the political condition of the country at and after
+the advent of foreigners in 1853.
+
+2. To describe the form of government of the Restoration.
+
+3. To examine the state of commerce, industry, education and social
+life of Japan at each stage of her political transformations.
+
+4. To recount the constitutional changes from the Restoration to the
+Promulgation of the New Constitution.
+
+As a novice in travel marks the broad outlines, the general features
+and more important products of the country he visits for the first
+time, so I shall dwell upon the historic landmarks of Japanese
+constitutional development. This development no writer, native or
+foreign, has yet attempted to trace. I shall withstand as much as
+possible the temptation to refer to the multitude of events which
+are more or less associated with the constitutional movement. I shall
+endeavor to ascertain from the edicts, decrees, and proclamations of
+the Emperor, from the orders and manifestos of the Shogun, from the
+native authors and journals, from the memorials and correspondence
+of prominent men, both native and foreign, the trend of our
+constitutional development. I shall also endeavor to note the leading
+ideas and principles which, after manifesting themselves in various
+forms, have at last crystallized into the New Constitution of Japan.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+BEGINNING OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT.
+
+
+The constitutional movement of Japan began in a spontaneous agitation
+of the whole body politic when the nation was irritated by the sudden
+contact with foreigners. The sense of national weakness added a force
+to this agitation. Had not the foreigners come, the Restoration might
+have been effected, feudalism might have been abolished, but the
+new Japanese constitution would hardly have seen the day. Had the
+government of Japan at the time of the advent of foreigners been in
+the strong hand of a Taiko or an Iyeyasu, the rulers might have been
+greatly exercised by the extraordinary event, but public opinion
+for reform would hardly have been called forth, and the birth of
+constitutional liberty would long have been delayed. As the vices of
+King John and the indifference and ignorance of the first two Georges
+of England begat the strength and hope of the English Parliament, so
+the public opinion of Japan sprouted out of the ruins of the Shogunate
+regime. We must therefore seek for the beginning of the Constitutional
+Movement of Japan in the peculiar circumstances in which she found
+herself between 1853 and 1868.
+
+The advent of Commodore Perry in 1853 was to Japan like the intrusion
+of a foreign queen into a beehive. The country was stirred to
+its depth. Let us note what a native chronicler[1] says about the
+condition of Japan at the arrival of Perry:
+
+"It was in the summer of 1853 that an individual named Perry, who
+called himself the envoy of the United States of America, suddenly
+arrived at Uraga, in the Province of Sagami, with four ships of war,
+declaring that he brought a letter from his country to Japan and that
+he wished to deliver it to the sovereign. The governor of the place,
+Toda Idzu No Kami, much alarmed by this extraordinary event, hastened
+to the spot to inform himself of its meaning. The envoy stated, in
+reply to questions, that he desired to see a chief minister in order
+to explain the object of his visit and to hand over to him the letter
+with which he was charged. The governor then despatched a messenger
+on horseback with all haste to carry this information to the castle
+of Yedo, where a great scene of confusion ensued on his arrival. Fresh
+messengers followed, and the Shogun Iyeyoshi, on receiving them, was
+exceedingly troubled, and summoned all the officials[2] to a council.
+At first the affair seemed so sudden and so formidable that they were
+too alarmed to open their mouths, but in the end orders were issued to
+the great clans to keep strict watch at various points on the shore,
+as it was possible that the 'barbarian' vessels might proceed to
+commit acts of violence. Presently a learned Chinese scholar was sent
+to Uraga, had an interview with the American envoy, and returned
+with the letter, which expressed the desire of the United States to
+establish friendship and intercourse with Japan, and said, according
+to this account, that if they met with a refusal they should commence
+hostilities. Thereupon the Shogun was greatly distressed, and again
+summoned a council. He also asked the opinion of the Daimios. The
+assembled officials were exceedingly disturbed, and nearly broke their
+hearts over consultations which lasted all day and all night. The
+nobles and retired nobles in Yedo were informed that they were at
+liberty to state any ideas they might have on the subject, and,
+although they all gave their opinions, the diversity of propositions
+was so great that no decision was arrived at. The military class
+had, during a long peace, neglected military arts; they had given
+themselves up to pleasure and luxury, and there were very few who had
+put on armor for many years, so that they were greatly alarmed at the
+prospect that war might break out at a moment's notice, and began to
+run hither and thither in search of arms. The city of Yedo and the
+surrounding villages were in a great tumult. And there was such a
+state of confusion among all classes that the governors of the city
+were compelled to issue a notification to the people, and this in the
+end had the effect of quieting the general anxiety. But in the castle
+never was a decision further from being arrived at, and, whilst time
+was being thus idly wasted, the envoy was constantly demanding an
+answer. So at last they decided that it would be best to arrange the
+affair quietly, to give the foreigners the articles they wanted, and
+to put off sending an answer to the letter--to tell the envoy that in
+an affair of such importance to the state no decision could be arrived
+at without mature consideration, and that he had better go away; that
+in a short time he should get a definite answer. The envoy agreed, and
+after sending a message to say that he should return in the following
+spring for his answer, set sail from Uraga with his four ships."[3]
+
+Thus was the renowned commander kept away for awhile. He went,
+however, of his own accord. Perry was an astute diplomatist. He knew
+that time was needed for the impressions which he and his magnificent
+fleet had made upon the country to produce their natural effect.
+
+The news of Perry's visit and demands spread far and wide with
+remarkable rapidity. The government and the people were deeply
+stirred. Soon the song of the "red-bearded barbarians" and of the
+black ships was in everybody's mouth. The question "What shall Japan
+do when the barbarians come next spring?" became the absorbing theme
+of the day.
+
+There was now but one of two policies which Japan could pursue, either
+to shut up the country or to admit the foreigners' demand. There was
+no middle course left. The American envoy would no longer listen to
+the dilatory policy with which the Japanese had just bought a few
+months' respite from anxiety.
+
+The majority of the ruling class, the Samurai, were in favor of the
+exclusion policy. So was the court of Kioto. But the views of the
+court of Yedo were different. The court of Yedo had many men of
+intelligence, common sense and experience--men who had seen the
+American envoy and his squadron, equipped with all the contrivances
+for killing men and devastating the country. These men knew too well
+that resistance to the foreigners was futile and perilous.
+
+Thus was the country early divided into two clearly defined parties,
+the Jo-i[4] party and the Kai-Koku party.
+
+Meanwhile, the autumn and winter of 1853 passed. The spring of 1854
+soon came, and with it the intractable "barbarians." Let us hear the
+author of Genje Yume Monogatari relate the return of Perry and the
+great discussion that ensued at the court of Yedo:
+
+"Early in 1854 Commodore Perry returned, and the question of acceding
+to his demands was again hotly debated. The old prince of Mito was
+opposed to it, and contended that the admission of foreigners
+into Japan would ruin it. 'At first,' said he, 'they will give us
+philosophical instruments, machinery and other curiosities; will take
+ignorant people in, and, trade being their chief object, they will
+manage bit by bit to impoverish the country, after which they will
+treat us just as they like--perhaps behave with the greatest rudeness
+and insult us, and end by swallowing up Japan. If we do not drive them
+away now we shall never have another opportunity. If we now resort to
+a dilatory method of proceeding we shall regret it afterwards when it
+will be of no use.'
+
+"The officials (of the Shogun), however, argued otherwise and
+said: 'If we try to drive them away they will immediately commence
+hostilities, and then we shall be obliged to fight. If we once get
+into a dispute we shall have an enemy to fight who will not be easily
+disposed of. He does not care how long a time he must spend over it,
+but he will come with myriads of men-of-war and surround our shores
+completely; he will capture our junks and blockade our ports, and
+deprive us of all hope of protecting our coasts. However large a
+number of ships we might destroy, he is so accustomed to that sort
+of thing that he would not care in the least. Even supposing that our
+troops were animated by patriotic zeal in the commencement of the war,
+after they had been fighting for several years their patriotic zeal
+would naturally become relaxed, the soldiers would become fatigued,
+and for this we should have to thank ourselves. Soldiers who have
+distinguished themselves are rewarded by grants of land, or else
+you attack and seize the enemy's territory and that becomes your own
+property; so every man is encouraged to fight his best. But in a war
+with foreign countries a man may undergo hardships for years, may
+fight as if his life were worth nothing, and, as all the land in this
+country already has owners, there will be none to be given away as
+rewards; so we shall have to give rewards in words or money. In time
+the country would be put to an immense expense and the people be
+plunged into misery. Rather than allow this, as we are not the equals
+of foreigners in the mechanical arts, let us have intercourse with
+foreign countries, learn their drill and tactics, and when we have
+made the nation as united as one family, we shall be able to go abroad
+and give lands in foreign countries to those who have distinguished
+themselves in battle. The soldiers will vie with one another in
+displaying their intrepidity, and it will not be too late then to
+declare war. Now we shall have to defend ourselves against these
+foreign enemies, skilled in the use of mechanical appliances, with
+our soldiers whose military skill has considerably diminished during
+a long peace of three hundred years, and we certainly could not feel
+sure of victory, especially in a naval war.'"[5]
+
+The Kai-Koku party, the party in favor of opening the country,
+triumphed, and the treaty was finally concluded between the United
+States and Japan on the 31st of March, 1854. After the return of
+Commodore Perry to America, Townsend Harris was sent by the United
+States Government as Consul-General to Japan. He negotiated the
+commercial treaty between the United States and Japan on July 29,
+1858.
+
+At the heels of the Americans followed the English, French, Russians,
+Dutch, and other nations. Japan's foreign relations became more and
+more complicated and therefore difficult to manage.
+
+The discussion quoted above is a type of the arguments used by the
+Jo-i party and the Kai-Koku party. The history of Japanese politics
+from 1853 to 1868 is the history of the struggle between these two
+parties, each of which soon changed its name. As the Jo-i party allied
+itself with the court of Kioto, it became the O-sei or Restoration
+party. As the Kai-Koku party was associated with the court of Shogun,
+it became the Bakufu party. The struggle ended in the triumph of the
+Restoration party. But by that time the Jo-i party, from a cause which
+I shall soon mention, had been completely transformed and converted to
+the Western ideas.
+
+Among the leaders of the Jo-i party was Nariaki, the old prince of
+Mito. He belonged to one of the San Kay (three families), out of which
+Iyeyasu ordered the Shogun to be chosen. He was connected by marriage
+with the families of the Emperor and the highest Kuges in Miako, and
+with the wealthiest Daimios. In power the Mito family thus ranked high
+among the Daimios. Among the scholars the Prince of Mito was popular.
+The prestige of his great ancestor, the compiler of Dai-Nihon-Shi, had
+not yet died out. The Prince of Mito was thus naturally looked up to
+by the scholars as the man of right principles and of noble ideas. A
+shrewd, clever, and scheming old man, the Prince of Mito now became
+the defender of the cause of the Emperor and the mouthpiece of the
+conservative party.
+
+At the head of the Bakufu party was a man of iron and fertile
+resources, Ii Kamon No Kami. He was the Daimio of Hikone, a castled
+town and fief on Lake Biwa, in Mino. His revenue was small, being only
+three hundred and fifty thousand koku. But in position and power none
+in the empire could rival him. He was the head of the Fudai Daimios.
+His family was called the Dodai or foundation-stone of the power
+of the Tokugawa dynasty. His ancestor, Ii Nawo Massa, had been
+lieutenant-general and right-hand man of Iyeyas. Ii Kamon No Kami,
+owing to the mental infirmity of the reigning Shogun, had lately
+become his regent. Bold, ambitious, able, and unscrupulous, Ii was the
+Richelieu of Japan. From this time on till his assassination on March
+23, 1860, he virtually ruled the empire, and, in direct contravention
+to the imperial will, negotiated with foreign nations, as we have
+seen, for the opening of ports for trade with them. He was styled the
+"swaggering prime minister," and his name was long pronounced with
+contempt and odium. Lately, however, his good name has been rescued
+and his fame restored by the noble effort of an able writer, Mr.
+Saburo Shimada.[6] But this able prime minister fell on March 23,
+1860, by the sword of Mito ronins, who alleged, as the pretext of
+their crime, that "Ii Kamon No Kami had insulted the imperial
+decree and, careless of the misery of the people, but making foreign
+intercourse his chief aim, had opened ports." "The position of
+the government upon the death of the regent was that of helpless
+inactivity. The sudden removal of the foremost man of the empire was
+as the removal of the fly-wheel from a piece of complicated machinery.
+The whole empire stood aghast, expecting and fearing some great
+political convulsion."[7]
+
+The Shogun began to make a compromise to unite the Emperor's power and
+the Shogun's, by taking the sister of the Emperor for his wife.
+
+Meanwhile great events were taking place in the southern corner of
+Kiushiu and on the promontory of Shikoku, events which were to effect
+great changes in men's ideas. These were the bombardments of Kagoshima
+and of Shimonosheki, the first on August 11, 1863, the second on
+September 5, 1864. I shall not dwell here on the injustice of these
+barbarous and heathenish acts of the so-called civilized and Christian
+nations; for I am not writing a political pamphlet. But impartially
+let us note the great effects of these bombardments.
+
+I. These conflicts showed on a grand but sad scale the weakness of the
+Daimios, even the most powerful of them, and, on the other hand, the
+power of the foreigners and their rifled cannon and steamers. The
+following Japanese memorandum expresses this point: "Satsuma's eyes
+were opened since the fight of Kagoshima, and affairs appeared to him
+in a new light; he changed in favor of foreigners, and thought now of
+making his country powerful and completing his armaments."[8]
+
+The Emperor also wrote in a rather pathetic tone to the Shogun
+touching the relative strength of the Japanese and the foreigners: "I
+held a council the other day with my military nobility (Daimios and
+nobles), but unfortunately inured to the habits of peace, which for
+more than two hundred years has existed in our country, we are unable
+to exclude and subdue our foreign enemies by the forcible means of
+war....
+
+"If we compare our Japanese ships of war and cannon to those of the
+barbarians, we feel certain that they are not sufficient to inflict
+terror upon the foreign barbarians, and are also insufficient to make
+the splendor of Japan shine in foreign countries. I should think
+that we only should make ourselves ridiculous in the eyes of the
+barbarians."[9]
+
+From the time of the bombardment, Satsuma and Choshiu began to
+introduce European machinery and inventions, to employ skilled
+Europeans to teach them, and to send their young men to Europe and
+America.
+
+II. These bombardments showed the necessity of national union. Whether
+she would repel or receive the foreigner, Japan must present a united
+front. To this end, great change in the internal constitution of the
+empire was needed; the internal resources of the nation had to be
+gathered into a common treasury; the police and the taxes had to be
+recognized as national, not as belonging to petty local chieftains;
+the power of the feudal lords had to be broken in order to
+reconstitute Japan as a single strong state under a single head. These
+are the ideas which led the way to the Restoration of 1868. Thus the
+bombardments of Kagoshima and Shimonosheki may be said to have helped
+indirectly in the Restoration of that year. But before we proceed to
+the history of the Restoration, let us examine what were the great
+Councils of Kuges and Daimios, which were sometimes convened during
+the period from 1857 to 1868.
+
+The Council of Kuges was occasionally convened by the order of the
+Emperor. It was composed of the princes of the blood, nobles, and
+courtiers. The Council of Daimios was now and then summoned either by
+the Emperor or by the Shogun. It was composed mostly of the Daimios.
+These councils were like the Witenagemot of England, formed of the
+wise and influential men of the kingdom. As the Daimios had far more
+weight in the political scale of the realm than the Kuges, so the
+council of the Daimios was of far more importance than that of the
+Kuges. But it must not be understood that these councils were regular
+meetings held in the modern parliamentary way; nor that they had
+anything like the powers of the British Parliament or of the American
+Congress. These councils of Japan were called into spasmodic life
+simply by the necessity of the time. They were held either at the
+court of Kioto or that of Yedo, or at other places appointed for the
+purpose. The Kuges or Daimios assembled rather in an informal way,
+measured by modern parliamentary procedure, but in accordance with the
+court etiquette of the time, whose most minute regulations and rules
+have often embarrassed and plagued the modern ministers accredited to
+the court of the Emperor. Then these councils proceeded to discuss the
+burning questions of the day, among which the most prominent was, of
+course, the foreign policy. The earliest instance of the meeting of
+the Council of Kuges was immediately after the news of Perry's arrival
+had reached the court of Kioto. "Upon this," says the author of
+Genje Yume Monogatari, "the Emperor was much disturbed, and called a
+council, which was attended by a number of princes of the blood and
+Kuges, and much violent language was uttered."
+
+From this time on we meet often with the record of these councils.[10]
+A native chronicler records that on the 29th day of the 12th month
+of 1857 "a meeting of all Daimios (present in Yedo) was held in the
+Haku-sho-in, a large hall in the castle of Yedo. The deliberations
+were not over till two o'clock on the morning of the 30th."
+
+Soon after this the Emperor ordered the Shogun to come to Kioto with
+all the Daimios and ascertain the opinion of the country. But the
+Shogun did not come, so the Emperor sent his envoy, Ohara Sammi, and
+called the meeting of the Daimios at Yedo in 1862, in which the noted
+Shimadzu Saburo was also present.
+
+In 1864 the council of Daimios was again held, and Minister Pruyn,
+in his letter to Mr. Seward, bears witness of the proceeding: "It is
+understood the great council of Daimios is again in session; that
+the question of the foreign policy of the government is again under
+consideration, and that the opposite parties are pretty evenly
+balanced."[11]
+
+From this time the council of Daimios was held every year, sometimes
+many times in the year, till the Revolution of 1868. These examples
+will suffice to show the nature and purpose of these councils of Kuges
+and Daimios. Let us next consider how these councils originated.
+
+The political development of Japan gives another illustration of one
+of the truths which Mr. Herbert Spencer unfolds in his Principles
+of Sociology. "Everywhere the wars between societies," says he,
+"originate governmental structures, and are causes of all such
+improvements in those structures as increase the efficiency of
+corporate action against environing societies."[12]
+
+Experience has shown that representative government is the most
+efficient in securing the corporate action of the various members of
+the body politic against foreign enemies. When a country is threatened
+with foreign invasion, when the corporate action of its citizens
+against their enemy is needed, it becomes an imperative necessity to
+consult public opinion. In such a time centralization is needed. Hence
+the first move of Japan after the advent of foreigners was to bring
+the scattered parts of the country together and unite them under one
+head.
+
+Japan had hitherto no formidable foreign enemy on her shores. So
+her governmental system--the regulating system of the social
+organism--received no impetus for self-development. But as soon as a
+formidable people, either as allies or foes, appeared on the scene in
+1853, we immediately see the remarkable change in the state system of
+regulation in Japan. It became necessary to consult public opinion.
+Councils of Kuges and Daimios and meetings of Samurai sprung forth
+spontaneously.
+
+I believe, with Guizot, that the germ of representative government was
+not necessarily "in the woods of Germany," as Montesquieu asserts,
+or in the Witenagemot of England; that the glory of having a free
+government is not necessarily confined to the Aryan family or to its
+more favored branch, the Anglo-Saxons. I believe that the seed of
+representative government is implanted in the very nature of human
+society and of the human mind. When the human mind and the social
+organism reach a certain stage of development, when they are placed in
+such an environment as to call forth a united and harmonious action
+of the body politic, when education is diffused among the masses
+and every member of the community attains a certain degree of his
+individuality and importance, when the military form of society
+transforms itself into the industrial, then the representative idea of
+government springs forth naturally and irresistibly. And no tyrant, no
+despot, can obstruct the triumphal march of liberty.
+
+Whatever may be said about the soundness of the above speculation, it
+is certain that in the great councils of Kuges and Daimios and in the
+discussions of the Samurai, which the advent of the foreigners called
+into being, lay the germ of the future constitutional parliament of
+Japan.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Genje Yume Monogatari. Translated by Mr. Ernest Satow,
+and published in the columns of the _Japan Mail_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The original gives names of some prominent officials thus
+summoned.]
+
+[Footnote 3: This is also quoted in F.O. Adams's History of Japan,
+Vol. I., p. 109. I have compared the passage with the original and
+quote here with some modifications in the translation.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Jo-i means to expel the barbarians; Kai-Koku means to
+open the country.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Given also in Kai-Koku Simatsu, p. 166; Ansei-Kiji, pp.
+219, 220.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Life of Ii Nawosuke Tokyo, 1888.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Dickson's Japan, p. 454.]
+
+[Footnote 8: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Part 3, 1865-66, p. 233, 1st Sess. 39th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 9: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Part 3, 1864-65, p. 502, 2d Sess. 38th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 10: See Ansei-Kiji, pages 1, 3, 57, 59, 61, 174, 192, 352;
+Bosin-Simatsu, Vol. II., pp. 4, 69; Vol. III., pp. 379, 414; Vol. IV.,
+pp. 121, 152.]
+
+[Footnote 11: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Part 3, 1864-65, p. 486, 3d Sess. 38th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Principles of Sociology, p. 540.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE RESTORATION.
+
+
+In the last chapter we have noticed what a commotion had been caused
+in Japan by the sudden advent of Commodore Perry, how the councils of
+Kuges and Daimios were called into spontaneous life by the dread
+of foreigners and by the sense of national weakness, and how the
+bombardments of Kagoshima and Shimonosheki tested these fears and
+taught the necessity of national union. I have remarked that free
+government is not necessarily the sole heritage of the Aryan race, but
+that the presence of foreigners, the change of the military form of
+society into the industrial form, the increase in importance of
+the individual in the community, are sure to breed a free and
+representative system of government.
+
+In the following chapter we shall see the downfall of the Shogunate,
+the restoration of the imperial power to its pristine vigor, and the
+destruction of feudalism.
+
+"The study of constitutional history is essentially a tracing of
+causes and consequences," says Bishop Stubbs, "not the collection of
+a multitude of facts and views, but the piecing of links of a perfect
+chain."
+
+I shall therefore not dwell upon the details of the events which
+led to the downfall of the Shogunate, but immediately enter into an
+inquiry concerning the causes.
+
+Three causes led to the final overthrow of the Shogunate:
+
+I. The Revival of Learning. The last half of the eighteenth and
+the first half of the present century witnessed in Japan an unusual
+intellectual activity. The long peace and prosperity of the country
+under the rule of the Tokugawa dynasties had fostered in every way the
+growth of literature and art. The Shoguns, from policy or from taste,
+either to find a harmless vent for the restless spirit of the
+Samura or from pure love of learning, have been constant patrons of
+literature. The Daimios, too, as a means of spending their leisure
+hours when they were not out hawking or revelling with their
+mistresses, gave no inattentive ear to the readings and lectures of
+learned men. Each Daimioate took pride in the number and fame of her
+own learned sons. Thus throughout the country eminent scholars arose.
+With them a new era of literature dawned upon the land. The new
+literature changed its tone. Instead of the servility, faint
+suggestiveness, and restrained politeness characteristic of the
+literature from the Gen-hei period to the first half of the Tokugawa
+period, that of the Revival Era began to wear a bolder and freer
+aspect. History came to be recorded with more truthfulness and
+boldness than ever before.
+
+But as the ancient histories were studied and the old constitution was
+brought into light, the real nature of the Shogunate began to reveal
+itself. To the eyes of the historians it became clear that the
+Shogunate was nothing but a military usurpation, sustained by fraud
+and corruption; that the Emperor, who was at that time, in plain
+words, imprisoned at the court of Kioto, was the real source of power
+and honor. "If this be the case, what ought we do?" was the natural
+question of these loyal subjects of the Emperor. The natural
+conclusion followed: the military usurper must be overthrown and
+the rightful ruler recognized. This was the sum and substance of
+the political programme of the Imperialists. The first sound of the
+trumpet against the Shogunate rose from the learned hall of the
+Prince of Mito, Komon. He, with the assistance of a host of scholars,
+finished his great work, the Dai Nihon Shi, or History of Japan, in
+1715. It was not printed till 1851, but was copied from hand to hand
+by eager students, like the Bible by the medieval monks, or the works
+of Plato and Aristotle by the Humanists. The Dai Nihon Shi soon became
+a classic, and had such an influence in restoring the power of the
+Emperor that Mr. Ernest Satow justly calls its composer "the real
+author of the movement which culminated in the revolution of 1868."
+The voice of the Prince of Mito was soon caught up by the more
+celebrated scholar Rai Sanyo (1780-1833). A poet, an historian, and a
+zealous patriot, Rai Sanyo was the Arndt of Japan. He outlined in
+his Nihon Guai Shi the rise and fall of the Minister of State and the
+Shoguns, and with satire, invective, and the enthusiasm of a patriot,
+urged the unlawfulness of the usurpation of the imperial power by
+these mayors of the palace. In his Sei-Ki, or political history of
+Japan, he traced the history of the imperial family, and mourned with
+characteristic pathos the decadence of the imperial power. The labors
+of these historians and scholars bore in time abundant fruit. Some of
+their disciples became men of will and action: Sakuma Shozan, Yoshida
+Toraziro, Gesho, Yokoi Heishiro, and later Saigo, Okubo, Kido, and
+hosts of others, who ultimately realized the dreams of their masters.
+Out of the literary seed which scholars like Rai Sanyo spread
+broadcast over the country thus grew hands of iron and hearts
+of steel. This process shows how closely related are history and
+politics, and affords another illustration of the significance of
+the epigrammatic expression of Professor Freeman: "History is past
+politics, and politics present history."
+
+II. Another tributary stream which helped to swell the tide flowing
+toward the Emperor was the revival of Shintoism. The revival of
+learning is sure to be followed by the revival of religion. This is
+shown in the history of the Reformation in Europe, which was preceded
+by the revival of learning. Since the expulsion of Christianity from
+Japan in the sixteenth century, which was effected more from political
+than religious motives, laissez-faire was the steadfast policy of the
+Japanese rulers toward religious matters. The founder of the Tokugawa
+dynasty had laid down in his "Legacy" the policy to be pursued by his
+descendants. "Now any one of the people," says Iyeyasu, "can adhere to
+which (religion) he pleases (except the Christian); and there must
+be no wrangling among sects to the disturbance of the peace of the
+Empire." Thus while the people in the West, who worshipped the
+Prince of Peace, in his abused name were cutting each other's throat,
+destroying each other's property, torturing and proselyting by rack
+and flames, the islanders on the West Pacific coast were enjoying
+complete religious toleration. Three religions--Shintoism, Buddhism,
+and Confucianism--lived together in peace. In such a state of
+unrestricted competition among various religions, the universal law of
+the survival of the fittest acts freely. Buddhism was the fittest and
+became the predominant religion. Shintoism was the weakest and sank
+into helpless desuetude. But with the revival of learning, as Kojiki
+and other ancient literature were studied with assiduity, Shintoism
+began to revive. Its cause found worthy defenders in Motoori and
+Hirata. They are among the greatest Shintoists Japan has ever seen.
+
+Now, according to Shintoism, Japan is a holy land. It was made by the
+gods, whose lineal descendant is the Emperor. Hence he must be revered
+and worshipped as a god. This is the substance of Shintoism. The
+political bearing of such a doctrine upon the then existing status of
+the country is apparent. The Emperor, who is a god, the fountain of
+all virtue, honor, and authority, is now a prisoner at the court of
+Kioto, under the iron hand of the Tokugawa Shoguns. This state
+of impiety and irreverence can never be tolerated by the devout
+Shintoists. The Shogun must be dethroned and the Emperor raised to
+power. Here the line of arguments of the Shintoists meets with that
+of the scholars we have noted above. Thus both scholars and Shintoists
+have converted themselves into politicians who have at heart the
+restoration of the Emperor.
+
+III. Another cause which led to the overthrow of the Shogunate was the
+jealousy and cupidity of the Southern Daimios. Notably among them were
+the Daimios of Satsuma, Choshiu, Tosa, and Hizen. Their ancestors "had
+of old held equal rank and power with Iyeyasu, until the fortunes
+of war turned against them. They had been overcome by force, or had
+sullenly surrendered in face of overwhelming odds. Their adherence
+to the Tokugawas was but nominal, and only the strong pressure of
+superior power was able to wring from them a haughty semblance of
+obedience. They chafed perpetually under the rule of one who was in
+reality a vassal like themselves."[1] They now saw in the rising tide
+of public sentiment against the Tokugawa Shogunate a rare opportunity
+of accomplishing their cherished aim. They lent their arms and money
+for the support of the patriots in carrying out their plan. Satsuma
+and Choshiu became the rendezvous of eminent scholars and zealous
+patriots. And in the council-halls of Satsuma and Choshiu were hatched
+the plots which were soon to overthrow the effete Shogunate.
+
+Thus everything was ready for the revolution of 1868 before Perry
+came. We saw the Shogun, under the bombastic title of Tycoon, in spite
+of the remonstrance of the Emperor and his court, conclude a treaty
+with Perry at Kanagawa in 1854. Here at last was found a pretext for
+the Imperialists to raise arms against the Shogun. The Shogun or his
+ministers had no right to make treaties with foreigners. Such an act
+was, in the eyes of the patriots, heinous treason. The cry of "Destroy
+the Shogunate and raise the Emperor to his proper throne!" rang from
+one end of the empire to the other. The constant disturbance of the
+country, the difficulty of foreign intercourse, the sense of necessity
+of a single and undoubted authority over the land, and the outcry
+of the Samurai thus raised against the Shogun, finally led to his
+resignation on November 19, 1867. His letter of resignation, in the
+form of a manifesto to the Daimios, runs thus:
+
+"A retrospect of the various changes through which the empire has
+passed shows us that after the decadence of the monarchical authority,
+power passed into the hands of the Minister of State; that by the
+wars of 1156 to 1159 the governmental power came into the hands of the
+military class. My ancestor received greater marks of confidence than
+any before him, and his descendants have succeeded him for more than
+two hundred years. Though I perform the same duties, the objects of
+government and the penal laws have not been attained, and it is
+with feelings of greatest humiliation that I find myself obliged to
+ackowledge my own want of virtue as the cause of the present state of
+things. Moreover, our intercourse with foreign powers becomes daily
+more extensive, and our foreign policy cannot be pursued unless
+directed by the whole power of the country.
+
+"If, therefore, the old regime be changed and the governmental
+authority be restored to the imperial court, if the councils of the
+whole empire be collected and the wise decisions received, and if
+we unite with all our heart and with all our strength to protect and
+maintain the empire, it will be able to range itself with the nations
+of the earth. This comprises our whole duty towards our country.
+
+"However, if you (the Daimios) have any particular ideas on the
+subject, you may state them without reserve."[2]
+
+The resignation of the Shogun was accepted by the Emperor by the
+following imperial order, issued on the 10th day of the 12th month:
+"It has pleased the Emperor to dismiss the present Shogun, at his
+request, from the office of Shogun."
+
+As to the full intent and motive of the Shogun in resigning his
+power, let him further speak himself. In the interview of the British
+minister, Sir Harry S. Parkes, and the French minister, M. Leon
+Koches, with the Shogun, it is stated that he said: "I became
+convinced last autumn that the country would no longer be successfully
+governed while the power was divided between the Emperor and myself.
+The country had two centres, from which orders of an opposite nature
+proceeded. Thus, in the matter of the opening of Hiogo and Osako,
+which I quote as an example of this conflict of authority, I was
+myself convinced that the stipulations of the treaties must be
+observed, but the assent of the Emperor to my representations on
+this subject was given reluctantly. I therefore, for the good of my
+country, informed the Emperor that I resigned the governing power,
+with the understanding that an assembly of Daimios was convened for
+the purpose of deciding in what manner, and by whom, the government in
+future should be carried on. In acting thus, I sunk my own interests
+and power handed down to me by my ancestors, in the more important
+interests of the country.[3]....
+
+"My policy, from the commencement, has been to determine this question
+of the future form of government in a peaceful manner, and it is in
+pursuance of the same object that, instead of opposing force by force,
+I have retired from the scene of dispute.....
+
+"As to who is the sovereign of Japan, it is a question on which no
+one in Japan can entertain a doubt. The Emperor is the sovereign. My
+object from the first has been to take the will of the nation as to
+the future government. If the nation should decide that I ought to
+resign my powers, I am prepared to resign them for the good of my
+country.....
+
+"I have no other motive but the following: With an honest love for
+my country and the people, I resigned the governing power which I
+inherited from my ancestors, and with the mutual understanding that I
+should assemble all the nobles of the empire to discuss the question
+disinterestedly, and adopting the opinion of the majority, decide upon
+the reformation of the national constitution, I left the matter in the
+hands of the imperial court."[4]
+
+Thus was the Shogunate overthrown and the Restoration effected. The
+civil war which soon followed need not detain us, for the war itself
+had no great consequence as regards the constitutional development of
+the country.
+
+Let us now consider the form of the new government. It is essentially
+that which prevailed in Japan before the development of feudalism. It
+is modelled on the form of government of the Osei era.
+
+The new government was composed of:
+
+1. Sosai ("Supreme Administrator"). He was assisted by Fuku, or
+Vice-Sosai. The Sosai resembled the British Premier, was the head of
+the chief council of the government.
+
+2. Gijio, or "Supreme Council," whose function was to discuss all
+questions and suggest the method of their settlement to the Sosai. It
+was composed of ten members, five of whom were selected from the list
+of Kuges and five from the great Daimios.
+
+3. Sanyo, or "Associate Council." They were subordinate officers, and
+were selected from the Daimios as well as from the retainers.
+This council finally came to have great influence, and ultimately
+transformed itself into the present cabinet.
+
+The government was divided into eight departments:
+
+1. The Sosai Department. This soon changed into Dai-jo-Kuan.
+
+2. Jingi-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of the Shinto Religion. This
+department had charge of the Shinto temples, priests, and festivals.
+
+3. Naikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Home Affairs. This department
+had charge of the capital and the five home provinces, of land and
+water transport in all the provinces, of post-towns and post-roads,
+of barriers and fairs, and of the governors of castles, towns, ports,
+etc.
+
+4. Guaikoku-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Foreign Affairs. This
+department had charge of foreign relations, treaties, trade, recovery
+of lands, and sustenance of the people.
+
+5. Gumbu-Jimu-Kioku, or War Department. This department had charge of
+the naval and military forces, drilling, protection of the Emperor,
+and military defences in general.
+
+6. Kuaikei-Jimu-Kioku, or Department of Finance. This department had
+charge of the registers of houses and population, of tariff and taxes,
+money, corn, accounts, tribute, building and repairs, salaries, public
+storehouses, and internal trade.
+
+7. Keiho-Jimu-Kioku, or Judicial Department. This department had
+charge of the censorate, of inquisitions, arrests, trials, and the
+penal laws in general.
+
+8. Seido-Jimu-Kioku, or Legislative Department. This department
+had charge of the superintendence of offices, enactments, sumptuary
+regulations, appointments, and all other laws and regulations,
+
+"It is easy to destroy, but difficult to construct," is an old adage
+of statesmen. The truth of this utterance was soon realized by the
+leaders of the new government.
+
+The first thing which the new government had to settle was its
+attitude toward foreign nations. The leaders of the government who had
+once opposed with such vehemence, as we have seen, the foreign policy
+of the Tokugawa Shogun, now that he had been overthrown, urged the
+necessity of amicable relations with foreign powers in the following
+memorable memorial[5] to the Dai-jo-Kuan (Government):
+
+"The undersigned, servants of the Crown, respectfully believe that
+from ancient times decisions upon important questions concerning
+the welfare of the empire were arrived at after consideration of the
+actual political condition and its necessities, and that thus results
+were obtained, not of mere temporary brilliancy, but which bore good
+fruits in all time....
+
+"Among other pressing duties of the present moment we venture to
+believe it to be pre-eminently important to set the question of
+foreign intercourse in a clear light.
+
+"His Majesty's object in creating the office of administrator of
+foreign affairs, and selecting persons to fill it, and otherwise
+exerting himself in that direction, has been to show the people of
+his empire in what light to look on this matter, and we have felt the
+greatest pleasure in thinking that the imperial glory would now be
+made to shine forth before all nations. An ancient proverb says that
+'Men's minds resemble each other as little as their faces,' nor have
+the upper and lower classes been able, up to the present, to hold with
+confidence a uniform opinion. It gives us some anxiety to feel that
+perhaps we may be following the bad example of the Chinese, who,
+fancying themselves alone great and worthy of respect, and despising
+foreigners as little better than beasts, have come to suffer defeats
+at their hands and to have it lorded over themselves by those
+foreigners.
+
+"It appears to us, therefore, after mature reflection, that the
+most important duty we have at present is for high and low to unite
+harmoniously in understanding the condition of the age, in effecting
+a national reformation and commencing a great work, and that for this
+reason it is of the greatest necessity that we determine upon the
+attitude to be observed towards this question.
+
+"Hitherto the empire has held itself aloof from other countries and is
+ignorant of the affairs of the world; the only object sought has been
+to give ourselves the least trouble, and by daily retrogression we are
+in danger of falling under foreign rule.
+
+"By travelling to foreign countries and observing what good there
+is in them, by comparing their daily progress, the universality of
+enlightened government, of a sufficiency of military defences, and of
+abundant food for the people among them, with our present condition,
+the causes of prosperity and degeneracy may be plainly traced....
+
+"Of late years the question of expelling the barbarians has been
+constantly agitated, and one or two Daimios have tried to expel them,
+but it is unnecessary to prove that this was more than the strength of
+a single clan could accomplish....
+
+"How ever, in order to restore the fallen fortunes of the empire and
+to make the imperial dignity respected abroad, it is necessary to make
+a firm resolution, and to get rid of the narrow-minded ideas which
+have prevailed hitherto. We pray that the important personages of
+the court will open their eyes and unite with those below them in
+establishing relations of amity in a single-minded manner, and that
+our deficiencies being supplied with what foreigners are superior
+in, an enduring government be established for future ages. Assist
+the Emperor in forming his decision wisely and in understanding the
+condition of the empire; let the foolish argument which has hitherto
+styled foreigners dogs and goats and barbarians be abandoned; let the
+court ceremonies, hitherto imitated from the Chinese, be reformed,
+and the foreign representatives be bidden to court in the manner
+prescribed by the rules current amongst all nations; and let this be
+publicly notified throughout the country, so that the countless people
+may be taught what is the light in which they are to regard this
+subject. This is our most earnest prayer, presented with all reverence
+and humility.
+
+  "ECHIZEN SAISHO,
+  TOSA SAKIO NO SHOSHO,
+  NAGATO SHOSHO,
+  SATSUMA SHOSHO,
+  AKI SHOSHO,
+  HOSO KAWA UKIO DAIBU."
+
+The advice of these notables was well received. A formal invitation to
+an audience with the Emperor was extended to the foreign ambassadors.
+They soon accepted the invitation. Their appearance in the old
+anti-foreign city of Kioto, before the personage who was considered
+by the masses as divine, was significant. It put an end to the
+all-absorbing, all-perplexing theme of the day. The question of
+foreign policy was settled.
+
+The next act of the statesmen of the Restoration was to sweep away
+the abuses of the court, and to establish the basis of a firm internal
+administration. The most effectual means of accomplishing this, it
+seemed to the sagacious statesmen, was to move the court from the
+place where those abuses had their roots. Ichizo Okubo,[6] a guiding
+spirit of the Restoration, presented the following memorial to the
+Emperor:
+
+"The most pressing of your Majesty's pressing duties at the present
+moment is not to look at the empire alone and judge carelessly by
+appearances, but to consider carefully the actual state of the whole
+world; to reform the inveterate and slothful habits induced during
+several hundred years, and to give union to the nation....
+
+"Hitherto the person whom we designate the sovereign has lived behind
+a screen, and, as if he were different from other human beings, has
+not been seen by more than a very limited number of Kuge; and as
+his heaven-conferred office of father to his people has been thereby
+unfulfilled, it is necessary that his office should be ascertained
+in accordance with this fundamental principle, and then the laws
+governing internal affairs may be established....
+
+"In the present period of reformation and restoration of the
+government to its ancient monarchical form, the way to carry out
+the resolution of imitating the example of Japanese sages, and of
+surpassing the excellent governments of foreign nations, is to change
+the site of the capital....
+
+"Osako is the fittest place for the capital ... For the conduct of
+foreign relations, for enriching the country and strengthening its
+military power, for adopting successful means of offense and defense,
+for establishing an army and navy, the place is peculiarly fitted by
+its position ... I most humbly pray your Majesty to open your eyes and
+make this reform....
+
+"OKUBO ICHIZO."[7]
+
+The result of the memorial was the ultimate removal of the seat of
+government from Kioto to Yedo, which afterwards changed its name to
+Tokio, meaning eastern capital.
+
+But the most important event of the Restoration, from the
+constitutional point of view, was the charter oath of five articles,
+taken by the present Emperor on the 17th of April, 1869, before the
+court and the assembly of Daimios. These articles were in substance as
+follows:
+
+1. A deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be
+decided by public opinion.
+
+2. The principles of social and political economics should be
+diligently studied by both the superior and inferior classes of our
+people.
+
+3. Every one in the community shall be assisted to persevere in
+carrying out his will for all good purposes.
+
+4. All the old absurd usages of former times should be disregarded,
+and the impartiality and justice displayed in the workings of nature
+be adopted as a basis of action.
+
+5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of the
+world for the purpose of firmly establishing the foundations of the
+empire.
+
+The Emperor's promise henceforth became the watchword of the nation.
+
+And this resolution to form a deliberative assembly was soon put into
+practice. In 1869 was convened the Kogisho or "Parliament," as Sir
+Harry Parkes translates it in his despatch to the Earl of Clarendon.
+But before we proceed to the description of the nature and working of
+the Kogisho it is necessary to state that this plan had been already
+suggested by the Shogunate. A proclamation of the Shogun Keiki,
+issued on February 20, 1868, says: "As it is proper to determine the
+principle of the constitution of Japan with due regard to the wishes
+of the majority, I have resigned the supreme power to the Emperor's
+court, and advised that the opinions of all the Daimios should be
+taken.... On examination of my household affairs (the administration
+of Shogun's territories), many irregularities may exist which may
+dissatisfy the people, and which I therefore greatly deplore. Hence
+I intend to establish a Kogijio and to accept the opinion of the
+majority. Any one, therefore, who has an opinion to express may do so
+at that place and be free of apprehension."[8]
+
+But this attempt of the Shogun to establish a sort of Parliament came
+to an end with his fall. This idea, however, was transmitted through
+the Shogunate officials to the government of the Restoration. In fact,
+this idea of consulting public opinion was, as I have repeatedly said,
+in the air. The leaders of the new government all felt, as one of them
+said to Messrs. F.O. Adams and Ernest Satow, that "the only way to
+allay the jealousies hitherto existing between several of the most
+powerful clans, and to ensure a solid and lasting union of conflicting
+interests, was to search for the nearest approach to an ideal
+constitution among those of Western countries ... that the opinion of
+the majority was the only criterion of a public measure."[9]
+
+Sir Harry Parkes was right when he told the Earl of Clarendon that
+"the establishment of such an institution (the Kogisho) formed one of
+the first objects of the promoters of the recent revolution."[10]
+
+The Kogisho was opened on the 18th of April, 1869,[11] and the
+following message[12] from the throne was then delivered:
+
+"Being on the point of visiting our eastern capital, we have convened
+the nobles of our court and the various princes in order to consult
+them upon the means of establishing the foundations of peaceful
+government. The laws and institutions are the basis of government.
+The petitions of the people at large cannot be lightly decided. It has
+been reported to us that brief rules and regulations have been fixed
+upon for the Parliament, and it seems good to us that the House should
+be opened at once. We exhort you to respect the laws of the House,
+to lay aside all private and selfish considerations, to conduct your
+debates with minuteness and firmness; above all things, to take the
+laws of our ancestors as 'basis,' and adapt yourselves to the feelings
+of men and to the spirit of the times. Distinguish clearly between
+those matters which are of immediate importance and those which may
+be delayed; between things which are less urgent and those which are
+pressing. In your several capacities argue with careful attention.
+When the results of your debate are communicated to us it shall be our
+duty to confirm them."
+
+The Kogisho was composed mostly of the retainers of the Daimios, for
+the latter, having no experience of the earnest business of life,
+"were not eager to devote themselves to the labors of an onerous and
+voluntary office." Akidzuki Ukio No Suke was appointed President of
+the Kogisho.
+
+The object of the Kogisho was to enable the government to sound public
+opinion on the various topics of the day, and to obtain the assistance
+of the country in the work of legislation by ascertaining whether the
+projects of the government were likely to be favorably received.
+
+The Kogisho, like the Councils of Kuges and Daimios, was nothing but
+an experiment, a mere germ of a deliberative assembly, which only time
+and experience could bring to maturity. Still Kogisho was an advance
+over the council of Daimios. It had passed the stage resembling a
+mere deliberative meeting or quiet Quaker conference, where, for hours
+perhaps, nobody opens his mouth. It now bore an aspect of a political
+club meeting. But it was a quiet, peaceful, obedient debating society.
+It has left the record of its abortive undertakings in the "Kogisho
+Nishi" or journal of "Parliament." The Kogisho was dissolved in
+the year of its birth. And the indifference of the public about its
+dissolution proves how small an influence it really had.
+
+But a greater event than the dissolution of the Kogisho was pending
+before the public gaze. This was the abolition of feudalism, which we
+shall consider in the next chapter.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The Mikado's Empire. Griffis, p. 301.]
+
+[Footnote 2: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+1867, Part II., p. 78, 2d Sess. 40th Cong. See also Bosin-Simatsu,
+Vol. I., p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 3: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Vol. I., 1868-69, p. 620, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 4: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Vol. I., 1868-69, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Translation from the Kioto Government Gazette of March,
+1868. It is given in Diplomatic Correspondence of the U.S.A., 3d Sess.
+40th Cong., Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 725.]
+
+[Footnote 6: He afterwards changed his name into Toshimitsu Okubo.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Translation is given in American Executive Document,
+Diplomatic Correspondence, Vol. I, 1868-69, p. 728, 3d Sess. 40th
+Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 8: American Executive Document, Diplomatic Correspondence,
+Vol. I., 1868-69, p. 687, 3d Sess. 40th Cong.]
+
+[Footnote 9: F.O. Adams' History of Japan, Vol. II., p. 128.]
+
+[Footnote 10: English State Papers, Vol. LXX., 1870, p. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 11: 29th of the 2d month in the second year of Meiji,
+according to the old calendar.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Translation is given in English State Papers, Vol. LXX.,
+1871, p. 12.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE ABOLITION OF FEUDALISM.
+
+
+The measure to abolish feudalism was much discussed in the Kogisho
+before its dissolution. Prince Akidzuki, President of the Kogisho, had
+sent in the following memorial:
+
+"After the government had been returned by the Tokugawa family
+into the hands of the Emperor, the calamity of war ensued, and the
+excellence of the newly established administration has not yet been
+able to perfect itself; if this continues, I am grieved to think how
+the people will give up their allegiance. Happily, the eastern and
+northern provinces have already been pacified and the country at large
+has at last recovered from its troubles. The government of the Emperor
+is taking new steps every day; this is truly a noble thing for the
+country. And yet when I reflect, I see that although there are many
+who profess loyalty, none have yet shown proof of it. The various
+princes have used their lands and their people for their own purposes;
+different laws have obtained in different places; the civil and
+criminal codes have been various in the various provinces. The clans
+have been called the screen of the country, but in truth they have
+caused its division. The internal relations having been confused, the
+strength of the country has been disunited and severed. How can our
+small country of Japan enter into fellowship with the countries beyond
+the sea? How can she hold up an example of a flourishing country? Let
+those who wish to show their faith and loyalty act in the following
+manner, that they may firmly establish the foundations of the Imperial
+Government:
+
+"1. Let them restore the territories which they have received from the
+Emperor and return to a constitutional and undivided nation.
+
+"2. Let them abandon their titles, and under the name of Kuazoku
+(persons of honor) receive such small properties as may suffice for
+their wants.
+
+"3. Let the officers of the clans abandoning that title call themselves
+officers of the Emperor, receiving property equal to that which they
+have hitherto held.
+
+"Let these three important measures be adopted forthwith, that the
+empire may be raised on a basis imperishable for ages ... 2nd year of
+Meiji (1869).
+
+  (Signed) "AKIDZUKI UKIO NO SUKE."[1]
+
+But politics is not an easy game--a game which a pedant or a
+sentimental scholar or an orator can leisurely play. It has to deal
+with passions, ambitions, and selfish interests of men, as well as
+with the moral and intellectual consciousness of the people. Tongue
+and pen wield, undoubtedly, a great influence in shaping the thought
+of the nation and impressing them with the importance of any political
+measure. But the tongue is as sounding brass and the pen as useless
+steel unless they are backed by force and money. Even in such a
+country as England, where tongue and pen seem to reign supreme, a
+prime minister before he forms his cabinet has to be closeted for
+hours with Mr. Rothschild. Fortunately this important measure of
+abolishing feudalism, which a few patriots had secretly plotted and
+which the scholars had noised abroad, was taken up first by the most
+powerful and wealthy Daimios of the country.
+
+In the following noted memorial, after reviewing the political history
+of Japan during the past few hundred years, these Daimios said: "Now
+the great Government has been newly restored and the Emperor himself
+undertakes the direction of affairs. This is, indeed, a rare and
+mighty event. We have the name (of an Imperial Government), we must
+also have the fact. Our first duty is to illustrate our faithfulness
+and to prove our loyalty. When the line of Tokugawa arose it divided
+the country amongst its kinsfolk, and there were many who founded the
+fortunes of their families upon it. They waited not to ask whether
+the lands and men that they received were the gift of the Emperor; for
+ages they continued to inherit these lands until this day. Others said
+that their possessions were the prize of their spears and bows, as if
+they had entered storehouses and stolen the treasure therein, boasting
+to the soldiers by whom they were surrounded that they had done this
+regardless of their lives. Those who enter storehouses are known by
+all men to be thieves, but those who rob lands and steal men are not
+looked upon with suspicion. How are loyalty and faith confused and
+destroyed!
+
+"The place where we live is the Emperor's land and the food which we
+eat is grown by the Emperor's men. How can we make it our own? We
+now reverently offer up the list of our possessions and men, with the
+prayer that the Emperor will take good measures for rewarding those
+to whom reward is due and for taking from those to whom punishment is
+due. Let the imperial orders be issued for altering and remodelling
+the territories of the various clans. Let the civil and penal codes,
+the military laws down to the rules for uniform and the construction
+of engines of war, all proceed from the Emperor; let all the affairs
+of the empire, great and small, be referred to him."
+
+This memorial was signed by the Daimios of Kago, Hizen, Satsuma,
+Choshiu, Tosa, and some other Daimios of the west. But the real
+author of the memorial is believed to have been Kido, the brain of the
+Restoration.
+
+Thus were the fiefs of the most powerful and most wealthy Daimios
+voluntarily offered to the Emperor. The other Daimios soon followed
+the example of their colleagues. And the feudalism which had existed
+in Japan for over eight centuries was abolished by the following
+laconic imperial decree of August, 1871:
+
+"The clans are abolished, and prefectures are established in their
+places."
+
+This rather off-hand way of destroying an institution, whose overthrow
+in Europe required the combined efforts of ambitious kings and
+emperors, of free cities, of zealous religious sects, and cost
+centuries of bloodshed, has been made a matter of much comment in the
+West. One writer exclaims, "History does not record another instance
+where changes of such magnitude ever occurred within so short a time,
+and it is astonishing that it only required eleven words to destroy
+the ambition and power of a proud nobility that had with imperious
+will directed the destiny of Japan for more than five hundred
+years."[2]
+
+But when we examine closely the circumstances which led to the
+overthrow of feudalism and the influences which acted upon it, we
+cannot but regard it as the natural terminus of the political flood
+which was sweeping over the country. When such a revolution of thought
+as that expressed in the proclamation of 1868 had taken place in the
+minds of the leaders of society, when contact with foreigners had
+fostered the necessity of national union, when the spirit of loyalty
+of the Samurai had changed to loyalty to his Emperor, when his
+patriotic devotion to his province had changed to patriotic devotion
+to his country, then it became apparent that the petty social
+organization, which was antagonistic to these national principles,
+would soon be crushed.
+
+If there is any form of society which is diametrically opposed to the
+spirit of national union, of liberal thought, of free intercourse, it
+is feudal society. A monarchical or a democratic society encourages
+the spirit of union, but feudal society must, from its very nature,
+smother it. Seclusion is the parent of feudalism. In our enlightened
+and progressive century seclusion is no longer possible. Steam and
+electricity alone would have been sufficient to destroy our Japanese
+feudalism. But long before its fall our Japanese feudalism "was an
+empty shell." Its leaders, the Daimios of provinces, were, with a few
+exceptions, men of no commanding importance. "The real power in each
+clan lay in the hands of able men of inferior rank, who ruled their
+masters." From these men came the present advisers of the Emperor.
+Their chief object at that time was the thorough unification of Japan.
+Why, then, should they longer trouble themselves to uphold feudalism,
+this mother of sectionalism, this colossal sham?
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Translation given in the English State Papers.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Consular Report of the U.S.A., No. 75, p. 626.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+INFLUENCES THAT SHAPED THE GROWTH OF THE REPRESENTATIVE IDEA OF
+GOVERNMENT.
+
+
+We have seen in the last two chapters how the Shogunate and feudalism
+fell, and how the Meiji government was inaugurated. We have also
+observed in the memorials of leading statesmen abundant proof of
+their willingness and zeal to introduce a representative system of
+government. We have also seen the Kogisho convened and dissolved.
+
+John Stuart Mill has pointed out, in his Representative Government,
+several social conditions when representative government is
+inapplicable or unsuitable:
+
+1. When the people are not willing to receive it.
+
+2. When the people are not willing and able to do what is necessary
+for its preservation.
+
+"Representative institutions necessarily depend for permanence upon
+the readiness of the people to fight for them in case of their being
+endangered."
+
+3. When the people are not willing and able to fulfil the duties and
+discharge the functions which it imposes on them.
+
+4. When the people have not learned the first lesson of obedience.
+
+5. When the people are too passive; when they are ready to submit to
+tyranny.
+
+Now when we look at the Japan of 1871, even her greatest admirers must
+admit that she was far from being able to fulfil the social conditions
+necessary for the success of representative government. Japan was
+obedient, but too submissive. She had not yet learned the first
+lesson of freedom, that is, when and how to resist, in the faith that
+resistance to tyrants is obedience to truth; that the irrepressible
+kicker against tyranny, as Dr. Wilson observes, is the only true
+freeman. In her conservative, almost abject submission, Japan was
+yet unfit for free government. The Japanese people were willing to
+do almost anything suggested by their Emperor, but they had first to
+learn what was meant by representative government, "to understand
+its processes and requirements." The Japanese had to discard many old
+habits and prejudices, reform many defects of national character, and
+undergo many stages of moral and mental discipline before they could
+acclimatize themselves to the free atmosphere of representative
+institutions. This preparation required a period of little over two
+decades, and was effected not only through political discipline, but
+by corresponding development in the moral, intellectual, social, and
+industrial life of the nation.
+
+I remarked in the beginning that the political activity of a nation is
+not isolated from other spheres of its activities, but that there is a
+mutual interchange of action and reaction among the different factors
+of social life, so that to trace the political life of a nation it is
+not only necessary to describe the organ through which it acts, the
+governmental machinery, and the methods by which it is worked, but
+to know "the forces which move it and direct its course." Now these
+forces are political as well as non-political. This truth is now
+generally acknowledged by constitutional writers. Thus, the English
+author of "The American Commonwealth" devotes over one-third of his
+second volume to the account of non-political institutions, and says
+"there are certain non-political institutions, certain aspects of
+society, certain intellectual or spiritual forces which count for
+so much in the total life of the country, in the total impression it
+makes and the hopes for the future which it raises, that they cannot
+be left unnoticed."[1]
+
+If this be the case in the study of the American commonwealth, it is
+more so in that of Japanese politics. For nowhere else in the history
+of nations do we see "non-political institutions" exerting such a
+powerful influence upon the body politic as in New Japan. In this
+chapter we shall therefore note briefly the growth of so-called
+"non-political institutions" during a period of about a decade and
+a half, between 1868 and 1881, and mark their influence upon the
+development of representative ideas.
+
+
+I.--MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.
+
+1. Telegraph. At the time of the Restoration there was no telegraph
+in operation, and "for expresses the only available means were men and
+horses." In 1868 the government began to construct telegraphs, and
+the report of the Bureau of Statistics in 1881 shows the following
+increase in each successive year:
+
+           Telegraph          Number
+  Year.    Offices. Miles.    of Telegrams.
+                    Ri Cho.
+  1869-1871  8         26.04    19,448
+  1872      29         33.11    80,639
+  1873      40      1,099.00   186,448
+  1874      57      1,333.20   356,539
+  1875      94      1,904.32   611,866
+  1876     100      2,214.07   680,939
+  1877     122      2,827.08 1,045,442
+  1878     147      3,380.05 1,272,756
+  1879     195      3,842.31 1,935,320
+  1880     195      4,484.30 2,168,201
+
+All the more important towns in the country were thus made able to
+communicate with one another as early as 1880.
+
+In 1879 Japan joined the International Telegraph Convention, and since
+then she can communicate easily with the great powers of the world
+through the great submarine cable system. "Compared with the state of
+ten years ago, when the ignorant people cut down the telegraph poles
+and severed the wires," exclaims Count Okuma, "we seem rather to have
+made a century's advance."
+
+2. Postal System. "Previous to the Restoration," to quote further
+from Count Okuma, "with the exception of the posts sent by the Daimios
+from their residences at the capital to their territories, there
+was no regularly established post for the general public and private
+convenience. Letters had to be sent by any opportunity that occurred,
+and a single letter cost over 25 sen for a distance of 150 ri. But
+since the Restoration the government for the first time established
+a general postal service, and in 1879 the length of postal lines was
+15,700 ri (nearly 40,000 English miles), and a letter can at any time
+be sent for two sen to any part of the country. In 1874 we entered
+the International Postal Convention, and have thus obtained great
+facilities for communicating with foreign countries."[2]
+
+3. Railroad. The first railway Japan ever saw was the model railway
+constructed by Commodore Perry to excite the curiosity of the people.
+But it was not until 1870 that the railroad was really introduced into
+Japan. The first rail was laid on the road between Tokio and Yokohama.
+This road was opened in 1872. It is 18 miles long. The second line was
+constructed in 1876, and runs between Hiogo and Kioto via Osako. And
+the year 1880 saw the opening of the railroad between Kioto and Otsu.
+This line between Hiogo and Otsu is 58 miles long. So at the end of
+the period which we are surveying Japan had a railway system of 31 ri
+and 5 cho (about 78 English miles).
+
+This was nothing but a child-play compared with the railroad activity
+which the later years brought forth, for now we have a railway system
+extending over one thousand two hundred miles. But this concerns the
+later period, so we shall not dwell upon it at present.
+
+4. Steamers and the coasting trade. In 1871 the number of ships
+of foreign build was only 74, but by 1878 they had reached 377. The
+number of vessels of native build in 1876 was 450,000, and in 1878 had
+reached 460,000.[3]
+
+"Since the Restoration the use of steamers has daily increased,
+and the inland sea, the lakes and large rivers are now constantly
+navigated by small steamers employed in the carrying trade."
+
+With the increased facility of communication, commerce and trade
+were stimulated. In 1869 the total amount of imports and exports was
+33,680,000 yen, and in 1879 64,120,000 yen. Imports had grown from
+20,780,000 yen to 36,290,000 yen, and exports from 12,909,000 yen to
+27,830,000 yen; in the one case showing an advance from 2 to 3-1/2, in
+the other from 2 to 5.[4]
+
+
+II.--EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
+
+Previous to the Restoration, the schools supported by Daimios and
+the private schools were few in number; but since that epoch the
+educational system has been vastly improved, with a resulting increase
+in the number of schools and pupils. In 1878, of high, middle, and
+primary schools there were altogether 27,600, with 68,000 teachers and
+2,319,000 pupils.[5] The following table shows the comparative history
+of educational institutions within three years, 1878-1880 (inclusive):
+
+                          Teachers.                Pupils.
+  Year. Institutions.   Male.   Female.        Male.    Female.
+  1878    27,672       66,309     2,374    1,715,425    610,214
+  1879    29,362       71,757     2,803    1,771,641    608,205
+  1880    30,799       74,747     2,923    1,844,564    605,781
+
+Furthermore, hundreds of students went abroad yearly, and returning,
+powerfully influenced the destiny of their country.
+
+
+III.--NEWSPAPERS.
+
+It was in 1869 that the Emperor sanctioned the publication of
+newspapers. Magazines, journals, periodicals and newspapers sprung up
+in a night. The number of newspapers published in 1882 was about 113,
+and of miscellaneous publications about 133. It is to be noted that
+the newspapers defied the old censorship of prohibition under very
+sanguinary pains and penalties. Their circulation increased every
+year. The total newspaper circulation in 1874 was but 8,470,269,
+while in 1877 it was 33,449,529. In his consular report of 1882,
+Consul-General Van Buren makes an approximate estimate of the annual
+aggregate circulation of a dozen noted papers of Tokio to be not less
+than 29,000,000 copies.[6]
+
+The publication of books and translations kept pace with the growth
+of newspapers. Observing the effects of these literary activities, Mr.
+Griffis well says: "It is the writer's firm belief, after nearly four
+years of life in Japan, mingling among the progressive men of the
+empire, that the reading and study of books printed in the Japanese
+language have done more to transform the Japanese mind and to develop
+an impulse in the direction of modern civilization than any other
+cause or series of causes."
+
+Meanwhile, great changes were affecting law and religion. Here it
+is sufficient to observe that the old law which had been hitherto
+altogether arbitrary--either the will of the Emperor or of the
+Shogun--was revised on the model of the Napoleonic code and soon
+published throughout the land. The use of torture to obtain testimony
+was wholly and forever abolished.
+
+With the incoming of Western science and Christianity, old faiths
+began to lose their hold upon the people. The new religion spread
+yearly. Missionary schools were instituted in several parts of the
+country. Christian churches were built in almost all of the large
+cities and towns, and their number increased constantly. Missionaries
+and Christian schools had no inconsiderable influence in changing the
+ideas of the people.
+
+Such, in brief, have been the changes in the industrial, social and
+religious condition of Japan from 1868 to 1881. After this study we
+shall not much wonder at the remarkable political change of Japan
+during the same period, which I shall endeavor to describe in the next
+chapter.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The American Commonwealth, Bryce, Vol. I., p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A Survey of Financial Policy during Thirteen Years
+(1868-1880), by Count Okuma.]
+
+[Footnotes 3, 4, 5: Count Okuma's pamphlet.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Consular Report of the U.S., No. 25, p. 182.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PROGRESS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL MOVEMENT FROM THE ABOLITION OF
+FEUDALISM TO THE PROCLAMATION OF OCTOBER 12, 1881.
+
+
+The leaders of the Restoration were of an entirely different type from
+the court nobles of former days. They were, with a few exceptions,
+men of humble origin. They had raised themselves from obscurity to the
+highest places of the state by sheer force of native ability. They had
+studied much and travelled far. Their experiences were diverse; they
+had seen almost every phase of society. If they were now drinking the
+cup of glory, most of them had also tasted the bitterness of exile,
+imprisonment, and fear of death. Patriotic, sagacious, and daring,
+they combined the rare qualities of magnanimity and urbanity. If
+they looked with indifference upon private morality, they were keenly
+sensitive to the feeling of honor and to public morals. If they made
+mistakes and did not escape the charge of inconsistency in their
+policy, these venial faults were, for the most part, due to the
+rapidly changing conditions of the country. No other set of statesmen
+of Japan or of any other country, ancient or modern, have witnessed
+within their lifetime so many social and political transformations.
+They saw the days when feudalism flourished--the grandeur of its
+rulers, its antique chivalry, its stately etiquette, its ceremonial
+costumes, its codes of honor, its rigid social order, formal
+politeness, and measured courtesies. They also saw the days when
+all these were swept away and replaced by the simplicity and stir of
+modern life. They accordingly "have had to cast away every tradition,
+every habit, and every principle and mode of action with which even
+the youngest of them had to begin official life."
+
+The ranks of this noble body of statesmen and reformers are now
+gradually diminishing. Saigo and Gesho are no more. Kido and Iwakura
+have been borne to their graves. Okubo and Mori have fallen under the
+sword of fanatics. But, thanks be to God, many of them yet remain and
+bear the burdens of the day.
+
+I have mentioned in Chapter III. the overthrow of feudalism and
+its causes. Its immediate effect on the nation, in unifying their
+thoughts, customs, and habits, was most remarkable. From this time
+we see the marked growth of common sentiment, common manners, common
+interest among the people, together with a love of peace and order.
+
+While the government at home was thus tearing down the old framework
+of state, the Iwakura Embassy in foreign lands was gathering materials
+for the new. This was significant, inasmuch as five of the best
+statesmen of the time, with their staff of forty-four able men, came
+into association for over a year with western peoples, and beheld in
+operation their social, political and religious institutions. These
+men became fully convinced that "the wealth, the power, and the
+happiness of a people," as President Grant told them, "are advanced
+by the encouragement of trade and commercial intercourse with other
+powers, by the elevation and dignity of labor, by the practical
+adaptation of science to the manufactures and the arts, by increased
+facilities of frequent and rapid communication between different parts
+of the country, by the encouragement of immigration, which brings with
+it the varied habits and diverse genius and industry of other lands,
+by a free press, by freedom of thought and of conscience, and a
+liberal toleration in matters of religion."[1]
+
+The impressions and opinions of these men on the importance of a free
+and liberal policy can be gleaned from the speeches they made during
+the western tour, and some of their writings and utterances on other
+occasions.
+
+The chief ambassador, Iwakura, in reply to a toast made to him in
+England, said: "Having now become more intimately acquainted with her
+(England's) many institutions, we have discovered that their success
+is due to the _liberal_ and energetic spirit by which they are
+animated."[2]
+
+Count Ito, the present President of the Privy Council, in his speech
+at San Francisco, said: "While held in absolute obedience by despotic
+sovereigns through many thousand years, our people knew no freedom
+or liberty of thought. With our material improvement they learned to
+understand their rightful privileges, which for ages have been denied
+them."[3]
+
+Count Inouye, the ex-Minister of State for Agriculture and Commerce,
+in his memorial to the government in 1873, said: "The people of
+European and American countries are for the most part rich in
+intelligence and knowledge, and they preserve the spirit of
+independence. And owing to the nature of their polity they share in
+the counsels of their government. Government and people thus mutually
+aid and support each other, as hand and foot protect the head and eye.
+The merits of each question that arises are distinctly comprehended
+by the nation at home, and the government is merely its outward
+representative. But our people are different. Accustomed for ages to
+despotic rule, they have remained content with their prejudices and
+ignorance. Their knowledge and intelligence are undeveloped and their
+spirit is feeble. In every movement of their being they submit to the
+will of the government, and have not the shadow of an idea of what 'a
+right' is. If the government makes an order, the whole country obeys
+it as one man. If the government takes a certain view, the whole
+nation adopts it unanimously.... The people must be recalled to life,
+and the Empire be made to comprehend with clearness that the objects
+which the government has in view are widely different from those of
+former times."[4]
+
+If the passages quoted illustrate statesmen's zeal to introduce
+western civilization, and to educate the people gradually to political
+freedom and privileges, their actions speak more eloquently than their
+words. In order to crush that social evil, the class system, which
+for ages had been a curse, the government declared all classes of men
+equal before the law, delivered the _eta_--the class of outcasts--from
+its position of contempt, abolished the marriage limitations existing
+between different classes of society, prohibited the wearing of
+swords, which was the peculiar privilege of the nobles and the
+Samurai; while to facilitate means of communication and to open the
+eyes of the people to the wonders of mechanical art, they incessantly
+applied themselves to the construction of railroads, docks,
+lighthouses, mining, iron, and copper factories, and to the
+establishment of telegraphic and postal systems. They also codified
+the laws, abolished the use of torture in obtaining testimony,
+revoked the edict against Christianity, sanctioned the publication of
+newspapers, established by the decree of 1875 the "Genro-in (a kind
+of Senate) to enact laws for the Empire, and the Daishin-in to
+consolidate the judicial authority of the courts,"[5] and called an
+assembly of the prefects, which, however, held but one session in
+Tokio.
+
+While the current of thought among the official circles was thus
+flowing, there was also a stream, in the lower region of the social
+life, soon to swell into a mighty river. Social inequality, that
+barrier which prevents the flow of popular feeling, being already
+levelled, merchants, agriculturists, tradesmen, artisans and laborers
+were now set at liberty to assert their rights and to use their
+talents. They were no longer debarred from places of high honor.
+
+The great colleges and schools, both public and private, which were
+hitherto established and carried on exclusively for the benefit of the
+nobles and the Samurai, were now open to all. And in this democracy
+of letters, where there is no rank or honor but that of talent and
+industry, a sentiment was fast growing that the son of a Daimio is not
+necessarily wiser than the son of a peasant.
+
+Teachers of these institutions were not slow to infuse the spirit of
+independence and liberty into their pupils and to instruct the people
+in their natural and political rights. Mr. Fukuzawa, a schoolmaster,
+an author, and a lecturer, the man who exercised an immense influence
+in shaping the mind of young Japan, gave a deathblow to the old ideas
+of despotic government, and of the blind obedience of the people, when
+he declared that _government exists for the people and not the people
+for the government_, that the government officials are the servants of
+the people, and the people their employer. He also struck a heavy blow
+at the arrogance and extreme love of military glory of the Samurai
+class, with whom to die for the cause of his sovereign, whatever that
+cause might be, was the highest act of patriotism, by advocating that
+"Death is a democrat, and that the Samurai who died fighting for his
+country, and the servant who was slain while caught stealing from his
+master, were alike dead and useless."
+
+In a letter to one of his disciples, Mr. Fukuzawa said: "The liberty
+of which I have spoken is of such great importance that everything
+should be done to secure its blessings in the family and in the
+nation, without any respect to persons. When every individual, every
+family and every province shall obtain this liberty, then, and not
+till then, can we expect to witness the true independence of the
+nation; then the military, the farming, the mechanical, and mercantile
+classes will not live in hostility to each other; then peace will
+reign throughout the land, and all men will be respected according to
+their conduct and real character."[6]
+
+The extent of the influence exercised with pen and tongue by these
+teachers upon the nation showed that the reign of sword and brutal
+force was over and the day of peace and reason had dawned. The
+press has at last become a power. The increase during that period of
+publications, both original and translations, and of newspapers,
+both in their number and circulation, is marvellous. To give an
+illustration, the number of newspapers transmitted in the mails
+increased from 514,610 in the year 1873 to 2,629,648 in the year
+1874--an increase of 411 per cent in one year--"a fact which speaks
+volumes for the progress of civilization."[7]
+
+These newspapers were soon to become the organs of political parties
+which were in the process of formation. The most prominent among these
+political societies was the _Ri-shi-sha_, which finally developed
+into the present Liberal party. At the head of this party was Count
+Itagaki, a man of noble character and of marked ability, who had
+rendered many useful services to the country in the time of the
+Restoration and had for some years been a member of the cabinet, but
+who in 1875 resigned his office and became "the man of the people." He
+and his party contributed greatly to the development of constitutional
+ideas. Whatever may be said as to the extreme radicalism and childish
+freaks of the rude elements of this party, the presence of its sober
+members, who sincerely longed to see the adoption of a constitutional
+form of government and used only proper and peaceful means for the
+furtherance of their aim, and boldly and frankly told what they deemed
+the defects of the government; the presence of such a party in the
+country, whose masses knew nothing but slavish obedience to every
+act of the government, was certainly a source of great benefit to the
+nation at large.
+
+In 1873, Count Itagaki with his friends had sent in a memorial to the
+government praying for the establishment of a representative assembly,
+but they had not been heeded by the government. In July, 1877, Count
+Itagaki with his Ri-shi-sha again addressed a memorial to the Emperor,
+"praying for a change in the form of government, and setting forth the
+reasons which, in the opinion of the members of the society, rendered
+such a change necessary."
+
+These reasons were nine in number and were developed at great length.
+Eight of them formed a direct impeachment of the present government,
+and the ninth was a reminder that the solemn promise of 1868 had never
+been fulfilled. "Nothing," they conclude, "could more tend to the
+well-being of the country than for your Majesty to put an end to all
+despotic and oppressive measures, and to consult public opinion in
+the conduct of the government. To this end a representative
+assembly should be established, so that the government may become
+constitutional in form. The people would then become more interested
+and zealous in looking after the affairs of the country; public
+opinion would find expression, and despotism and confusion cease. The
+nation would advance in civilization; wealth would accumulate in the
+country; troubles from within and contempt from without would cease,
+and the happiness of your Imperial Majesty and of your Majesty's
+subjects would be secured."
+
+But again the government heeded not, its attention at the time being
+fully occupied with the suppression of the Satsuma Rebellion. The
+civil war being ended, in 1878, the year which marked a decade from
+the establishment of the new regime, the government, persuaded that
+the time for popular institutions was fast approaching, not alone
+through representations of the Tosa memorialists, but through many
+other signs of the times, decided to take a step in the direction of
+establishing a national assembly. But the government acted cautiously.
+Thinking that to bring together hundreds of members unaccustomed to
+parliamentary debate and its excitement, and to allow them a hand in
+the administration of affairs of the state, might be attended with
+serious dangers, as a preparation for the national assembly the
+government established first local assemblies. Certainly this was a
+wise course.
+
+These local assemblies have not only been good training schools for
+popular government, but also proved reasonably successful. They hold
+their sessions every year, in the month of March, in their respective
+electoral districts, and there discuss all questions of local
+taxation. They may also petition the central government on other
+matters of local interest. The members must be males of the full age
+of twenty-five years, who have been resident for three years in the
+district and pay the sum of $10 as a land tax within their district.
+The qualifications for electors (males only) are: an age of twenty
+years, registration, and payment of a land tax of $5. Voting is by
+ballot, but the names of the voters are to be written by themselves on
+the voting papers. There are now 2172 members who sit in these local
+assemblies, and it was from the more experienced members of
+these assemblies that the majority of the members of the House of
+Representatives of the Imperial Diet, convened for the first time last
+year, were chosen.
+
+The gulf between absolute government and popular government was thus
+widened more and more by the institution of local government. The
+popular tide raised by these local assemblies was swelling in volume
+year by year. New waves were set in motion by the younger generation
+of thinkers. Toward the close of the year 1881 the flood rose so high
+that the government thought it wise not to resist longer. His Imperial
+Majesty hearing the petitions of the people, graciously confirmed and
+expanded his promise of 1868 by the famous proclamation of October 12,
+1881:
+
+"We have long had it in view to gradually establish a constitutional
+form of government.... It was with this object in view that in the
+eighth year of Meiji (1875) we established the Senate, and in the
+eleventh year of Meiji (1878) authorized the formation of local
+assemblies.... We therefore hereby declare that we shall, in the
+twenty-third year of Meiji (1890) establish a parliament, in order
+to carry into full effect the determination we have announced; and we
+charge our faithful subjects bearing our commissions to make, in the
+meantime, all necessary preparations to that end."
+
+
+[Footnote 1: C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Mossman's New Japan, p. 442.]
+
+[Footnote 3: C. Lanman, The Japanese in America, p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The translation of the whole memorial is given in C.
+Lanman's Leading Men of Japan, p. 87.]
+
+[Footnote 5: The Imperial decree of 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The translation given in C. Lanman, Leading Men of Japan.
+p. 47.]
+
+[Footnote 7: See the Appendix of Griffis' The Mikado's Empire.]
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
+JAPAN 1863-1881***
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