diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/12228.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/12228.txt | 3240 |
1 files changed, 3240 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/12228.txt b/old/12228.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..666fa9a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12228.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3240 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Home Geography For Primary Grades + +Author: C. C. Long + +Release Date: May 1, 2004 [EBook #12228] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME GEOGRAPHY FOR PRIMARY GRADES *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Ben Courtney and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + + + + + HOME GEOGRAPHY + FOR + PRIMARY GRADES + + BY + C. C. LONG, Ph.D. + + AUTHOR OF NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS, LESSONS IN ENGLISH, ETC., + + + +TO THE TEACHER. + +Geography may be divided into the geography of the home and the +geography of the world at large. A knowledge of the home must be +obtained by direct observation; of the rest of the world, through the +imagination assisted by information. Ideas acquired by direct +observation form a basis for imagining those things which are distant +and unknown. + +The first work, then, in geographical instruction, is to study that +small part of the earth's surface lying just at our doors. All around +are illustrations of lake and river, upland and lowland, slope and +valley. These forms must be actually observed by the pupil, mental +pictures obtained, in order that he may be enabled to build up in his +mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms. The hill that he +climbs each day may, by an appeal to his imagination, represent to him +the lofty Andes or the Alps. From the meadow, or the bit of level land +near the door, may be developed a notion of plain and prairie. The +little stream that flows past the schoolhouse door, or even one formed +by the sudden shower, may speak to him of the Mississippi, the Amazon, +or the Rhine. Similarly, the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from +that of pond or lake. Thus, after the pupil has acquired elementary +ideas by actual perception, the imagination can use them in +constructing, on a larger scale, mental pictures of similar objects +outside the bounds of his own experience and observation. + +To effect this, the teacher should visit with her class places where the +simpler geographical features in miniature may be observed. If the +school is in the city, pupils may be taken to the parks for this +purpose. If out-of-door study be impossible, they may be induced to +recall objects which they have seen on their way to school or on short +excursions in the neighborhood. In the case of children who have little +opportunity for observing nature, a drawing, a photograph, or a model +will be helpful in giving them a proper idea of the matter. It must not +be forgotten, however, that actual observation by the pupil is necessary +to seeing clearly and intelligently. + +Vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography of the +world, and considerable time should be given to the study of those +within the observation of the pupils. Information concerning plants may +be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in boxes and having +pupils carefully watch their germination and growth. + +Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and +rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for use, +not for show. + +The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at appropriate +times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy day a lesson +about snow. No attempt should be made at "science" teaching, so-called. +All that should be sought is to get the pupil thoughtfully to observe, +and thus to awaken his interest in the world about him. + +Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most +pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of the +teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart information. +The attention of the child should be directed to what lies around him. +He must observe, and think, and express his thoughts. Nor should his +observations be confined to the school and school hours. He should be +encouraged to obtain his information by his own searching, without +guidance, and report the results. + +The development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by expression. +"Expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge." Hence, the child +should be required to reproduce what he has learned. He may do this by +modeling, drawing, and oral and written description. These are placed in +the order which should be followed in the training of children. + +The inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of +development is to make, in some plastic material, what he has seen. +Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar +excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be +followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the forms +seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of the various +forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be developed as they +are molded. The memorizing of definitions should seldom be required, and +should never be made a test of the pupil's knowledge. + +Reproduction by the hand should be followed by drawing, whenever this +can be done. Drawing teaches the child how to see well. It often enables +him to reveal what could not well be expressed in words. He also becomes +ready and rapid in the use of the pencil when he has ideas to put on +paper. Only reasonable accuracy should be required. Practice in making +fine pictures should not be the end sought, but the development of +geographical ideas. + +Finally, pupils should be led to give clear and connected statements of +what has been learned. For a language lesson, a written description may +be prepared, illustrated by a drawing. + + + + +CONTENTS. + +I.--POSITION + +II.--HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION + +III.--HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION + +IV.--HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION + +V.--QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION + +VI.--WHAT THE WINDS BRING (POEM) + +VII.--HOW TO TELL DISTANCE + +VIII.--PICTURES AND PLANS + +IX.--WRITTEN EXERCISE + +X.--GOD MADE THEM ALL (POEM) + +XI.--PLAINS + +XII.--HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS + +XIII.--RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW + +XIV.--HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR + +XV.--HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER + +XVI.--DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN + +XVII.--THE FAIRY ARTIST (POEM) + +XVIII.--HOW RIVERS ARE MADE + +XIX.--MORE ABOUT RIVERS + +XX.--THE BROOK (POEM) + +XXI.--WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS + +XXII.--WATERDROP'S STORY + +XXIII.--THE RIVER (POEM) + +XXIV.--A MAP + +XXV.--FORMS OF LAND AND WATER + +XXVI.--MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER + +XXVII.--A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS + +XXVIII.--SPRING (POEM) + +XXIX.--USEFUL VEGETABLES + +XXX.--USEFUL GRAINS + +XXXI.--FRUITS + +XXXII.--USEFUL PLANTS + +XXXIII.--FOREST TREES + +XXXIV.--FLOWERS + +XXXV.--WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW + +XXXVI.--SUMMER RAIN (POEM) + +XXXVII.--THE PARTS OF ANIMALS + +XXXVIII.--THE COVERING OF ANIMALS + +XXXIX.--USES OF ANIMALS + +XL.--THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS (POEM) + +XLI.--THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH + +XLII.--MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH + +XLIII.--HOW PEOPLE LIVE, AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING + +XLIV.--MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING + +XLV.--A REVIEW LESSON + + + +Home Geography. + + + + +LESSON I. + +POSITION. + +Lay your hands upon your desk, side by side. + +Which side shall we call the right side? The left side? + +Put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from you. +That part is the back of your desk. + +Think which is the front of your desk. Put your hands on the front of +your desk. + +Who sits on your right hand? On your left? At the desk in front of you? +At the desk behind you? + +Turn round. Who is on your right now? On your left? Before you? Behind +you? + +Turn again. Who is now on your right? On your left? Before you? Behind +you? + +NOTE.--Lead children to see that the terms _right, left, front_, and +_back_ are of little use in telling the position of places, and that +some fixed standard of direction is necessary. + + + + +LESSON II. + +HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION. + +If I should ask, "Which is the way to your home?" who could tell me what +I mean? + +You all know which way you must go to find your home, but if you should +wish to go to a place where you have never been, you would ask, perhaps, +"Which way is it?" + +[Illustration: "THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION."] + +The way to a place is called _direction_. In order to find a place, we +must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have names for +directions, such as _north_, _south_, _east_, and _west_. We may know +these directions by seeing where the sun is. + +Did you ever see the sun rise? Point to the place where you saw the sun +rise. The direction in which the sun seems to rise is called the _east_. + +Did you ever see the sun set? Point to where you saw the sun set. The +direction in which the sun seems to set is called the _west_. The west +is just the opposite direction from east. + +When do we see the sun rise? Where do we see the sun rise? What is the +name of this direction? When do we see the sun set? Where do we see it +set? What is the name of this direction? On which side of the schoolroom +does the sun rise? On which side does it set? Which is the east side of +your desk? Which the west side? + +When coming to school this morning, in what direction did you see the +sun? If we walk so that the morning sun shines in our faces, in what +direction are we going? What direction is behind us? + +Now that you know the east, you will be able to find other directions in +this way: Stretch out your arms so that your right hand points toward +the east, and your left hand toward the west. You are now facing the +_north_. The direction behind you is the _south_. + +[Illustration: "YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH."] + +_Write the following on your slates:_ + +The sun seems to rise toward the east, and set toward the west. The west +is just the opposite direction from the east. + +When my right hand is pointing to the east, and my left hand to the +west, my face is toward the north and my back is toward the south. + + +ORAL EXERCISES. + +Which is the north side of the schoolroom? Which is the south side? Who +sits to the north of you? To the south? + +In what direction do the pupils face? On which side of your schoolroom +is the teacher's table? Which sides have no windows? Which sides have no +doors? + +If a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side, which side of +the room faces the fire? Suppose the wind is blowing from the north, in +what direction will the smoke go? + +In what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground? + +What is the first street or road north of the school? The first street +or road east? South? West? + +In what direction is your home from the school? The school from your +home? The nearest church from the school? The post office from your +home? + + + + +LESSON III. + +HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION. + +You have learned how to tell north, south, east, and west by the sun; +but how can we tell these directions at night? + +Ask some one to point out to you a group of seven bright stars in the +north part of the sky. Some people think that this group of stars looks +like a wagon and three horses; others say that it looks like a plow. + +[Illustration: THE GREAT BEAR.] + +The proper name of the group containing these seven stars is the Great +Bear. The group was given this name because men at first thought it +looked like a bear with a long tail. + +These seven stars are called the Dipper. It is a part of a larger group +called the Great Bear. Find the two bright twinkling stars farthest from +its handle. A line drawn through them will point to another star, not +quite so bright, called the North Star. That star is always in the +north; so by it, on a clear night, you can tell the other directions at +once. + +_Write on your slates_: + +Sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at the +North Star. + + + + +LESSON IV. + +HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION. + +But there are times when it is cloudy, and neither the sun nor the stars +can be seen. How can we tell direction then? + +Have you ever seen a compass? It is a box in which is a little needle +swinging on the top of a pin. When this needle is at rest, one end of it +_points to the north_. + +[Illustration: A COMPASS.] + +As the needle shows where the north is; it is easy to find the south, +the east, or the west. + +With the compass as a guide, the sailor, in the darkest night, can tell +in what direction he is going. + +North, south, east, and west are called the _chief points_ of the +compass. + +Other directions are northeast, halfway between north and east; +northwest, halfway between north and west; southeast, halfway between +south and east; and southwest, halfway between south and west. + +[Illustration: POINTS OF THE COMPASS.] + +_Write on your slates:_ + +The chief points of the compass are north, south, east, and west. + +Other directions are northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest. + +Sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the compass. + + + + +LESSON V. + +QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION. + +Your teacher will give you time to discover answers to these questions. +She could tell you, but it is better to find them out for yourself. + +If I go out of doors, how can I find the north? How can I find it on a +starlight night? How can I find it on pleasant days? How on rainy days? +How does a sailor find the north? + +If you were lost and knew your home was north, how would you find it? Do +you know how hunters and Indians who live a great deal in the woods find +out where the north is? When you are in the woods, notice the amount of +moss on the north side of trees as compared to that on the south side. + +As winter approaches; many of our birds will want to go to a warmer +country; in what direction will they fly? Point to where ice and snow +have their home. What direction is that? + +In what direction does your shadow fall at sunrise? At sunset? At noon? +When, during the day, is your shadow shortest? + +[Illustration: "IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL?"] + +In what direction does your shadow extend from yourself when it is +shortest? + +What time of day is noon? How can we tell when it is noon? When is the +sun highest in the sky? + +[Illustration: "WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE SMOKE?"] + +What may we discover by watching the direction of the smoke from the +chimneys? What does a vane on a steeple tell us? What is a north wind? A +south wind? An east wind? A west wind? + +What kind of weather may be expected from a north wind? From a south +wind? From an east wind? From a west wind? + + + + +LESSON VI. + +WHAT THE WINDS BRING. + + Comes the north wind, snowflakes bringing: + Robes the fields in purest white, + Paints grand houses, trees, and mountains + On our window-panes at night. + + Hills and vales the east wind visits, + Brings them chilly, driving rain; + Shivering cattle homeward hurry, + Onward through the darkening lane. + + Heat the south wind kindly gives us; + Reddens apples, gilds the pear, + Gives the grape a richer purple, + Scatters plenty everywhere. + + Flowers sweet the west wind offers, + Peeping forth from vines and trees; + Brings the butterflies so brilliant, + And the busy, humming bees. + + Each wind brings his own best treasure + To our land from year to year; + Blessings many without measure + E'er attend the winds' career. + +Lillian Cox. + + + "Whichever way the wind doth blow. + Some heart is glad to have it so; + And blow it east or blow it west, + The wind that blows, that wind is best." + +_Write_ all that you can tell about the wind. + +What was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm? Why is +the north wind cold? Why is the south wind warm? + + + + +LESSON VII. + +HOW TO TELL DISTANCE. + +To tell where a place is, we must know its direction. But this is not +all; we must also know how far it is from us; that is; its _distance_. +To find this out we measure. + +You have often heard of an _inch_, a _foot_, and a _yard_. This line is +one inch long |--------|. Your ruler is twelve inches long, that is a +foot. Three lengths of your ruler make a yard. A yard stick is three +feet long. + +[Illustration: MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES.] + +With these measures you can tell how long your slate or your desk is, or +how long and wide the schoolroom is. + +The inch, foot, and yard are used for measuring short distances. But +when we wish to tell the distance between objects far apart, we use +another measure called a _mile_. A mile is much longer than a yard. + +Think of some object that is a mile from our schoolhouse. How long would +it take you to walk that distance? + +[Illustration: MEASURING LONG DISTANCES.] + + +ORAL EXERCISES. + +How many inches long is your slate? How long is your desk? How many feet +long is your room? How wide is it? What is the distance around the room? +How many feet wide is each window? Each door? How many yards wide is the +nearest street or road? + +About what is the height of the schoolroom? Of the schoolhouse? Of the +tallest tree near by? Of the nearest church spire? + +About how long is the longest street in the town where you live? Do you +know how many blocks or squares make a mile? Name the nearest river or +creek. Give its direction from the school. In what direction does the +water run? Give the direction and distance of the nearest church. What +must you know to go to any place? + +NOTE.--Have pupils estimate distances by the eye, then verify by actual +measurement. Continue the exercises until the work becomes quite +accurate. Correct ideas of distance are necessary in order to understand +how large the world is, and how far apart places are on its surface. + + + + +LESSON VIII. + +PICTURES AND PLANS. + +You all know what a picture is. But do you know what a plan is? + +A little boy wanted to show his cousin, who lived some miles away; the +shape and size of his house, and how the rooms were arranged. How could +he do this? + +On a large sheet of white paper, he placed lines of blocks in the form +of his house. Then, with a lead pencil, he drew a line on the paper +along the sides of the blocks. He next took up the blocks, and there, on +the paper, was a plan of his house. + +[Illustration: "THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS."] + +Here is a picture of a schoolroom. We see desks, the teacher's table, a +chair, a clock, globe, and two maps, in the picture. The picture shows +these objects as they would appear if we stood at the door behind the +teacher's table and looked in. + +This is a plan of the schoolroom, a picture of which is shown above. +You see, the plan and picture are quite different. + +[Illustration: "THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE."] + +The picture shows the objects as we see them before us. The plan shows +where the objects are, and their direction from one another. + +Now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the +blackboard. + +The first thing is to measure the sides of the room. We will suppose the +two long sides are each forty feet long, and the two short sides each +thirty feet long. Now we will draw four straight lines on the board for +the four sides. Of course, the lines must be much shorter than the sides +themselves, else our plan will be too large. + +Make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room. So the lines +for the long sides will each be forty inches long, and the lines for the +short sides thirty inches long. + +The next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the +windows, and oblongs for the desks. But we must remember that an inch in +our plan stands for a foot in the object itself, and therefore we must +allow as many inches for the width of doors and windows, and for the +length and width of the desks, as there are feet in the objects +themselves. Thus, if the door is three feet wide, we must make it three +inches wide in our plan. + +And lastly, we will draw a circle for the globe, and an oblong and +square for the teacher's table and chair, that shall show just where and +just how long these objects are. + +We have now a _plan_ of the schoolroom. Let us put N. to show the north +side of the room, S. to show the south side, E. to show the east side, +and W. to show the west side. We can now tell the direction of one thing +from another in our plan. + + + + +LESSON IX. + +WRITTEN EXERCISE. + +[Illustration: PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.] + +_Write_ the answers to the following questions, in full sentences: + +What is the name of your school? On what street or road is it? Which +side of the street? Between what streets? In which direction does the +building face? + +[Illustration: PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.] + +How many rooms has the building? In what part of the building is your +room? How large is it? How many doors and windows? How many seats? + +In what direction is the school from your home? How far is it? How long +does it take you to walk to school? + +EXERCISES IN DRAWING PLANS. + +Draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates. It cannot be drawn on your +slates as large as it was drawn on the board. So let one inch stand for +ten feet, instead of for one foot; that is, use a _scale_ of one inch +for every ten feet. Your plan will not be as large as mine, but it will +show the position of everything as correctly. + +Draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table, showing two books and an +inkstand upon it. First, measure the sides. Then decide to what scale +you will draw your plan. + +Now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds. You must measure not +only the house, but the width and length of the yard. The plan must show +the size, shape, and place of everything upon the grounds. (While +drawing a plan of this kind, it is better to let the pupils face the +north. The top of the plan should be the north side of the grounds.) + +Draw a plan of your own room at home, showing the table, bed, chairs, +and other objects in it. + + +ORAL EXERCISE. + +If the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard, what have we drawn? +Is a plan the same as a picture? What is the use of a plan? Mention some +things of which plans can be drawn. + +NOTE.--It is wrong to teach that the _top_ of a map or plan is _always_ +north; as often as not, the bottom is north, in plans especially. + + + + +LESSON X. + +GOD MADE THEM ALL. + +[Illustration: "THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING BY."] + + All things bright and beautiful, + All creatures great and small, + All things wise and wonderful, + The good God made them all. + + Each little flower that opens, + Each little bird that sings, + He made their glowing colors, + He made their tiny wings. + + The purple-headed mountain, + The river running by, + The morning and the sunset, + The twinkling stars on high; + + The tall trees in the greenwood, + The pleasant summer sun, + The ripe fruits in the garden-- + He made them every one. + + He gave us eyes to see them, + And lips that we might tell + How great is God Almighty, + Who hath made all things well. + + + + +LESSON XI. + +PLAINS. + +The floor of our schoolroom is level. The playground is almost, if not +quite, level. As you look away from the school, is the land nearly +level? Did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level land? + +Let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land, many, +many times larger than our playground. Such a broad, nearly level +stretch of land is called a _plain_. + +[Illustration: "SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A PLAIN."] + +If this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful flowers, +we should call it a _prairie_. In the summer it is a vast sea of waving +grass. On the prairie we might find herds of wild horses and cattle, +which feed upon the rich grass. If it were late in the summer, when the +grass is dry and crisp, it might catch fire, and we might then see a +grand sight--a prairie on fire. + +We now come to another plain, miles and miles long, miles and miles +wide. No rain falls here, and therefore we see no grass, nor flowers, +nor cattle, nor horses, nothing but dry, burning sand, rocks, or gravel. +We are in a _desert_. But we are so thirsty and tired! + +No water to drink, no shade from the burning sun! Suddenly, in the midst +of the desert, we come to a beautiful grassy spot. There is a cluster of +date-palm trees, and, better still, a well or a spring of fresh water. +This pleasant spot in the desert is called an _oasis_. Here we may +quench our thirst, and rest beneath the shade of the trees. + +[Illustration: "THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN OASIS."] + +An _oasis_ is a fertile spot in a desert. What does _fertile_ mean? When +do we say land is fertile? When barren? When desert? + +Find a picture of a palm tree, and try to draw it. + +If we were really in a desert, we might see a company of merchants +carrying goods to sell in the countries they visit. Such a company is +called a _caravan_. The goods are packed in bundles, which are carried +on camels' backs. The camel can live for a long time without drinking, +and can carry a heavy load of merchandise a long distance. It is +sometimes called the ship of the desert. + +Why do travelers use camels to cross the desert? Why do they not use +horses? If you can not find answers to these questions in your books at +home, ask your teacher about them. + +You have seen a small whirlwind in the street. The leaves flew round and +round, the dust whirled along in clouds. Trees are sometimes torn from +the ground, and houses overturned, by a strong wind. + +Now think of a wind-storm in the desert. A loud, rustling noise is +heard. Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds which +darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their camels, cover +themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the ground. + +The poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with their +backs to the wind until the storm has passed over. + +Thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the sand. + + + + +LESSON XII. + +HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS. + +The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is high and +uneven. We all know what a _hill_ is. It is land a little higher than +the surrounding country. + +Is there a hill near where you live? Let us walk to the _top_, and stand +on its _summit_. We will start from the _foot_ or _base_ of the hill. +Now we have climbed its steep, rough _sides_ or _slopes_. Was the ascent +difficult? Is the view from the top fine? + +[Illustration: "WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE HILL?"] + +What can you see from the top of the hill--meadow, river, lake, town? +What grow on the hill? What live on the hill? + +Which part of a hill is called the base, or foot? The slope, or sides? +The top, or summit? + +Give two names for the lowest part of a hill. Two for the highest part. +Two for the part between the highest and lowest parts. + +Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are +called _mountains_. Mountains are much higher than hills. Have you ever +seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A mountain is as high as twenty +such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high the mountains must +be! + +Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem to +touch the sky. A man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath his +feet, while the sun shone where he stood. When it lightened he saw the +flash far below him. + +Is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains? With what are many high +mountains covered, even in summer? + +The land between mountains or hills is called a _valley_. Is there a +valley near here? What do you call the ground on either side? + +Would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valley? Why? + +Are mountains of any use? + +Yes, hills and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth more +beautiful. Tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn the clouds +into drops of water which fall as rain or snow. Then mountains give rise +to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with grass and flowers. +Mountains do much good to some countries by keeping off cold winds. They +also give us coal and iron and other minerals which we find so useful. + +[Illustration: "THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN MOUNTAINS."] + +Here is a picture. What do you call the very high land on the right and +on the left? The long, narrow piece of land between the two mountains? + +When you look at this picture you must think of a real valley between +mountains. + +Bring pictures of hills and mountains to school; if you can find them. + +If you had a molding-board and a few quarts of sand; you might represent +hills and mountains with valleys between. Think of a real hill while you +mold. + +Draw on your slate a hill you have seen with a little of the surrounding +country. + +_Write:_ + +A long, narrow piece of land between hills and mountains is called a +valley. + +A hill is land a little higher than the country about it. + +A mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the country +about it. + + + + +LESSON XIII. + +RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW. + + Do you see the dropping rain, + Pitter-patter on the pane? + How it runs along the street! + And it wets our little feet; + But it makes the green grass grow, + And the tiny streamlets flow. + + Listen to the wintry blast + Moaning, shrieking, howling past, + Striking with tremendous force + Rocks and forests in its course; + But it blows the windmills strong, + And it sends big ships along. + + Watch the pretty snowflakes fall, + Some are large and some are small; + Look, they cover all the ground, + Miles of dazzling white around; + But this covering, I am told, + Keeps the earth from frost and cold. + + Ah! and I must work alway, + Life's not meant to spend in play; + Every moment's fleeting fast, + And our day will soon be past; + If our work is truly done, + It will last though ages run. + +Of what use is rain? Of what use is snow? Of what use is wind? + + + + +LESSON XIV. + +HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR. + +What happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove? + +The water gets hot and boils away. + +Where does it go? Is it destroyed? + +The water is changed, but it is not destroyed. Coal burns, but we do not +get rid of it altogether. It is changed into gas and smoke and ashes. + +What is the water changed into? + +It is changed to vapor. If we let the kettle remain on the fire long +enough, the water it contains will all pass away as vapor. + +Where does the vapor go? The water, though turned into vapor, must be +somewhere. + +It is floating about in the air of the room, though we cannot see it. +The air holds the vapor, just as a sponge holds water. + +Heat expands or swells air. Warm air, therefore, can contain more vapor +than cold air. On a warm day there may be many times as much moisture in +the air as on a cold day. + +Moisten your slate with a damp sponge. Observe the disappearance of the +moisture. + +Dip your hand in water, and wave it in the air. The water on your hand +disappears. Where has it gone? + +When wet clothes are hung on the line, they soon become dry. What +becomes of the water in the clothes? + +If we set a plate of water out in the sunshine, what happens? Is the +water lost? + +The streets and roads were wet and muddy, now they are dry. What has +become of the water? Has it all sunk into the ground? + +Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early in the +morning, When the sun shines out and warms the air; what happens? + +Why does vapor rise into the air? + +Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is +lighter than air; what do you think ought to happen to it? + + + + +LESSON XV. + +HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER, + +Heat, as you have learned, changes water into vapor. You must also know +that cold turns vapor back into water again. + +[Illustration: "THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING WATER."] + +Now let us think of the kettle with the boiling water. You will notice a +little space; quite close to the spout, where nothing can be seen. Is +there no vapor there? + +Yes, there is vapor there, but it cannot be seen; it is invisible. A +little way from the spout we see something white, like smoke. This is +only the vapor that has been chilled by the cool air and changed back +again into water. The water is in the form of very fine particles, and +may be called water-dust. + +Hold a cold plate over boiling water. Observe how the water-dust gathers +into drops that roll down the plate. + +You have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with +moisture. Where does it come from? Why did it form there? Why does it +sometimes run down on the cold pane? + +The vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings. Explain +this. + +Carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room, and notice what takes place. A +thin mist at once gathers on the outside of the pitcher. What takes +place among the little drops of mist? What becomes of these larger +drops? + +Where does the water which collects on the outside of the pitcher come +from? Does it come through the pitcher from the inside? Would the same +thing have taken place if some other cold object had been used instead +of a cold pitcher? + +_Write_ out what you have learned about vapor. + + + + +LESSON XVI. + +DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN. + +The sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the sea, +and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot see the +vapor; but it is in the air around us. + +If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing happens. +Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often seen, in the +early morning, little drops of water hanging like pearls upon the blades +of grass. + +Now, where do these drops come from? They come from the air. The vapor +in the air floats against the cold grass and leaves, and is cooled and +changed into tiny drops of water. We call this _dew_. + +Of what use is dew? + +If the night is quite cold, the dew will freeze. It is then called +frost. You have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful pictures +upon it. + +Make a picture of the window as you remember it, covered with the pretty +things made by the frost. + +[Illustration: "WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR."] + +When vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very small drops +of water or minute crystals of ice, and we can see it floating about in +the air. It is then called a _cloud_. Almost any clear day you may see +clouds form and then seem to melt away. + +You have seen on a blue sky, light, fleecy feather-clouds. They are very +high up, and it is very cold where they are. You have also noticed the +clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors. As the sun sank lower and +lower, how did they change, in shape and color? + +When clouds are low down, near the earth, we call them _fogs_ or _mist_. + +If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into large +drops and fall as _rain_. If the drops should freeze in falling, we +would call them _hail_. + +What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain? + +[Illustration: "HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A MICROSCOPE?"] + +Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes before +it forms into drops, and falls in the beautiful flakes we call _snow_. +Have you ever seen snowflakes through a microscope? + +Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in winter if +it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow? + +Observe the clouds; fog, rain, snow, dew, frost, and tell what you have +noticed. + +_Write_ what you have _seen_ or _noticed_ about vapor, clouds, rain, +etc. + + + + +LESSON XVII. + +THE FAIRY ARTIST. + + Oh, there is a little artist + Who paints in the cold night hours + Pictures for little children + Of wondrous trees and flowers! + + Pictures of snow-white mountains + Touching the snow-white sky; + Pictures of distant oceans + Where pretty ships sail by. + + Pictures of rushing rivers + By fairy bridges spanned; + Bits of beautiful landscape + Copied from elfin land. + + The moon is the lamp he paints by; + His canvas the window pane; + His brush is a frozen snowflake; + Jack Frost the artist's name. + + + + +LESSON XVIII. + +HOW RIVERS ARE MADE. + +Have you ever seen a brook or creek? A river? Is there a brook or river +near here? Who can tell where it begins? where the water conies from +that fills it? where it goes? Let us try to understand this. + +As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the air in winds +up the sides of mountains, it turns into water again, and comes falling +down as rain. + +Now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go. Some of the +water runs off on the surface, down the mountain slope. Some sinks into +the ground, and runs along in little streams below the surface. It will +appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as a _spring_. The +spring is the beginning of a river. + +Did you ever see a spring? Where was it? Was it shaded by trees? Where +did the water come from? Did you drink from it? Was the water pure and +cold? Where did the water go after leaving the spring? + +[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?"] + +From the spring flows a tiny, thread-like stream, so small that we can +easily step across it. This little stream is called a _rill_. + +Other rills meet this, and form a larger stream, which is called a +_brook_ or _creek_. + +[Illustration: RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH.] + +As the brook flows on, it is joined by other streams, until, little by +little, it becomes a wide and deep _river_ on which large boats may +float. At last, it finds its way into the ocean. + +Where a river begins is its _source_. The place where it flows into +another body of water is called its _mouth_. The land over which it +flows is its _bed_. + +A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is on +our right hand, and the left bank is on our left. + +Do you live near a river? Where does the water come from? In what +direction does it flow? Why does it flow in such direction? Does it wind +about much? Does it flow into the ocean, or into another river? + +Is the water fresh or salt? What grow on its banks? Near which bank do +you live? + +Make a picture of a spring, and a brook flowing from it. Draw the tall +grass and plants that grow near it. + +Write the names of all the rivers you have seen. + +_Write the following:_ + +Water flowing out of the ground is called a spring. + +From springs flow small streams called rills, brooks, or creeks. + +A large stream of water flowing through the land is called a river. + +A small stream of water flowing into a larger one is called a tributary. + +The source of a river is where it begins. The place where it empties +into another body of water is its mouth. + +Every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand bank. + + + + +LESSON XIX. + +MORE ABOUT RIVERS. + +Let us have another chat about the river. We may fancy that we are +following it in its course to the sea. We shall then learn for ourselves +many things we do not know about rivers. + +We will begin our journey at its source. Here it is a little rill, +formed by water that trickles from a spring, or by the melting of snow. + +As it flows on, it is joined by many other little streams, until it +grows to be much larger. + +There is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream. Do +you know what it is? The word, is _tributary_. Tributaries are often +called _branches_. + +Before we leave this part of the river, I wish you to learn another hard +word. + +You have seen the water run off the roof of a _shed_. The ridge; or +highest part of the roof, divides the rain that falls on it, so that +part of the rain flows down the one side, and part of it flows down the +other side. + +[Illustration: "HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES."] + +Now, hills, like the roof of a house, send off streams on both sides. +When it rains, or the snow melts, some of the water goes down on one +side, some on the other. And that is why the hills which divide or part +the waters of streams are called a _water-parting_ or _water-shed_. + +Let us now go further down the stream. + +Here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope. Its waters foam and +dash between the great rocks that lie in the stream. Such places in the +river are called _rapids_. Can you tell why they are so called? + +[Illustration: "SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS."] + +The stream flows on. It has now reached a high ledge of rock. Over this +it leaps, making a great foam and noise. + +When the water of a river falls over high rocks, it is called a +waterfall or _cataract_. + +You may have seen the Falls of Niagara, the greatest waterfall in the +world. + +[Illustration: "YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA."] + +The course of our river is now through a lower country. The valley in +which it flows spreads out, and the stream grows wider and wider. The +water moves slower and slower. + +Why is the river swift in some places, and in others slow? + +At length it flows through an almost level country. It is here widest +and deepest. Its course is more winding. + +Do you know why it is crooked and winding? + +Because on the steep hillside the water runs very rapidly, and is not +easily turned aside. Where the ground is nearly level, it runs slowly, +and is easily turned from its course. + + + + +LESSON XX. + +THE BROOK. + + From a fountain + In a mountain, + Drops of water ran + Trickling through the grasses; + So our brook began. + + Slow it started; + Soon it darted, + Cool and clear and free, + Rippling over pebbles, + Hurrying to the sea. + + Children straying + Came a-playing + On its pretty banks; + Glad, our little brooklet + Sparkled up its thanks. + + Blossoms floating, + Mimic boating, + Fishes darting past, + Swift, and strong, and happy, + Widening very fast. + + Bubbling, singing, + Rushing, ringing, + Flecked with shade and sun. + Soon our pretty brooklet + To the sea has run. + + + + +LESSON XXI. + +WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS. + +Would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work they +do? + +Notice what happens when it rains. Little tiny streams are formed, which +chase each other down the slopes. See how they cut away the loose soil +and carry it off. Notice how muddy this loose soil makes the water. What +becomes of this loose soil, or mud? + +Fill a jar with water. Put in a handful of mud from the nearest stream. +Shake the jar, and the water is muddy. Let it stand awhile. What do you +notice? The water is clear, and the soil has settled to the bottom. + +Follow the streams to the valley where they unite to form a river. When +does the load of mud it carries settle? Here, where the water scarcely +moves, we find some of the soil spread out over the ground near the +river banks. + +You have seen a river overflow its banks. When the water went down, it +left a layer of rich mud, which made the soil very fertile. + +[Illustration: "THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE LOAM."] + +Have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered with +rich grass and clover? + +Well, these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has been +washed down the streams from the far-off hills and mountains. + +Look at the jar again. Which settled first, the coarse material or fine +loam? What kind of a deposit will be made in the upper course of a +river? What kind toward the mouth? + +High up in the valley, when the river is low, we see _pebbles_ in its +bed; lower down, the pebbles are worn into _gravel;_ and as we get still +farther down, we find the gravel ground into _sand_. + +Examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river. Some are +quite smooth and round. They were not always so, but had sharp edges. Do +you know what made them round? + +When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones down +the mountain side and into the valley. As they are carried down the +stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are smoothed and +rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles themselves are ground at +last into gravel and fine sand. + +This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows in +the sides of the mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into fine +soil, and carrying it into the valleys below. + + + + +LESSON XXII. + +WATERDROP'S STORY. + +Patter, patter, fall the raindrops on the brown leaves in the woods. Mr. +Squirrel's bright eyes sparkle as he peeps out of his queer little home, +a hole in the tree; his store of nuts has been carefully hidden away. + +Splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him. Such a friendly little +drop it is, for soon it tells this little woodland dweller of all its +travels. + +Let us listen, for we may hear too: + +"My home," began the Waterdrop, "is in the wide blue sea, where I live +with many, many other drops. + +"One day as we rode up and down on the big waves, the sun shone down on +us, and we grew warmer. Each little drop felt, 'Oh, if I could only get +away from the other drops, how much cooler I should be!' Then each tiny +drop separated from the others, and grew so small you could not see it. + +"We, of course, grew lighter, lighter than the air. Up, up we rose into +the bright blue sky. When we got pretty high, where the air was cool, we +came closer together again and formed a great fleecy white _cloud_, that +cast its shadow over everything. Then a friendly wind carried us along, +and soon we left the sea behind. Far below; we could see green fields +and waving woods." + +"You must have been very happy" said the little squirrel. + +"Yes; it was a merry life we led, as we floated hither and thither, +playing with the sun-beams," replied the Waterdrop. + +"But we came at last to a purple mountain, and a chill wind began to +blow. How we shivered with the cold! Then we huddled close together to +get warm. We were now heavy again--so heavy that we could not stay up in +the air. + +"Then, + + 'I'm going down to cheer a flower,' + Cried a little drop of rain; + 'I hear it sigh. It droops its head + As if in weary pain.' + + 'And I will go!' 'And I!' 'And I!' + Cried all the raindrops near. + So down we went in merry haste + The whole wide field to cheer. + +"The drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little +drops for the cool drink. Even the great tall trees nodded their heads +in welcome." + +"The grass on the hillside and in the valley must have been grateful, +too, for your coming," said the squirrel. "It always looks so fresh and +green after a shower. But, tell me, what became of _you_?" + +"I fell where the ground was brown and bare, stopped for a moment, then +went down, down into the ground, where all was dark. I met other drops +trying to get out, and we went on together, turning first this way, then +that way, till we burst into the sunshine again." + +"We rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water; then I ran with +the rest down the mountain side, slipping over smooth pebbles, and +tumbling over sharp rocks, until I found myself in a deep, swift stream, +where plants and trees grew on either bank." + +[Illustration: "SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS."] +"As I was hurried along, I heard a great roaring noise made by the river +falling over a high ledge of rocks, as a cataract or waterfall. Suddenly +we fell over the rocks so steep and high that we went leaping and +dashing in all directions. We rose in the air in a fine gray mist, then +sank back again into the foam-covered stream. + +[Illustration: "THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL."] + +"Soon we were in a broad, quiet river, flowing past the grassy hills and +green pastures. Then we came to a big mill-wheel, upon which we jumped, +and by our weight made it turn over and over, and thus move the +machinery in the mill. Here we were tossed in the air, whirled around, +and at last flung back into the river, where we sailed slowly and +quietly as before. + +"By and by, we saw large boats floating on the water. We passed towns +and cities with busy streets and many people; and as our river widened, +and we heard the big sea waves dashing against the shore, we knew our +brothers and sisters were singing a welcome home. + +[Illustration: "WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES."] + +"And now farewell, little squirrel. My story is done, and I must hasten +to my home in the sea. Perhaps we shall meet again some day. I may float +down to you, a white-winged snowflake, or patter down as I came this +time, a tiny raindrop." + +_Write the following:_ + +The water rises from the sea in vapor. + +The vapor is turned into clouds, which fall in rain or snow. + +The rain forms rivers, which flow back again into the sea. + +Thus the water is always going round and round in its long and curious +journey--up to the clouds in vapor, down in rain, back in streams to the +place it started from. + + + + +LESSON XXIII. + +THE RIVER. + + "Oh, tell me, pretty river, + Whence do thy waters flow? + And whither art thou roaming, + So smoothly and so slow?" + + "My birthplace was the mountain, + My nurse the April showers; + My cradle was a fountain, + O'er-curtained by wild flowers. + + "One morn I ran away, + A madcap, noisy rill; + And many a prank that day + I played adown the hill! + + "And then 'mid meadowy banks, + I flirted with the flowers, + That stooped with glowing lips + To woo me to their bowers. + + "But these bright scenes are o'er, + And darkly flows my wave; + I hear the ocean's roar-- + And there must be my grave!" + +Where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem? Are +rivers born? What is meant by "My nurse the April showers"? "I flirted +with the flowers"? Explain the last stanza. + + + + +LESSON XXIV. + +A MAP + +A drawing made to show a room, or a house; or the school-yard, or even a +village, is called a plan. + +Drawings which represent land and water are called maps. You may learn +from maps where the countries, and mountains, and rivers, and cities are +that you have seen. It also shows how far places are from one another. + +Here is a map showing mountains and rivers. The many short lines facing +each other represent mountains. To show the very high part of the +mountains, the lines are drawn close to each other, making that part of +the map look dark. The line winding about, like the stream itself, +represents a river. The line, as you see, is made thicker and thicker +toward its mouth. From this you may know that the river itself becomes +broader and broader as it flows toward the sea. + +But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river, or +the lines which face each other are mountains. If you do, you will learn +very little of geography. When you look at these lines, you must _think_ +of the real things which they stand for--the lofty mountains, with their +covering of forests, and with long, narrow valleys between them; the +winding, gently flowing river, bearing boats upon its waters. + + + + +LESSON XXV. + +FORMS OF LAND AND WATER. + +You all know what a pond is. Is there a pond near where you live? Did +you ever fish in it? Did you ever walk round it? + +When a stream, on its way to the ocean, flows into a basin or hollow in +the land, the water spreads out and fills it. A hollow in the land +filled with water is called a _lake_, or, if it be quite small, a +_pond_. + +What is a lake made of? What is round it? Suppose some one who never saw +a lake were to ask you what a lake is, what would you say? + +What do we find in lakes? Would you not like to sail on a lake? + +In the hollows among mountains are great numbers of beautiful lakes. In +their clear waters may be seen the mountains, the forests, and the sky, +as in a looking-glass. At night the moon and stars may be seen below you +as plainly as above. + +Here is a picture of a pretty lake in a valley. + +[Illustration: A PRETTY LAKE IN A VALLEY.] + +You see a river flowing from the hills beyond. Into what is it flowing? +The river that lets the water _into_ the lake is called an _inlet_. + +You see another river that lets the water _out_ of the lake. This river +we call the _outlet_ of the lake. + +Make a lake on your molding-board, or in the sand near your home. +Represent its inlet and outlet. + +Out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters play. +We could not go to this land without crossing the water; the water is on +all sides of it. Such a little piece of land is called an _island_. + +Did you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? You will remember that +he went up a hill in search of water. When he got to the top of the +hill, he saw that he was on an island. How did he know? + +Have you ever seen an island? What island was it? Could you sail round +it? What was on every side of it? What grew on it? What is an island? + +If there is a brook or lake near your home, how can you make an island? + +Opposite is a picture of a river and a lake. Make a map of the same +river and lake on your slate. Notice how the coast or shore of the lake +bends in and out. + +_Write the following_: + +A lake is water surrounded by land. + +The land near the water of a lake is called its shore. + +An island is a little piece of land surrounded by water. + + + + +LESSON XXVI. + +MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER. + +[Illustration: PICTURE OF A PENINSULA.] + +An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land with water all round +it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that has water _nearly_ all +round it. This form of land is called a _peninsula_. The word peninsula +means _almost an island_. + +[Illustration: MAP OF A PENINSULA.] + +In the picture we see a narrow strip of land which extends far out into +the water. You will notice that the land has water all round; except at +one place. + +What is the name for land that has water on all sides but one? What is a +peninsula? + +How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the difference +between a peninsula and an island? + +The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as the +neck joins the head to the body-is called an _isthmus_, which means +_neck_. + +[Illustration: PICTURE OF A BAY.] + +Here is another picture which I wish you to look at. You see where the +shore bends like a bow; and the water runs a little way into the land. + +Can you think of anything else that is bent like this? Yes-a bay-window. + +Now, when I tell yon that bay means the same as bow, you can almost +guess the name for this bend in the land. It is called a bay. You will +easily remember that little word. + +[Illustration: MAP OF A BAY.] + +A wide opening or bend in the land, into which the water flows, is +usually called a bay. + +Sometimes, when the opening in the bend is long and narrow, it is called +a _gulf_. + +On the next page is shown a narrow strip of water joining two larger +bodies of water. The name given to this narrow passage is strait, a word +meaning narrow. + +As an isthmus connects two bodies of land, so a strait connects two +bodies of water. + +[Illustration: PICTURE OF A STRAIT.] + +After a rain make little lakes, rivers, bays, etc. Perhaps you may find +some already made. + +See whether you can find in the magazines and books at home pictures of +gulfs, bays, peninsulas, etc. + +_Write the following:_ A peninsula is land almost surrounded by water. + +An isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of land. + +A gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending into +the land. + +A strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies of +water. + +[Illustration: MAP OF A STRAIT.] + + + + +LESSON XXVII. + +A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS. + +Uncle Tom had been telling Fred and me about many strange places he had +seen. Last of all, he told us about some high mountains he had climbed. +We wanted to climb one very much. So father said he would go with us up +a high hill not far from the city. + +Mother did not need to call us in the morning, for we woke up very +early. The sky in the east was bright, and we knew that soon we should +see the sun. We wanted to start at once, but mother said it would be +better to have breakfast first. + +We put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut. Father gave +each of us a stout stick to help us climb. Fred had a knapsack, in which +mother put some bread, cold meat, crackers, and a cup to drink from. In +one corner we put some towels. + +We were soon outside the city, walking along the road. We passed a +village, and went through fields and woods. By and by we could see the +land before us rising higher and higher. We saw no longer such beautiful +farms and gardens as we had passed. + +[Illustration: "AS WE WENT UP THE SLOPE."] + +In a little while we reached the foot of the hill and began to ascend. +As we went up the slope, we came to steep, rugged places that were hard +to climb, where we needed our sticks. The trees were smaller, and there +were many bushes. There were large rocks, too, in the sides of the hill. +At the foot, the weather was quite warm, but it grew cooler and cooler +the higher we went. + +[Illustration: "WE COULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE STRAIGHT STREETS."] + +"On the summit at last!" cried Fred, as we reached the top. + +From where we stood, we could see the city with its little straight +streets, that look so wide when we walk on them. We could see the +house-tops, too, and the church steeples. Then father showed us the +village we passed; and the woods we went through. But the trees looked +like bushes, and some men at the foot of the hill looked no larger than +the baby. + +Down the mountain, a little way, we found a spring where the water was +clear and cool. Here we sat down on a rock, and ate the lunch we had +brought. While we rested, we watched the little rill that flowed from +the spring-- + + "Blue in the shadow, + Silver in the sun." + +Down the hill, it was larger, and we saw other rills flowing into it. +When it reached the valley, it was much larger; and farther down, father +said, boats could sail on it. + +[Illustration: "IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET OF STILL WATER."] + +Before us, in the valley, lay a large sheet of still water. + +"Oh, how pretty!" exclaimed I. + +"Yes, that is a lake," said father. "How beautiful it looks as the +sunlight plays on its smooth surface! It reflects in its clear water the +sky and the trees around it." + +"I can see an island in the lake," said Fred. "Vessels are sailing all +round it." + +"Are all islands small, like that?" he asked. + +"Oh, no!" said father. "Some islands are hundreds of miles round, and +have many people living upon them." + +Fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water, and +asked whether that, too, was an island. + +"No," replied father, "that is a peninsula. It is land almost surrounded +by water. And the narrow neck which joins the peninsula to the mainland +is called an isthmus. + +"You see the bend in the land, with the water from the lake running in?" +asked father. + +"Yes," said Fred. + +"That is called a bay. Around every ocean, which is a much larger body +of water, there are many such bays. + +"The narrow strip of water, which a boat is just entering, is called a +strait. The strait separates the island from the mainland." + +Stretching far away to the east was flat, level land, which father +called a plain. Scattered here and there were many farmhouses and quiet +villages. Little bright, sparkling streams wound their way like silver +threads through the green grass of the meadows. It was a lovely scene +indeed! + +The sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return. As it +set-- + + A wonderful glory of color, + A splendor of shifting light-- + Orange and scarlet and purple + Flamed in the sky so bright. + + + + +LESSON XXVIII. + +SPRING. + + Drops of rain and bits of sunshine + Falling here and gleaming there, + Tiny blades of grass appearing. + Tell of springtime bright and fair. + + Budding leaves are gently swaying, + Merry glad notes sweetly ring; + Robins, bluebirds, gayly singing, + Tell of happy, pleasant spring. + + Violets, in blue and purple, + By the twinkling water clear; + Fair spring beauties, frail and dainty, + Tell the story, spring is here. + + Cherry, peach, and apple blossoms + Scattering fragrance far and wide; + Buttercups and pure white snowdrops + Tell of gracious, sweet springtide. + +Lillian Cox. + + + + +LESSON XXIX. + +USEFUL VEGETABLES. + +In the heart of a seed buried deep, so deep, A dear little plant lay +fast asleep. "Wake!" said the sunshine, "and creep to the light." + +"Wake!" said the voice of the raindrops bright. + +The little plant heard, and it rose to see + +What the wonderful outside world might be. + +[Illustration: A SPROUT.] + +What vegetables grow in your neighborhood? + +[Illustration: A VINE BEGINNING TO GROW.] + +Of which do we use the roots as food? Of which the leaves? Of which the +seeds? Of which the stems or stalks? + +Which is the most useful garden vegetable? There is no common garden +vegetable so highly thought of as the potato. How are potatoes planted? + +Answer the questions in writing so as to make a little composition about +vegetables. + + + + +LESSON XXX. + +USEFUL GRAINS. + +Wheat and corn are called grain because they are small, hard seeds What +other kinds of grain can you name? + +[Illustration; RIPE WHEAT.] + +Which of these grains is used the most? Which makes the choicest flour? + +Some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring. These are called spring +wheat. + +Winter wheat is sown in the fall. A few days of sun and rain, and the +plants spring up like grass, remaining green through the winter. + +What color does the wheat turn as it ripens? When it is ripe what is +done with it? + +For what is the flour of wheat used? + +[Illustration: HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE WEST.] + +What is sometimes done with the stalks, or straw? + +Indian corn is one of the most useful of plants. Do you know why it is +called Indian corn? It is because the Indians first raised it. + +When is corn planted? How is the land prepared for planting? What is +done to the corn while the plants are small? When does it ripen? How +tall does it grow? + +[Illustration: SEVERAL KINDS OF GRAIN.] + +What is the stem of the corn called? What are the flowers on the stalk +of corn called? On what do the grains of corn grow? + +What use is made of the green stalks and leaves? What use is made of the +ripe grain? For what are corn-husks largely used? + +Sweet corn, if boiled when green, is an excellent vegetable. It is +preserved by canning. + +A large cornfield, with its tall, straight stalks, covered with green +shining leaves and crowned by flowers, is a very pleasant sight. + +[Illustration: "ANOTHER GRAIN WHICH WE FIND ON ALMOST EVERY TABLE."] + +Corn is sometimes called the national emblem. What does emblem mean? + +What use is made of oats; barley, rye, and buckwheat? Some of these +grains are useful in two or three ways. + +There is another grain which we find on almost every table. It is rice. +The rice plant, when growing, resembles wheat; but, unlike wheat, it +needs a great deal of moisture. So the rice-grower sows it in fields +which he can flood or drain at will. + +Do you know what people live on rice without any meat at all? Ask your +teacher to tell you how rice is raised in China and Japan. + +You ought to find something to tell your teacher and classmates about +the grains. + +Perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have seen. + +Choose one of the grains, and write what you have Learned about it from +conversation and observation. + + We plow the fields, and scatter + The good seed on the land, + But it is fed and watered + By God's almighty hand. + He sends the snow in winter, + The warmth to swell the grain, + The breezes and the sunshine, + And soft refreshing rain. + + + + +LESSON XXXI. + +FRUITS. + +Name some trees upon which grow things to eat. What do we call such +trees? + +[Illustration: "THE ORANGE TREES ARE LOADED WITH GOLDEN FRUIT."] + +What fruit trees have you seen? What do we call the place where many +fruit trees grow? + +Did you ever pick berries? What makes it hard to pick blackberries? + +Name fruits that grow about here. Which grow on trees? Which on bushes? +Which on vines? + +Mention the different uses of these fruits. + +The orange is one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits. It +grows only in the warmer parts of our country. In winter as well as in +summer, the orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and fragrant +blossom. The blossoms are white, and are very beautiful. + +Name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the country. + +People who live in cold countries need such food as will make them warm. +What kinds of food are best in cold countries? What people live mainly +on fish and the flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees grow in very cold +countries? + +What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat +fatty food, for that would heat the body. Do we find in such countries +grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to live upon? + +_Write_ answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson, so as to +make a composition about fruits. + + + + +LESSON XXXII. + +USEFUL PLANTS. + +What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of +clothing made of cotton. + +Did you ever see a field of cotton? In the summer the young plant is +covered with pretty, pale-yellow flowers. In the autumn you see the pod +or boll which contains the cotton. + +[Illustration: "YOU SEE THE POD OR BOLL."] + +As the pod ripens, it bursts open. The cotton-field is now a pretty +sight--the bright green leaves, yellow blossoms, and snowy cotton all +mingled together. Form a picture in your mind of a field of cotton in +bloom. + +The cotton is now picked. The first thing is to separate it from its +seed. This is done by a machine called a cotton-gin. + +[Illustration: "FLAX IS A SMALL PLANT."] + +Now it is ready to be pressed in great bales and sent to market. It +will, at last, go to the cotton mills and be spun into thread, then +woven into muslin, calico, etc. + +Are the seeds of any use? They contain a great deal of oil, which is +pressed out by machinery. What is the name of this oil? What use is made +of it? + +There is another plant from which clothing is made. + +Do you know what plant linen is made from? Linen comes from the flax +plant. + +Flax is a small plant which grows two or three feet high, bearing on the +top a bunch of pretty blue flowers. A field of flax in bloom is a very +pretty sight. + +The flax does not grow in a pod like cotton. The stalk of the plant is +covered with a bark, or skin, containing fibers. These fibers are spun +into thread, which is woven into a cloth called linen. + +[Illustration: "A PLANT THAT YIELDS NO FOOD."] + +The seeds are used for making an oil called _linseed oil_. For what is +linseed oil used? + +Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of +clothing as those who live in cold countries? + +What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold countries? +Would such clothes be comfortable in hot countries? + +There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is used +in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its name? + +Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco. + +Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax +plants? + +Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper without a +sugar bowl? + +[Illustration: "SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT."] + +The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from sugar-cane. +The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like Indian corn when +growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is filled with the sweet +juice that is made into the sugar. + +When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill. Here they pass +between great rollers which press out the juice. The liquid is then +boiled until it turns to sugar. + +Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree. In the early +spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is bored in the tree and a tube +inserted, through which the sap passes to a bucket or other vessel +placed to receive it. The sap is boiled in large kettles and becomes +syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into sugar. + +_Write_ what you have learned of _cotton_ and _linen_. + + + + +LESSON XXXIII. + +FOREST TREES. + +In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees? +Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for them. + +Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful to +us, especially on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we call +them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to put on their green +dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in autumn? + +Name some trees that grow in the woods. + +[Illustration: A SHADY STREET.] + +Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood is light. A tree whose +wood is hard. A tree whose wood is soft. + +Name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness, or the +beautiful grain, of their wood. + +What kind of wood are the desks made of? The teacher's table? + +What kinds of wood are used in making chairs? tables? pianos? windows? +floors? + +If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or wagon, which wood +should we use? Why? + +From which trees do we get lumber for building? + +Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough, and is used in +building ships? + +What do we call many trees together, like these? + +What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees? + + What do we plant when we plant the tree? + We plant the houses for you and me. + We plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors, + We plant the studding, the laths, the doors, + The beams and siding, all parts that be-- + We plant the house when we plant the tree. + + What do we plant when we plant the tree? + A thousand things that we daily see. + + We plant tie spire that out-towers the crag, + We plant the staff for our country's flag, + We plant the shade, from the hot sun free-- + We plant all these when we plant the tree. + +There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am sure you +must have heard of the great trees of California. Some of them are one +hundred feet around, and nearly four hundred feet high,--twice as high +as a very tall steeple. In one of these trees, if hollowed out, a large +family might live. + +[Illustration: GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA.] + +In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which you +see. Learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their proper +names. + +Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables, +trees, etc. You will enjoy this very much, and it will help you to see +these things better. + + + + +LESSON XXXIV. + +FLOWERS + +[Illustration: FLOWERS] + +A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are many flowers, and by +helping together they cover the earth with beauty and fill the air with +sweetness. They seem to have been made to give us pleasure. + +It will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers that +grow where you live. How many flowers can you mention by name? Which do +you know at sight? Where would you go to find them? + +Would you find them all growing in the same place? Which can live only +in wet places? Which thrive best where there is but little moisture? + +If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers shall +we be likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which are +fragrant? Which most beautiful? Which would you like for your flower +vase? Which would you like to plant and care for in a box of earth or a +garden-bed? + +Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves, bud, +flower? Learn the uses of each part. + +Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps you +will commit them to memory. + + In the snowing and the blowing, + In the cruel sleet, + Little flowers begin their growing + Far beneath our feet. + + Softly taps the Spring and cheerly: + "Darlings, are you there?" + Till they answer, "We are nearly, + Nearly ready, dear. + + "Where is Winter with his snowing? + Tell us, Spring," they say. + Then she answers, "He is going, + Going on his way. + + "Poor old Winter does not love you, + But his time is past; + Soon my birds shall sing above you-- + Set you free at last." + + + + +LESSON XXXV. + +WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW. + +Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tell why? Plants do not grow in +hot places called deserts. Can yon think of any reason for this? + +What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time of the +year can they get these? + +If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure of +about its trees and grass and flowers? + +There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How do you +suppose the trees grow there? + +You may get information about plants and things by seeing for yourself, +by asking others, and by reading books. + +[Illustration: "IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND RAIN."] + +_Write the names_: + +Of some grains that we use for food. + +Of some vegetables that we use for food. + +Of two plants from which clothing is made. + +Of woods used in making furniture. + +Of woods used in building our houses. + + + + +LESSON XXXVI. + +SUMMER RAIN. + + Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain! + Let not the silver lily pine, + The drooping lily pine in vain, + To feel that dewy touch of thine, + To drink thy freshness once again, + Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain! + + In heat the landscape quivering lies, + The cattle pant beneath the tree; + Through parching air and purple skies + The earth looks up, in vain, for thee; + For thee--for thee it looks in vain, + Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain! + + Come thou, and brim the meadow streams, + And soften all the hills with mist, + + Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams + By thee shall herb and flower be kissed; + And earth shall bless thee yet again, + Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain! + + + + +LESSON XXXVII. + +THE PARTS OF ANIMALS. + +Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are domestic +animals; others are wild. + +[Illustration: TIGER'S FEET.] + +What animals are found where you live? + +Which are domestic? Which wild? + +Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits? flesh? + +You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What use +does the cat make of its claws? + +How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its prey? + +[Illustration: DUCK'S FOOT.] + +[Illustration: HEN'S FOOT.] + +Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of its +broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill? + +How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill fitted for +pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill? + +[Illustration: SEIZING CLAW.] + +Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what does +each use its feet? + +Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes? + +What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used? Could +a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen? + +You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it leads. + + + + +LESSON XXXVIII. + +THE COVERING OF ANIMALS. + +Name two animals covered with fur. + +Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers. + +What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is hair +to animals? + +What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it to +them? + +The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps them +from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered? Why? + +Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what would +result? + +What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see that +each animal has that covering which suits its habits best. + + + + +LESSON XXXIX. + +USES OF ANIMALS. + +What domestic animals are used for food? + +What wild animals are used for food? + +[Illustration: "WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?"] + +From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal? + +What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes? + +From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep? What +articles of dress are made of wool? + +[Illustration: "FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?"] + +Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is leather +prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do there? + +From what animals do we get furs? + +What is silk? + +[Illustration: THE SILKWORM AND MOTH.] + +Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is fully +grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a cocoon. If +this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change to a moth, and +the moth would eat its way out of this little house. But this, of +course, would cut the little threads and spoil the silk. As soon, +therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot water to kill the +worm. In this way the silk is saved. + +Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh used? +What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with the skin? +What other uses has the cow? + +What animal shows the most affection for his master? + +Mention some kinds of dogs. + +You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with long +curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is dangerous, the St. +Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use their dogs, as we use +horses, to draw their sledges? + +Which is the most useful animal to man? + +Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson. + +_Write the names:_ + +Of animals useful for food. + +Of animals which work for man. + +Of animals useful to us for clothing. + +Of birds and fowls used for food. + + + + +LESSON XL. + +THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS. + + What does it mean when the bluebird comes + And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear? + When violets peep among blades of grass?-- + These are the signs that spring is here. + + What does it mean when berries are ripe? + When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum? + When cattle stand under the shady trees?-- + These are the signs that summer has come. + + What does it mean when the crickets chirp, + And away to the south the robins steer? + When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?-- + These are the signs that autumn is here + + What does it mean when days are short? + When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb + When fields are white with drifted snow?-- + These are the signs that winter has come. + + + + +LESSON XLI. + +THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH. + +The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These we +must find and dig out. + +The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many +useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all come +out of the earth. + +But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the earth. + +From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables. From +oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light. +Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use in building, +are also taken from the earth. + +Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are +called minerals. + +The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are +taken; is called a _mine_. + +One of the most useful of minerals is _coal_. Did you ever stop to think +how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our wheat, it weaves our +cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over the earth. Hardly any labor +can be done without coal. + +[Illustration: OIL WELLS.] + +You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame and +smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard, clean-looking +coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out such great heat, is +anthracite coal. + +Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind is gas +obtained, hard or soft coal? + +What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was made, +and how it got deep down in the earth. + +What article used with food is found in mines? Does all _salt_ come out +of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in mines? + +There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their +lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries, with +tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt. When lighted +up with torches, they glitter as if studded with precious stones. It is +like a fairy palace. + +Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, and +mercury are metals. + +Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we should +do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell some of the +uses of iron: + +[Illustration: IRON MINE.] + + Iron vessels cross the ocean. + Iron engines give them motion; + Iron pipe our gas delivers, + Iron bridges span our rivers, + Iron horses draw our loads, + Iron rails compose our roads; + Iron houses, iron walls, + Iron cannon, iron balls, + Iron lightning rods on spires, + Iron telegraphic wires, + Iron hammers, nails, and screws, + Iron everything we use. + +Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other tools +are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel. Mention some of +them. + +Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into +money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament made +of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings usually +made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes these +articles? + +[Illustration: CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE.] + +Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What does +"lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually made of +pure silver? Why? + +Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes +they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and +the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out. + +[Illustration: "SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS."] + +Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get +at the silver or gold among the rocks. + +Gold and silver are called the _precious metals_ because they do not +rust, and on account of their scarcity. + +Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall be +light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted +tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like tin itself. + +A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is of +this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A tin cup +is really made of iron. + +Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a +knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes. + +Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small shot +is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion, from +the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel of water below. +They are next polished and made black, and then are ready for sale. + +You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is made +of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a kind of +coal. + +Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust. +Cooking vessels are often made of copper. + +Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is +made by mixing copper and zinc together. + +Mention some articles made of brass. + +Write five lines about tin. + +Write five or more lines about coal. + +Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead. + + + + +LESSON XLII. + +MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH. + +[Illustration: A GRANITE QUARRY.] + +We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also many +kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by exposure +are useful for building. The place from which stones are taken for +building is called a _quarry._ + +The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble, and +slate. + +We will first examine a piece of _granite._ + +How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when polished! + +Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk +curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other uses +of granite? + +Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is hard +enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring" mean? + +This is a piece of _sandstone_, made of little grains of sand. It will +crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean? Brownstone, +used in building, is a kind of sandstone. + +And this is the common gray _limestone_ of which lime used in building +is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called a lime-kiln. +Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is made? + +Here are three pieces of _marble_. This piece is pure white. This is +colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in your +mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many colored +spots--mottled it may be called. + +Marble is beautiful when polished. + +[Illustration: A MARBLE QUARRY.] + +In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of +furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is marble +ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good for that +purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all building stones? +Why? + +Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all building +stones. + +_Chalk_ is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a building stone? +Is chalk harder or softer than other stone? + +You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not get +along well in school without _slate_. Slate is easily split into thin +plates, and has a smooth, firm surface. + +Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part of a +house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it useful for +these purposes? + +We must not forget _brick_ in our talks about things that come out of +the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals and stone are +found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part of the ground. + +Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of bricks? +What is the man called who builds houses of bricks? + +Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from sand; +which is also a part of the ground. + +In laying brick or stone, the mason uses _mortar_. Mortar is made +chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground. + +If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all you +see, and on your return to school tell what you have learned. + + + + +LESSON XLIII. + +HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING + +[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW HOUSES?"] + +Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come +from the earth? + +Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in? What +is a tent? + +[Illustration: WIGWAMS.] + +A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in snow +houses? + +[Illustration: HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO.] + +In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane that +grows in warm countries. + +What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone, +brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house. Where +and how are they obtained? + +[Illustration: "WHO LIVE IN HUTS?"] + +We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear and +houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and churches, +which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a little, you can name +many other things which we need to make our homes beautiful. To supply +us with all of these things, men must do many different kinds of work. + +Where does the food we eat come from? + +We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are seeds of +plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets, turnips, and +radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of +plants. + +[Illustration: "OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT."] + +Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these we +use for food. + +Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are made +from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are made +from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats are made from +straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants. + +Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and +clothing, do not grow of themselves. + +The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while +growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many people at work +raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This occupation we call +_agriculture_ or _farming;_ the people we call farmers. + +Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat comes +from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter and +cheese. + +Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are made of +wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid gloves are made +of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows; sheep, oxen, and +goats. + +But animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully raise +them. In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of cows and +oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures. Those animals are +called stock. The business of those who raise them is called +_stock-raising._ + +[Illustration: "HERDS OF COWS AND OXEN FEEDING."] + +Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does the +farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a meadow? + +Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing? Does +a dog graze? A cow? + +Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens. But +many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend for heat +and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more useful to us +than gold and silver. + +[Illustration: "A MINE IS LIKE A GREAT CAVERN."] + +To get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A +mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches and +lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is damp and +close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a place. Yet great +numbers of persons are employed in _mining._ + +How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of coal-mining? +Try to find answers to these questions for yourself. If necessary, your +teacher will help you. + +In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other trees. +Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days or weeks +through them. From trees we get lumber. Lumber is needed for building +houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many men are employed in +cutting down trees and preparing the wood for use. This is called +_lumbering_. + +The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves little +huts to live in. All through the winter months they work in the woods +from sunrise to sunset, felling the best trees and cutting them into +logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered ground to the frozen +streams, and pile them upon the banks. + +[Illustration: "THEY WORK IN THE WOODS."] + +Here the logs must rest till the snow and ice have melted and the +streams are full. Then they are floated down to the great saw-mills; and +cut up into boards, laths, shingles, and other kinds of lumber. + +What is a forest? Name some forest trees that grow near your home. + +The sea yields much that we eat. Some parts abound in codfish, mackerel, +and herring. Sardines, the little fish that come in boxes, are also +found in the sea. It is the business of thousands of people who live +near the ocean to catch fish, salt them, and pack them, to send to those +who want them for food. + +[Illustration: "IT IS THE BUSINESS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE."] + +Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish? + +Name some fishes found in fresh water. + +Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How may +they be caught? + + + + +LESSON XLIV. + +MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING. + +In the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about +something else than the occupations we have learned. What do you suppose +it is? + +If you go about the city, you will see large buildings several stories +high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking chimneys. These are +mills or factories, full of machines in motion doing their work almost +like human beings. + +The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed for +our use. Wheat is changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine muslins, +and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron and steel, into +plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons, carriages, and all +kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must not forget are elegant +jewelry, all sorts of ornaments for parlors, and beautiful toys which +you admire so much. + +[Illustration: "BUSY MILLS AND FACTORIES."] + +It would take a long time to name a small part of the things made in the +busy mills and factories; but think of the articles used in your home, +and you may be sure they are manufactured articles. You see, +_manufacturing_ gives work to many thousands of persons. + +What is cutlery? Name some articles of cutlery. + +We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need things +which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he needs? By +exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods, or buying and +selling them for money; gives rise to another occupation called _trade_, +or _commerce_. So many people spend their time buying and selling grain, +vegetables, clothing, boots and shoes, or in sending them to places +where they are needed. + +On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down, +carrying goods from one part of the country to another. + +Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are +no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often carried +in wagons and on the backs of animals. + +I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us. +Make a list of all the occupations you can think of. Perhaps you can +think of other occupations we have not named. Is dressmaking an +occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you prefer? Why? + +If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of work. +What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the place they +live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best +for their labor. + +Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to make +flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among the +mountains work in the mines. Some keep cows for their milk and butter, +and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the mountain sides +afford excellent pasture. People who live near the sea will be apt to +catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade upon the water. + +Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country. Here, +as we have learned, most people make their living by working in +factories, or as merchants in buying and selling goods which come from +all parts of the world. + +All people do not live in the same way. Some people have no churches, +schools, books, or factories. + +What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do they +spend their time? + + + + +LESSON XLV. + +A REVIEW LESSON. + +What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are they +farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he sell the +things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and tea and other +things which he needs? + +Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the people? Do +they work in shops or mills or factories? + +Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles are +made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom? At home? +What do you call the men who make these articles? + +What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery store? A +dry-goods store? A shoe store? Where did the things in these stores come +from? Which were made in your city? Which were brought from other +places? + +What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the wharves? +What do the boats or railroads take away? What do they bring in return? + + +_Write the following:_ + +Farmers raise (write the names of all the things you can think of). + +Miners dig _______________ out of the earth. + +Quarrymen dig ___________ from the quarries. + +A shoemaker makes ___________. + +A blacksmith makes __________. + +Merchants buy and sell __________. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME GEOGRAPHY FOR PRIMARY GRADES *** + +***** This file should be named 12228.txt or 12228.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/2/2/12228/ + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Ben Courtney and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. For example: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/etext06 + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + |