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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12228 ***
+
+                      HOME GEOGRAPHY
+                            FOR
+                      PRIMARY GRADES
+
+                            BY
+                     C. C. LONG, Ph.D.
+
+  AUTHOR OF NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS, LESSONS IN ENGLISH, ETC.,
+
+
+
+TO THE TEACHER.
+
+Geography may be divided into the geography of the home and the
+geography of the world at large. A knowledge of the home must be
+obtained by direct observation; of the rest of the world, through the
+imagination assisted by information. Ideas acquired by direct
+observation form a basis for imagining those things which are distant
+and unknown.
+
+The first work, then, in geographical instruction, is to study that
+small part of the earth's surface lying just at our doors. All around
+are illustrations of lake and river, upland and lowland, slope and
+valley. These forms must be actually observed by the pupil, mental
+pictures obtained, in order that he may be enabled to build up in his
+mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms. The hill that he
+climbs each day may, by an appeal to his imagination, represent to him
+the lofty Andes or the Alps. From the meadow, or the bit of level land
+near the door, may be developed a notion of plain and prairie. The
+little stream that flows past the schoolhouse door, or even one formed
+by the sudden shower, may speak to him of the Mississippi, the Amazon,
+or the Rhine. Similarly, the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from
+that of pond or lake. Thus, after the pupil has acquired elementary
+ideas by actual perception, the imagination can use them in
+constructing, on a larger scale, mental pictures of similar objects
+outside the bounds of his own experience and observation.
+
+To effect this, the teacher should visit with her class places where the
+simpler geographical features in miniature may be observed. If the
+school is in the city, pupils may be taken to the parks for this
+purpose. If out-of-door study be impossible, they may be induced to
+recall objects which they have seen on their way to school or on short
+excursions in the neighborhood. In the case of children who have little
+opportunity for observing nature, a drawing, a photograph, or a model
+will be helpful in giving them a proper idea of the matter. It must not
+be forgotten, however, that actual observation by the pupil is necessary
+to seeing clearly and intelligently.
+
+Vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography of the
+world, and considerable time should be given to the study of those
+within the observation of the pupils. Information concerning plants may
+be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in boxes and having
+pupils carefully watch their germination and growth.
+
+Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and
+rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for use,
+not for show.
+
+The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at appropriate
+times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy day a lesson
+about snow. No attempt should be made at "science" teaching, so-called.
+All that should be sought is to get the pupil thoughtfully to observe,
+and thus to awaken his interest in the world about him.
+
+Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most
+pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of the
+teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart information.
+The attention of the child should be directed to what lies around him.
+He must observe, and think, and express his thoughts. Nor should his
+observations be confined to the school and school hours. He should be
+encouraged to obtain his information by his own searching, without
+guidance, and report the results.
+
+The development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by expression.
+"Expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge." Hence, the child
+should be required to reproduce what he has learned. He may do this by
+modeling, drawing, and oral and written description. These are placed in
+the order which should be followed in the training of children.
+
+The inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of
+development is to make, in some plastic material, what he has seen.
+Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar
+excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be
+followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the forms
+seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of the various
+forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be developed as they
+are molded. The memorizing of definitions should seldom be required, and
+should never be made a test of the pupil's knowledge.
+
+Reproduction by the hand should be followed by drawing, whenever this
+can be done. Drawing teaches the child how to see well. It often enables
+him to reveal what could not well be expressed in words. He also becomes
+ready and rapid in the use of the pencil when he has ideas to put on
+paper. Only reasonable accuracy should be required. Practice in making
+fine pictures should not be the end sought, but the development of
+geographical ideas.
+
+Finally, pupils should be led to give clear and connected statements of
+what has been learned. For a language lesson, a written description may
+be prepared, illustrated by a drawing.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+I.--POSITION
+
+II.--HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION
+
+III.--HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION
+
+IV.--HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION
+
+V.--QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION
+
+VI.--WHAT THE WINDS BRING (POEM)
+
+VII.--HOW TO TELL DISTANCE
+
+VIII.--PICTURES AND PLANS
+
+IX.--WRITTEN EXERCISE
+
+X.--GOD MADE THEM ALL (POEM)
+
+XI.--PLAINS
+
+XII.--HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS
+
+XIII.--RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW
+
+XIV.--HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR
+
+XV.--HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER
+
+XVI.--DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN
+
+XVII.--THE FAIRY ARTIST (POEM)
+
+XVIII.--HOW RIVERS ARE MADE
+
+XIX.--MORE ABOUT RIVERS
+
+XX.--THE BROOK (POEM)
+
+XXI.--WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS
+
+XXII.--WATERDROP'S STORY
+
+XXIII.--THE RIVER (POEM)
+
+XXIV.--A MAP
+
+XXV.--FORMS OF LAND AND WATER
+
+XXVI.--MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER
+
+XXVII.--A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS
+
+XXVIII.--SPRING (POEM)
+
+XXIX.--USEFUL VEGETABLES
+
+XXX.--USEFUL GRAINS
+
+XXXI.--FRUITS
+
+XXXII.--USEFUL PLANTS
+
+XXXIII.--FOREST TREES
+
+XXXIV.--FLOWERS
+
+XXXV.--WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW
+
+XXXVI.--SUMMER RAIN (POEM)
+
+XXXVII.--THE PARTS OF ANIMALS
+
+XXXVIII.--THE COVERING OF ANIMALS
+
+XXXIX.--USES OF ANIMALS
+
+XL.--THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS (POEM)
+
+XLI.--THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH
+
+XLII.--MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH
+
+XLIII.--HOW PEOPLE LIVE, AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING
+
+XLIV.--MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING
+
+XLV.--A REVIEW LESSON
+
+
+
+Home Geography.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON I.
+
+POSITION.
+
+Lay your hands upon your desk, side by side.
+
+Which side shall we call the right side? The left side?
+
+Put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from you.
+That part is the back of your desk.
+
+Think which is the front of your desk. Put your hands on the front of
+your desk.
+
+Who sits on your right hand? On your left? At the desk in front of you?
+At the desk behind you?
+
+Turn round. Who is on your right now? On your left? Before you? Behind
+you?
+
+Turn again. Who is now on your right? On your left? Before you? Behind
+you?
+
+NOTE.--Lead children to see that the terms _right, left, front_, and
+_back_ are of little use in telling the position of places, and that
+some fixed standard of direction is necessary.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON II.
+
+HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION.
+
+If I should ask, "Which is the way to your home?" who could tell me what
+I mean?
+
+You all know which way you must go to find your home, but if you should
+wish to go to a place where you have never been, you would ask, perhaps,
+"Which way is it?"
+
+[Illustration: "THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION."]
+
+The way to a place is called _direction_. In order to find a place, we
+must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have names for
+directions, such as _north_, _south_, _east_, and _west_. We may know
+these directions by seeing where the sun is.
+
+Did you ever see the sun rise? Point to the place where you saw the sun
+rise. The direction in which the sun seems to rise is called the _east_.
+
+Did you ever see the sun set? Point to where you saw the sun set. The
+direction in which the sun seems to set is called the _west_. The west
+is just the opposite direction from east.
+
+When do we see the sun rise? Where do we see the sun rise? What is the
+name of this direction? When do we see the sun set? Where do we see it
+set? What is the name of this direction? On which side of the schoolroom
+does the sun rise? On which side does it set? Which is the east side of
+your desk? Which the west side?
+
+When coming to school this morning, in what direction did you see the
+sun? If we walk so that the morning sun shines in our faces, in what
+direction are we going? What direction is behind us?
+
+Now that you know the east, you will be able to find other directions in
+this way: Stretch out your arms so that your right hand points toward
+the east, and your left hand toward the west. You are now facing the
+_north_. The direction behind you is the _south_.
+
+[Illustration: "YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH."]
+
+_Write the following on your slates:_
+
+The sun seems to rise toward the east, and set toward the west. The west
+is just the opposite direction from the east.
+
+When my right hand is pointing to the east, and my left hand to the
+west, my face is toward the north and my back is toward the south.
+
+
+ORAL EXERCISES.
+
+Which is the north side of the schoolroom? Which is the south side? Who
+sits to the north of you? To the south?
+
+In what direction do the pupils face? On which side of your schoolroom
+is the teacher's table? Which sides have no windows? Which sides have no
+doors?
+
+If a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side, which side of
+the room faces the fire? Suppose the wind is blowing from the north, in
+what direction will the smoke go?
+
+In what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground?
+
+What is the first street or road north of the school? The first street
+or road east? South? West?
+
+In what direction is your home from the school? The school from your
+home? The nearest church from the school? The post office from your
+home?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON III.
+
+HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION.
+
+You have learned how to tell north, south, east, and west by the sun;
+but how can we tell these directions at night?
+
+Ask some one to point out to you a group of seven bright stars in the
+north part of the sky. Some people think that this group of stars looks
+like a wagon and three horses; others say that it looks like a plow.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT BEAR.]
+
+The proper name of the group containing these seven stars is the Great
+Bear. The group was given this name because men at first thought it
+looked like a bear with a long tail.
+
+These seven stars are called the Dipper. It is a part of a larger group
+called the Great Bear. Find the two bright twinkling stars farthest from
+its handle. A line drawn through them will point to another star, not
+quite so bright, called the North Star. That star is always in the
+north; so by it, on a clear night, you can tell the other directions at
+once.
+
+_Write on your slates_:
+
+Sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at the
+North Star.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON IV.
+
+HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION.
+
+But there are times when it is cloudy, and neither the sun nor the stars
+can be seen. How can we tell direction then?
+
+Have you ever seen a compass? It is a box in which is a little needle
+swinging on the top of a pin. When this needle is at rest, one end of it
+_points to the north_.
+
+[Illustration: A COMPASS.]
+
+As the needle shows where the north is; it is easy to find the south,
+the east, or the west.
+
+With the compass as a guide, the sailor, in the darkest night, can tell
+in what direction he is going.
+
+North, south, east, and west are called the _chief points_ of the
+compass.
+
+Other directions are northeast, halfway between north and east;
+northwest, halfway between north and west; southeast, halfway between
+south and east; and southwest, halfway between south and west.
+
+[Illustration: POINTS OF THE COMPASS.]
+
+_Write on your slates:_
+
+The chief points of the compass are north, south, east, and west.
+
+Other directions are northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest.
+
+Sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the compass.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON V.
+
+QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION.
+
+Your teacher will give you time to discover answers to these questions.
+She could tell you, but it is better to find them out for yourself.
+
+If I go out of doors, how can I find the north? How can I find it on a
+starlight night? How can I find it on pleasant days? How on rainy days?
+How does a sailor find the north?
+
+If you were lost and knew your home was north, how would you find it? Do
+you know how hunters and Indians who live a great deal in the woods find
+out where the north is? When you are in the woods, notice the amount of
+moss on the north side of trees as compared to that on the south side.
+
+As winter approaches; many of our birds will want to go to a warmer
+country; in what direction will they fly? Point to where ice and snow
+have their home. What direction is that?
+
+In what direction does your shadow fall at sunrise? At sunset? At noon?
+When, during the day, is your shadow shortest?
+
+[Illustration: "IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL?"]
+
+In what direction does your shadow extend from yourself when it is
+shortest?
+
+What time of day is noon? How can we tell when it is noon? When is the
+sun highest in the sky?
+
+[Illustration: "WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE SMOKE?"]
+
+What may we discover by watching the direction of the smoke from the
+chimneys? What does a vane on a steeple tell us? What is a north wind? A
+south wind? An east wind? A west wind?
+
+What kind of weather may be expected from a north wind? From a south
+wind? From an east wind? From a west wind?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON VI.
+
+WHAT THE WINDS BRING.
+
+  Comes the north wind, snowflakes bringing:
+    Robes the fields in purest white,
+  Paints grand houses, trees, and mountains
+    On our window-panes at night.
+
+  Hills and vales the east wind visits,
+    Brings them chilly, driving rain;
+  Shivering cattle homeward hurry,
+    Onward through the darkening lane.
+
+  Heat the south wind kindly gives us;
+    Reddens apples, gilds the pear,
+  Gives the grape a richer purple,
+    Scatters plenty everywhere.
+
+  Flowers sweet the west wind offers,
+    Peeping forth from vines and trees;
+  Brings the butterflies so brilliant,
+    And the busy, humming bees.
+
+  Each wind brings his own best treasure
+    To our land from year to year;
+  Blessings many without measure
+    E'er attend the winds' career.
+
+Lillian Cox.
+
+
+  "Whichever way the wind doth blow.
+   Some heart is glad to have it so;
+   And blow it east or blow it west,
+   The wind that blows, that wind is best."
+
+_Write_ all that you can tell about the wind.
+
+What was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm? Why is
+the north wind cold? Why is the south wind warm?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON VII.
+
+HOW TO TELL DISTANCE.
+
+To tell where a place is, we must know its direction. But this is not
+all; we must also know how far it is from us; that is; its _distance_.
+To find this out we measure.
+
+You have often heard of an _inch_, a _foot_, and a _yard_. This line is
+one inch long |--------|. Your ruler is twelve inches long, that is a
+foot. Three lengths of your ruler make a yard. A yard stick is three
+feet long.
+
+[Illustration: MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES.]
+
+With these measures you can tell how long your slate or your desk is, or
+how long and wide the schoolroom is.
+
+The inch, foot, and yard are used for measuring short distances. But
+when we wish to tell the distance between objects far apart, we use
+another measure called a _mile_. A mile is much longer than a yard.
+
+Think of some object that is a mile from our schoolhouse. How long would
+it take you to walk that distance?
+
+[Illustration: MEASURING LONG DISTANCES.]
+
+
+ORAL EXERCISES.
+
+How many inches long is your slate? How long is your desk? How many feet
+long is your room? How wide is it? What is the distance around the room?
+How many feet wide is each window? Each door? How many yards wide is the
+nearest street or road?
+
+About what is the height of the schoolroom? Of the schoolhouse? Of the
+tallest tree near by? Of the nearest church spire?
+
+About how long is the longest street in the town where you live? Do you
+know how many blocks or squares make a mile? Name the nearest river or
+creek. Give its direction from the school. In what direction does the
+water run? Give the direction and distance of the nearest church. What
+must you know to go to any place?
+
+NOTE.--Have pupils estimate distances by the eye, then verify by actual
+measurement. Continue the exercises until the work becomes quite
+accurate. Correct ideas of distance are necessary in order to understand
+how large the world is, and how far apart places are on its surface.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON VIII.
+
+PICTURES AND PLANS.
+
+You all know what a picture is. But do you know what a plan is?
+
+A little boy wanted to show his cousin, who lived some miles away; the
+shape and size of his house, and how the rooms were arranged. How could
+he do this?
+
+On a large sheet of white paper, he placed lines of blocks in the form
+of his house. Then, with a lead pencil, he drew a line on the paper
+along the sides of the blocks. He next took up the blocks, and there, on
+the paper, was a plan of his house.
+
+[Illustration: "THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS."]
+
+Here is a picture of a schoolroom. We see desks, the teacher's table, a
+chair, a clock, globe, and two maps, in the picture. The picture shows
+these objects as they would appear if we stood at the door behind the
+teacher's table and looked in.
+
+This is a plan of the schoolroom, a picture of which is shown above.
+You see, the plan and picture are quite different.
+
+[Illustration: "THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE."]
+
+The picture shows the objects as we see them before us. The plan shows
+where the objects are, and their direction from one another.
+
+Now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the
+blackboard.
+
+The first thing is to measure the sides of the room. We will suppose the
+two long sides are each forty feet long, and the two short sides each
+thirty feet long. Now we will draw four straight lines on the board for
+the four sides. Of course, the lines must be much shorter than the sides
+themselves, else our plan will be too large.
+
+Make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room. So the lines
+for the long sides will each be forty inches long, and the lines for the
+short sides thirty inches long.
+
+The next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the
+windows, and oblongs for the desks. But we must remember that an inch in
+our plan stands for a foot in the object itself, and therefore we must
+allow as many inches for the width of doors and windows, and for the
+length and width of the desks, as there are feet in the objects
+themselves. Thus, if the door is three feet wide, we must make it three
+inches wide in our plan.
+
+And lastly, we will draw a circle for the globe, and an oblong and
+square for the teacher's table and chair, that shall show just where and
+just how long these objects are.
+
+We have now a _plan_ of the schoolroom. Let us put N. to show the north
+side of the room, S. to show the south side, E. to show the east side,
+and W. to show the west side. We can now tell the direction of one thing
+from another in our plan.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON IX.
+
+WRITTEN EXERCISE.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.]
+
+_Write_ the answers to the following questions, in full sentences:
+
+What is the name of your school? On what street or road is it? Which
+side of the street? Between what streets? In which direction does the
+building face?
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.]
+
+How many rooms has the building? In what part of the building is your
+room? How large is it? How many doors and windows? How many seats?
+
+In what direction is the school from your home? How far is it? How long
+does it take you to walk to school?
+
+EXERCISES IN DRAWING PLANS.
+
+Draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates. It cannot be drawn on your
+slates as large as it was drawn on the board. So let one inch stand for
+ten feet, instead of for one foot; that is, use a _scale_ of one inch
+for every ten feet. Your plan will not be as large as mine, but it will
+show the position of everything as correctly.
+
+Draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table, showing two books and an
+inkstand upon it. First, measure the sides. Then decide to what scale
+you will draw your plan.
+
+Now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds. You must measure not
+only the house, but the width and length of the yard. The plan must show
+the size, shape, and place of everything upon the grounds. (While
+drawing a plan of this kind, it is better to let the pupils face the
+north. The top of the plan should be the north side of the grounds.)
+
+Draw a plan of your own room at home, showing the table, bed, chairs,
+and other objects in it.
+
+
+ORAL EXERCISE.
+
+If the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard, what have we drawn?
+Is a plan the same as a picture? What is the use of a plan? Mention some
+things of which plans can be drawn.
+
+NOTE.--It is wrong to teach that the _top_ of a map or plan is _always_
+north; as often as not, the bottom is north, in plans especially.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON X.
+
+GOD MADE THEM ALL.
+
+[Illustration: "THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING BY."]
+
+  All things bright and beautiful,
+    All creatures great and small,
+  All things wise and wonderful,
+    The good God made them all.
+
+  Each little flower that opens,
+    Each little bird that sings,
+  He made their glowing colors,
+    He made their tiny wings.
+
+  The purple-headed mountain,
+    The river running by,
+  The morning and the sunset,
+    The twinkling stars on high;
+
+  The tall trees in the greenwood,
+    The pleasant summer sun,
+  The ripe fruits in the garden--
+    He made them every one.
+
+  He gave us eyes to see them,
+    And lips that we might tell
+  How great is God Almighty,
+    Who hath made all things well.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XI.
+
+PLAINS.
+
+The floor of our schoolroom is level. The playground is almost, if not
+quite, level. As you look away from the school, is the land nearly
+level? Did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level land?
+
+Let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land, many,
+many times larger than our playground. Such a broad, nearly level
+stretch of land is called a _plain_.
+
+[Illustration: "SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A PLAIN."]
+
+If this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful flowers,
+we should call it a _prairie_. In the summer it is a vast sea of waving
+grass. On the prairie we might find herds of wild horses and cattle,
+which feed upon the rich grass. If it were late in the summer, when the
+grass is dry and crisp, it might catch fire, and we might then see a
+grand sight--a prairie on fire.
+
+We now come to another plain, miles and miles long, miles and miles
+wide. No rain falls here, and therefore we see no grass, nor flowers,
+nor cattle, nor horses, nothing but dry, burning sand, rocks, or gravel.
+We are in a _desert_. But we are so thirsty and tired!
+
+No water to drink, no shade from the burning sun! Suddenly, in the midst
+of the desert, we come to a beautiful grassy spot. There is a cluster of
+date-palm trees, and, better still, a well or a spring of fresh water.
+This pleasant spot in the desert is called an _oasis_. Here we may
+quench our thirst, and rest beneath the shade of the trees.
+
+[Illustration: "THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN OASIS."]
+
+An _oasis_ is a fertile spot in a desert. What does _fertile_ mean? When
+do we say land is fertile? When barren? When desert?
+
+Find a picture of a palm tree, and try to draw it.
+
+If we were really in a desert, we might see a company of merchants
+carrying goods to sell in the countries they visit. Such a company is
+called a _caravan_. The goods are packed in bundles, which are carried
+on camels' backs. The camel can live for a long time without drinking,
+and can carry a heavy load of merchandise a long distance. It is
+sometimes called the ship of the desert.
+
+Why do travelers use camels to cross the desert? Why do they not use
+horses? If you can not find answers to these questions in your books at
+home, ask your teacher about them.
+
+You have seen a small whirlwind in the street. The leaves flew round and
+round, the dust whirled along in clouds. Trees are sometimes torn from
+the ground, and houses overturned, by a strong wind.
+
+Now think of a wind-storm in the desert. A loud, rustling noise is
+heard. Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds which
+darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their camels, cover
+themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the ground.
+
+The poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with their
+backs to the wind until the storm has passed over.
+
+Thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the sand.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XII.
+
+HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS.
+
+The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is high and
+uneven. We all know what a _hill_ is. It is land a little higher than
+the surrounding country.
+
+Is there a hill near where you live? Let us walk to the _top_, and stand
+on its _summit_. We will start from the _foot_ or _base_ of the hill.
+Now we have climbed its steep, rough _sides_ or _slopes_. Was the ascent
+difficult? Is the view from the top fine?
+
+[Illustration: "WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE HILL?"]
+
+What can you see from the top of the hill--meadow, river, lake, town?
+What grow on the hill? What live on the hill?
+
+Which part of a hill is called the base, or foot? The slope, or sides?
+The top, or summit?
+
+Give two names for the lowest part of a hill. Two for the highest part.
+Two for the part between the highest and lowest parts.
+
+Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are
+called _mountains_. Mountains are much higher than hills. Have you ever
+seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A mountain is as high as twenty
+such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high the mountains must
+be!
+
+Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem to
+touch the sky. A man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath his
+feet, while the sun shone where he stood. When it lightened he saw the
+flash far below him.
+
+Is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains? With what are many high
+mountains covered, even in summer?
+
+The land between mountains or hills is called a _valley_. Is there a
+valley near here? What do you call the ground on either side?
+
+Would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valley? Why?
+
+Are mountains of any use?
+
+Yes, hills and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth more
+beautiful. Tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn the clouds
+into drops of water which fall as rain or snow. Then mountains give rise
+to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with grass and flowers.
+Mountains do much good to some countries by keeping off cold winds. They
+also give us coal and iron and other minerals which we find so useful.
+
+[Illustration: "THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN MOUNTAINS."]
+
+Here is a picture. What do you call the very high land on the right and
+on the left? The long, narrow piece of land between the two mountains?
+
+When you look at this picture you must think of a real valley between
+mountains.
+
+Bring pictures of hills and mountains to school; if you can find them.
+
+If you had a molding-board and a few quarts of sand; you might represent
+hills and mountains with valleys between. Think of a real hill while you
+mold.
+
+Draw on your slate a hill you have seen with a little of the surrounding
+country.
+
+_Write:_
+
+A long, narrow piece of land between hills and mountains is called a
+valley.
+
+A hill is land a little higher than the country about it.
+
+A mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the country
+about it.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XIII.
+
+RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW.
+
+  Do you see the dropping rain,
+  Pitter-patter on the pane?
+  How it runs along the street!
+  And it wets our little feet;
+  But it makes the green grass grow,
+  And the tiny streamlets flow.
+
+  Listen to the wintry blast
+  Moaning, shrieking, howling past,
+  Striking with tremendous force
+  Rocks and forests in its course;
+  But it blows the windmills strong,
+  And it sends big ships along.
+
+  Watch the pretty snowflakes fall,
+  Some are large and some are small;
+  Look, they cover all the ground,
+  Miles of dazzling white around;
+  But this covering, I am told,
+  Keeps the earth from frost and cold.
+
+  Ah! and I must work alway,
+  Life's not meant to spend in play;
+  Every moment's fleeting fast,
+  And our day will soon be past;
+  If our work is truly done,
+  It will last though ages run.
+
+Of what use is rain? Of what use is snow? Of what use is wind?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XIV.
+
+HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR.
+
+What happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove?
+
+The water gets hot and boils away.
+
+Where does it go? Is it destroyed?
+
+The water is changed, but it is not destroyed. Coal burns, but we do not
+get rid of it altogether. It is changed into gas and smoke and ashes.
+
+What is the water changed into?
+
+It is changed to vapor. If we let the kettle remain on the fire long
+enough, the water it contains will all pass away as vapor.
+
+Where does the vapor go? The water, though turned into vapor, must be
+somewhere.
+
+It is floating about in the air of the room, though we cannot see it.
+The air holds the vapor, just as a sponge holds water.
+
+Heat expands or swells air. Warm air, therefore, can contain more vapor
+than cold air. On a warm day there may be many times as much moisture in
+the air as on a cold day.
+
+Moisten your slate with a damp sponge. Observe the disappearance of the
+moisture.
+
+Dip your hand in water, and wave it in the air. The water on your hand
+disappears. Where has it gone?
+
+When wet clothes are hung on the line, they soon become dry. What
+becomes of the water in the clothes?
+
+If we set a plate of water out in the sunshine, what happens? Is the
+water lost?
+
+The streets and roads were wet and muddy, now they are dry. What has
+become of the water? Has it all sunk into the ground?
+
+Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early in the
+morning, When the sun shines out and warms the air; what happens?
+
+Why does vapor rise into the air?
+
+Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is
+lighter than air; what do you think ought to happen to it?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XV.
+
+HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER,
+
+Heat, as you have learned, changes water into vapor. You must also know
+that cold turns vapor back into water again.
+
+[Illustration: "THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING WATER."]
+
+Now let us think of the kettle with the boiling water. You will notice a
+little space; quite close to the spout, where nothing can be seen. Is
+there no vapor there?
+
+Yes, there is vapor there, but it cannot be seen; it is invisible. A
+little way from the spout we see something white, like smoke. This is
+only the vapor that has been chilled by the cool air and changed back
+again into water. The water is in the form of very fine particles, and
+may be called water-dust.
+
+Hold a cold plate over boiling water. Observe how the water-dust gathers
+into drops that roll down the plate.
+
+You have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with
+moisture. Where does it come from? Why did it form there? Why does it
+sometimes run down on the cold pane?
+
+The vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings. Explain
+this.
+
+Carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room, and notice what takes place. A
+thin mist at once gathers on the outside of the pitcher. What takes
+place among the little drops of mist? What becomes of these larger
+drops?
+
+Where does the water which collects on the outside of the pitcher come
+from? Does it come through the pitcher from the inside? Would the same
+thing have taken place if some other cold object had been used instead
+of a cold pitcher?
+
+_Write_ out what you have learned about vapor.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XVI.
+
+DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN.
+
+The sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the sea,
+and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot see the
+vapor; but it is in the air around us.
+
+If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing happens.
+Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often seen, in the
+early morning, little drops of water hanging like pearls upon the blades
+of grass.
+
+Now, where do these drops come from? They come from the air. The vapor
+in the air floats against the cold grass and leaves, and is cooled and
+changed into tiny drops of water. We call this _dew_.
+
+Of what use is dew?
+
+If the night is quite cold, the dew will freeze. It is then called
+frost. You have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful pictures
+upon it.
+
+Make a picture of the window as you remember it, covered with the pretty
+things made by the frost.
+
+[Illustration: "WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR."]
+
+When vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very small drops
+of water or minute crystals of ice, and we can see it floating about in
+the air. It is then called a _cloud_. Almost any clear day you may see
+clouds form and then seem to melt away.
+
+You have seen on a blue sky, light, fleecy feather-clouds. They are very
+high up, and it is very cold where they are. You have also noticed the
+clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors. As the sun sank lower and
+lower, how did they change, in shape and color?
+
+When clouds are low down, near the earth, we call them _fogs_ or _mist_.
+
+If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into large
+drops and fall as _rain_. If the drops should freeze in falling, we
+would call them _hail_.
+
+What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain?
+
+[Illustration: "HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A MICROSCOPE?"]
+
+Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes before
+it forms into drops, and falls in the beautiful flakes we call _snow_.
+Have you ever seen snowflakes through a microscope?
+
+Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in winter if
+it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow?
+
+Observe the clouds; fog, rain, snow, dew, frost, and tell what you have
+noticed.
+
+_Write_ what you have _seen_ or _noticed_ about vapor, clouds, rain,
+etc.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XVII.
+
+THE FAIRY ARTIST.
+
+  Oh, there is a little artist
+    Who paints in the cold night hours
+  Pictures for little children
+    Of wondrous trees and flowers!
+
+  Pictures of snow-white mountains
+    Touching the snow-white sky;
+  Pictures of distant oceans
+    Where pretty ships sail by.
+
+  Pictures of rushing rivers
+    By fairy bridges spanned;
+  Bits of beautiful landscape
+    Copied from elfin land.
+
+  The moon is the lamp he paints by;
+    His canvas the window pane;
+  His brush is a frozen snowflake;
+    Jack Frost the artist's name.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XVIII.
+
+HOW RIVERS ARE MADE.
+
+Have you ever seen a brook or creek? A river? Is there a brook or river
+near here? Who can tell where it begins? where the water conies from
+that fills it? where it goes? Let us try to understand this.
+
+As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the air in winds
+up the sides of mountains, it turns into water again, and comes falling
+down as rain.
+
+Now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go. Some of the
+water runs off on the surface, down the mountain slope. Some sinks into
+the ground, and runs along in little streams below the surface. It will
+appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as a _spring_. The
+spring is the beginning of a river.
+
+Did you ever see a spring? Where was it? Was it shaded by trees? Where
+did the water come from? Did you drink from it? Was the water pure and
+cold? Where did the water go after leaving the spring?
+
+[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?"]
+
+From the spring flows a tiny, thread-like stream, so small that we can
+easily step across it. This little stream is called a _rill_.
+
+Other rills meet this, and form a larger stream, which is called a
+_brook_ or _creek_.
+
+[Illustration: RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH.]
+
+As the brook flows on, it is joined by other streams, until, little by
+little, it becomes a wide and deep _river_ on which large boats may
+float. At last, it finds its way into the ocean.
+
+Where a river begins is its _source_. The place where it flows into
+another body of water is called its _mouth_. The land over which it
+flows is its _bed_.
+
+A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is on
+our right hand, and the left bank is on our left.
+
+Do you live near a river? Where does the water come from? In what
+direction does it flow? Why does it flow in such direction? Does it wind
+about much? Does it flow into the ocean, or into another river?
+
+Is the water fresh or salt? What grow on its banks? Near which bank do
+you live?
+
+Make a picture of a spring, and a brook flowing from it. Draw the tall
+grass and plants that grow near it.
+
+Write the names of all the rivers you have seen.
+
+_Write the following:_
+
+Water flowing out of the ground is called a spring.
+
+From springs flow small streams called rills, brooks, or creeks.
+
+A large stream of water flowing through the land is called a river.
+
+A small stream of water flowing into a larger one is called a tributary.
+
+The source of a river is where it begins. The place where it empties
+into another body of water is its mouth.
+
+Every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand bank.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XIX.
+
+MORE ABOUT RIVERS.
+
+Let us have another chat about the river. We may fancy that we are
+following it in its course to the sea. We shall then learn for ourselves
+many things we do not know about rivers.
+
+We will begin our journey at its source. Here it is a little rill,
+formed by water that trickles from a spring, or by the melting of snow.
+
+As it flows on, it is joined by many other little streams, until it
+grows to be much larger.
+
+There is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream. Do
+you know what it is? The word, is _tributary_. Tributaries are often
+called _branches_.
+
+Before we leave this part of the river, I wish you to learn another hard
+word.
+
+You have seen the water run off the roof of a _shed_. The ridge; or
+highest part of the roof, divides the rain that falls on it, so that
+part of the rain flows down the one side, and part of it flows down the
+other side.
+
+[Illustration: "HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES."]
+
+Now, hills, like the roof of a house, send off streams on both sides.
+When it rains, or the snow melts, some of the water goes down on one
+side, some on the other. And that is why the hills which divide or part
+the waters of streams are called a _water-parting_ or _water-shed_.
+
+Let us now go further down the stream.
+
+Here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope. Its waters foam and
+dash between the great rocks that lie in the stream. Such places in the
+river are called _rapids_. Can you tell why they are so called?
+
+[Illustration: "SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS."]
+
+The stream flows on. It has now reached a high ledge of rock. Over this
+it leaps, making a great foam and noise.
+
+When the water of a river falls over high rocks, it is called a
+waterfall or _cataract_.
+
+You may have seen the Falls of Niagara, the greatest waterfall in the
+world.
+
+[Illustration: "YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA."]
+
+The course of our river is now through a lower country. The valley in
+which it flows spreads out, and the stream grows wider and wider. The
+water moves slower and slower.
+
+Why is the river swift in some places, and in others slow?
+
+At length it flows through an almost level country. It is here widest
+and deepest. Its course is more winding.
+
+Do you know why it is crooked and winding?
+
+Because on the steep hillside the water runs very rapidly, and is not
+easily turned aside. Where the ground is nearly level, it runs slowly,
+and is easily turned from its course.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XX.
+
+THE BROOK.
+
+      From a fountain
+      In a mountain,
+    Drops of water ran
+  Trickling through the grasses;
+    So our brook began.
+
+      Slow it started;
+      Soon it darted,
+    Cool and clear and free,
+  Rippling over pebbles,
+    Hurrying to the sea.
+
+      Children straying
+      Came a-playing
+    On its pretty banks;
+  Glad, our little brooklet
+    Sparkled up its thanks.
+
+      Blossoms floating,
+      Mimic boating,
+    Fishes darting past,
+  Swift, and strong, and happy,
+    Widening very fast.
+
+      Bubbling, singing,
+      Rushing, ringing,
+    Flecked with shade and sun.
+  Soon our pretty brooklet
+    To the sea has run.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXI.
+
+WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS.
+
+Would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work they
+do?
+
+Notice what happens when it rains. Little tiny streams are formed, which
+chase each other down the slopes. See how they cut away the loose soil
+and carry it off. Notice how muddy this loose soil makes the water. What
+becomes of this loose soil, or mud?
+
+Fill a jar with water. Put in a handful of mud from the nearest stream.
+Shake the jar, and the water is muddy. Let it stand awhile. What do you
+notice? The water is clear, and the soil has settled to the bottom.
+
+Follow the streams to the valley where they unite to form a river. When
+does the load of mud it carries settle? Here, where the water scarcely
+moves, we find some of the soil spread out over the ground near the
+river banks.
+
+You have seen a river overflow its banks. When the water went down, it
+left a layer of rich mud, which made the soil very fertile.
+
+[Illustration: "THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE LOAM."]
+
+Have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered with
+rich grass and clover?
+
+Well, these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has been
+washed down the streams from the far-off hills and mountains.
+
+Look at the jar again. Which settled first, the coarse material or fine
+loam? What kind of a deposit will be made in the upper course of a
+river? What kind toward the mouth?
+
+High up in the valley, when the river is low, we see _pebbles_ in its
+bed; lower down, the pebbles are worn into _gravel;_ and as we get still
+farther down, we find the gravel ground into _sand_.
+
+Examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river. Some are
+quite smooth and round. They were not always so, but had sharp edges. Do
+you know what made them round?
+
+When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones down
+the mountain side and into the valley. As they are carried down the
+stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are smoothed and
+rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles themselves are ground at
+last into gravel and fine sand.
+
+This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows in
+the sides of the mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into fine
+soil, and carrying it into the valleys below.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXII.
+
+WATERDROP'S STORY.
+
+Patter, patter, fall the raindrops on the brown leaves in the woods. Mr.
+Squirrel's bright eyes sparkle as he peeps out of his queer little home,
+a hole in the tree; his store of nuts has been carefully hidden away.
+
+Splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him. Such a friendly little
+drop it is, for soon it tells this little woodland dweller of all its
+travels.
+
+Let us listen, for we may hear too:
+
+"My home," began the Waterdrop, "is in the wide blue sea, where I live
+with many, many other drops.
+
+"One day as we rode up and down on the big waves, the sun shone down on
+us, and we grew warmer. Each little drop felt, 'Oh, if I could only get
+away from the other drops, how much cooler I should be!' Then each tiny
+drop separated from the others, and grew so small you could not see it.
+
+"We, of course, grew lighter, lighter than the air. Up, up we rose into
+the bright blue sky. When we got pretty high, where the air was cool, we
+came closer together again and formed a great fleecy white _cloud_, that
+cast its shadow over everything. Then a friendly wind carried us along,
+and soon we left the sea behind. Far below; we could see green fields
+and waving woods."
+
+"You must have been very happy" said the little squirrel.
+
+"Yes; it was a merry life we led, as we floated hither and thither,
+playing with the sun-beams," replied the Waterdrop.
+
+"But we came at last to a purple mountain, and a chill wind began to
+blow. How we shivered with the cold! Then we huddled close together to
+get warm. We were now heavy again--so heavy that we could not stay up in
+the air.
+
+"Then,
+
+  'I'm going down to cheer a flower,'
+    Cried a little drop of rain;
+  'I hear it sigh. It droops its head
+    As if in weary pain.'
+
+  'And I will go!' 'And I!' 'And I!'
+    Cried all the raindrops near.
+  So down we went in merry haste
+    The whole wide field to cheer.
+
+"The drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little
+drops for the cool drink. Even the great tall trees nodded their heads
+in welcome."
+
+"The grass on the hillside and in the valley must have been grateful,
+too, for your coming," said the squirrel. "It always looks so fresh and
+green after a shower. But, tell me, what became of _you_?"
+
+"I fell where the ground was brown and bare, stopped for a moment, then
+went down, down into the ground, where all was dark. I met other drops
+trying to get out, and we went on together, turning first this way, then
+that way, till we burst into the sunshine again."
+
+"We rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water; then I ran with
+the rest down the mountain side, slipping over smooth pebbles, and
+tumbling over sharp rocks, until I found myself in a deep, swift stream,
+where plants and trees grew on either bank."
+
+[Illustration: "SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS."]
+"As I was hurried along, I heard a great roaring noise made by the river
+falling over a high ledge of rocks, as a cataract or waterfall. Suddenly
+we fell over the rocks so steep and high that we went leaping and
+dashing in all directions. We rose in the air in a fine gray mist, then
+sank back again into the foam-covered stream.
+
+[Illustration: "THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL."]
+
+"Soon we were in a broad, quiet river, flowing past the grassy hills and
+green pastures. Then we came to a big mill-wheel, upon which we jumped,
+and by our weight made it turn over and over, and thus move the
+machinery in the mill. Here we were tossed in the air, whirled around,
+and at last flung back into the river, where we sailed slowly and
+quietly as before.
+
+"By and by, we saw large boats floating on the water. We passed towns
+and cities with busy streets and many people; and as our river widened,
+and we heard the big sea waves dashing against the shore, we knew our
+brothers and sisters were singing a welcome home.
+
+[Illustration: "WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES."]
+
+"And now farewell, little squirrel. My story is done, and I must hasten
+to my home in the sea. Perhaps we shall meet again some day. I may float
+down to you, a white-winged snowflake, or patter down as I came this
+time, a tiny raindrop."
+
+_Write the following:_
+
+The water rises from the sea in vapor.
+
+The vapor is turned into clouds, which fall in rain or snow.
+
+The rain forms rivers, which flow back again into the sea.
+
+Thus the water is always going round and round in its long and curious
+journey--up to the clouds in vapor, down in rain, back in streams to the
+place it started from.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXIII.
+
+THE RIVER.
+
+  "Oh, tell me, pretty river,
+    Whence do thy waters flow?
+  And whither art thou roaming,
+    So smoothly and so slow?"
+
+  "My birthplace was the mountain,
+    My nurse the April showers;
+  My cradle was a fountain,
+    O'er-curtained by wild flowers.
+
+  "One morn I ran away,
+    A madcap, noisy rill;
+  And many a prank that day
+    I played adown the hill!
+
+  "And then 'mid meadowy banks,
+    I flirted with the flowers,
+  That stooped with glowing lips
+    To woo me to their bowers.
+
+  "But these bright scenes are o'er,
+    And darkly flows my wave;
+  I hear the ocean's roar--
+    And there must be my grave!"
+
+Where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem? Are
+rivers born? What is meant by "My nurse the April showers"? "I flirted
+with the flowers"? Explain the last stanza.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXIV.
+
+A MAP
+
+A drawing made to show a room, or a house; or the school-yard, or even a
+village, is called a plan.
+
+Drawings which represent land and water are called maps. You may learn
+from maps where the countries, and mountains, and rivers, and cities are
+that you have seen. It also shows how far places are from one another.
+
+Here is a map showing mountains and rivers. The many short lines facing
+each other represent mountains. To show the very high part of the
+mountains, the lines are drawn close to each other, making that part of
+the map look dark. The line winding about, like the stream itself,
+represents a river. The line, as you see, is made thicker and thicker
+toward its mouth. From this you may know that the river itself becomes
+broader and broader as it flows toward the sea.
+
+But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river, or
+the lines which face each other are mountains. If you do, you will learn
+very little of geography. When you look at these lines, you must _think_
+of the real things which they stand for--the lofty mountains, with their
+covering of forests, and with long, narrow valleys between them; the
+winding, gently flowing river, bearing boats upon its waters.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXV.
+
+FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.
+
+You all know what a pond is. Is there a pond near where you live? Did
+you ever fish in it? Did you ever walk round it?
+
+When a stream, on its way to the ocean, flows into a basin or hollow in
+the land, the water spreads out and fills it. A hollow in the land
+filled with water is called a _lake_, or, if it be quite small, a
+_pond_.
+
+What is a lake made of? What is round it? Suppose some one who never saw
+a lake were to ask you what a lake is, what would you say?
+
+What do we find in lakes? Would you not like to sail on a lake?
+
+In the hollows among mountains are great numbers of beautiful lakes. In
+their clear waters may be seen the mountains, the forests, and the sky,
+as in a looking-glass. At night the moon and stars may be seen below you
+as plainly as above.
+
+Here is a picture of a pretty lake in a valley.
+
+[Illustration: A PRETTY LAKE IN A VALLEY.]
+
+You see a river flowing from the hills beyond. Into what is it flowing?
+The river that lets the water _into_ the lake is called an _inlet_.
+
+You see another river that lets the water _out_ of the lake. This river
+we call the _outlet_ of the lake.
+
+Make a lake on your molding-board, or in the sand near your home.
+Represent its inlet and outlet.
+
+Out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters play.
+We could not go to this land without crossing the water; the water is on
+all sides of it. Such a little piece of land is called an _island_.
+
+Did you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? You will remember that
+he went up a hill in search of water. When he got to the top of the
+hill, he saw that he was on an island. How did he know?
+
+Have you ever seen an island? What island was it? Could you sail round
+it? What was on every side of it? What grew on it? What is an island?
+
+If there is a brook or lake near your home, how can you make an island?
+
+Opposite is a picture of a river and a lake. Make a map of the same
+river and lake on your slate. Notice how the coast or shore of the lake
+bends in and out.
+
+_Write the following_:
+
+A lake is water surrounded by land.
+
+The land near the water of a lake is called its shore.
+
+An island is a little piece of land surrounded by water.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXVI.
+
+MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF A PENINSULA.]
+
+An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land with water all round
+it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that has water _nearly_ all
+round it. This form of land is called a _peninsula_. The word peninsula
+means _almost an island_.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF A PENINSULA.]
+
+In the picture we see a narrow strip of land which extends far out into
+the water. You will notice that the land has water all round; except at
+one place.
+
+What is the name for land that has water on all sides but one? What is a
+peninsula?
+
+How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the difference
+between a peninsula and an island?
+
+The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as the
+neck joins the head to the body-is called an _isthmus_, which means
+_neck_.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF A BAY.]
+
+Here is another picture which I wish you to look at. You see where the
+shore bends like a bow; and the water runs a little way into the land.
+
+Can you think of anything else that is bent like this? Yes-a bay-window.
+
+Now, when I tell yon that bay means the same as bow, you can almost
+guess the name for this bend in the land. It is called a bay. You will
+easily remember that little word.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF A BAY.]
+
+A wide opening or bend in the land, into which the water flows, is
+usually called a bay.
+
+Sometimes, when the opening in the bend is long and narrow, it is called
+a _gulf_.
+
+On the next page is shown a narrow strip of water joining two larger
+bodies of water. The name given to this narrow passage is strait, a word
+meaning narrow.
+
+As an isthmus connects two bodies of land, so a strait connects two
+bodies of water.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF A STRAIT.]
+
+After a rain make little lakes, rivers, bays, etc. Perhaps you may find
+some already made.
+
+See whether you can find in the magazines and books at home pictures of
+gulfs, bays, peninsulas, etc.
+
+_Write the following:_ A peninsula is land almost surrounded by water.
+
+An isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of land.
+
+A gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending into
+the land.
+
+A strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies of
+water.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF A STRAIT.]
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXVII.
+
+A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS.
+
+Uncle Tom had been telling Fred and me about many strange places he had
+seen. Last of all, he told us about some high mountains he had climbed.
+We wanted to climb one very much. So father said he would go with us up
+a high hill not far from the city.
+
+Mother did not need to call us in the morning, for we woke up very
+early. The sky in the east was bright, and we knew that soon we should
+see the sun. We wanted to start at once, but mother said it would be
+better to have breakfast first.
+
+We put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut. Father gave
+each of us a stout stick to help us climb. Fred had a knapsack, in which
+mother put some bread, cold meat, crackers, and a cup to drink from. In
+one corner we put some towels.
+
+We were soon outside the city, walking along the road. We passed a
+village, and went through fields and woods. By and by we could see the
+land before us rising higher and higher. We saw no longer such beautiful
+farms and gardens as we had passed.
+
+[Illustration: "AS WE WENT UP THE SLOPE."]
+
+In a little while we reached the foot of the hill and began to ascend.
+As we went up the slope, we came to steep, rugged places that were hard
+to climb, where we needed our sticks. The trees were smaller, and there
+were many bushes. There were large rocks, too, in the sides of the hill.
+At the foot, the weather was quite warm, but it grew cooler and cooler
+the higher we went.
+
+[Illustration: "WE COULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE STRAIGHT STREETS."]
+
+"On the summit at last!" cried Fred, as we reached the top.
+
+From where we stood, we could see the city with its little straight
+streets, that look so wide when we walk on them. We could see the
+house-tops, too, and the church steeples. Then father showed us the
+village we passed; and the woods we went through. But the trees looked
+like bushes, and some men at the foot of the hill looked no larger than
+the baby.
+
+Down the mountain, a little way, we found a spring where the water was
+clear and cool. Here we sat down on a rock, and ate the lunch we had
+brought. While we rested, we watched the little rill that flowed from
+the spring--
+
+  "Blue in the shadow,
+  Silver in the sun."
+
+Down the hill, it was larger, and we saw other rills flowing into it.
+When it reached the valley, it was much larger; and farther down, father
+said, boats could sail on it.
+
+[Illustration: "IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET OF STILL WATER."]
+
+Before us, in the valley, lay a large sheet of still water.
+
+"Oh, how pretty!" exclaimed I.
+
+"Yes, that is a lake," said father. "How beautiful it looks as the
+sunlight plays on its smooth surface! It reflects in its clear water the
+sky and the trees around it."
+
+"I can see an island in the lake," said Fred. "Vessels are sailing all
+round it."
+
+"Are all islands small, like that?" he asked.
+
+"Oh, no!" said father. "Some islands are hundreds of miles round, and
+have many people living upon them."
+
+Fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water, and
+asked whether that, too, was an island.
+
+"No," replied father, "that is a peninsula. It is land almost surrounded
+by water. And the narrow neck which joins the peninsula to the mainland
+is called an isthmus.
+
+"You see the bend in the land, with the water from the lake running in?"
+asked father.
+
+"Yes," said Fred.
+
+"That is called a bay. Around every ocean, which is a much larger body
+of water, there are many such bays.
+
+"The narrow strip of water, which a boat is just entering, is called a
+strait. The strait separates the island from the mainland."
+
+Stretching far away to the east was flat, level land, which father
+called a plain. Scattered here and there were many farmhouses and quiet
+villages. Little bright, sparkling streams wound their way like silver
+threads through the green grass of the meadows. It was a lovely scene
+indeed!
+
+The sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return. As it
+set--
+
+  A wonderful glory of color,
+    A splendor of shifting light--
+  Orange and scarlet and purple
+    Flamed in the sky so bright.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXVIII.
+
+SPRING.
+
+  Drops of rain and bits of sunshine
+    Falling here and gleaming there,
+  Tiny blades of grass appearing.
+    Tell of springtime bright and fair.
+
+  Budding leaves are gently swaying,
+    Merry glad notes sweetly ring;
+  Robins, bluebirds, gayly singing,
+    Tell of happy, pleasant spring.
+
+  Violets, in blue and purple,
+    By the twinkling water clear;
+  Fair spring beauties, frail and dainty,
+    Tell the story, spring is here.
+
+  Cherry, peach, and apple blossoms
+    Scattering fragrance far and wide;
+  Buttercups and pure white snowdrops
+    Tell of gracious, sweet springtide.
+
+Lillian Cox.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXIX.
+
+USEFUL VEGETABLES.
+
+In the heart of a seed buried deep, so deep, A dear little plant lay
+fast asleep. "Wake!" said the sunshine, "and creep to the light."
+
+"Wake!" said the voice of the raindrops bright.
+
+The little plant heard, and it rose to see
+
+What the wonderful outside world might be.
+
+[Illustration: A SPROUT.]
+
+What vegetables grow in your neighborhood?
+
+[Illustration: A VINE BEGINNING TO GROW.]
+
+Of which do we use the roots as food? Of which the leaves? Of which the
+seeds? Of which the stems or stalks?
+
+Which is the most useful garden vegetable? There is no common garden
+vegetable so highly thought of as the potato. How are potatoes planted?
+
+Answer the questions in writing so as to make a little composition about
+vegetables.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXX.
+
+USEFUL GRAINS.
+
+Wheat and corn are called grain because they are small, hard seeds What
+other kinds of grain can you name?
+
+[Illustration; RIPE WHEAT.]
+
+Which of these grains is used the most? Which makes the choicest flour?
+
+Some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring. These are called spring
+wheat.
+
+Winter wheat is sown in the fall. A few days of sun and rain, and the
+plants spring up like grass, remaining green through the winter.
+
+What color does the wheat turn as it ripens? When it is ripe what is
+done with it?
+
+For what is the flour of wheat used?
+
+[Illustration: HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE WEST.]
+
+What is sometimes done with the stalks, or straw?
+
+Indian corn is one of the most useful of plants. Do you know why it is
+called Indian corn? It is because the Indians first raised it.
+
+When is corn planted? How is the land prepared for planting? What is
+done to the corn while the plants are small? When does it ripen? How
+tall does it grow?
+
+[Illustration: SEVERAL KINDS OF GRAIN.]
+
+What is the stem of the corn called? What are the flowers on the stalk
+of corn called? On what do the grains of corn grow?
+
+What use is made of the green stalks and leaves? What use is made of the
+ripe grain? For what are corn-husks largely used?
+
+Sweet corn, if boiled when green, is an excellent vegetable. It is
+preserved by canning.
+
+A large cornfield, with its tall, straight stalks, covered with green
+shining leaves and crowned by flowers, is a very pleasant sight.
+
+[Illustration: "ANOTHER GRAIN WHICH WE FIND ON ALMOST EVERY TABLE."]
+
+Corn is sometimes called the national emblem. What does emblem mean?
+
+What use is made of oats; barley, rye, and buckwheat? Some of these
+grains are useful in two or three ways.
+
+There is another grain which we find on almost every table. It is rice.
+The rice plant, when growing, resembles wheat; but, unlike wheat, it
+needs a great deal of moisture. So the rice-grower sows it in fields
+which he can flood or drain at will.
+
+Do you know what people live on rice without any meat at all? Ask your
+teacher to tell you how rice is raised in China and Japan.
+
+You ought to find something to tell your teacher and classmates about
+the grains.
+
+Perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have seen.
+
+Choose one of the grains, and write what you have Learned about it from
+conversation and observation.
+
+  We plow the fields, and scatter
+    The good seed on the land,
+  But it is fed and watered
+    By God's almighty hand.
+  He sends the snow in winter,
+    The warmth to swell the grain,
+  The breezes and the sunshine,
+    And soft refreshing rain.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXI.
+
+FRUITS.
+
+Name some trees upon which grow things to eat. What do we call such
+trees?
+
+[Illustration: "THE ORANGE TREES ARE LOADED WITH GOLDEN FRUIT."]
+
+What fruit trees have you seen? What do we call the place where many
+fruit trees grow?
+
+Did you ever pick berries? What makes it hard to pick blackberries?
+
+Name fruits that grow about here. Which grow on trees? Which on bushes?
+Which on vines?
+
+Mention the different uses of these fruits.
+
+The orange is one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits. It
+grows only in the warmer parts of our country. In winter as well as in
+summer, the orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and fragrant
+blossom. The blossoms are white, and are very beautiful.
+
+Name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the country.
+
+People who live in cold countries need such food as will make them warm.
+What kinds of food are best in cold countries? What people live mainly
+on fish and the flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees grow in very cold
+countries?
+
+What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat
+fatty food, for that would heat the body. Do we find in such countries
+grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to live upon?
+
+_Write_ answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson, so as to
+make a composition about fruits.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXII.
+
+USEFUL PLANTS.
+
+What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of
+clothing made of cotton.
+
+Did you ever see a field of cotton? In the summer the young plant is
+covered with pretty, pale-yellow flowers. In the autumn you see the pod
+or boll which contains the cotton.
+
+[Illustration: "YOU SEE THE POD OR BOLL."]
+
+As the pod ripens, it bursts open. The cotton-field is now a pretty
+sight--the bright green leaves, yellow blossoms, and snowy cotton all
+mingled together. Form a picture in your mind of a field of cotton in
+bloom.
+
+The cotton is now picked. The first thing is to separate it from its
+seed. This is done by a machine called a cotton-gin.
+
+[Illustration: "FLAX IS A SMALL PLANT."]
+
+Now it is ready to be pressed in great bales and sent to market. It
+will, at last, go to the cotton mills and be spun into thread, then
+woven into muslin, calico, etc.
+
+Are the seeds of any use? They contain a great deal of oil, which is
+pressed out by machinery. What is the name of this oil? What use is made
+of it?
+
+There is another plant from which clothing is made.
+
+Do you know what plant linen is made from? Linen comes from the flax
+plant.
+
+Flax is a small plant which grows two or three feet high, bearing on the
+top a bunch of pretty blue flowers. A field of flax in bloom is a very
+pretty sight.
+
+The flax does not grow in a pod like cotton. The stalk of the plant is
+covered with a bark, or skin, containing fibers. These fibers are spun
+into thread, which is woven into a cloth called linen.
+
+[Illustration: "A PLANT THAT YIELDS NO FOOD."]
+
+The seeds are used for making an oil called _linseed oil_. For what is
+linseed oil used?
+
+Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of
+clothing as those who live in cold countries?
+
+What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold countries?
+Would such clothes be comfortable in hot countries?
+
+There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is used
+in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its name?
+
+Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.
+
+Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax
+plants?
+
+Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper without a
+sugar bowl?
+
+[Illustration: "SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT."]
+
+The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from sugar-cane.
+The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like Indian corn when
+growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is filled with the sweet
+juice that is made into the sugar.
+
+When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill. Here they pass
+between great rollers which press out the juice. The liquid is then
+boiled until it turns to sugar.
+
+Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree. In the early
+spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is bored in the tree and a tube
+inserted, through which the sap passes to a bucket or other vessel
+placed to receive it. The sap is boiled in large kettles and becomes
+syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into sugar.
+
+_Write_ what you have learned of _cotton_ and _linen_.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXIII.
+
+FOREST TREES.
+
+In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees?
+Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for them.
+
+Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful to
+us, especially on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we call
+them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to put on their green
+dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in autumn?
+
+Name some trees that grow in the woods.
+
+[Illustration: A SHADY STREET.]
+
+Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood is light. A tree whose
+wood is hard. A tree whose wood is soft.
+
+Name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness, or the
+beautiful grain, of their wood.
+
+What kind of wood are the desks made of? The teacher's table?
+
+What kinds of wood are used in making chairs? tables? pianos? windows?
+floors?
+
+If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or wagon, which wood
+should we use? Why?
+
+From which trees do we get lumber for building?
+
+Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough, and is used in
+building ships?
+
+What do we call many trees together, like these?
+
+What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees?
+
+  What do we plant when we plant the tree?
+  We plant the houses for you and me.
+  We plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors,
+  We plant the studding, the laths, the doors,
+  The beams and siding, all parts that be--
+  We plant the house when we plant the tree.
+
+  What do we plant when we plant the tree?
+  A thousand things that we daily see.
+
+  We plant tie spire that out-towers the crag,
+  We plant the staff for our country's flag,
+  We plant the shade, from the hot sun free--
+  We plant all these when we plant the tree.
+
+There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am sure you
+must have heard of the great trees of California. Some of them are one
+hundred feet around, and nearly four hundred feet high,--twice as high
+as a very tall steeple. In one of these trees, if hollowed out, a large
+family might live.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA.]
+
+In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which you
+see. Learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their proper
+names.
+
+Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables,
+trees, etc. You will enjoy this very much, and it will help you to see
+these things better.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXIV.
+
+FLOWERS
+
+[Illustration: FLOWERS]
+
+A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are many flowers, and by
+helping together they cover the earth with beauty and fill the air with
+sweetness. They seem to have been made to give us pleasure.
+
+It will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers that
+grow where you live. How many flowers can you mention by name? Which do
+you know at sight? Where would you go to find them?
+
+Would you find them all growing in the same place? Which can live only
+in wet places? Which thrive best where there is but little moisture?
+
+If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers shall
+we be likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which are
+fragrant? Which most beautiful? Which would you like for your flower
+vase? Which would you like to plant and care for in a box of earth or a
+garden-bed?
+
+Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves, bud,
+flower? Learn the uses of each part.
+
+Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps you
+will commit them to memory.
+
+  In the snowing and the blowing,
+    In the cruel sleet,
+  Little flowers begin their growing
+    Far beneath our feet.
+
+  Softly taps the Spring and cheerly:
+    "Darlings, are you there?"
+  Till they answer, "We are nearly,
+    Nearly ready, dear.
+
+  "Where is Winter with his snowing?
+    Tell us, Spring," they say.
+  Then she answers, "He is going,
+    Going on his way.
+
+  "Poor old Winter does not love you,
+    But his time is past;
+  Soon my birds shall sing above you--
+    Set you free at last."
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXV.
+
+WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW.
+
+Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tell why? Plants do not grow in
+hot places called deserts. Can yon think of any reason for this?
+
+What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time of the
+year can they get these?
+
+If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure of
+about its trees and grass and flowers?
+
+There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How do you
+suppose the trees grow there?
+
+You may get information about plants and things by seeing for yourself,
+by asking others, and by reading books.
+
+[Illustration: "IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND RAIN."]
+
+_Write the names_:
+
+Of some grains that we use for food.
+
+Of some vegetables that we use for food.
+
+Of two plants from which clothing is made.
+
+Of woods used in making furniture.
+
+Of woods used in building our houses.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXVI.
+
+SUMMER RAIN.
+
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+    Let not the silver lily pine,
+  The drooping lily pine in vain,
+    To feel that dewy touch of thine,
+  To drink thy freshness once again,
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+
+  In heat the landscape quivering lies,
+    The cattle pant beneath the tree;
+  Through parching air and purple skies
+    The earth looks up, in vain, for thee;
+  For thee--for thee it looks in vain,
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+
+  Come thou, and brim the meadow streams,
+    And soften all the hills with mist,
+
+  Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams
+    By thee shall herb and flower be kissed;
+  And earth shall bless thee yet again,
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXVII.
+
+THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.
+
+Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are domestic
+animals; others are wild.
+
+[Illustration: TIGER'S FEET.]
+
+What animals are found where you live?
+
+Which are domestic? Which wild?
+
+Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits? flesh?
+
+You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What use
+does the cat make of its claws?
+
+How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its prey?
+
+[Illustration: DUCK'S FOOT.]
+
+[Illustration: HEN'S FOOT.]
+
+Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of its
+broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill?
+
+How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill fitted for
+pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill?
+
+[Illustration: SEIZING CLAW.]
+
+Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what does
+each use its feet?
+
+Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes?
+
+What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used? Could
+a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen?
+
+You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it leads.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXVIII.
+
+THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.
+
+Name two animals covered with fur.
+
+Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.
+
+What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is hair
+to animals?
+
+What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it to
+them?
+
+The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps them
+from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered? Why?
+
+Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what would
+result?
+
+What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see that
+each animal has that covering which suits its habits best.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXIX.
+
+USES OF ANIMALS.
+
+What domestic animals are used for food?
+
+What wild animals are used for food?
+
+[Illustration: "WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?"]
+
+From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal?
+
+What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?
+
+From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep? What
+articles of dress are made of wool?
+
+[Illustration: "FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?"]
+
+Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is leather
+prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do there?
+
+From what animals do we get furs?
+
+What is silk?
+
+[Illustration: THE SILKWORM AND MOTH.]
+
+Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is fully
+grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a cocoon. If
+this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change to a moth, and
+the moth would eat its way out of this little house. But this, of
+course, would cut the little threads and spoil the silk. As soon,
+therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot water to kill the
+worm. In this way the silk is saved.
+
+Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh used?
+What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with the skin?
+What other uses has the cow?
+
+What animal shows the most affection for his master?
+
+Mention some kinds of dogs.
+
+You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with long
+curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is dangerous, the St.
+Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use their dogs, as we use
+horses, to draw their sledges?
+
+Which is the most useful animal to man?
+
+Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.
+
+_Write the names:_
+
+Of animals useful for food.
+
+Of animals which work for man.
+
+Of animals useful to us for clothing.
+
+Of birds and fowls used for food.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XL.
+
+THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.
+
+  What does it mean when the bluebird comes
+    And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear?
+  When violets peep among blades of grass?--
+    These are the signs that spring is here.
+
+  What does it mean when berries are ripe?
+    When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum?
+  When cattle stand under the shady trees?--
+    These are the signs that summer has come.
+
+  What does it mean when the crickets chirp,
+    And away to the south the robins steer?
+  When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?--
+    These are the signs that autumn is here
+
+  What does it mean when days are short?
+    When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb
+  When fields are white with drifted snow?--
+    These are the signs that winter has come.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLI.
+
+THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.
+
+The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These we
+must find and dig out.
+
+The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many
+useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all come
+out of the earth.
+
+But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the earth.
+
+From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables. From
+oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light.
+Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use in building,
+are also taken from the earth.
+
+Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are
+called minerals.
+
+The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are
+taken; is called a _mine_.
+
+One of the most useful of minerals is _coal_. Did you ever stop to think
+how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our wheat, it weaves our
+cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over the earth. Hardly any labor
+can be done without coal.
+
+[Illustration: OIL WELLS.]
+
+You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame and
+smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard, clean-looking
+coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out such great heat, is
+anthracite coal.
+
+Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind is gas
+obtained, hard or soft coal?
+
+What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was made,
+and how it got deep down in the earth.
+
+What article used with food is found in mines? Does all _salt_ come out
+of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in mines?
+
+There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their
+lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries, with
+tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt. When lighted
+up with torches, they glitter as if studded with precious stones. It is
+like a fairy palace.
+
+Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, and
+mercury are metals.
+
+Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we should
+do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell some of the
+uses of iron:
+
+[Illustration: IRON MINE.]
+
+  Iron vessels cross the ocean.
+  Iron engines give them motion;
+  Iron pipe our gas delivers,
+  Iron bridges span our rivers,
+  Iron horses draw our loads,
+  Iron rails compose our roads;
+  Iron houses, iron walls,
+  Iron cannon, iron balls,
+  Iron lightning rods on spires,
+  Iron telegraphic wires,
+  Iron hammers, nails, and screws,
+  Iron everything we use.
+
+Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other tools
+are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel. Mention some of
+them.
+
+Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into
+money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament made
+of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings usually
+made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes these
+articles?
+
+[Illustration: CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE.]
+
+Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What does
+"lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually made of
+pure silver? Why?
+
+Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes
+they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and
+the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out.
+
+[Illustration: "SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS."]
+
+Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get
+at the silver or gold among the rocks.
+
+Gold and silver are called the _precious metals_ because they do not
+rust, and on account of their scarcity.
+
+Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall be
+light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted
+tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like tin itself.
+
+A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is of
+this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A tin cup
+is really made of iron.
+
+Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a
+knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.
+
+Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small shot
+is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion, from
+the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel of water below.
+They are next polished and made black, and then are ready for sale.
+
+You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is made
+of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a kind of
+coal.
+
+Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust.
+Cooking vessels are often made of copper.
+
+Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is
+made by mixing copper and zinc together.
+
+Mention some articles made of brass.
+
+Write five lines about tin.
+
+Write five or more lines about coal.
+
+Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLII.
+
+MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.
+
+[Illustration: A GRANITE QUARRY.]
+
+We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also many
+kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by exposure
+are useful for building. The place from which stones are taken for
+building is called a _quarry._
+
+The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble, and
+slate.
+
+We will first examine a piece of _granite._
+
+How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when polished!
+
+Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk
+curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other uses
+of granite?
+
+Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is hard
+enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring" mean?
+
+This is a piece of _sandstone_, made of little grains of sand. It will
+crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean? Brownstone,
+used in building, is a kind of sandstone.
+
+And this is the common gray _limestone_ of which lime used in building
+is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called a lime-kiln.
+Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is made?
+
+Here are three pieces of _marble_. This piece is pure white. This is
+colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in your
+mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many colored
+spots--mottled it may be called.
+
+Marble is beautiful when polished.
+
+[Illustration: A MARBLE QUARRY.]
+
+In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of
+furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is marble
+ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good for that
+purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all building stones?
+Why?
+
+Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all building
+stones.
+
+_Chalk_ is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a building stone?
+Is chalk harder or softer than other stone?
+
+You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not get
+along well in school without _slate_. Slate is easily split into thin
+plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.
+
+Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part of a
+house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it useful for
+these purposes?
+
+We must not forget _brick_ in our talks about things that come out of
+the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals and stone are
+found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part of the ground.
+
+Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of bricks?
+What is the man called who builds houses of bricks?
+
+Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from sand;
+which is also a part of the ground.
+
+In laying brick or stone, the mason uses _mortar_. Mortar is made
+chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground.
+
+If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all you
+see, and on your return to school tell what you have learned.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLIII.
+
+HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING
+
+[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW HOUSES?"]
+
+Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come
+from the earth?
+
+Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in? What
+is a tent?
+
+[Illustration: WIGWAMS.]
+
+A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in snow
+houses?
+
+[Illustration: HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO.]
+
+In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane that
+grows in warm countries.
+
+What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone,
+brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house. Where
+and how are they obtained?
+
+[Illustration: "WHO LIVE IN HUTS?"]
+
+We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear and
+houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and churches,
+which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a little, you can name
+many other things which we need to make our homes beautiful. To supply
+us with all of these things, men must do many different kinds of work.
+
+Where does the food we eat come from?
+
+We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are seeds of
+plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets, turnips, and
+radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of
+plants.
+
+[Illustration: "OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT."]
+
+Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these we
+use for food.
+
+Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are made
+from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are made
+from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats are made from
+straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.
+
+Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and
+clothing, do not grow of themselves.
+
+The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while
+growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many people at work
+raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This occupation we call
+_agriculture_ or _farming;_ the people we call farmers.
+
+Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat comes
+from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter and
+cheese.
+
+Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are made of
+wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid gloves are made
+of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows; sheep, oxen, and
+goats.
+
+But animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully raise
+them. In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of cows and
+oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures. Those animals are
+called stock. The business of those who raise them is called
+_stock-raising._
+
+[Illustration: "HERDS OF COWS AND OXEN FEEDING."]
+
+Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does the
+farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a meadow?
+
+Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing? Does
+a dog graze? A cow?
+
+Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens. But
+many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend for heat
+and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more useful to us
+than gold and silver.
+
+[Illustration: "A MINE IS LIKE A GREAT CAVERN."]
+
+To get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A
+mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches and
+lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is damp and
+close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a place. Yet great
+numbers of persons are employed in _mining._
+
+How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of coal-mining?
+Try to find answers to these questions for yourself. If necessary, your
+teacher will help you.
+
+In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other trees.
+Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days or weeks
+through them. From trees we get lumber. Lumber is needed for building
+houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many men are employed in
+cutting down trees and preparing the wood for use. This is called
+_lumbering_.
+
+The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves little
+huts to live in. All through the winter months they work in the woods
+from sunrise to sunset, felling the best trees and cutting them into
+logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered ground to the frozen
+streams, and pile them upon the banks.
+
+[Illustration: "THEY WORK IN THE WOODS."]
+
+Here the logs must rest till the snow and ice have melted and the
+streams are full. Then they are floated down to the great saw-mills; and
+cut up into boards, laths, shingles, and other kinds of lumber.
+
+What is a forest? Name some forest trees that grow near your home.
+
+The sea yields much that we eat. Some parts abound in codfish, mackerel,
+and herring. Sardines, the little fish that come in boxes, are also
+found in the sea. It is the business of thousands of people who live
+near the ocean to catch fish, salt them, and pack them, to send to those
+who want them for food.
+
+[Illustration: "IT IS THE BUSINESS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE."]
+
+Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish?
+
+Name some fishes found in fresh water.
+
+Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How may
+they be caught?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLIV.
+
+MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING.
+
+In the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about
+something else than the occupations we have learned. What do you suppose
+it is?
+
+If you go about the city, you will see large buildings several stories
+high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking chimneys. These are
+mills or factories, full of machines in motion doing their work almost
+like human beings.
+
+The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed for
+our use. Wheat is changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine muslins,
+and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron and steel, into
+plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons, carriages, and all
+kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must not forget are elegant
+jewelry, all sorts of ornaments for parlors, and beautiful toys which
+you admire so much.
+
+[Illustration: "BUSY MILLS AND FACTORIES."]
+
+It would take a long time to name a small part of the things made in the
+busy mills and factories; but think of the articles used in your home,
+and you may be sure they are manufactured articles. You see,
+_manufacturing_ gives work to many thousands of persons.
+
+What is cutlery? Name some articles of cutlery.
+
+We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need things
+which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he needs? By
+exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods, or buying and
+selling them for money; gives rise to another occupation called _trade_,
+or _commerce_. So many people spend their time buying and selling grain,
+vegetables, clothing, boots and shoes, or in sending them to places
+where they are needed.
+
+On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down,
+carrying goods from one part of the country to another.
+
+Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are
+no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often carried
+in wagons and on the backs of animals.
+
+I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us.
+Make a list of all the occupations you can think of. Perhaps you can
+think of other occupations we have not named. Is dressmaking an
+occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you prefer? Why?
+
+If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of work.
+What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the place they
+live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best
+for their labor.
+
+Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to make
+flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among the
+mountains work in the mines. Some keep cows for their milk and butter,
+and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the mountain sides
+afford excellent pasture. People who live near the sea will be apt to
+catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade upon the water.
+
+Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country. Here,
+as we have learned, most people make their living by working in
+factories, or as merchants in buying and selling goods which come from
+all parts of the world.
+
+All people do not live in the same way. Some people have no churches,
+schools, books, or factories.
+
+What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do they
+spend their time?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLV.
+
+A REVIEW LESSON.
+
+What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are they
+farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he sell the
+things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and tea and other
+things which he needs?
+
+Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the people? Do
+they work in shops or mills or factories?
+
+Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles are
+made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom? At home?
+What do you call the men who make these articles?
+
+What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery store? A
+dry-goods store? A shoe store? Where did the things in these stores come
+from? Which were made in your city? Which were brought from other
+places?
+
+What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the wharves?
+What do the boats or railroads take away? What do they bring in return?
+
+
+_Write the following:_
+
+Farmers raise (write the names of all the things you can think of).
+
+Miners dig _______________ out of the earth.
+
+Quarrymen dig ___________ from the quarries.
+
+A shoemaker makes ___________.
+
+A blacksmith makes __________.
+
+Merchants buy and sell __________.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12228 ***
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12228 ***</div>
+
+<h1>HOME GEOGRAPHY</h1>
+<h4>FOR</h4>
+<h1>PRIMARY GRADES</h1>
+<br />
+<h3>BY<br />
+C. C. LONG, Ph.D.</h3>
+<h4>AUTHOR OF NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS, LESSONS IN ENGLISH, ETC.</h4>
+<br />
+<table summary="contents" class="centeredimage" width="100%" cellpadding="10" border=
+"0">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">
+<h2><a id="contents"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" valign="top">
+<div class="contents"><a href="#intro"><i>TO THE
+TEACHER</i></a>
+<p>
+<a href="#less1">I.--POSITION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less2">II.--HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less3">III.--HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less4">IV.--HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less5">V.--QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less6">VI.--WHAT THE WINDS BRING (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less7">VII.--HOW TO TELL DISTANCE</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less8">VIII.--PICTURES AND PLANS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less9">IX.--WRITTEN EXERCISE</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less10">X.--GOD MADE THEM ALL (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less11">XI.--PLAINS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less12">XII.--HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less13">XIII.--RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less14">XIV.--HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less15">XV.--HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less16">XVI.--DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less17">XVII.--THE FAIRY ARTIST (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less18">XVIII.--HOW RIVERS ARE MADE</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less19">XIX.--MORE ABOUT RIVERS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less20">XX.--THE BROOK (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less21">XXI.--WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less22">XXII.--WATERDROP'S STORY</a>
+</p>
+</div>
+<br />
+</td>
+<td width="50%" valign="top">
+<div class="contents"><a href="#less23">XXIII.--THE RIVER
+(POEM)</a>
+<p>
+<a href="#less24">XXIV.--A MAP</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less25">XXV.--FORMS OF LAND AND WATER</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less26">XXVI.--MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND
+WATER</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less27">XXVII.--A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less28">XXVIII.--SPRING (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less29">XXIX.--USEFUL VEGETABLES</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less30">XXX.--USEFUL GRAINS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less31">XXXI.--FRUITS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less32">XXXII.--USEFUL PLANTS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less33">XXXIII.--FOREST TREES</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less34">XXXIV.--FLOWERS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less35">XXXV.--WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS
+GROW</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less36">XXXVI.--SUMMER RAIN (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less37">XXXVII.--THE PARTS OF ANIMALS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less38">XXXVIII.--THE COVERING OF ANIMALS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less39">XXXIX.--USES OF ANIMALS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less40">XL.--THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less41">XLI.--THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less42">XLII.--MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE
+EARTH</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less43">XLIII.--HOW PEOPLE LIVE, AND WHAT THEY ARE
+DOING</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less44">XLIV.--MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less45">XLV.--A REVIEW LESSON</a></p></div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div id="pref">
+<div class="lesson"><a id="intro"></a><i>TO THE TEACHER.</i></div>
+<br />
+<a href="images/001_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill1"><img src=
+"images/001.jpg" align="left" border="0" alt=
+"TO THE TEACHER" /></a>
+<div class="preface">
+<p>Geography may be divided into the geography of
+the home and the geography of the world at large. A knowledge of
+the home must be obtained by direct observation; of the rest of the
+world, through the imagination assisted by information. Ideas
+acquired by direct observation form a basis for imagining those
+things which are distant and unknown.
+</p><p>
+The first work, then, in geographical instruction, is to study that
+small part of the earth's surface lying just at our doors. All
+around are illustrations of lake and river, upland and lowland,
+slope and valley. These forms must be actually observed by the
+pupil, mental pictures obtained, in order that he may be enabled to
+build up in his mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms.
+The hill that he climbs each day may, by an appeal to his
+imagination, represent to him the lofty Andes or the Alps. From the
+meadow, or the bit of level land near the door, may be developed a
+notion of plain and prairie. The little stream that flows past the
+schoolhouse door, or even one formed by the sudden shower, may
+speak to him of the Mississippi, the Amazon, or the Rhine.
+Similarly, the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from that of
+pond or lake. Thus, after the pupil has acquired elementary ideas
+by actual perception, the imagination can use them in constructing,
+on a larger scale, mental pictures of similar objects outside the
+bounds of his own experience and observation.
+</p><p>
+To effect this, the teacher should visit with her class places
+where the simpler geographical features in miniature may be
+observed. If the school is in the city, pupils may be taken to the
+parks for this purpose. If out-of-door study be impossible, they
+may be induced to recall objects which they have seen on their way
+to school or on short excursions in the neighborhood. In the case
+of children who have little opportunity for observing nature, a
+drawing, a photograph, or a model will be helpful in giving them a
+proper idea of the matter. It must not be forgotten, however, that
+actual observation by the pupil is necessary to seeing clearly and
+intelligently.
+</p><p>
+Vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography
+of the world, and considerable time should be given to the study of
+those within the observation of the pupils. Information concerning
+plants may be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in
+boxes and having pupils carefully watch their germination and
+growth.
+</p><p>
+Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and
+rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for
+use, not for show.
+</p><p>
+The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at
+appropriate times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy
+day a lesson about snow. No attempt should be made at "science"
+teaching, so-called. All that should be sought is to get the pupil
+thoughtfully to observe, and thus to awaken his interest in the
+world about him.
+</p><p>
+Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most
+pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of
+the teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart
+information. The attention of the child should be directed to what
+lies around him. He must observe, and think, and express his
+thoughts. Nor should his observations be confined to the school and
+school hours. He should be encouraged to obtain his information by
+his own searching, without guidance, and report the results.
+</p><p>
+The development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by
+expression. "Expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge."
+Hence, the child should be required to reproduce what he has
+learned. He may do this by modeling, drawing, and oral and written
+description. These are placed in the order which should be followed
+in the training of children.
+</p><p>
+The inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of
+development is to make, in some plastic material, what he has seen.
+Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar
+excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be
+followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the
+forms seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of
+the various forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be
+developed as they are molded. The memorizing of definitions should
+seldom be required, and should never be made a test of the pupil's
+knowledge.
+</p><p>
+Reproduction by the hand should be followed by drawing, whenever
+this can be done. Drawing teaches the child how to see well. It
+often enables him to reveal what could not well be expressed in
+words. He also becomes ready and rapid in the use of the pencil
+when he has ideas to put on paper. Only reasonable accuracy should
+be required. Practice in making fine pictures should not be the end
+sought, but the development of geographical ideas.
+</p><p>
+Finally, pupils should be led to give clear and connected
+statements of what has been learned. For a language lesson, a
+written description may be prepared, illustrated by a
+drawing.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l1"><a id="less1" />
+<h1>Home Geography.</h1>
+<br />
+<div class="lesson">LESSON I.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">POSITION.</div>
+<div align="center"><a href="images/002_l.gif" target="_blank" id=
+"ill2"><img src="images/002.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"POSITION" /></a></div>
+
+<p>
+Lay your hands upon your desk, side by side.
+</p><p>
+Which side shall we call the right side? The left side?
+</p><p>
+Put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from
+you. That part is the back of your desk.
+</p><p>
+Think which is the front of your desk. Put your hands on the front
+of your desk.
+</p><p>
+Who sits on your right hand? On your left? At the desk in front of
+you? At the desk behind you?
+</p><p>
+Turn round. Who is on your right now? On your left? Before you?
+Behind you?
+</p><p>
+Turn again. Who is now on your right? On your left? Before you?
+Behind you?
+</p><p>
+<b>NOTE.--</b>Lead children to see that the terms <i>right, left,
+front</i>, and <i>back</i> are of little use in telling the
+position of places, and that some fixed standard of direction is
+necessary.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l2"><a id="less2"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON II.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION.</div>
+<br />
+<p>
+If I should ask, "Which is the way to your home?" who could tell me
+what I mean?
+</p><p>
+You all know which way you must go to find your home, but if you
+should wish to go to a place where you have never been, you would
+ask, perhaps, "Which way is it?"
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" class="centeredimage" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/003_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill3"><img src=
+"images/003.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>
+The way to a place is called <i>direction</i>. In order to find a
+place, we must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have
+names for directions, such as <i>north</i>, <i>south</i>,
+<i>east</i>, and <i>west</i>. We may know these directions by
+seeing where the sun is.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see the sun rise? Point to the place where you saw the
+sun rise. The direction in which the sun seems to rise is called
+the <i>east</i>.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see the sun set? Point to where you saw the sun set.
+The direction in which the sun seems to set is called the
+<i>west</i>. The west is just the opposite direction from
+east.
+</p><p>
+When do we see the sun rise? Where do we see the sun rise? What is
+the name of this direction? When do we see the sun set? Where do we
+see it set? What is the name of this direction? On which side of
+the schoolroom does the sun rise? On which side does it set? Which
+is the east side of your desk? Which the west side?
+</p><p>
+When coming to school this morning, in what direction did you see
+the sun? If we walk so that the morning sun shines in our faces, in
+what direction are we going? What direction is behind us?
+</p><p>
+Now that you know the east, you will be able to find other
+directions in this way: Stretch out your arms so that your right
+hand points toward the east, and your left hand toward the west.
+You are now facing the <i>north</i>. The direction behind you is
+the <i>south</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="10"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/004_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill4"><img src=
+"images/004.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<i>Write the following on your slates:</i>
+</p><p>
+The sun seems to rise toward the east, and set toward the west. The
+west is just the opposite direction from the east.
+</p><p>
+When my right hand is pointing to the east, and my left hand to the
+west, my face is toward the north and my back is toward the
+south.
+</p><p>
+<b>ORAL EXERCISES.</b>
+</p><p>
+Which is the north side of the schoolroom? Which is the south side?
+Who sits to the north of you? To the south?
+</p><p>
+In what direction do the pupils face? On which side of your
+schoolroom is the teacher's table? Which sides have no windows?
+Which sides have no doors?
+</p><p>
+If a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side, which
+side of the room faces the fire? Suppose the wind is blowing from
+the north, in what direction will the smoke go?
+</p><p>
+In what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground?
+</p><p>
+What is the first street or road north of the school? The first
+street or road east? South? West?
+</p><p>
+In what direction is your home from the school? The school from
+your home? The nearest church from the school? The post office from
+your home?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l3"><a id="less3"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON III.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION.</div>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/005_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill5"><img src=
+"images/005.jpg" border="0" alt="THE GREAT BEAR." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE GREAT BEAR.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+You have learned how to tell north, south, east, and west by the
+sun; but how can we tell these directions at night?
+</p><p>
+Ask some one to point out to you a group of seven bright stars in
+the north part of the sky. Some people think that this group of
+stars looks like a wagon and three horses; others say that it looks
+like a plow.
+</p><p>
+The proper name of the group containing these seven stars is the
+Great Bear. The group was given this name because men at first
+thought it looked like a bear with a long tail.
+</p><p>
+These seven stars are called the Dipper. It is a part of a larger
+group called the Great Bear. Find the two bright twinkling stars
+farthest from its handle. A line drawn through them will point to
+another star, not quite so bright, called the North Star. That star
+is always in the north; so by it, on a clear night, you can tell
+the other directions at once.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write on your slates</i>:
+</p>
+<p>
+Sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at
+the North Star.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l4"><a id="less4"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON IV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION.</div>
+
+<p>
+But there are times when it is cloudy, and neither the sun nor the
+stars can be seen. How can we tell direction then?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/006_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill6"><img src=
+"images/006.jpg" border="0" alt="A COMPASS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A COMPASS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Have you ever seen a compass? It is a box in which is a little
+needle swinging on the top of a pin. When this needle is at rest,
+one end of it <i>points to the north</i>.
+</p><p>
+As the needle shows where the north is; it is easy to find the
+south, the east, or the west.
+</p><p>
+With the compass as a guide, the sailor, in the darkest night, can
+tell in what direction he is going.
+</p><p>
+North, south, east, and west are called the <i>chief points</i> of
+the compass.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/007_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill7"><img src=
+"images/007.jpg" border="0" alt="POINTS OF THE COMPASS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">POINTS OF THE COMPASS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Other directions are northeast, halfway between north and east;
+northwest, halfway between north and west; southeast, halfway
+between south and east; and southwest, halfway between south and
+west.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write on your slates:</i>
+</p><p>
+The chief points of the compass are north, south, east, and
+west.
+</p><p>
+Other directions are northeast, southeast, southwest, and
+northwest. Sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the
+compass.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l5"><a id="less5"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON V.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION.</div>
+
+<p>
+Your teacher will give you time to discover answers to these
+questions. She could tell you, but it is better to find them out
+for yourself.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/008_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill8"><img src=
+"images/008.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL? " /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+If I go out of doors, how can I find the north? How can I find it
+on a starlight night? How can I find it on pleasant days? How on
+rainy days? How does a sailor find the north?
+</p><p>
+If you were lost and knew your home was north, how would you find
+it? Do you know how hunters and Indians who live a great deal in
+the woods find out where the north is? When you are in the woods,
+notice the amount of moss on the north side of trees as compared to
+that on the south side.
+</p><p>
+As winter approaches; many of our birds will want to go to a warmer
+country; in what direction will they fly? Point to where ice and
+snow have their home. What direction is that?
+</p><p>
+In what direction does your shadow fall at sunrise? At sunset? At
+noon? When, during the day, is your shadow shortest?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/009_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill9"><img src=
+"images/009.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE SMOKE?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE
+SMOKE?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+In what direction does your shadow extend from yourself when it is
+shortest?
+</p><p>
+What time of day is noon? How can we tell when it is noon? When is
+the sun highest in the sky?
+</p><p>
+What may we discover by watching the direction of the smoke from
+the chimneys? What does a vane on a steeple tell us? What is a
+north wind? A south wind? An east wind? A west wind?
+</p><p>
+What kind of weather may be expected from a north wind? From a
+south wind? From an east wind? From a west wind?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l6"><a id="less6"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON VI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WHAT THE WINDS BRING.</div>
+<table summary="illustration" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="20"
+class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="images/010_l.gif" target=
+"_blank" id="ill10"><img src="images/010.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT THE WINDS BRING" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+
+<td align="left"><p>Comes the north wind, snowflakes bringing:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Robes the fields in purest white,<br />
+Paints grand houses, trees, and mountains<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;On our window-panes at night.
+</p><p>
+Hills and vales the east wind visits,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Brings them chilly, driving rain;<br />
+Shivering cattle homeward hurry,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Onward through the darkening lane.
+</p><p>
+Heat the south wind kindly gives us;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Reddens apples, gilds the pear,<br />
+Gives the grape a richer purple,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Scatters plenty everywhere.</p></td>
+
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">
+<p>Flowers sweet the west wind offers,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Peeping forth from vines and trees;<br />
+Brings the butterflies so brilliant,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And the busy, humming bees.
+</p><p>
+Each wind brings his own best treasure<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To our land from year to year;<br />
+Blessings many without measure<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;E'er attend the winds' career.
+</p>
+<p>
+<strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;---Lillian
+Cox.</strong>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr align="center" valign="top">
+<td colspan="2">
+<table summary="illustration" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"Whichever way the wind doth blow.<br />
+Some heart is glad to have it so;<br />
+And blow it east or blow it west,<br />
+The wind that blows, that wind is best."
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<i>Write</i> all that you can tell about the wind.
+</p><p>
+What was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm? Why
+is the north wind cold? Why is the south wind warm?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l7"><a id="less7"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON VII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW TO TELL DISTANCE.</div>
+
+<p>
+To tell where a place is, we must know its direction. But this is
+not all; we must also know how far it is from us; that is; its
+<i>distance</i>. To find this out we measure.
+</p><p>
+You have often heard of an <i>inch</i>, a <i>foot</i>, and a
+<i>yard</i>. This line is one inch long:</p>
+<div align="center"><img src="images/inch.gif" alt="AN INCH" width=
+"72" border="0" /></div>
+<p>
+Your ruler is twelve inches long, that is a foot. Three lengths of
+your ruler make a yard. A yard stick is three feet long.</p>
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/011_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill11"><img src=
+"images/011.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+With these measures you can tell how long your slate or your desk
+is, or how long and wide the schoolroom is.
+</p><p>
+The inch, foot, and yard are used for measuring short distances.
+But when we wish to tell the distance between objects far apart, we
+use another measure called a <i>mile</i>. A mile is much longer
+than a yard.
+</p><p>
+Think of some object that is a mile from our schoolhouse. How long
+would it take you to walk that distance?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/012_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill12"><img src=
+"images/012.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"MEASURING LONG DISTANCES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MEASURING LONG DISTANCES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<b>ORAL EXERCISES.</b>
+</p><p>
+How many inches long is your slate? How long is your desk? How many
+feet long is your room? How wide is it? What is the distance around
+the room? How many feet wide is each window? Each door? How many
+yards wide is the nearest street or road?
+</p><p>
+About what is the height of the schoolroom? Of the schoolhouse? Of
+the tallest tree near by? Of the nearest church spire?
+</p><p>
+About how long is the longest street in the town where you live? Do
+you know how many blocks or squares make a mile? Name the nearest
+river or creek. Give its direction from the school. In what
+direction does the water run? Give the direction and distance of
+the nearest church. What must you know to go to any place?
+</p><p>
+<b>NOTE.--</b>Have pupils estimate distances by the eye, then
+verify by actual measurement. Continue the exercises until the work
+becomes quite accurate. Correct ideas of distance are necessary in
+order to understand how large the world is, and how far apart
+places are on its surface.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l8"><a id="less8"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON VIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">PICTURES AND PLANS.</div>
+<p>
+You all know what a picture is. But do you know what a plan
+is?
+</p><p>
+A little boy wanted to show his cousin, who lived some miles away;
+the shape and size of his house, and how the rooms were arranged.
+How could he do this?
+</p><p>
+On a large sheet of white paper, he placed lines of blocks in the
+form of his house. Then, with a lead pencil, he drew a line on the
+paper along the sides of the blocks. He next took up the blocks,
+and there, on the paper, was a plan of his house.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/013_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill13"><img src=
+"images/013.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Here is a picture of a schoolroom. We see desks, the teacher's
+table, a chair, a clock, globe, and two maps, in the picture. The
+picture shows these objects as they would appear if we stood at the
+door behind the teacher's table and looked in.
+</p><p>
+This is a plan of the schoolroom, a picture of which is shown
+above. You see, the plan and picture are quite different.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/014_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill14"><img src=
+"images/014.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The picture shows the objects as we see them before us. The plan
+shows where the objects are, and their direction from one
+another.
+</p><p>
+Now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the
+blackboard.
+</p><p>
+The first thing is to measure the sides of the room. We will
+suppose the two long sides are each forty feet long, and the two
+short sides each thirty feet long. Now we will draw four straight
+lines on the board for the four sides. Of course, the lines must be
+much shorter than the sides themselves, else our plan will be too
+large.
+</p><p>
+Make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room. So the
+lines for the long sides will each be forty inches long, and the
+lines for the short sides thirty inches long.
+</p><p>
+The next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the
+windows, and oblongs for the desks. But we must remember that an
+inch in our plan stands for a foot in the object itself, and
+therefore we must allow as many inches for the width of doors and
+windows, and for the length and width of the desks, as there are
+feet in the objects themselves. Thus, if the door is three feet
+wide, we must make it three inches wide in our plan.
+</p><p>
+And lastly, we will draw a circle for the globe, and an oblong and
+square for the teacher's table and chair, that shall show just
+where and just how long these objects are.
+</p><p>
+We have now a <i>plan</i> of the schoolroom. Let us put N. to show
+the north side of the room, S. to show the south side, E. to show
+the east side, and W. to show the west side. We can now tell the
+direction of one thing from another in our plan.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l9"><a id="less9"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON IX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WRITTEN EXERCISE.</div>
+
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/015_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill15"><img src=
+"images/015.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Write</i> the answers to the following questions, in full
+sentences:
+</p><p>
+What is the name of your school? On what street or road is it?
+Which side of the street? Between what streets? In which direction
+does the building face?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/016_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill16"><img src=
+"images/016.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+How many rooms has the building? In what part of the building is
+your room? How large is it? How many doors and windows? How many
+seats?
+</p><p>
+In what direction is the school from your home? How far is it? How
+long does it take you to walk to school?
+</p><p>
+<b>EXERCISES IN DRAWING PLANS.</b>
+</p><p>
+Draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates. It cannot be drawn on
+your slates as large as it was drawn on the board. So let one inch
+stand for ten feet, instead of for one foot; that is, use a
+<i>scale</i> of one inch for every ten feet. Your plan will not be
+as large as mine, but it will show the position of everything as
+correctly.
+</p><p>
+Draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table, showing two books
+and an inkstand upon it. First, measure the sides. Then decide to
+what scale you will draw your plan.
+</p><p>
+Now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds. You must measure
+not only the house, but the width and length of the yard. The plan
+must show the size, shape, and place of everything upon the
+grounds. (While drawing a plan of this kind, it is better to let
+the pupils face the north. The top of the plan should be the north
+side of the grounds.)
+</p><p>
+Draw a plan of your own room at home, showing the table, bed,
+chairs, and other objects in it.
+</p><p>
+<b>ORAL EXERCISE.</b>
+</p><p>
+If the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard, what have we
+drawn? Is a plan the same as a picture? What is the use of a plan?
+Mention some things of which plans can be drawn.
+</p><p>
+<b>NOTE.--</b>It is wrong to teach that the <i>top</i> of a map or
+plan is <i>always</i> north; as often as not, the bottom is north,
+in plans especially.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l10"><a id="less10"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON X.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">GOD MADE THEM ALL.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr align="center" valign="top">
+<td colspan="2">
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/017_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill17"><img src=
+"images/017.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING BY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING
+BY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="illustration" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>All things bright and beautiful,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;All creatures great and small,<br />
+All things wise and wonderful,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The good God made them all.
+</p><p>
+Each little flower that opens,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Each little bird that sings,<br />
+He made their glowing colors,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;He made their tiny wings.
+</p><p>
+The purple-headed mountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The river running by,<br />
+The morning and the sunset,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The twinkling stars on high;</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="illustration" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>The tall trees in the greenwood,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The pleasant summer sun,<br />
+The ripe fruits in the garden--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;He made them every one.
+</p><p>
+He gave us eyes to see them,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And lips that we might tell<br />
+How great is God Almighty,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Who hath made all things well.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chaptext" id="l11"><a id="less11"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">PLAINS.</div>
+<p>
+The floor of our schoolroom is level. The playground is almost, if
+not quite, level. As you look away from the school, is the land
+nearly level? Did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level
+land?
+</p><p>
+Let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land,
+many, many times larger than our playground. Such a broad, nearly
+level stretch of land is called a <i>plain</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/018_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill18"><img src=
+"images/018.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A PLAIN." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A
+PLAIN.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+If this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful
+flowers, we should call it a <i>prairie</i>. In the summer it is a
+vast sea of waving grass. On the prairie we might find herds of
+wild horses and cattle, which feed upon the rich grass. If it were
+late in the summer, when the grass is dry and crisp, it might catch
+fire, and we might then see a grand sight--a prairie on fire.
+</p><p>
+We now come to another plain, miles and miles long, miles and miles
+wide. No rain falls here, and therefore we see no grass, nor
+flowers, nor cattle, nor horses, nothing but dry, burning sand,
+rocks, or gravel. We are in a <i>desert</i>. But we are so thirsty
+and tired!
+</p><p>
+No water to drink, no shade from the burning sun! Suddenly, in the
+midst of the desert, we come to a beautiful grassy spot. There is a
+cluster of date-palm trees, and, better still, a well or a spring
+of fresh water. This pleasant spot in the desert is called an
+<i>oasis</i>. Here we may quench our thirst, and rest beneath the
+shade of the trees.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/019_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill19"><img src=
+"images/019.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN OASIS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN
+OASIS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>An <i>oasis</i> is a fertile spot in a desert. What does
+<i>fertile</i> mean? When do we say land is fertile? When barren?
+When desert?
+</p><p>
+Find a picture of a palm tree, and try to draw it.
+</p><p>
+If we were really in a desert, we might see a company of merchants
+carrying goods to sell in the countries they visit. Such a company
+is called a <i>caravan</i>. The goods are packed in bundles, which
+are carried on camels' backs. The camel can live for a long time
+without drinking, and can carry a heavy load of merchandise a long
+distance. It is sometimes called the ship of the desert.
+</p><p>
+Why do travelers use camels to cross the desert? Why do they not
+use horses? If you can not find answers to these questions in your
+books at home, ask your teacher about them.
+</p><p>
+You have seen a small whirlwind in the street. The leaves flew
+round and round, the dust whirled along in clouds. Trees are
+sometimes torn from the ground, and houses overturned, by a strong
+wind.
+</p><p>
+Now think of a wind-storm in the desert. A loud, rustling noise is
+heard. Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds
+which darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their
+camels, cover themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the
+ground.
+</p><p>
+The poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with
+their backs to the wind until the storm has passed over.
+</p><p>
+Thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the
+sand.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l12"><a id="less12"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS.</div>
+
+<p>
+The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is
+high and uneven. We all know what a <i>hill</i> is. It is land a
+little higher than the surrounding country.
+</p><p>
+Is there a hill near where you live? Let us walk to the <i>top</i>,
+and stand on its <i>summit</i>. We will start from the <i>foot</i>
+or <i>base</i> of the hill. Now we have climbed its steep, rough
+<i>sides</i> or <i>slopes</i>. Was the ascent difficult? Is the
+view from the top fine?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/020_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill20"><img src=
+"images/020.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE HILL?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE
+HILL?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+What can you see from the top of the hill--meadow, river, lake,
+town? What grow on the hill? What live on the hill?
+</p><p>
+Which part of a hill is called the base, or foot? The slope, or
+sides? The top, or summit?
+</p><p>
+Give two names for the lowest part of a hill. Two for the highest
+part. Two for the part between the highest and lowest parts.
+</p><p>
+Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are
+called <i>mountains</i>. Mountains are much higher than hills. Have
+you ever seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A mountain is as
+high as twenty such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high
+the mountains must be!
+</p><p>
+Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem
+to touch the sky. A man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath
+his feet, while the sun shone where he stood. When it lightened he
+saw the flash far below him.
+</p><p>
+Is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains? With what are many
+high mountains covered, even in summer?
+</p><p>
+The land between mountains or hills is called a <i>valley</i>. Is
+there a valley near here? What do you call the ground on either
+side?
+</p><p>
+Would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valley?
+Why?
+</p><p>
+Are mountains of any use?
+</p><p>
+Yes, hills and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth
+more beautiful. Tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn
+the clouds into drops of water which fall as rain or snow. Then
+mountains give rise to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with
+grass and flowers. Mountains do much good to some countries by
+keeping off cold winds. They also give us coal and iron and other
+minerals which we find so useful.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/021_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill21"><img src=
+"images/021.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN MOUNTAINS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN
+MOUNTAINS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Here is a picture. What do you call the very high land on the right
+and on the left? The long, narrow piece of land between the two
+mountains?
+</p><p>
+When you look at this picture you must think of a real valley
+between mountains.
+</p><p>
+Bring pictures of hills and mountains to school; if you can find
+them.
+</p><p>
+If you had a molding-board and a few quarts of sand; you might
+represent hills and mountains with valleys between. Think of a real
+hill while you mold.
+</p><p>
+Draw on your slate a hill you have seen with a little of the
+surrounding country.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write:</i>
+</p><p>
+A long, narrow piece of land between hills and mountains is called
+a valley.
+</p><p>
+A hill is land a little higher than the country about it.
+</p><p>
+A mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the
+country about it.
+</p>
+<div align="center"><a href="images/022_l.gif" target="_blank" id=
+"ill22"><img src="images/022.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"A MOUNTAIN" /></a></div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l13"><a id="less13"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW.<br />
+<a href="images/023_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill23"><img src=
+"images/023.jpg" border="0" alt="IMAGER" /></a></div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>
+Watch the pretty snowflakes fall,<br />
+Some are large and some are small;<br />
+Look, they cover all the ground,<br />
+Miles of dazzling white around;<br />
+But this covering, I am told,<br />
+Keeps the earth from frost and cold.</p></td>
+
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Ah! and I must work alway,<br />
+Life's not meant to spend in play;<br />
+Every moment's fleeting fast,<br />
+And our day will soon be past;<br />
+If our work is truly done,<br />
+It will last though ages run.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Of what use is rain? Of what use is snow? Of what use is
+wind?</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="chaptext" id="l14"><a id="less14"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR.<br />
+<a href="images/024_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill24"><img src=
+"images/024.jpg" border="0" alt="IMAGER" /></a></div>
+
+<p>
+What happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove?
+</p><p>
+The water gets hot and boils away.
+</p><p>
+Where does it go? Is it destroyed?
+</p><p>
+The water is changed, but it is not destroyed. Coal burns, but we
+do not get rid of it altogether. It is changed into gas and smoke
+and ashes.
+</p><p>
+What is the water changed into?
+</p><p>
+It is changed to vapor. If we let the kettle remain on the fire
+long enough, the water it contains will all pass away as
+vapor.
+</p><p>
+Where does the vapor go? The water, though turned into vapor, must
+be somewhere.
+</p><p>
+It is floating about in the air of the room, though we cannot see
+it. The air holds the vapor, just as a sponge holds water.
+</p><p>
+Heat expands or swells air. Warm air, therefore, can contain more
+vapor than cold air. On a warm day there may be many times as much
+moisture in the air as on a cold day.
+</p><p>
+Moisten your slate with a damp sponge. Observe the disappearance of
+the moisture.
+</p><p>
+Dip your hand in water, and wave it in the air. The water on your
+hand disappears. Where has it gone?
+</p><p>
+When wet clothes are hung on the line, they soon become dry. What
+becomes of the water in the clothes?
+</p><p>
+If we set a plate of water out in the sunshine, what happens? Is
+the water lost?
+</p><p>
+The streets and roads were wet and muddy, now they are dry. What
+has become of the water? Has it all sunk into the ground?
+</p><p>
+Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early
+in the morning, When the sun shines out and warms the air; what
+happens?
+</p><p>
+Why does vapor rise into the air?
+</p><p>
+Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is
+lighter than air; what do you think ought to happen to it?</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l15"><a id="less15"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER,</div>
+
+<p>
+Heat, as you have learned, changes water into vapor. You must also
+know that cold turns vapor back into water again.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/025_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill25"><img src=
+"images/025.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING WATER." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING
+WATER.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Now let us think of the kettle with the boiling water. You will
+notice a little space; quite close to the spout, where nothing can
+be seen. Is there no vapor there?
+</p><p>
+Yes, there is vapor there, but it cannot be seen; it is invisible.
+A little way from the spout we see something white, like smoke.
+This is only the vapor that has been chilled by the cool air and
+changed back again into water. The water is in the form of very
+fine particles, and may be called water-dust.
+</p><p>
+Hold a cold plate over boiling water. Observe how the water-dust
+gathers into drops that roll down the plate.
+</p><p>
+You have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with
+moisture. Where does it come from? Why did it form there? Why does
+it sometimes run down on the cold pane?
+</p><p>
+The vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings.
+Explain this.
+</p><p>
+Carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room, and notice what takes
+place. A thin mist at once gathers on the outside of the pitcher.
+What takes place among the little drops of mist? What becomes of
+these larger drops?
+</p><p>
+Where does the water which collects on the outside of the pitcher
+come from? Does it come through the pitcher from the inside? Would
+the same thing have taken place if some other cold object had been
+used instead of a cold pitcher?
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> out what you have learned about vapor.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l16"><a id="less16"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XVI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN.</div>
+<p>
+The sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the
+sea, and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot
+see the vapor; but it is in the air around us.
+</p><p>
+If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing
+happens. Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often
+seen, in the early morning, little drops of water hanging like
+pearls upon the blades of grass.
+</p><p>
+Now, where do these drops come from? They come from the air. The
+vapor in the air floats against the cold grass and leaves, and is
+cooled and changed into tiny drops of water. We call this
+<i>dew</i>.
+</p><p>
+Of what use is dew?
+</p><p>
+If the night is quite cold, the dew will freeze. It is then called
+frost. You have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful
+pictures upon it.
+</p><p>
+Make a picture of the window as you remember it, covered with the
+pretty things made by the frost.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/026_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill26"><img src=
+"images/026.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+When vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very small
+drops of water or minute crystals of ice, and we can see it
+floating about in the air. It is then called a <i>cloud</i>. Almost
+any clear day you may see clouds form and then seem to melt
+away.
+</p><p>
+You have seen on a blue sky, light, fleecy feather-clouds. They are
+very high up, and it is very cold where they are. You have also
+noticed the clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors. As the
+sun sank lower and lower, how did they change, in shape and
+color?
+</p><p>
+When clouds are low down, near the earth, we call them <i>fogs</i>
+or <i>mist</i>.
+</p><p>
+If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into
+large drops and fall as <i>rain</i>. If the drops should freeze in
+falling, we would call them <i>hail</i>.
+</p><p>
+What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/027_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill27"><img src=
+"images/027.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A MICROSCOPE?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A
+MICROSCOPE?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes
+before it forms into drops, and falls in the beautiful flakes we
+call <i>snow</i>. Have you ever seen snowflakes through a
+microscope?
+</p><p>
+Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in
+winter if it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow?
+</p><p>
+Observe the clouds; fog, rain, snow, dew, frost, and tell what you
+have noticed.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> what you have <i>seen</i> or <i>noticed</i> about
+vapor, clouds, rain, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l17"><a id="less17"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XVII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE FAIRY ARTIST.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Oh, there is a little artist<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Who paints in the cold night hours<br />
+Pictures for little children<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Of wondrous trees and flowers!
+</p><p>
+Pictures of snow-white mountains<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Touching the snow-white sky;<br />
+Pictures of distant oceans<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Where pretty ships sail by.<br />
+</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Pictures of rushing rivers<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By fairy bridges spanned;<br />
+Bits of beautiful landscape<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Copied from elfin land.
+</p><p>
+The moon is the lamp he paints by;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;His canvas the window pane;<br />
+His brush is a frozen snowflake;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jack Frost the artist's name.<br />
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l18"><a id="less18"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XVIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW RIVERS ARE MADE.</div>
+
+<p>
+Have you ever seen a brook or creek? A river? Is there a brook or
+river near here? Who can tell where it begins? where the water
+conies from that fills it? where it goes? Let us try to understand
+this.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/028_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill28"><img src=
+"images/028.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the air in
+winds up the sides of mountains, it turns into water again, and
+comes falling down as rain.
+</p><p>
+Now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go. Some of
+the water runs off on the surface, down the mountain slope. Some
+sinks into the ground, and runs along in little streams below the
+surface. It will appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as
+a <i>spring</i>. The spring is the beginning of a river.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see a spring? Where was it? Was it shaded by trees?
+Where did the water come from? Did you drink from it? Was the water
+pure and cold? Where did the water go after leaving the
+spring?
+</p><p>
+From the spring flows a tiny, thread-like stream, so small that we
+can easily step across it. This little stream is called a
+<i>rill</i>.
+</p><p>
+Other rills meet this, and form a larger stream, which is called a
+<i>brook</i> or <i>creek</i>.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/029_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill29"><img src=
+"images/029.1.jpg" alt="RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH."
+border="0" align="left" /> <img src="images/029.2.jpg" alt=
+"RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH." border="0" align=
+"left" /></a> As the brook flows on, it is joined by other streams,
+until, little by little, it becomes a wide and deep <i>river</i> on
+which large boats may float. At last, it finds its way into the
+ocean.
+</p><p>
+Where a river begins is its <i>source</i>. The place where it flows
+into another body of water is called its <i>mouth</i>. The land
+over which it flows is its <i>bed</i>.
+</p><p>
+A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is
+on our right hand, and the left bank is on our left.
+</p><p>
+Do you live near a river? Where does the water come from? In what
+direction does it flow? Why does it flow in such direction? Does it
+wind about much? Does it flow into the ocean, or into another
+river?
+</p><p>
+Is the water fresh or salt? What grow on its banks? Near which bank
+do you live?
+</p><p>
+Make a picture of a spring, and a brook flowing from it. Draw the
+tall grass and plants that grow near it.
+</p><p>
+Write the names of all the rivers you have seen.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the following:</i>
+</p><p>
+Water flowing out of the ground is called a spring.
+</p><p>
+From springs flow small streams called rills, brooks, or
+creeks.
+</p><p>
+A large stream of water flowing through the land is called a
+river.
+</p><p>
+A small stream of water flowing into a larger one is called a
+tributary.
+</p><p>
+The source of a river is where it begins. The place where it
+empties into another body of water is its mouth.
+</p><p>
+Every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand
+bank.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l19"><a id="less19"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XIX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT RIVERS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Let us have another chat about the river. We may fancy that we are
+following it in its course to the sea. We shall then learn for
+ourselves many things we do not know about rivers.
+</p><p>
+We will begin our journey at its source. Here it is a little rill,
+formed by water that trickles from a spring, or by the melting of
+snow.
+</p><p>
+As it flows on, it is joined by many other little streams, until it
+grows to be much larger.
+</p><p>
+There is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream.
+Do you know what it is? The word, is <i>tributary</i>. Tributaries
+are often called <i>branches</i>.
+</p><p>
+Before we leave this part of the river, I wish you to learn another
+hard word.
+</p><p>
+You have seen the water run off the roof of a <i>shed</i>. The
+ridge; or highest part of the roof, divides the rain that falls on
+it, so that part of the rain flows down the one side, and part of
+it flows down the other side.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/030_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill30"><img src=
+"images/030.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Now, hills, like the roof of a house, send off streams on both
+sides. When it rains, or the snow melts, some of the water goes
+down on one side, some on the other. And that is why the hills
+which divide or part the waters of streams are called a
+<i>water-parting</i> or <i>water-shed</i>.
+</p><p>
+Let us now go further down the stream.
+</p><p>
+Here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope. Its waters foam
+and dash between the great rocks that lie in the stream. Such
+places in the river are called <i>rapids</i>. Can you tell why they
+are so called?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/031_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill31"><img src=
+"images/031.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The stream flows on. It has now reached a high ledge of rock. Over
+this it leaps, making a great foam and noise.
+</p><p>
+When the water of a river falls over high rocks, it is called a
+waterfall or <i>cataract</i>.
+</p><p>
+You may have seen the Falls of Niagara, the greatest waterfall in
+the world.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/032_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill32"><img align=
+"left" src="images/032.1.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA." /><img align="left" src=
+"images/032.2.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA." /></a> The course of our
+river is now through a lower country. The valley in which it flows
+spreads out, and the stream grows wider and wider. The water moves
+slower and slower.
+</p><p>
+Why is the river swift in some places, and in others slow?
+</p><p>
+At length it flows through an almost level country. It is here
+widest and deepest. Its course is more winding.
+</p><p>
+Do you know why it is crooked and winding?
+</p><p>
+Because on the steep hillside the water runs very rapidly, and is
+not easily turned aside. Where the ground is nearly level, it runs
+slowly, and is easily turned from its course.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l20"><a id="less20"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE BROOK.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="20"
+class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="images/033_l.gif" target=
+"_blank" id="ill33"><img src="images/033.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE BROOK" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From a fountain<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In a mountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Drops of water ran<br />
+Trickling through the grasses;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;So our brook began.
+</p><p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Slow it started;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Soon it darted,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cool and clear and free,<br />
+Rippling over pebbles,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Hurrying to the sea.
+</p><p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Children straying<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Came a-playing<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;On its pretty banks;<br />
+Glad, our little brooklet<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Sparkled up its thanks.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Blossoms floating,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mimic boating,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Fishes darting past,<br />
+Swift, and strong, and happy,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Widening very fast.
+</p><p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bubbling, singing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Rushing, ringing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Flecked with shade and sun.<br />
+Soon our pretty brooklet<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To the sea has run.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l21"><a id="less21"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work
+they do?
+</p><p>
+Notice what happens when it rains. Little tiny streams are formed,
+which chase each other down the slopes. See how they cut away the
+loose soil and carry it off. Notice how muddy this loose soil makes
+the water. What becomes of this loose soil, or mud?
+</p><p>
+Fill a jar with water. Put in a handful of mud from the nearest
+stream. Shake the jar, and the water is muddy. Let it stand awhile.
+What do you notice? The water is clear, and the soil has settled to
+the bottom.
+</p><p>
+Follow the streams to the valley where they unite to form a river.
+When does the load of mud it carries settle? Here, where the water
+scarcely moves, we find some of the soil spread out over the ground
+near the river banks.
+</p><p>
+You have seen a river overflow its banks. When the water went down,
+it left a layer of rich mud, which made the soil very
+fertile.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/034_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill34"><img src=
+"images/034.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE LOAM." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE
+LOAM.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered
+with rich grass and clover?
+</p><p>
+Well, these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has
+been washed down the streams from the far-off hills and
+mountains.
+</p><p>
+Look at the jar again. Which settled first, the coarse material or
+fine loam? What kind of a deposit will be made in the upper course
+of a river? What kind toward the mouth?
+</p><p>
+High up in the valley, when the river is low, we see <i>pebbles</i>
+in its bed; lower down, the pebbles are worn into <i>gravel;</i>
+and as we get still farther down, we find the gravel ground into
+<i>sand</i>.
+</p><p>
+Examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river. Some
+are quite smooth and round. They were not always so, but had sharp
+edges. Do you know what made them round?
+</p><p>
+When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones
+down the mountain side and into the valley. As they are carried
+down the stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are
+smoothed and rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles
+themselves are ground at last into gravel and fine sand.
+</p><p>
+This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows
+in the sides of the mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into
+fine soil, and carrying it into the valleys below.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l22"><a id="less22"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WATERDROP'S STORY.</div>
+
+<p>
+<a href="images/035_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill35"><img src=
+"images/035.jpg" align="right" border="0" alt=
+"WATERDROP'S STORY." /></a> Patter, patter, fall the raindrops on
+the brown leaves in the woods. Mr. Squirrel's bright eyes sparkle
+as he peeps out of his queer little home, a hole in the tree; his
+store of nuts has been carefully hidden away.
+</p><p>
+Splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him. Such a friendly
+little drop it is, for soon it tells this little woodland dweller
+of all its travels.
+</p><p>
+Let us listen, for we may hear too:
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/036_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill36"><img src=
+"images/036.jpg" alt="WATERDROP'S STORY" border="0" align=
+"left" /></a> "My home," began the Waterdrop, "is in the wide blue
+sea, where I live with many, many other drops.
+</p><p>
+"One day as we rode up and down on the big waves, the sun shone
+down on us, and we grew warmer. Each little drop felt, 'Oh, if I
+could only get away from the other drops, how much cooler I should
+be!' Then each tiny drop separated from the others, and grew so
+small you could not see it.
+</p><p>
+"We, of course, grew lighter, lighter than the air. Up, up we rose
+into the bright blue sky. When we got pretty high, where the air
+was cool, we came closer together again and formed a great fleecy
+white <i>cloud</i>, that cast its shadow over everything. Then a
+friendly wind carried us along, and soon we left the sea behind.
+Far below; we could see green fields and waving woods."
+</p><p>
+"You must have been very happy" said the little squirrel.
+</p><p>
+"Yes; it was a merry life we led, as we floated hither and thither,
+playing with the sun-beams," replied the Waterdrop.
+</p><p>
+"But we came at last to a purple mountain, and a chill wind began
+to blow. How we shivered with the cold! Then we huddled close
+together to get warm. We were now heavy again--so heavy that we
+could not stay up in the air.
+</p><p>
+"Then,</p>
+<div class="verse">
+<table summary="poem" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td align="center" valign="top" width="50%">
+<table summary="poem" width="100%" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">'I'm going down to cheer a flower,'<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cried a little drop of rain;<br />
+'I hear it sigh. It droops its head<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;As if in weary pain.'</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top" width="50%">
+<table summary="poem" width="100%" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">'And I will go!' 'And I!' 'And I!'<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cried all the raindrops near.<br />
+So down we went in merry haste<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The whole wide field to cheer.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little
+drops for the cool drink. Even the great tall trees nodded their
+heads in welcome."
+</p>
+<p>"The grass on the hillside and in the valley must have been
+grateful, too, for your coming," said the squirrel. "It always
+looks so fresh and green after a shower. But, tell me, what became
+of <i>you</i>?"
+</p>
+<p>"I fell where the ground was brown and bare, stopped for a moment,
+then went down, down into the ground, where all was dark. I met
+other drops trying to get out, and we went on together, turning
+first this way, then that way, till we burst into the sunshine
+again."
+</p><p>
+"We rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water; then I ran
+with the rest down the mountain side, slipping over smooth pebbles,
+and tumbling over sharp rocks, until I found myself in a deep,
+swift stream, where plants and trees grew on either bank."
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/037_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill37"><img src=
+"images/037.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>"As I was hurried along, I heard a great roaring noise made by the
+river falling over a high ledge of rocks, as a cataract or
+waterfall. Suddenly we fell over the rocks so steep and high that
+we went leaping and dashing in all directions. We rose in the air
+in a fine gray mist, then sank back again into the foam-covered
+stream.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/038_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill38"><img src=
+"images/038.1.jpg" alt="THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL." border=
+"0" align="left" /> <img src="images/038.2.jpg" alt=
+"THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL." border="0" align="left" /></a>
+"Soon we were in a broad, quiet river, flowing past the grassy
+hills and green pastures. Then we came to a big mill-wheel, upon
+which we jumped, and by our weight made it turn over and over, and
+thus move the machinery in the mill. Here we were tossed in the
+air, whirled around, and at last flung back into the river, where
+we sailed slowly and quietly as before.
+</p><p>
+"By and by, we saw large boats floating on the water. We passed
+towns and cities with busy streets and many people; and as our
+river widened, and we heard the big sea waves dashing against the
+shore, we knew our brothers and sisters were singing a welcome
+home.
+</p><p>
+<br />
+"And now farewell, little squirrel. My story is done, and I must
+hasten to my home in the sea. Perhaps we shall meet again some day.
+I may float down to you, a white-winged snowflake, or patter down
+as I came this time, a tiny raindrop."
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/039_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill39"><img src=
+"images/039.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<i>Write the following:</i>
+</p><p>
+The water rises from the sea in vapor.
+</p><p>
+The vapor is turned into clouds, which fall in rain or snow.
+</p><p>
+The rain forms rivers, which flow back again into the sea.
+</p><p>
+Thus the water is always going round and round in its long and
+curious journey--up to the clouds in vapor, down in rain, back in
+streams to the place it started from.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l23"><a id="less23"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE RIVER.</div>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr valign="middle">
+<td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="images/040_l.gif" target=
+"_blank" id="ill40"><img src="images/040.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IMAGER" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"Oh, tell me, pretty river,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Whence do thy waters flow?<br />
+And whither art thou roaming,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;So smoothly and so slow?"
+</p>
+<p>"My birthplace was the mountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;My nurse the April showers;<br />
+My cradle was a fountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;O'er-curtained by wild flowers.
+</p><p>
+"One morn I ran away,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;A madcap, noisy rill;<br />
+And many a prank that day<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;I played adown the hill!</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"And then 'mid meadowy banks,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;I flirted with the flowers,<br />
+That stooped with glowing lips<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To woo me to their bowers.
+</p><p>
+"But these bright scenes are o'er,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And darkly flows my wave;<br />
+I hear the ocean's roar--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And there must be my grave!"</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>
+Where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem? Are
+rivers born? What is meant by "My nurse the April showers"? "I
+flirted with the flowers"? Explain the last stanza.
+</p>
+
+<div align="center"><a href="images/041_l.gif" target="_blank" id=
+"ill41"><img src="images/041.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IMAGER" /></a></div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l24"><a id="less24"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">A MAP</div>
+
+<p>
+A drawing made to show a room, or a house; or the school-yard, or
+even a village, is called a plan.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/042_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill42"><img src=
+"images/042.jpg" alt="A MAP" border="0" align="left" /></a>
+Drawings which represent land and water are called maps. You may
+learn from maps where the countries, and mountains, and rivers, and
+cities are that you have seen. It also shows how far places are
+from one another.
+</p><p>
+Here is a map showing mountains and rivers. The many short lines
+facing each other represent mountains. To show the very high part
+of the mountains, the lines are drawn close to each other, making
+that part of the map look dark. The line winding about, like the
+stream itself, represents a river. The line, as you see, is made
+thicker and thicker toward its mouth. From this you may know that
+the river itself becomes broader and broader as it flows toward the
+sea.
+</p><p>
+But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river,
+or the lines which face each other are mountains. If you do, you
+will learn very little of geography. When you look at these lines,
+you must <i>think</i> of the real things which they stand for--the
+lofty mountains, with their covering of forests, and with long,
+narrow valleys between them; the winding, gently flowing river,
+bearing boats upon its waters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l25"><a id="less25"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.</div>
+
+<p>
+You all know what a pond is. Is there a pond near where you live?
+Did you ever fish in it? Did you ever walk round it?
+</p><p>
+When a stream, on its way to the ocean, flows into a basin or
+hollow in the land, the water spreads out and fills it. A hollow in
+the land filled with water is called a <i>lake</i>, or, if it be
+quite small, a <i>pond</i>.
+</p><p>
+What is a lake made of? What is round it? Suppose some one who
+never saw a lake were to ask you what a lake is, what would you
+say?
+</p><p>
+What do we find in lakes? Would you not like to sail on a
+lake?
+</p><p>
+In the hollows among mountains are great numbers of beautiful
+lakes. In their clear waters may be seen the mountains, the
+forests, and the sky, as in a looking-glass. At night the moon and
+stars may be seen below you as plainly as above.
+</p><p>
+Here is a picture of a pretty lake in a valley.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/043_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill43"><img src=
+"images/043.2.jpg" alt="A PRETTY LAKE IN A VALLEY." border="0"
+align="left" /> <img src="images/043.1.jpg" alt=
+"A PRETTY LAKE IN A VALLEY." border="0" align="left" /></a> You see
+a river flowing from the hills beyond. Into what is it flowing? The
+river that lets the water <i>into</i> the lake is called an
+<i>inlet</i>.
+</p><p>
+You see another river that lets the water <i>out</i> of the lake.
+This river we call the <i>outlet</i> of the lake.
+</p><p>
+Make a lake on your molding-board, or in the sand near your home.
+Represent its inlet and outlet.
+</p><p>
+Out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters
+play. We could not go to this land without crossing the water; the
+water is on all sides of it. Such a little piece of land is called
+an <i>island</i>.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? You will remember
+that he went up a hill in search of water. When he got to the top
+of the hill, he saw that he was on an island. How did he
+know?
+</p><p>
+Have you ever seen an island? What island was it? Could you sail
+round it? What was on every side of it? What grew on it? What is an
+island?
+</p><p>
+If there is a brook or lake near your home, how can you make an
+island?
+</p><p>
+Opposite is a picture of a river and a lake. Make a map of the same
+river and lake on your slate. Notice how the coast or shore of the
+lake bends in and out.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the following</i>:
+</p><p>
+A lake is water surrounded by land.
+</p><p>
+The land near the water of a lake is called its shore.
+</p><p>
+An island is a little piece of land surrounded by water.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l26"><a id="less26"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXVI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/044_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill44"><img src=
+"images/044.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"PICTURE OF A PENINSULA." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF A PENINSULA.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/045_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill45"><img src=
+"images/045.jpg" border="0" alt="MAP OF A PENINSULA." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MAP OF A PENINSULA.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In the picture we see a narrow strip of land which extends far out
+into the water. You will notice that the land has water all round;
+except at one place.
+</p><p>
+What is the name for land that has water on all sides but one? What
+is a peninsula? An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land
+with water all round it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that
+has water <i>nearly</i> all round it. This form of land is called a
+<i>peninsula</i>. The word peninsula means <i>almost an
+island</i>.
+</p><p>
+<br />
+How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the
+difference between a peninsula and an island?
+</p><p>
+The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as
+the neck joins the head to the body-is called an <i>isthmus</i>,
+which means <i>neck</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/046_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill46"><img src=
+"images/046.jpg" border="0" alt="PICTURE OF A BAY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF A BAY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/047_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill47"><img src=
+"images/047.jpg" border="0" alt="MAP OF A BAY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MAP OF A BAY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Here is another picture which I wish you to look at. You see where
+the shore bends like a bow; and the water runs a little way into
+the land.
+</p><p>
+Can you think of anything else that is bent like this? Yes-a
+bay-window.
+</p><p>
+Now, when I tell yon that bay means the same as bow, you can almost
+guess the name for this bend in the land. It is called a bay. You
+will easily remember that little word.
+</p><p>
+A wide opening or bend in the land, into which the water flows, is
+usually called a bay.
+</p><p>
+Sometimes, when the opening in the bend is long and narrow, it is
+called a <i>gulf</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/048_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill48"><img src=
+"images/048.jpg" border="0" alt="PICTURE OF A STRAIT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF A STRAIT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/049_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill49"><img src=
+"images/049.jpg" border="0" alt="MAP OF A STRAIT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MAP OF A STRAIT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>On the next page is shown a narrow strip of water joining two
+larger bodies of water. The name given to this narrow passage is
+strait, a word meaning narrow.
+</p><p>
+As an isthmus connects two bodies of land, so a strait connects two
+bodies of water.
+</p><p>
+After a rain make little lakes, rivers, bays, etc. Perhaps you may
+find some already made.
+</p><p>
+See whether you can find in the magazines and books at home
+pictures of gulfs, bays, peninsulas, etc.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the following:</i> A peninsula is land almost surrounded
+by water.
+</p><p>
+An isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of
+land.
+</p><p>
+A gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending
+into the land.
+</p><p>
+A strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies
+of water.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l27"><a id="less27"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXVII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Uncle Tom had been telling Fred and me about many strange places he
+had seen. Last of all, he told us about some high mountains he had
+climbed. We wanted to climb one very much. So father said he would
+go with us up a high hill not far from the city.
+</p><p>
+Mother did not need to call us in the morning, for we woke up very
+early. The sky in the east was bright, and we knew that soon we
+should see the sun. We wanted to start at once, but mother said it
+would be better to have breakfast first.
+</p><p>
+We put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut. Father
+gave each of us a stout stick to help us climb. Fred had a
+knapsack, in which mother put some bread, cold meat, crackers, and
+a cup to drink from. In one corner we put some towels.
+</p><p>
+We were soon outside the city, walking along the road. We passed a
+village, and went through fields and woods. By and by we could see
+the land before us rising higher and higher. We saw no longer such
+beautiful farms and gardens as we had passed.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/050_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill50"><img src=
+"images/050.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"AS WE WENT UP THE SLOPE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">AS WE WENT UP THE SLOPE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In a little while we reached the foot of the hill and began to
+ascend. As we went up the slope, we came to steep, rugged places
+that were hard to climb, where we needed our sticks. The trees were
+smaller, and there were many bushes. There were large rocks, too,
+in the sides of the hill. At the foot, the weather was quite warm,
+but it grew cooler and cooler the higher we went.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/051_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill51"><img src=
+"images/051.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WE COULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE STRAIGHT STREETS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WE COULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE STRAIGHT
+STREETS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>"On the summit at last!" cried Fred, as we reached the top.
+</p><p>
+From where we stood, we could see the city with its little straight
+streets, that look so wide when we walk on them. We could see the
+house-tops, too, and the church steeples. Then father showed us the
+village we passed; and the woods we went through. But the trees
+looked like bushes, and some men at the foot of the hill looked no
+larger than the baby.
+</p><p>
+Down the mountain, a little way, we found a spring where the water
+was clear and cool. Here we sat down on a rock, and ate the lunch
+we had brought. While we rested, we watched the little rill that
+flowed from the spring--</p>
+<div class="verse">"Blue in the shadow,<br /> Silver in the sun."</div>
+<p>
+Down the hill, it was larger, and we saw other rills flowing into
+it. When it reached the valley, it was much larger; and farther
+down, father said, boats could sail on it.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/052_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill52"><img src=
+"images/052.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET OF STILL WATER." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET OF STILL
+WATER.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Before us, in the valley, lay a large sheet of still water.
+</p><p>
+"Oh, how pretty!" exclaimed I.
+</p><p>
+"Yes, that is a lake," said father. "How beautiful it looks as the
+sunlight plays on its smooth surface! It reflects in its clear
+water the sky and the trees around it."
+</p><p>
+"I can see an island in the lake," said Fred. "Vessels are sailing
+all round it."
+</p><p>
+"Are all islands small, like that?" he asked.
+</p><p>
+"Oh, no!" said father. "Some islands are hundreds of miles round,
+and have many people living upon them."
+</p><p>
+Fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water,
+and asked whether that, too, was an island.
+</p><p>
+"No," replied father, "that is a peninsula. It is land almost
+surrounded by water. And the narrow neck which joins the peninsula
+to the mainland is called an isthmus.
+</p><p>
+"You see the bend in the land, with the water from the lake running
+in?" asked father.
+</p><p>
+"Yes," said Fred.
+</p><p>
+"That is called a bay. Around every ocean, which is a much larger
+body of water, there are many such bays.
+</p><p>
+"The narrow strip of water, which a boat is just entering, is
+called a strait. The strait separates the island from the
+mainland."
+</p><p>
+Stretching far away to the east was flat, level land, which father
+called a plain. Scattered here and there were many farmhouses and
+quiet villages. Little bright, sparkling streams wound their way
+like silver threads through the green grass of the meadows. It was
+a lovely scene indeed!
+</p><p>
+The sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return. As
+it set--
+</p>
+<div class="verse">A wonderful glory of color,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;A splendor of shifting light--<br />
+Orange and scarlet and purple<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Flamed in the sky so bright.</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l28"><a id="less28"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXVIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">SPRING.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Drops of rain and bits of sunshine<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Falling here and gleaming there,<br />
+Tiny blades of grass appearing.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell of springtime bright and fair.
+</p><p>
+Budding leaves are gently swaying,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Merry glad notes sweetly ring;<br />
+Robins, bluebirds, gayly singing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell of happy, pleasant spring.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Violets, in blue and purple,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By the twinkling water clear;<br />
+Fair spring beauties, frail and dainty,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell the story, spring is here.
+</p><p>
+Cherry, peach, and apple blossoms<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Scattering fragrance far and wide;<br />
+Buttercups and pure white snowdrops<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell of gracious, sweet springtide.
+</p><p>
+<strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;---Lillian
+Cox.</strong></p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l29"><a id="less29"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXIX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USEFUL VEGETABLES.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/053_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill53"><img src=
+"images/053.jpg" border="0" alt="A SPROUT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A SPROUT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/054_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill54"><img src=
+"images/054.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"A VINE BEGINNING TO GROW." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A VINE BEGINNING TO GROW.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="verse"><p>In the heart of a seed buried deep, so deep, A
+dear little plant lay fast asleep.
+</p><p>
+"Wake!" said the sunshine, "and creep to the light."
+</p><p>
+"Wake!" said the voice of the raindrops bright.
+</p><p>
+The little plant heard, and it rose to see
+</p><p>
+What the wonderful outside world might be.</p></div>
+<p>
+What vegetables grow in your neighborhood?
+</p><p>
+Of which do we use the roots as food? Of which the leaves? Of which
+the seeds? Of which the stems or stalks?
+</p><p>
+Which is the most useful garden vegetable? There is no common
+garden vegetable so highly thought of as the potato. How are
+potatoes planted?
+</p><p>
+Answer the questions in writing so as to make a little composition
+about vegetables.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l30"><a id="less30"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USEFUL GRAINS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Wheat and corn are called grain because they are small, hard seeds
+What other kinds of grain can you name?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/055_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill55"><img src=
+"images/055.jpg" border="0" alt="RIPE WHEAT" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">RIPE WHEAT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Which of these grains is used the most? Which makes the choicest
+flour?
+</p><p>
+Some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring. These are called spring
+wheat.
+</p><p>
+Winter wheat is sown in the fall. A few days of sun and rain, and
+the plants spring up like grass, remaining green through the
+winter.
+</p><p>
+What color does the wheat turn as it ripens? When it is ripe what
+is done with it?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" border="0"
+align="right">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/056_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill56"><img src=
+"images/056.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE WEST." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE WEST.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>For what is the flour of wheat used?
+</p><p>
+What is sometimes done with the stalks, or straw?
+</p><p>
+Indian corn is one of the most useful of plants. Do you know why it
+is called Indian corn? It is because the Indians first raised
+it.
+</p><p>
+When is corn planted? How is the land prepared for planting? What
+is done to the corn while the plants are small? When does it ripen?
+How tall does it grow?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/057_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill57"><img src=
+"images/057.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SEVERAL KINDS OF GRAIN." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SEVERAL KINDS OF GRAIN.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What is the stem of the corn called? What are the flowers on the
+stalk of corn called? On what do the grains of corn grow?
+</p><p>
+What use is made of the green stalks and leaves? What use is made
+of the ripe grain? For what are corn-husks largely used?
+</p><p>
+Sweet corn, if boiled when green, is an excellent vegetable. It is
+preserved by canning.
+</p><p>
+A large cornfield, with its tall, straight stalks, covered with
+green shining leaves and crowned by flowers, is a very pleasant
+sight.
+</p><p>
+Corn is sometimes called the national emblem. What does emblem
+mean?
+</p><p>
+What use is made of oats; barley, rye, and buckwheat? Some of these
+grains are useful in two or three ways.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/058_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill58"><img src=
+"images/058.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"ANOTHER GRAIN WHICH WE FIND ON ALMOST EVERY TABLE. " /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">ANOTHER GRAIN WHICH WE FIND ON ALMOST EVERY
+TABLE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>There is another grain which we find on almost every table. It is
+rice. The rice plant, when growing, resembles wheat; but, unlike
+wheat, it needs a great deal of moisture. So the rice-grower sows
+it in fields which he can flood or drain at will.
+</p><p>
+Do you know what people live on rice without any meat at all? Ask
+your teacher to tell you how rice is raised in China and
+Japan.
+</p><p>
+You ought to find something to tell your teacher and classmates
+about the grains.
+</p><p>
+Perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have
+seen.
+</p><p>
+Choose one of the grains, and write what you have Learned about it
+from conversation and observation.</p>
+<div class="verse"><br />
+We plow the fields, and scatter<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The good seed on the land,<br />
+But it is fed and watered<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By God's almighty hand.<br />
+He sends the snow in winter,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The warmth to swell the grain,<br />
+The breezes and the sunshine,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And soft refreshing rain.</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l31"><a id="less31"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FRUITS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Name some trees upon which grow things to eat. What do we call such
+trees?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/059_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill59"><img src=
+"images/059.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE ORANGE TREES ARE LOADED WITH GOLDEN FRUIT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE ORANGE TREES ARE LOADED WITH GOLDEN
+FRUIT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What fruit trees have you seen? What do we call the place where
+many fruit trees grow?
+</p><p>
+Did you ever pick berries? What makes it hard to pick
+blackberries?
+</p><p>
+Name fruits that grow about here. Which grow on trees? Which on
+bushes? Which on vines?
+</p><p>
+Mention the different uses of these fruits.
+</p><p>
+The orange is one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits. It
+grows only in the warmer parts of our country. In winter as well as
+in summer, the orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and
+fragrant blossom. The blossoms are white, and are very
+beautiful.
+</p><p>
+Name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the country.
+</p><p>
+People who live in cold countries need such food as will make them
+warm. What kinds of food are best in cold countries? What people
+live mainly on fish and the flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees
+grow in very cold countries?
+</p><p>
+What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat
+fatty food, for that would heat the body. Do we find in such
+countries grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to
+live upon?
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson,
+so as to make a composition about fruits.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l32"><a id="less32"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USEFUL PLANTS.</div>
+
+<p>
+What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of
+clothing made of cotton.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see a field of cotton? In the summer the young plant
+is covered with pretty, pale-yellow flowers. In the autumn you see
+the pod or boll which contains the cotton.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/060_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill60"><img src=
+"images/060.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU SEE THE POD OR BOLL" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">YOU SEE THE POD OR BOLL</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>As the pod ripens, it bursts open. The cotton-field is now a pretty
+sight--the bright green leaves, yellow blossoms, and snowy cotton
+all mingled together. Form a picture in your mind of a field of
+cotton in bloom.
+</p><p>
+The cotton is now picked. The first thing is to separate it from
+its seed. This is done by a machine called a cotton-gin.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/061_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill61"><img src=
+"images/061.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"FLAX IS A SMALL PLANT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">FLAX IS A SMALL PLANT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Now it is ready to be pressed in great bales and sent to market. It
+will, at last, go to the cotton mills and be spun into thread, then
+woven into muslin, calico, etc.
+</p><p>
+Are the seeds of any use? They contain a great deal of oil, which
+is pressed out by machinery. What is the name of this oil? What use
+is made of it?
+</p><p>
+There is another plant from which clothing is made.
+</p><p>
+Do you know what plant linen is made from? Linen comes from the
+flax plant.
+</p><p>
+Flax is a small plant which grows two or three feet high, bearing
+on the top a bunch of pretty blue flowers. A field of flax in bloom
+is a very pretty sight.
+</p><p>
+The flax does not grow in a pod like cotton. The stalk of the plant
+is covered with a bark, or skin, containing fibers. These fibers
+are spun into thread, which is woven into a cloth called
+linen.</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/062_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill62"><img src=
+"images/062.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"A PLANT THAT YIELDS NO FOOD." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A PLANT THAT YIELDS NO FOOD.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>The seeds are used for making an oil called <i>linseed oil</i>. For
+what is linseed oil used?
+</p><p>
+Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of
+clothing as those who live in cold countries?
+</p><p>
+What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold
+countries? Would such clothes be comfortable in hot
+countries?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/063_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill63"><img src=
+"images/063.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is
+used in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its
+name?
+</p><p>
+Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.
+</p><p>
+Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax
+plants?
+</p><p>
+Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper
+without a sugar bowl?
+</p><p>
+The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from
+sugar-cane. The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like
+Indian corn when growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is
+filled with the sweet juice that is made into the sugar.
+</p><p>
+When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill. Here they
+pass between great rollers which press out the juice. The liquid is
+then boiled until it turns to sugar.
+</p><p>
+Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree. In the
+early spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is bored in the tree
+and a tube inserted, through which the sap passes to a bucket or
+other vessel placed to receive it. The sap is boiled in large
+kettles and becomes syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into
+sugar.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> what you have learned of <i>cotton</i> and
+<i>linen</i>.</p></div>
+<br />
+<div class="chaptext" id="l33"><a id="less33"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FOREST TREES.</div>
+
+<p>
+In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees?
+Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for
+them.
+</p><p>
+Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful
+to us, especially on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we
+call them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to put on their
+green dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in
+autumn?
+</p><p>
+Name some trees that grow in the woods.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/064_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill64"><img src=
+"images/064.jpg" border="0" alt="A SHADY STREET." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A SHADY STREET.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood is light. A tree
+whose wood is hard. A tree whose wood is soft.
+</p><p>
+Name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness, or the
+beautiful grain, of their wood.
+</p><p>
+What kind of wood are the desks made of? The teacher's table?
+</p><p>
+What kinds of wood are used in making chairs? tables? pianos?
+windows? floors?
+</p><p>
+If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or wagon, which wood
+should we use? Why?
+</p><p>
+From which trees do we get lumber for building?
+</p><p>
+Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough, and is used in
+building ships?
+</p><p>
+What do we call many trees together, like these?
+</p><p>
+What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees?</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="120" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/065_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill65"><img src=
+"images/065.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="70%" align="center" valign="middle">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>We plant tie spire that out-towers the crag,<br />
+We plant the staff for our country's flag,<br />
+We plant the shade, from the hot sun free--<br />
+We plant all these when we plant the tree.
+</p><p>
+What do we plant when we plant the tree?<br />
+We plant the houses for you and me.<br />
+We plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors,<br />
+We plant the studding, the laths, the doors,<br />
+The beams and siding, all parts that be--<br />
+We plant the house when we plant the tree.
+</p><p>
+What do we plant when we plant the tree?<br />
+A thousand things that we daily see.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am
+sure you must have heard of the great trees of California. Some of
+them are one hundred feet around, and nearly four hundred feet
+high,--twice as high as a very tall steeple. In one of these trees,
+if hollowed out, a large family might live.
+</p><p>
+In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which
+you see. Learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their
+proper names.
+</p><p>
+Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables,
+trees, etc. You will enjoy this very much, and it will help you to
+see these things better.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l34"><a id="less34"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FLOWERS</div>
+
+<p>
+<a href="images/066_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill66"><img src=
+"images/066.1.jpg" alt="FLOWERS" border="0" align="left" />
+<img src="images/066.2.jpg" alt="FLOWERS." border="0" align=
+"left" /></a> A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are many
+flowers, and by helping together they cover the earth with beauty
+and fill the air with sweetness. They seem to have been made to
+give us pleasure.
+</p><p>
+It will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers
+that grow where you live. How many flowers can you mention by name?
+Which do you know at sight? Where would you go to find them?
+</p><p>
+Would you find them all growing in the same place? Which can live
+only in wet places? Which thrive best where there is but little
+moisture?
+</p><p>
+If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers
+shall we be likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which
+are fragrant? Which most beautiful? Which would you like for your
+flower vase? Which would you like to plant and care for in a box of
+earth or a garden-bed?
+</p><p>
+Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves,
+bud, flower? Learn the uses of each part.
+</p><p>
+Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps
+you will commit them to memory.</p>
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>In the snowing and the blowing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;In the cruel sleet,<br />
+Little flowers begin their growing<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Far beneath our feet.
+</p><p>
+Softly taps the Spring and cheerly:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;"Darlings, are you there?"<br />
+Till they answer, "We are nearly,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Nearly ready, dear.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"Where is Winter with his snowing?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell us, Spring," they say.<br />
+Then she answers, "He is going,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Going on his way.
+</p><p>
+"Poor old Winter does not love you,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;But his time is past;<br />
+Soon my birds shall sing above you--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Set you free at last."</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l35"><a id="less35"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/067_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill67"><img src=
+"images/067.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND RAIN." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND
+RAIN.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tell why? Plants do not grow
+in hot places called deserts. Can yon think of any reason for
+this?
+</p><p>
+What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time of
+the year can they get these?
+</p><p>
+If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure
+of about its trees and grass and flowers?
+</p><p>
+There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How
+do you suppose the trees grow there?
+</p><p>
+You may get information about plants and things by seeing for
+yourself, by asking others, and by reading books.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the names</i>:
+</p><p>
+Of some grains that we use for food.
+</p><p>
+Of some vegetables that we use for food.
+</p><p>
+Of two plants from which clothing is made.
+</p><p>
+Of woods used in making furniture.
+</p><p>
+Of woods used in building our houses.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l36"><a id="less36"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXVI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">SUMMER RAIN.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="90%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Let not the silver lily pine,<br />
+The drooping lily pine in vain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To feel that dewy touch of thine,<br />
+To drink thy freshness once again,<br />
+Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+</p><p>
+In heat the landscape quivering lies,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The cattle pant beneath the tree;<br />
+Through parching air and purple skies<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The earth looks up, in vain, for thee;<br />
+For thee--for thee it looks in vain,<br />
+Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Come thou, and brim the meadow streams,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And soften all the hills with mist,
+</p><p>
+Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By thee shall herb and flower be kissed;<br />
+And earth shall bless thee yet again,<br />
+Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l37"><a id="less37"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXVII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are
+domestic animals; others are wild.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/068_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill68"><img src=
+"images/068.jpg" border="0" alt="TIGER'S FEET." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">TIGER'S FEET.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+What animals are found where you live?
+</p><p>
+Which are domestic? Which wild?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/071_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill71"><img src=
+"images/071.jpg" border="0" alt="SEIZING CLAW." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SEIZING CLAW.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits?
+flesh?
+</p><p>
+You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What
+use does the cat make of its claws?
+</p><p>
+How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its
+prey?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/070_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill70"><img src=
+"images/070.jpg" border="0" alt="HEN'S FOOT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HEN'S FOOT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of
+its broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill?
+</p><p>
+How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill
+fitted for pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill?
+</p><p>
+Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what
+does each use its feet?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/069_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill69"><img src=
+"images/069.jpg" border="0" alt="DUCK'S FOOT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">DUCK'S FOOT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes?
+</p><p>
+What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used?
+Could a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen?
+</p><p>
+You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it
+leads.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l38"><a id="less38"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXVIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Name two animals covered with fur.
+</p><p>
+Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.
+</p><p>
+What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is
+hair to animals?
+</p><p>
+What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it
+to them?
+</p><p>
+The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps
+them from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered?
+Why?
+</p><p>
+Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what
+would result?
+</p><p>
+What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see
+that each animal has that covering which suits its habits
+best.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l39"><a id="less39"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXIX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USES OF ANIMALS.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/072_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill72"><img src=
+"images/072.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What domestic animals are used for food?
+</p><p>
+What wild animals are used for food?
+</p><p>
+From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal?
+</p><p>
+What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/073_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill73"><img src=
+"images/073.jpg" alt="FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?" border=
+"0" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep?
+What articles of dress are made of wool?
+</p><p>
+Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is
+leather prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do
+there?
+</p><p>
+From what animals do we get furs?
+</p><p>
+<br />
+What is silk?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/074_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill74"><img src=
+"images/074.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE SILKWORM AND MOTH." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE SILKWORM AND MOTH.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is
+fully grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a
+cocoon. If this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change
+to a moth, and the moth would eat its way out of this little house.
+But this, of course, would cut the little threads and spoil the
+silk. As soon, therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot
+water to kill the worm. In this way the silk is saved.
+</p><p>
+Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh
+used? What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with
+the skin? What other uses has the cow?
+</p><p>
+What animal shows the most affection for his master?
+</p><p>
+Mention some kinds of dogs.
+</p><p>
+You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with
+long curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is
+dangerous, the St. Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use
+their dogs, as we use horses, to draw their sledges?
+</p><p>
+Which is the most useful animal to man?
+</p><p>
+Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the names:</i>
+</p><p>
+Of animals useful for food.
+</p><p>
+Of animals which work for man.
+</p><p>
+Of animals useful to us for clothing.
+</p><p>
+Of birds and fowls used for food.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l40"><a id="less40"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XL.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="100%" border="0" cellspacing=
+"0" cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>What does it mean when the bluebird comes<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear?<br />
+When violets peep among blades of grass?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that spring is here.
+</p><p>
+What does it mean when berries are ripe?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum?<br />
+When cattle stand under the shady trees?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that summer has come.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>What does it mean when the crickets chirp,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And away to the south the robins steer?<br />
+When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that autumn is here
+</p><p>
+What does it mean when days are short?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb<br />
+When fields are white with drifted snow?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that winter has come.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l41"><a id="less41"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.</div>
+
+<p>
+The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These
+we must find and dig out.
+</p><p>
+The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many
+useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all
+come out of the earth.
+</p><p>
+But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the
+earth.
+</p><p>
+From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables.
+From oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us
+light. Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use
+in building, are also taken from the earth.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/075_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill75"><img src=
+"images/075.jpg" border="0" alt="OIL WELLS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">OIL WELLS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are
+called minerals.
+</p><p>
+The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are
+taken; is called a <i>mine</i>.
+</p><p>
+One of the most useful of minerals is <i>coal</i>. Did you ever
+stop to think how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our
+wheat, it weaves our cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over
+the earth. Hardly any labor can be done without coal.
+</p><p>
+You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame
+and smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard,
+clean-looking coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out
+such great heat, is anthracite coal.
+</p><p>
+Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind
+is gas obtained, hard or soft coal?
+</p><p>
+What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was
+made, and how it got deep down in the earth.
+</p><p>
+What article used with food is found in mines? Does all <i>salt</i>
+come out of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in
+mines?
+</p><p>
+There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their
+lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries,
+with tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt.
+When lighted up with torches, they glitter as if studded with
+precious stones. It is like a fairy palace.
+</p><p>
+Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin,
+and mercury are metals.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/076_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill76"><img src=
+"images/076.jpg" border="0" alt="IRON MINE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IRON MINE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we
+should do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell
+some of the uses of iron:
+</p>
+<div class="verse">Iron vessels cross the ocean.<br />
+Iron engines give them motion;<br />
+Iron pipe our gas delivers,<br />
+Iron bridges span our rivers,<br />
+Iron horses draw our loads,<br />
+Iron rails compose our roads;<br />
+Iron houses, iron walls,<br />
+Iron cannon, iron balls,<br />
+Iron lightning rods on spires,<br />
+Iron telegraphic wires,<br />
+Iron hammers, nails, and screws,<br />
+Iron everything we use.</div>
+<p>
+Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other
+tools are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel.
+Mention some of them.
+</p><p>
+Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into
+money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament
+made of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings
+usually made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes
+these articles?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/077_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill77"><img src=
+"images/077.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What
+does "lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually
+made of pure silver? Why?
+</p><p>
+Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west.
+Sometimes they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found
+in rocks, and the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken
+out.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/078_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill78"><img src=
+"images/078.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to
+get at the silver or gold among the rocks.
+</p><p>
+Gold and silver are called the <i>precious metals</i> because they
+do not rust, and on account of their scarcity.
+</p><p>
+Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall
+be light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into
+melted tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like
+tin itself.
+</p><p>
+A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is
+of this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A
+tin cup is really made of iron.
+</p><p>
+Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a
+knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.
+</p><p>
+Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small
+shot is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid
+motion, from the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel
+of water below. They are next polished and made black, and then are
+ready for sale.
+</p><p>
+You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is
+made of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a
+kind of coal.
+</p><p>
+Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust.
+Cooking vessels are often made of copper.
+</p><p>
+Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin.
+Brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together.
+</p><p>
+Mention some articles made of brass.
+</p><p>
+Write five lines about tin.
+</p><p>
+Write five or more lines about coal.
+</p><p>
+Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l42"><a id="less42"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/079_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill79"><img src=
+"images/079.jpg" border="0" alt="A GRANITE QUARRY" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A GRANITE QUARRY</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also
+many kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by
+exposure are useful for building. The place from which stones are
+taken for building is called a <i>quarry.</i>
+</p><p>
+The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble,
+and slate.
+</p><p>
+We will first examine a piece of <i>granite.</i>
+</p><p>
+How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when
+polished!
+</p><p>
+Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk
+curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other
+uses of granite?
+</p><p>
+Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is
+hard enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring"
+mean?
+</p><p>
+This is a piece of <i>sandstone</i>, made of little grains of sand.
+It will crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean?
+Brownstone, used in building, is a kind of sandstone.
+</p><p>
+And this is the common gray <i>limestone</i> of which lime used in
+building is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called
+a lime-kiln. Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is
+made?
+</p><p>
+Here are three pieces of <i>marble</i>. This piece is pure white.
+This is colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in
+your mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many
+colored spots--mottled it may be called.
+</p><p>
+Marble is beautiful when polished.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/080_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill80"><img src=
+"images/080.jpg" border="0" alt="A MARBLE QUARRY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A MARBLE QUARRY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of
+furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is
+marble ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good
+for that purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all
+building stones? Why?
+</p><p>
+Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all
+building stones.
+</p><p>
+<i>Chalk</i> is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a
+building stone? Is chalk harder or softer than other stone?
+</p><p>
+You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not
+get along well in school without <i>slate</i>. Slate is easily
+split into thin plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.
+</p><p>
+Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part
+of a house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it
+useful for these purposes?
+</p><p>
+We must not forget <i>brick</i> in our talks about things that come
+out of the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals
+and stone are found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part
+of the ground.
+</p><p>
+Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of
+bricks? What is the man called who builds houses of bricks?
+</p><p>
+Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from
+sand; which is also a part of the ground.
+</p><p>
+In laying brick or stone, the mason uses <i>mortar</i>. Mortar is
+made chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the
+ground.
+</p><p>
+If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all
+you see, and on your return to school tell what you have
+learned.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l43"><a id="less43"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING</div>
+<br />
+<p>Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not
+come from the earth?
+</p><p>
+Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in?
+What is a tent?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/082_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill82"><img src=
+"images/082.jpg" border="0" alt="WIGWAMS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WIGWAMS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in
+snow houses?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/081_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill81"><img src=
+"images/081.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW HOUSES?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW
+HOUSES?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane
+that grows in warm countries.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/083_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill83"><img src=
+"images/083.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone,
+brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house.
+Where and how are they obtained?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/084_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill84"><img src=
+"images/084.jpg" border="0" alt="WHO LIVE IN HUTS?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHO LIVE IN HUTS?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear
+and houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and
+churches, which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a
+little, you can name many other things which we need to make our
+homes beautiful. To supply us with all of these things, men must do
+many different kinds of work.
+</p><p>
+Where does the food we eat come from?
+</p><p>
+We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are
+seeds of plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets,
+turnips, and radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are
+the leaves of plants.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/085_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill85"><img src=
+"images/085.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these
+we use for food.
+</p><p>
+Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are
+made from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes
+are made from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats
+are made from straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.
+</p><p>
+Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and
+clothing, do not grow of themselves.
+</p><p>
+The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of
+while growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many
+people at work raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This
+occupation we call <i>agriculture</i> or <i>farming;</i> the people
+we call farmers.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/086_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill86"><img src=
+"images/086.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HERDS OF COWS AND OXEN FEEDING." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HERDS OF COWS AND OXEN FEEDING.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat
+comes from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter
+and cheese.
+</p><p>
+Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are
+made of wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid
+gloves are made of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows;
+sheep, oxen, and goats.
+</p><p>
+But animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully
+raise them. In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds
+of cows and oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures.
+Those animals are called stock. The business of those who raise
+them is called <i>stock-raising.</i>
+</p><p>
+Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does
+the farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a
+meadow?
+</p><p>
+Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing?
+Does a dog graze? A cow?
+</p><p>
+Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens.
+But many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend
+for heat and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more
+useful to us than gold and silver.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/087_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill87"><img src=
+"images/087.1.jpg" alt="A MINE IS LIKE A GREAT CAVERN." border="0"
+align="right" /> <img src="images/087.2.jpg" alt=
+"A MINE IS LIKE A GREAT CAVERN." border="0" align="right" /></a> To
+get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A
+mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches
+and lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is
+damp and close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a
+place. Yet great numbers of persons are employed in
+<i>mining.</i>
+</p><p>
+How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of
+coal-mining? Try to find answers to these questions for yourself.
+If necessary, your teacher will help you.
+</p><p>
+In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other
+trees. Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days
+or weeks through them. From trees we get lumber. Lumber is needed
+for building houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many
+men are employed in cutting down trees and preparing the wood for
+use. This is called <i>lumbering</i>.
+</p><p>
+The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves
+little huts to live in. All through the winter months they work in
+the woods from sunrise to sunset, felling the best trees and
+cutting them into logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered
+ground to the frozen streams, and pile them upon the banks.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/088_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill88"><img src=
+"images/088.1.jpg" alt="THEY WORK IN THE WOODS." border="0" align=
+"left" /> <img src="images/088.2.jpg" alt="THEY WORK IN THE WOODS."
+border="0" align="left" /></a> Here the logs must rest till the
+snow and ice have melted and the streams are full. Then they are
+floated down to the great saw-mills; and cut up into boards, laths,
+shingles, and other kinds of lumber.
+</p><p>
+What is a forest? Name some forest trees that grow near your
+home.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/089_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill89"><img src=
+"images/089.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IT IS THE BUSINESS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IT IS THE BUSINESS OF THOUSANDS OF
+PEOPLE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The sea yields much that we eat. Some parts abound in codfish,
+mackerel, and herring. Sardines, the little fish that come in
+boxes, are also found in the sea. It is the business of thousands
+of people who live near the ocean to catch fish, salt them, and
+pack them, to send to those who want them for food.
+</p><p>
+Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish?
+</p><p>
+Name some fishes found in fresh water.
+</p><p>
+Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How
+may they be caught?</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l44"><a id="less44"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING.</div>
+
+<p>
+In the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about
+something else than the occupations we have learned. What do you
+suppose it is?
+</p><p>
+If you go about the city, you will see large buildings several
+stories high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking
+chimneys. These are mills or factories, full of machines in motion
+doing their work almost like human beings.
+</p><p>
+The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed
+for our use. Wheat is changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine
+muslins, and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron
+and steel, into plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons,
+carriages, and all kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must
+not forget are elegant jewelry, all sorts of ornaments for parlors,
+and beautiful toys which you admire so much.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/090_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill90"><img src=
+"images/090.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"BUSY MILLS AND FACTORIES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">BUSY MILLS AND FACTORIES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>It would take a long time to name a small part of the things made
+in the busy mills and factories; but think of the articles used in
+your home, and you may be sure they are manufactured articles. You
+see, <i>manufacturing</i> gives work to many thousands of
+persons.
+</p><p>
+What is cutlery? Name some articles of cutlery.
+</p><p>
+We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need
+things which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he
+needs? By exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods,
+or buying and selling them for money; gives rise to another
+occupation called <i>trade</i>, or <i>commerce</i>. So many people
+spend their time buying and selling grain, vegetables, clothing,
+boots and shoes, or in sending them to places where they are
+needed.
+</p><p>
+On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and
+down, carrying goods from one part of the country to another.
+</p><p>
+Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there
+are no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often
+carried in wagons and on the backs of animals.
+</p><p>
+I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for
+us. Make a list of all the occupations you can think of. Perhaps
+you can think of other occupations we have not named. Is
+dressmaking an occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you
+prefer? Why?
+</p><p>
+If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of
+work. What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the
+place they live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that
+pays them best for their labor.
+</p><p>
+Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to
+make flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among
+the mountains work in the mines. Some keep cows for their milk and
+butter, and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the
+mountain sides afford excellent pasture. People who live near the
+sea will be apt to catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade
+upon the water.
+</p><p>
+Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country.
+Here, as we have learned, most people make their living by working
+in factories, or as merchants in buying and selling goods which
+come from all parts of the world.
+</p><p>
+All people do not live in the same way. Some people have no
+churches, schools, books, or factories.
+</p><p>
+What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do
+they spend their time?</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l45"><a id="less45"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">A REVIEW LESSON.</div>
+
+<p>
+What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are
+they farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he
+sell the things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and
+tea and other things which he needs?
+</p><p>
+Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the
+people? Do they work in shops or mills or factories?
+</p><p>
+Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles
+are made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom?
+At home? What do you call the men who make these articles?
+</p><p>
+What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery
+store? A dry-goods store? A shoe store? Where did the things in
+these stores come from? Which were made in your city? Which were
+brought from other places?
+</p><p>
+What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the
+wharves? What do the boats or railroads take away? What do they
+bring in return?
+</p><p>
+<a id="test"></a> <i>Write the following:</i>
+</p>
+<form name="review" id="fillintheblanks" method="post" action=
+"#test" onsubmit="alert('That is Correct!')">Farmers raise
+<input type="text" id="question1" />(write the names of all the
+things you can think of).
+<p>
+Miners dig <input type="text" id="question2" /> out of the
+earth.
+</p><p>
+Quarrymen dig <input type="text" id="question3" /> from the
+quarries.
+</p><p>
+A shoemaker makes <input type="text" id="question4" />.
+</p><p>
+A blacksmith makes <input type="text" id="question5" />.
+</p><p>
+Merchants buy and sell <input type="text" id="question6" />.
+<input type="submit" value="( :" style="display: none" />
+</p></form>
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12228 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Home Geography For Primary Grades
+
+Author: C. C. Long
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2004 [EBook #12228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME GEOGRAPHY FOR PRIMARY GRADES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Ben Courtney and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
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+
+
+</pre>
+
+<h1>HOME GEOGRAPHY</h1>
+<h4>FOR</h4>
+<h1>PRIMARY GRADES</h1>
+<br />
+<h3>BY<br />
+C. C. LONG, Ph.D.</h3>
+<h4>AUTHOR OF NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS, LESSONS IN ENGLISH, ETC.</h4>
+<br />
+<table summary="contents" class="centeredimage" width="100%" cellpadding="10" border=
+"0">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">
+<h2><a id="contents"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" valign="top">
+<div class="contents"><a href="#intro"><i>TO THE
+TEACHER</i></a>
+<p>
+<a href="#less1">I.--POSITION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less2">II.--HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less3">III.--HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less4">IV.--HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less5">V.--QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less6">VI.--WHAT THE WINDS BRING (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less7">VII.--HOW TO TELL DISTANCE</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less8">VIII.--PICTURES AND PLANS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less9">IX.--WRITTEN EXERCISE</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less10">X.--GOD MADE THEM ALL (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less11">XI.--PLAINS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less12">XII.--HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less13">XIII.--RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less14">XIV.--HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less15">XV.--HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less16">XVI.--DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less17">XVII.--THE FAIRY ARTIST (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less18">XVIII.--HOW RIVERS ARE MADE</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less19">XIX.--MORE ABOUT RIVERS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less20">XX.--THE BROOK (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less21">XXI.--WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less22">XXII.--WATERDROP'S STORY</a>
+</p>
+</div>
+<br />
+</td>
+<td width="50%" valign="top">
+<div class="contents"><a href="#less23">XXIII.--THE RIVER
+(POEM)</a>
+<p>
+<a href="#less24">XXIV.--A MAP</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less25">XXV.--FORMS OF LAND AND WATER</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less26">XXVI.--MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND
+WATER</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less27">XXVII.--A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less28">XXVIII.--SPRING (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less29">XXIX.--USEFUL VEGETABLES</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less30">XXX.--USEFUL GRAINS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less31">XXXI.--FRUITS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less32">XXXII.--USEFUL PLANTS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less33">XXXIII.--FOREST TREES</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less34">XXXIV.--FLOWERS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less35">XXXV.--WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS
+GROW</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less36">XXXVI.--SUMMER RAIN (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less37">XXXVII.--THE PARTS OF ANIMALS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less38">XXXVIII.--THE COVERING OF ANIMALS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less39">XXXIX.--USES OF ANIMALS</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less40">XL.--THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS (POEM)</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less41">XLI.--THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less42">XLII.--MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE
+EARTH</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less43">XLIII.--HOW PEOPLE LIVE, AND WHAT THEY ARE
+DOING</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less44">XLIV.--MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING</a>
+</p><p>
+<a href="#less45">XLV.--A REVIEW LESSON</a></p></div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div id="pref">
+<div class="lesson"><a id="intro"></a><i>TO THE TEACHER.</i></div>
+<br />
+<a href="images/001_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill1"><img src=
+"images/001.jpg" align="left" border="0" alt=
+"TO THE TEACHER" /></a>
+<div class="preface">
+<p>Geography may be divided into the geography of
+the home and the geography of the world at large. A knowledge of
+the home must be obtained by direct observation; of the rest of the
+world, through the imagination assisted by information. Ideas
+acquired by direct observation form a basis for imagining those
+things which are distant and unknown.
+</p><p>
+The first work, then, in geographical instruction, is to study that
+small part of the earth's surface lying just at our doors. All
+around are illustrations of lake and river, upland and lowland,
+slope and valley. These forms must be actually observed by the
+pupil, mental pictures obtained, in order that he may be enabled to
+build up in his mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms.
+The hill that he climbs each day may, by an appeal to his
+imagination, represent to him the lofty Andes or the Alps. From the
+meadow, or the bit of level land near the door, may be developed a
+notion of plain and prairie. The little stream that flows past the
+schoolhouse door, or even one formed by the sudden shower, may
+speak to him of the Mississippi, the Amazon, or the Rhine.
+Similarly, the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from that of
+pond or lake. Thus, after the pupil has acquired elementary ideas
+by actual perception, the imagination can use them in constructing,
+on a larger scale, mental pictures of similar objects outside the
+bounds of his own experience and observation.
+</p><p>
+To effect this, the teacher should visit with her class places
+where the simpler geographical features in miniature may be
+observed. If the school is in the city, pupils may be taken to the
+parks for this purpose. If out-of-door study be impossible, they
+may be induced to recall objects which they have seen on their way
+to school or on short excursions in the neighborhood. In the case
+of children who have little opportunity for observing nature, a
+drawing, a photograph, or a model will be helpful in giving them a
+proper idea of the matter. It must not be forgotten, however, that
+actual observation by the pupil is necessary to seeing clearly and
+intelligently.
+</p><p>
+Vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography
+of the world, and considerable time should be given to the study of
+those within the observation of the pupils. Information concerning
+plants may be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in
+boxes and having pupils carefully watch their germination and
+growth.
+</p><p>
+Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and
+rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for
+use, not for show.
+</p><p>
+The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at
+appropriate times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy
+day a lesson about snow. No attempt should be made at "science"
+teaching, so-called. All that should be sought is to get the pupil
+thoughtfully to observe, and thus to awaken his interest in the
+world about him.
+</p><p>
+Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most
+pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of
+the teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart
+information. The attention of the child should be directed to what
+lies around him. He must observe, and think, and express his
+thoughts. Nor should his observations be confined to the school and
+school hours. He should be encouraged to obtain his information by
+his own searching, without guidance, and report the results.
+</p><p>
+The development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by
+expression. "Expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge."
+Hence, the child should be required to reproduce what he has
+learned. He may do this by modeling, drawing, and oral and written
+description. These are placed in the order which should be followed
+in the training of children.
+</p><p>
+The inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of
+development is to make, in some plastic material, what he has seen.
+Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar
+excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be
+followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the
+forms seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of
+the various forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be
+developed as they are molded. The memorizing of definitions should
+seldom be required, and should never be made a test of the pupil's
+knowledge.
+</p><p>
+Reproduction by the hand should be followed by drawing, whenever
+this can be done. Drawing teaches the child how to see well. It
+often enables him to reveal what could not well be expressed in
+words. He also becomes ready and rapid in the use of the pencil
+when he has ideas to put on paper. Only reasonable accuracy should
+be required. Practice in making fine pictures should not be the end
+sought, but the development of geographical ideas.
+</p><p>
+Finally, pupils should be led to give clear and connected
+statements of what has been learned. For a language lesson, a
+written description may be prepared, illustrated by a
+drawing.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l1"><a id="less1" />
+<h1>Home Geography.</h1>
+<br />
+<div class="lesson">LESSON I.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">POSITION.</div>
+<div align="center"><a href="images/002_l.gif" target="_blank" id=
+"ill2"><img src="images/002.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"POSITION" /></a></div>
+
+<p>
+Lay your hands upon your desk, side by side.
+</p><p>
+Which side shall we call the right side? The left side?
+</p><p>
+Put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from
+you. That part is the back of your desk.
+</p><p>
+Think which is the front of your desk. Put your hands on the front
+of your desk.
+</p><p>
+Who sits on your right hand? On your left? At the desk in front of
+you? At the desk behind you?
+</p><p>
+Turn round. Who is on your right now? On your left? Before you?
+Behind you?
+</p><p>
+Turn again. Who is now on your right? On your left? Before you?
+Behind you?
+</p><p>
+<b>NOTE.--</b>Lead children to see that the terms <i>right, left,
+front</i>, and <i>back</i> are of little use in telling the
+position of places, and that some fixed standard of direction is
+necessary.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l2"><a id="less2"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON II.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION.</div>
+<br />
+<p>
+If I should ask, "Which is the way to your home?" who could tell me
+what I mean?
+</p><p>
+You all know which way you must go to find your home, but if you
+should wish to go to a place where you have never been, you would
+ask, perhaps, "Which way is it?"
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" class="centeredimage" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/003_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill3"><img src=
+"images/003.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>
+The way to a place is called <i>direction</i>. In order to find a
+place, we must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have
+names for directions, such as <i>north</i>, <i>south</i>,
+<i>east</i>, and <i>west</i>. We may know these directions by
+seeing where the sun is.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see the sun rise? Point to the place where you saw the
+sun rise. The direction in which the sun seems to rise is called
+the <i>east</i>.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see the sun set? Point to where you saw the sun set.
+The direction in which the sun seems to set is called the
+<i>west</i>. The west is just the opposite direction from
+east.
+</p><p>
+When do we see the sun rise? Where do we see the sun rise? What is
+the name of this direction? When do we see the sun set? Where do we
+see it set? What is the name of this direction? On which side of
+the schoolroom does the sun rise? On which side does it set? Which
+is the east side of your desk? Which the west side?
+</p><p>
+When coming to school this morning, in what direction did you see
+the sun? If we walk so that the morning sun shines in our faces, in
+what direction are we going? What direction is behind us?
+</p><p>
+Now that you know the east, you will be able to find other
+directions in this way: Stretch out your arms so that your right
+hand points toward the east, and your left hand toward the west.
+You are now facing the <i>north</i>. The direction behind you is
+the <i>south</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="10"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/004_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill4"><img src=
+"images/004.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<i>Write the following on your slates:</i>
+</p><p>
+The sun seems to rise toward the east, and set toward the west. The
+west is just the opposite direction from the east.
+</p><p>
+When my right hand is pointing to the east, and my left hand to the
+west, my face is toward the north and my back is toward the
+south.
+</p><p>
+<b>ORAL EXERCISES.</b>
+</p><p>
+Which is the north side of the schoolroom? Which is the south side?
+Who sits to the north of you? To the south?
+</p><p>
+In what direction do the pupils face? On which side of your
+schoolroom is the teacher's table? Which sides have no windows?
+Which sides have no doors?
+</p><p>
+If a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side, which
+side of the room faces the fire? Suppose the wind is blowing from
+the north, in what direction will the smoke go?
+</p><p>
+In what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground?
+</p><p>
+What is the first street or road north of the school? The first
+street or road east? South? West?
+</p><p>
+In what direction is your home from the school? The school from
+your home? The nearest church from the school? The post office from
+your home?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l3"><a id="less3"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON III.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION.</div>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/005_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill5"><img src=
+"images/005.jpg" border="0" alt="THE GREAT BEAR." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE GREAT BEAR.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+You have learned how to tell north, south, east, and west by the
+sun; but how can we tell these directions at night?
+</p><p>
+Ask some one to point out to you a group of seven bright stars in
+the north part of the sky. Some people think that this group of
+stars looks like a wagon and three horses; others say that it looks
+like a plow.
+</p><p>
+The proper name of the group containing these seven stars is the
+Great Bear. The group was given this name because men at first
+thought it looked like a bear with a long tail.
+</p><p>
+These seven stars are called the Dipper. It is a part of a larger
+group called the Great Bear. Find the two bright twinkling stars
+farthest from its handle. A line drawn through them will point to
+another star, not quite so bright, called the North Star. That star
+is always in the north; so by it, on a clear night, you can tell
+the other directions at once.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write on your slates</i>:
+</p>
+<p>
+Sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at
+the North Star.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l4"><a id="less4"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON IV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION.</div>
+
+<p>
+But there are times when it is cloudy, and neither the sun nor the
+stars can be seen. How can we tell direction then?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/006_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill6"><img src=
+"images/006.jpg" border="0" alt="A COMPASS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A COMPASS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Have you ever seen a compass? It is a box in which is a little
+needle swinging on the top of a pin. When this needle is at rest,
+one end of it <i>points to the north</i>.
+</p><p>
+As the needle shows where the north is; it is easy to find the
+south, the east, or the west.
+</p><p>
+With the compass as a guide, the sailor, in the darkest night, can
+tell in what direction he is going.
+</p><p>
+North, south, east, and west are called the <i>chief points</i> of
+the compass.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/007_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill7"><img src=
+"images/007.jpg" border="0" alt="POINTS OF THE COMPASS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">POINTS OF THE COMPASS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Other directions are northeast, halfway between north and east;
+northwest, halfway between north and west; southeast, halfway
+between south and east; and southwest, halfway between south and
+west.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write on your slates:</i>
+</p><p>
+The chief points of the compass are north, south, east, and
+west.
+</p><p>
+Other directions are northeast, southeast, southwest, and
+northwest. Sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the
+compass.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l5"><a id="less5"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON V.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION.</div>
+
+<p>
+Your teacher will give you time to discover answers to these
+questions. She could tell you, but it is better to find them out
+for yourself.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/008_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill8"><img src=
+"images/008.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL? " /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+If I go out of doors, how can I find the north? How can I find it
+on a starlight night? How can I find it on pleasant days? How on
+rainy days? How does a sailor find the north?
+</p><p>
+If you were lost and knew your home was north, how would you find
+it? Do you know how hunters and Indians who live a great deal in
+the woods find out where the north is? When you are in the woods,
+notice the amount of moss on the north side of trees as compared to
+that on the south side.
+</p><p>
+As winter approaches; many of our birds will want to go to a warmer
+country; in what direction will they fly? Point to where ice and
+snow have their home. What direction is that?
+</p><p>
+In what direction does your shadow fall at sunrise? At sunset? At
+noon? When, during the day, is your shadow shortest?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/009_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill9"><img src=
+"images/009.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE SMOKE?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE
+SMOKE?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+In what direction does your shadow extend from yourself when it is
+shortest?
+</p><p>
+What time of day is noon? How can we tell when it is noon? When is
+the sun highest in the sky?
+</p><p>
+What may we discover by watching the direction of the smoke from
+the chimneys? What does a vane on a steeple tell us? What is a
+north wind? A south wind? An east wind? A west wind?
+</p><p>
+What kind of weather may be expected from a north wind? From a
+south wind? From an east wind? From a west wind?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l6"><a id="less6"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON VI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WHAT THE WINDS BRING.</div>
+<table summary="illustration" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="20"
+class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="images/010_l.gif" target=
+"_blank" id="ill10"><img src="images/010.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT THE WINDS BRING" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+
+<td align="left"><p>Comes the north wind, snowflakes bringing:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Robes the fields in purest white,<br />
+Paints grand houses, trees, and mountains<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;On our window-panes at night.
+</p><p>
+Hills and vales the east wind visits,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Brings them chilly, driving rain;<br />
+Shivering cattle homeward hurry,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Onward through the darkening lane.
+</p><p>
+Heat the south wind kindly gives us;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Reddens apples, gilds the pear,<br />
+Gives the grape a richer purple,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Scatters plenty everywhere.</p></td>
+
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">
+<p>Flowers sweet the west wind offers,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Peeping forth from vines and trees;<br />
+Brings the butterflies so brilliant,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And the busy, humming bees.
+</p><p>
+Each wind brings his own best treasure<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To our land from year to year;<br />
+Blessings many without measure<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;E'er attend the winds' career.
+</p>
+<p>
+<strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;---Lillian
+Cox.</strong>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr align="center" valign="top">
+<td colspan="2">
+<table summary="illustration" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"Whichever way the wind doth blow.<br />
+Some heart is glad to have it so;<br />
+And blow it east or blow it west,<br />
+The wind that blows, that wind is best."
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<i>Write</i> all that you can tell about the wind.
+</p><p>
+What was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm? Why
+is the north wind cold? Why is the south wind warm?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l7"><a id="less7"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON VII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW TO TELL DISTANCE.</div>
+
+<p>
+To tell where a place is, we must know its direction. But this is
+not all; we must also know how far it is from us; that is; its
+<i>distance</i>. To find this out we measure.
+</p><p>
+You have often heard of an <i>inch</i>, a <i>foot</i>, and a
+<i>yard</i>. This line is one inch long:</p>
+<div align="center"><img src="images/inch.gif" alt="AN INCH" width=
+"72" border="0" /></div>
+<p>
+Your ruler is twelve inches long, that is a foot. Three lengths of
+your ruler make a yard. A yard stick is three feet long.</p>
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/011_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill11"><img src=
+"images/011.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+With these measures you can tell how long your slate or your desk
+is, or how long and wide the schoolroom is.
+</p><p>
+The inch, foot, and yard are used for measuring short distances.
+But when we wish to tell the distance between objects far apart, we
+use another measure called a <i>mile</i>. A mile is much longer
+than a yard.
+</p><p>
+Think of some object that is a mile from our schoolhouse. How long
+would it take you to walk that distance?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/012_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill12"><img src=
+"images/012.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"MEASURING LONG DISTANCES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MEASURING LONG DISTANCES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<b>ORAL EXERCISES.</b>
+</p><p>
+How many inches long is your slate? How long is your desk? How many
+feet long is your room? How wide is it? What is the distance around
+the room? How many feet wide is each window? Each door? How many
+yards wide is the nearest street or road?
+</p><p>
+About what is the height of the schoolroom? Of the schoolhouse? Of
+the tallest tree near by? Of the nearest church spire?
+</p><p>
+About how long is the longest street in the town where you live? Do
+you know how many blocks or squares make a mile? Name the nearest
+river or creek. Give its direction from the school. In what
+direction does the water run? Give the direction and distance of
+the nearest church. What must you know to go to any place?
+</p><p>
+<b>NOTE.--</b>Have pupils estimate distances by the eye, then
+verify by actual measurement. Continue the exercises until the work
+becomes quite accurate. Correct ideas of distance are necessary in
+order to understand how large the world is, and how far apart
+places are on its surface.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l8"><a id="less8"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON VIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">PICTURES AND PLANS.</div>
+<p>
+You all know what a picture is. But do you know what a plan
+is?
+</p><p>
+A little boy wanted to show his cousin, who lived some miles away;
+the shape and size of his house, and how the rooms were arranged.
+How could he do this?
+</p><p>
+On a large sheet of white paper, he placed lines of blocks in the
+form of his house. Then, with a lead pencil, he drew a line on the
+paper along the sides of the blocks. He next took up the blocks,
+and there, on the paper, was a plan of his house.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/013_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill13"><img src=
+"images/013.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Here is a picture of a schoolroom. We see desks, the teacher's
+table, a chair, a clock, globe, and two maps, in the picture. The
+picture shows these objects as they would appear if we stood at the
+door behind the teacher's table and looked in.
+</p><p>
+This is a plan of the schoolroom, a picture of which is shown
+above. You see, the plan and picture are quite different.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/014_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill14"><img src=
+"images/014.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The picture shows the objects as we see them before us. The plan
+shows where the objects are, and their direction from one
+another.
+</p><p>
+Now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the
+blackboard.
+</p><p>
+The first thing is to measure the sides of the room. We will
+suppose the two long sides are each forty feet long, and the two
+short sides each thirty feet long. Now we will draw four straight
+lines on the board for the four sides. Of course, the lines must be
+much shorter than the sides themselves, else our plan will be too
+large.
+</p><p>
+Make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room. So the
+lines for the long sides will each be forty inches long, and the
+lines for the short sides thirty inches long.
+</p><p>
+The next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the
+windows, and oblongs for the desks. But we must remember that an
+inch in our plan stands for a foot in the object itself, and
+therefore we must allow as many inches for the width of doors and
+windows, and for the length and width of the desks, as there are
+feet in the objects themselves. Thus, if the door is three feet
+wide, we must make it three inches wide in our plan.
+</p><p>
+And lastly, we will draw a circle for the globe, and an oblong and
+square for the teacher's table and chair, that shall show just
+where and just how long these objects are.
+</p><p>
+We have now a <i>plan</i> of the schoolroom. Let us put N. to show
+the north side of the room, S. to show the south side, E. to show
+the east side, and W. to show the west side. We can now tell the
+direction of one thing from another in our plan.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l9"><a id="less9"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON IX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WRITTEN EXERCISE.</div>
+
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/015_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill15"><img src=
+"images/015.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Write</i> the answers to the following questions, in full
+sentences:
+</p><p>
+What is the name of your school? On what street or road is it?
+Which side of the street? Between what streets? In which direction
+does the building face?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/016_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill16"><img src=
+"images/016.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+How many rooms has the building? In what part of the building is
+your room? How large is it? How many doors and windows? How many
+seats?
+</p><p>
+In what direction is the school from your home? How far is it? How
+long does it take you to walk to school?
+</p><p>
+<b>EXERCISES IN DRAWING PLANS.</b>
+</p><p>
+Draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates. It cannot be drawn on
+your slates as large as it was drawn on the board. So let one inch
+stand for ten feet, instead of for one foot; that is, use a
+<i>scale</i> of one inch for every ten feet. Your plan will not be
+as large as mine, but it will show the position of everything as
+correctly.
+</p><p>
+Draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table, showing two books
+and an inkstand upon it. First, measure the sides. Then decide to
+what scale you will draw your plan.
+</p><p>
+Now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds. You must measure
+not only the house, but the width and length of the yard. The plan
+must show the size, shape, and place of everything upon the
+grounds. (While drawing a plan of this kind, it is better to let
+the pupils face the north. The top of the plan should be the north
+side of the grounds.)
+</p><p>
+Draw a plan of your own room at home, showing the table, bed,
+chairs, and other objects in it.
+</p><p>
+<b>ORAL EXERCISE.</b>
+</p><p>
+If the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard, what have we
+drawn? Is a plan the same as a picture? What is the use of a plan?
+Mention some things of which plans can be drawn.
+</p><p>
+<b>NOTE.--</b>It is wrong to teach that the <i>top</i> of a map or
+plan is <i>always</i> north; as often as not, the bottom is north,
+in plans especially.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l10"><a id="less10"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON X.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">GOD MADE THEM ALL.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr align="center" valign="top">
+<td colspan="2">
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/017_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill17"><img src=
+"images/017.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING BY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING
+BY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="illustration" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>All things bright and beautiful,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;All creatures great and small,<br />
+All things wise and wonderful,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The good God made them all.
+</p><p>
+Each little flower that opens,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Each little bird that sings,<br />
+He made their glowing colors,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;He made their tiny wings.
+</p><p>
+The purple-headed mountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The river running by,<br />
+The morning and the sunset,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The twinkling stars on high;</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="illustration" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>The tall trees in the greenwood,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The pleasant summer sun,<br />
+The ripe fruits in the garden--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;He made them every one.
+</p><p>
+He gave us eyes to see them,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And lips that we might tell<br />
+How great is God Almighty,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Who hath made all things well.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chaptext" id="l11"><a id="less11"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">PLAINS.</div>
+<p>
+The floor of our schoolroom is level. The playground is almost, if
+not quite, level. As you look away from the school, is the land
+nearly level? Did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level
+land?
+</p><p>
+Let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land,
+many, many times larger than our playground. Such a broad, nearly
+level stretch of land is called a <i>plain</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/018_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill18"><img src=
+"images/018.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A PLAIN." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A
+PLAIN.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+If this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful
+flowers, we should call it a <i>prairie</i>. In the summer it is a
+vast sea of waving grass. On the prairie we might find herds of
+wild horses and cattle, which feed upon the rich grass. If it were
+late in the summer, when the grass is dry and crisp, it might catch
+fire, and we might then see a grand sight--a prairie on fire.
+</p><p>
+We now come to another plain, miles and miles long, miles and miles
+wide. No rain falls here, and therefore we see no grass, nor
+flowers, nor cattle, nor horses, nothing but dry, burning sand,
+rocks, or gravel. We are in a <i>desert</i>. But we are so thirsty
+and tired!
+</p><p>
+No water to drink, no shade from the burning sun! Suddenly, in the
+midst of the desert, we come to a beautiful grassy spot. There is a
+cluster of date-palm trees, and, better still, a well or a spring
+of fresh water. This pleasant spot in the desert is called an
+<i>oasis</i>. Here we may quench our thirst, and rest beneath the
+shade of the trees.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/019_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill19"><img src=
+"images/019.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN OASIS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN
+OASIS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>An <i>oasis</i> is a fertile spot in a desert. What does
+<i>fertile</i> mean? When do we say land is fertile? When barren?
+When desert?
+</p><p>
+Find a picture of a palm tree, and try to draw it.
+</p><p>
+If we were really in a desert, we might see a company of merchants
+carrying goods to sell in the countries they visit. Such a company
+is called a <i>caravan</i>. The goods are packed in bundles, which
+are carried on camels' backs. The camel can live for a long time
+without drinking, and can carry a heavy load of merchandise a long
+distance. It is sometimes called the ship of the desert.
+</p><p>
+Why do travelers use camels to cross the desert? Why do they not
+use horses? If you can not find answers to these questions in your
+books at home, ask your teacher about them.
+</p><p>
+You have seen a small whirlwind in the street. The leaves flew
+round and round, the dust whirled along in clouds. Trees are
+sometimes torn from the ground, and houses overturned, by a strong
+wind.
+</p><p>
+Now think of a wind-storm in the desert. A loud, rustling noise is
+heard. Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds
+which darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their
+camels, cover themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the
+ground.
+</p><p>
+The poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with
+their backs to the wind until the storm has passed over.
+</p><p>
+Thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the
+sand.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l12"><a id="less12"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS.</div>
+
+<p>
+The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is
+high and uneven. We all know what a <i>hill</i> is. It is land a
+little higher than the surrounding country.
+</p><p>
+Is there a hill near where you live? Let us walk to the <i>top</i>,
+and stand on its <i>summit</i>. We will start from the <i>foot</i>
+or <i>base</i> of the hill. Now we have climbed its steep, rough
+<i>sides</i> or <i>slopes</i>. Was the ascent difficult? Is the
+view from the top fine?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/020_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill20"><img src=
+"images/020.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE HILL?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE
+HILL?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+What can you see from the top of the hill--meadow, river, lake,
+town? What grow on the hill? What live on the hill?
+</p><p>
+Which part of a hill is called the base, or foot? The slope, or
+sides? The top, or summit?
+</p><p>
+Give two names for the lowest part of a hill. Two for the highest
+part. Two for the part between the highest and lowest parts.
+</p><p>
+Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are
+called <i>mountains</i>. Mountains are much higher than hills. Have
+you ever seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A mountain is as
+high as twenty such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high
+the mountains must be!
+</p><p>
+Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem
+to touch the sky. A man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath
+his feet, while the sun shone where he stood. When it lightened he
+saw the flash far below him.
+</p><p>
+Is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains? With what are many
+high mountains covered, even in summer?
+</p><p>
+The land between mountains or hills is called a <i>valley</i>. Is
+there a valley near here? What do you call the ground on either
+side?
+</p><p>
+Would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valley?
+Why?
+</p><p>
+Are mountains of any use?
+</p><p>
+Yes, hills and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth
+more beautiful. Tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn
+the clouds into drops of water which fall as rain or snow. Then
+mountains give rise to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with
+grass and flowers. Mountains do much good to some countries by
+keeping off cold winds. They also give us coal and iron and other
+minerals which we find so useful.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/021_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill21"><img src=
+"images/021.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN MOUNTAINS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN
+MOUNTAINS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Here is a picture. What do you call the very high land on the right
+and on the left? The long, narrow piece of land between the two
+mountains?
+</p><p>
+When you look at this picture you must think of a real valley
+between mountains.
+</p><p>
+Bring pictures of hills and mountains to school; if you can find
+them.
+</p><p>
+If you had a molding-board and a few quarts of sand; you might
+represent hills and mountains with valleys between. Think of a real
+hill while you mold.
+</p><p>
+Draw on your slate a hill you have seen with a little of the
+surrounding country.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write:</i>
+</p><p>
+A long, narrow piece of land between hills and mountains is called
+a valley.
+</p><p>
+A hill is land a little higher than the country about it.
+</p><p>
+A mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the
+country about it.
+</p>
+<div align="center"><a href="images/022_l.gif" target="_blank" id=
+"ill22"><img src="images/022.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"A MOUNTAIN" /></a></div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l13"><a id="less13"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW.<br />
+<a href="images/023_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill23"><img src=
+"images/023.jpg" border="0" alt="IMAGER" /></a></div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>
+Watch the pretty snowflakes fall,<br />
+Some are large and some are small;<br />
+Look, they cover all the ground,<br />
+Miles of dazzling white around;<br />
+But this covering, I am told,<br />
+Keeps the earth from frost and cold.</p></td>
+
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Ah! and I must work alway,<br />
+Life's not meant to spend in play;<br />
+Every moment's fleeting fast,<br />
+And our day will soon be past;<br />
+If our work is truly done,<br />
+It will last though ages run.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Of what use is rain? Of what use is snow? Of what use is
+wind?</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="chaptext" id="l14"><a id="less14"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR.<br />
+<a href="images/024_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill24"><img src=
+"images/024.jpg" border="0" alt="IMAGER" /></a></div>
+
+<p>
+What happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove?
+</p><p>
+The water gets hot and boils away.
+</p><p>
+Where does it go? Is it destroyed?
+</p><p>
+The water is changed, but it is not destroyed. Coal burns, but we
+do not get rid of it altogether. It is changed into gas and smoke
+and ashes.
+</p><p>
+What is the water changed into?
+</p><p>
+It is changed to vapor. If we let the kettle remain on the fire
+long enough, the water it contains will all pass away as
+vapor.
+</p><p>
+Where does the vapor go? The water, though turned into vapor, must
+be somewhere.
+</p><p>
+It is floating about in the air of the room, though we cannot see
+it. The air holds the vapor, just as a sponge holds water.
+</p><p>
+Heat expands or swells air. Warm air, therefore, can contain more
+vapor than cold air. On a warm day there may be many times as much
+moisture in the air as on a cold day.
+</p><p>
+Moisten your slate with a damp sponge. Observe the disappearance of
+the moisture.
+</p><p>
+Dip your hand in water, and wave it in the air. The water on your
+hand disappears. Where has it gone?
+</p><p>
+When wet clothes are hung on the line, they soon become dry. What
+becomes of the water in the clothes?
+</p><p>
+If we set a plate of water out in the sunshine, what happens? Is
+the water lost?
+</p><p>
+The streets and roads were wet and muddy, now they are dry. What
+has become of the water? Has it all sunk into the ground?
+</p><p>
+Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early
+in the morning, When the sun shines out and warms the air; what
+happens?
+</p><p>
+Why does vapor rise into the air?
+</p><p>
+Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is
+lighter than air; what do you think ought to happen to it?</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l15"><a id="less15"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER,</div>
+
+<p>
+Heat, as you have learned, changes water into vapor. You must also
+know that cold turns vapor back into water again.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/025_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill25"><img src=
+"images/025.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING WATER." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING
+WATER.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Now let us think of the kettle with the boiling water. You will
+notice a little space; quite close to the spout, where nothing can
+be seen. Is there no vapor there?
+</p><p>
+Yes, there is vapor there, but it cannot be seen; it is invisible.
+A little way from the spout we see something white, like smoke.
+This is only the vapor that has been chilled by the cool air and
+changed back again into water. The water is in the form of very
+fine particles, and may be called water-dust.
+</p><p>
+Hold a cold plate over boiling water. Observe how the water-dust
+gathers into drops that roll down the plate.
+</p><p>
+You have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with
+moisture. Where does it come from? Why did it form there? Why does
+it sometimes run down on the cold pane?
+</p><p>
+The vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings.
+Explain this.
+</p><p>
+Carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room, and notice what takes
+place. A thin mist at once gathers on the outside of the pitcher.
+What takes place among the little drops of mist? What becomes of
+these larger drops?
+</p><p>
+Where does the water which collects on the outside of the pitcher
+come from? Does it come through the pitcher from the inside? Would
+the same thing have taken place if some other cold object had been
+used instead of a cold pitcher?
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> out what you have learned about vapor.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l16"><a id="less16"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XVI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN.</div>
+<p>
+The sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the
+sea, and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot
+see the vapor; but it is in the air around us.
+</p><p>
+If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing
+happens. Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often
+seen, in the early morning, little drops of water hanging like
+pearls upon the blades of grass.
+</p><p>
+Now, where do these drops come from? They come from the air. The
+vapor in the air floats against the cold grass and leaves, and is
+cooled and changed into tiny drops of water. We call this
+<i>dew</i>.
+</p><p>
+Of what use is dew?
+</p><p>
+If the night is quite cold, the dew will freeze. It is then called
+frost. You have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful
+pictures upon it.
+</p><p>
+Make a picture of the window as you remember it, covered with the
+pretty things made by the frost.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/026_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill26"><img src=
+"images/026.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+When vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very small
+drops of water or minute crystals of ice, and we can see it
+floating about in the air. It is then called a <i>cloud</i>. Almost
+any clear day you may see clouds form and then seem to melt
+away.
+</p><p>
+You have seen on a blue sky, light, fleecy feather-clouds. They are
+very high up, and it is very cold where they are. You have also
+noticed the clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors. As the
+sun sank lower and lower, how did they change, in shape and
+color?
+</p><p>
+When clouds are low down, near the earth, we call them <i>fogs</i>
+or <i>mist</i>.
+</p><p>
+If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into
+large drops and fall as <i>rain</i>. If the drops should freeze in
+falling, we would call them <i>hail</i>.
+</p><p>
+What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/027_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill27"><img src=
+"images/027.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A MICROSCOPE?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A
+MICROSCOPE?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes
+before it forms into drops, and falls in the beautiful flakes we
+call <i>snow</i>. Have you ever seen snowflakes through a
+microscope?
+</p><p>
+Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in
+winter if it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow?
+</p><p>
+Observe the clouds; fog, rain, snow, dew, frost, and tell what you
+have noticed.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> what you have <i>seen</i> or <i>noticed</i> about
+vapor, clouds, rain, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l17"><a id="less17"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XVII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE FAIRY ARTIST.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Oh, there is a little artist<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Who paints in the cold night hours<br />
+Pictures for little children<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Of wondrous trees and flowers!
+</p><p>
+Pictures of snow-white mountains<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Touching the snow-white sky;<br />
+Pictures of distant oceans<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Where pretty ships sail by.<br />
+</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Pictures of rushing rivers<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By fairy bridges spanned;<br />
+Bits of beautiful landscape<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Copied from elfin land.
+</p><p>
+The moon is the lamp he paints by;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;His canvas the window pane;<br />
+His brush is a frozen snowflake;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jack Frost the artist's name.<br />
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l18"><a id="less18"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XVIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW RIVERS ARE MADE.</div>
+
+<p>
+Have you ever seen a brook or creek? A river? Is there a brook or
+river near here? Who can tell where it begins? where the water
+conies from that fills it? where it goes? Let us try to understand
+this.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/028_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill28"><img src=
+"images/028.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the air in
+winds up the sides of mountains, it turns into water again, and
+comes falling down as rain.
+</p><p>
+Now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go. Some of
+the water runs off on the surface, down the mountain slope. Some
+sinks into the ground, and runs along in little streams below the
+surface. It will appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as
+a <i>spring</i>. The spring is the beginning of a river.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see a spring? Where was it? Was it shaded by trees?
+Where did the water come from? Did you drink from it? Was the water
+pure and cold? Where did the water go after leaving the
+spring?
+</p><p>
+From the spring flows a tiny, thread-like stream, so small that we
+can easily step across it. This little stream is called a
+<i>rill</i>.
+</p><p>
+Other rills meet this, and form a larger stream, which is called a
+<i>brook</i> or <i>creek</i>.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/029_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill29"><img src=
+"images/029.1.jpg" alt="RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH."
+border="0" align="left" /> <img src="images/029.2.jpg" alt=
+"RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH." border="0" align=
+"left" /></a> As the brook flows on, it is joined by other streams,
+until, little by little, it becomes a wide and deep <i>river</i> on
+which large boats may float. At last, it finds its way into the
+ocean.
+</p><p>
+Where a river begins is its <i>source</i>. The place where it flows
+into another body of water is called its <i>mouth</i>. The land
+over which it flows is its <i>bed</i>.
+</p><p>
+A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is
+on our right hand, and the left bank is on our left.
+</p><p>
+Do you live near a river? Where does the water come from? In what
+direction does it flow? Why does it flow in such direction? Does it
+wind about much? Does it flow into the ocean, or into another
+river?
+</p><p>
+Is the water fresh or salt? What grow on its banks? Near which bank
+do you live?
+</p><p>
+Make a picture of a spring, and a brook flowing from it. Draw the
+tall grass and plants that grow near it.
+</p><p>
+Write the names of all the rivers you have seen.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the following:</i>
+</p><p>
+Water flowing out of the ground is called a spring.
+</p><p>
+From springs flow small streams called rills, brooks, or
+creeks.
+</p><p>
+A large stream of water flowing through the land is called a
+river.
+</p><p>
+A small stream of water flowing into a larger one is called a
+tributary.
+</p><p>
+The source of a river is where it begins. The place where it
+empties into another body of water is its mouth.
+</p><p>
+Every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand
+bank.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l19"><a id="less19"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XIX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT RIVERS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Let us have another chat about the river. We may fancy that we are
+following it in its course to the sea. We shall then learn for
+ourselves many things we do not know about rivers.
+</p><p>
+We will begin our journey at its source. Here it is a little rill,
+formed by water that trickles from a spring, or by the melting of
+snow.
+</p><p>
+As it flows on, it is joined by many other little streams, until it
+grows to be much larger.
+</p><p>
+There is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream.
+Do you know what it is? The word, is <i>tributary</i>. Tributaries
+are often called <i>branches</i>.
+</p><p>
+Before we leave this part of the river, I wish you to learn another
+hard word.
+</p><p>
+You have seen the water run off the roof of a <i>shed</i>. The
+ridge; or highest part of the roof, divides the rain that falls on
+it, so that part of the rain flows down the one side, and part of
+it flows down the other side.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/030_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill30"><img src=
+"images/030.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Now, hills, like the roof of a house, send off streams on both
+sides. When it rains, or the snow melts, some of the water goes
+down on one side, some on the other. And that is why the hills
+which divide or part the waters of streams are called a
+<i>water-parting</i> or <i>water-shed</i>.
+</p><p>
+Let us now go further down the stream.
+</p><p>
+Here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope. Its waters foam
+and dash between the great rocks that lie in the stream. Such
+places in the river are called <i>rapids</i>. Can you tell why they
+are so called?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/031_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill31"><img src=
+"images/031.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The stream flows on. It has now reached a high ledge of rock. Over
+this it leaps, making a great foam and noise.
+</p><p>
+When the water of a river falls over high rocks, it is called a
+waterfall or <i>cataract</i>.
+</p><p>
+You may have seen the Falls of Niagara, the greatest waterfall in
+the world.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/032_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill32"><img align=
+"left" src="images/032.1.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA." /><img align="left" src=
+"images/032.2.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA." /></a> The course of our
+river is now through a lower country. The valley in which it flows
+spreads out, and the stream grows wider and wider. The water moves
+slower and slower.
+</p><p>
+Why is the river swift in some places, and in others slow?
+</p><p>
+At length it flows through an almost level country. It is here
+widest and deepest. Its course is more winding.
+</p><p>
+Do you know why it is crooked and winding?
+</p><p>
+Because on the steep hillside the water runs very rapidly, and is
+not easily turned aside. Where the ground is nearly level, it runs
+slowly, and is easily turned from its course.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l20"><a id="less20"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE BROOK.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="20"
+class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="images/033_l.gif" target=
+"_blank" id="ill33"><img src="images/033.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE BROOK" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From a fountain<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In a mountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Drops of water ran<br />
+Trickling through the grasses;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;So our brook began.
+</p><p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Slow it started;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Soon it darted,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cool and clear and free,<br />
+Rippling over pebbles,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Hurrying to the sea.
+</p><p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Children straying<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Came a-playing<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;On its pretty banks;<br />
+Glad, our little brooklet<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Sparkled up its thanks.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Blossoms floating,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mimic boating,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Fishes darting past,<br />
+Swift, and strong, and happy,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Widening very fast.
+</p><p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bubbling, singing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Rushing, ringing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Flecked with shade and sun.<br />
+Soon our pretty brooklet<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To the sea has run.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l21"><a id="less21"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work
+they do?
+</p><p>
+Notice what happens when it rains. Little tiny streams are formed,
+which chase each other down the slopes. See how they cut away the
+loose soil and carry it off. Notice how muddy this loose soil makes
+the water. What becomes of this loose soil, or mud?
+</p><p>
+Fill a jar with water. Put in a handful of mud from the nearest
+stream. Shake the jar, and the water is muddy. Let it stand awhile.
+What do you notice? The water is clear, and the soil has settled to
+the bottom.
+</p><p>
+Follow the streams to the valley where they unite to form a river.
+When does the load of mud it carries settle? Here, where the water
+scarcely moves, we find some of the soil spread out over the ground
+near the river banks.
+</p><p>
+You have seen a river overflow its banks. When the water went down,
+it left a layer of rich mud, which made the soil very
+fertile.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/034_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill34"><img src=
+"images/034.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE LOAM." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE
+LOAM.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered
+with rich grass and clover?
+</p><p>
+Well, these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has
+been washed down the streams from the far-off hills and
+mountains.
+</p><p>
+Look at the jar again. Which settled first, the coarse material or
+fine loam? What kind of a deposit will be made in the upper course
+of a river? What kind toward the mouth?
+</p><p>
+High up in the valley, when the river is low, we see <i>pebbles</i>
+in its bed; lower down, the pebbles are worn into <i>gravel;</i>
+and as we get still farther down, we find the gravel ground into
+<i>sand</i>.
+</p><p>
+Examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river. Some
+are quite smooth and round. They were not always so, but had sharp
+edges. Do you know what made them round?
+</p><p>
+When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones
+down the mountain side and into the valley. As they are carried
+down the stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are
+smoothed and rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles
+themselves are ground at last into gravel and fine sand.
+</p><p>
+This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows
+in the sides of the mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into
+fine soil, and carrying it into the valleys below.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l22"><a id="less22"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WATERDROP'S STORY.</div>
+
+<p>
+<a href="images/035_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill35"><img src=
+"images/035.jpg" align="right" border="0" alt=
+"WATERDROP'S STORY." /></a> Patter, patter, fall the raindrops on
+the brown leaves in the woods. Mr. Squirrel's bright eyes sparkle
+as he peeps out of his queer little home, a hole in the tree; his
+store of nuts has been carefully hidden away.
+</p><p>
+Splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him. Such a friendly
+little drop it is, for soon it tells this little woodland dweller
+of all its travels.
+</p><p>
+Let us listen, for we may hear too:
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/036_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill36"><img src=
+"images/036.jpg" alt="WATERDROP'S STORY" border="0" align=
+"left" /></a> "My home," began the Waterdrop, "is in the wide blue
+sea, where I live with many, many other drops.
+</p><p>
+"One day as we rode up and down on the big waves, the sun shone
+down on us, and we grew warmer. Each little drop felt, 'Oh, if I
+could only get away from the other drops, how much cooler I should
+be!' Then each tiny drop separated from the others, and grew so
+small you could not see it.
+</p><p>
+"We, of course, grew lighter, lighter than the air. Up, up we rose
+into the bright blue sky. When we got pretty high, where the air
+was cool, we came closer together again and formed a great fleecy
+white <i>cloud</i>, that cast its shadow over everything. Then a
+friendly wind carried us along, and soon we left the sea behind.
+Far below; we could see green fields and waving woods."
+</p><p>
+"You must have been very happy" said the little squirrel.
+</p><p>
+"Yes; it was a merry life we led, as we floated hither and thither,
+playing with the sun-beams," replied the Waterdrop.
+</p><p>
+"But we came at last to a purple mountain, and a chill wind began
+to blow. How we shivered with the cold! Then we huddled close
+together to get warm. We were now heavy again--so heavy that we
+could not stay up in the air.
+</p><p>
+"Then,</p>
+<div class="verse">
+<table summary="poem" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td align="center" valign="top" width="50%">
+<table summary="poem" width="100%" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">'I'm going down to cheer a flower,'<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cried a little drop of rain;<br />
+'I hear it sigh. It droops its head<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;As if in weary pain.'</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td align="center" valign="top" width="50%">
+<table summary="poem" width="100%" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">'And I will go!' 'And I!' 'And I!'<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cried all the raindrops near.<br />
+So down we went in merry haste<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The whole wide field to cheer.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little
+drops for the cool drink. Even the great tall trees nodded their
+heads in welcome."
+</p>
+<p>"The grass on the hillside and in the valley must have been
+grateful, too, for your coming," said the squirrel. "It always
+looks so fresh and green after a shower. But, tell me, what became
+of <i>you</i>?"
+</p>
+<p>"I fell where the ground was brown and bare, stopped for a moment,
+then went down, down into the ground, where all was dark. I met
+other drops trying to get out, and we went on together, turning
+first this way, then that way, till we burst into the sunshine
+again."
+</p><p>
+"We rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water; then I ran
+with the rest down the mountain side, slipping over smooth pebbles,
+and tumbling over sharp rocks, until I found myself in a deep,
+swift stream, where plants and trees grew on either bank."
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/037_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill37"><img src=
+"images/037.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>"As I was hurried along, I heard a great roaring noise made by the
+river falling over a high ledge of rocks, as a cataract or
+waterfall. Suddenly we fell over the rocks so steep and high that
+we went leaping and dashing in all directions. We rose in the air
+in a fine gray mist, then sank back again into the foam-covered
+stream.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/038_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill38"><img src=
+"images/038.1.jpg" alt="THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL." border=
+"0" align="left" /> <img src="images/038.2.jpg" alt=
+"THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL." border="0" align="left" /></a>
+"Soon we were in a broad, quiet river, flowing past the grassy
+hills and green pastures. Then we came to a big mill-wheel, upon
+which we jumped, and by our weight made it turn over and over, and
+thus move the machinery in the mill. Here we were tossed in the
+air, whirled around, and at last flung back into the river, where
+we sailed slowly and quietly as before.
+</p><p>
+"By and by, we saw large boats floating on the water. We passed
+towns and cities with busy streets and many people; and as our
+river widened, and we heard the big sea waves dashing against the
+shore, we knew our brothers and sisters were singing a welcome
+home.
+</p><p>
+<br />
+"And now farewell, little squirrel. My story is done, and I must
+hasten to my home in the sea. Perhaps we shall meet again some day.
+I may float down to you, a white-winged snowflake, or patter down
+as I came this time, a tiny raindrop."
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/039_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill39"><img src=
+"images/039.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<i>Write the following:</i>
+</p><p>
+The water rises from the sea in vapor.
+</p><p>
+The vapor is turned into clouds, which fall in rain or snow.
+</p><p>
+The rain forms rivers, which flow back again into the sea.
+</p><p>
+Thus the water is always going round and round in its long and
+curious journey--up to the clouds in vapor, down in rain, back in
+streams to the place it started from.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l23"><a id="less23"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE RIVER.</div>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr valign="middle">
+<td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="images/040_l.gif" target=
+"_blank" id="ill40"><img src="images/040.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IMAGER" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"Oh, tell me, pretty river,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Whence do thy waters flow?<br />
+And whither art thou roaming,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;So smoothly and so slow?"
+</p>
+<p>"My birthplace was the mountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;My nurse the April showers;<br />
+My cradle was a fountain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;O'er-curtained by wild flowers.
+</p><p>
+"One morn I ran away,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;A madcap, noisy rill;<br />
+And many a prank that day<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;I played adown the hill!</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"And then 'mid meadowy banks,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;I flirted with the flowers,<br />
+That stooped with glowing lips<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To woo me to their bowers.
+</p><p>
+"But these bright scenes are o'er,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And darkly flows my wave;<br />
+I hear the ocean's roar--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And there must be my grave!"</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>
+Where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem? Are
+rivers born? What is meant by "My nurse the April showers"? "I
+flirted with the flowers"? Explain the last stanza.
+</p>
+
+<div align="center"><a href="images/041_l.gif" target="_blank" id=
+"ill41"><img src="images/041.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IMAGER" /></a></div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l24"><a id="less24"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">A MAP</div>
+
+<p>
+A drawing made to show a room, or a house; or the school-yard, or
+even a village, is called a plan.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/042_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill42"><img src=
+"images/042.jpg" alt="A MAP" border="0" align="left" /></a>
+Drawings which represent land and water are called maps. You may
+learn from maps where the countries, and mountains, and rivers, and
+cities are that you have seen. It also shows how far places are
+from one another.
+</p><p>
+Here is a map showing mountains and rivers. The many short lines
+facing each other represent mountains. To show the very high part
+of the mountains, the lines are drawn close to each other, making
+that part of the map look dark. The line winding about, like the
+stream itself, represents a river. The line, as you see, is made
+thicker and thicker toward its mouth. From this you may know that
+the river itself becomes broader and broader as it flows toward the
+sea.
+</p><p>
+But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river,
+or the lines which face each other are mountains. If you do, you
+will learn very little of geography. When you look at these lines,
+you must <i>think</i> of the real things which they stand for--the
+lofty mountains, with their covering of forests, and with long,
+narrow valleys between them; the winding, gently flowing river,
+bearing boats upon its waters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l25"><a id="less25"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.</div>
+
+<p>
+You all know what a pond is. Is there a pond near where you live?
+Did you ever fish in it? Did you ever walk round it?
+</p><p>
+When a stream, on its way to the ocean, flows into a basin or
+hollow in the land, the water spreads out and fills it. A hollow in
+the land filled with water is called a <i>lake</i>, or, if it be
+quite small, a <i>pond</i>.
+</p><p>
+What is a lake made of? What is round it? Suppose some one who
+never saw a lake were to ask you what a lake is, what would you
+say?
+</p><p>
+What do we find in lakes? Would you not like to sail on a
+lake?
+</p><p>
+In the hollows among mountains are great numbers of beautiful
+lakes. In their clear waters may be seen the mountains, the
+forests, and the sky, as in a looking-glass. At night the moon and
+stars may be seen below you as plainly as above.
+</p><p>
+Here is a picture of a pretty lake in a valley.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/043_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill43"><img src=
+"images/043.2.jpg" alt="A PRETTY LAKE IN A VALLEY." border="0"
+align="left" /> <img src="images/043.1.jpg" alt=
+"A PRETTY LAKE IN A VALLEY." border="0" align="left" /></a> You see
+a river flowing from the hills beyond. Into what is it flowing? The
+river that lets the water <i>into</i> the lake is called an
+<i>inlet</i>.
+</p><p>
+You see another river that lets the water <i>out</i> of the lake.
+This river we call the <i>outlet</i> of the lake.
+</p><p>
+Make a lake on your molding-board, or in the sand near your home.
+Represent its inlet and outlet.
+</p><p>
+Out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters
+play. We could not go to this land without crossing the water; the
+water is on all sides of it. Such a little piece of land is called
+an <i>island</i>.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? You will remember
+that he went up a hill in search of water. When he got to the top
+of the hill, he saw that he was on an island. How did he
+know?
+</p><p>
+Have you ever seen an island? What island was it? Could you sail
+round it? What was on every side of it? What grew on it? What is an
+island?
+</p><p>
+If there is a brook or lake near your home, how can you make an
+island?
+</p><p>
+Opposite is a picture of a river and a lake. Make a map of the same
+river and lake on your slate. Notice how the coast or shore of the
+lake bends in and out.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the following</i>:
+</p><p>
+A lake is water surrounded by land.
+</p><p>
+The land near the water of a lake is called its shore.
+</p><p>
+An island is a little piece of land surrounded by water.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l26"><a id="less26"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXVI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/044_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill44"><img src=
+"images/044.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"PICTURE OF A PENINSULA." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF A PENINSULA.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/045_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill45"><img src=
+"images/045.jpg" border="0" alt="MAP OF A PENINSULA." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MAP OF A PENINSULA.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In the picture we see a narrow strip of land which extends far out
+into the water. You will notice that the land has water all round;
+except at one place.
+</p><p>
+What is the name for land that has water on all sides but one? What
+is a peninsula? An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land
+with water all round it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that
+has water <i>nearly</i> all round it. This form of land is called a
+<i>peninsula</i>. The word peninsula means <i>almost an
+island</i>.
+</p><p>
+<br />
+How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the
+difference between a peninsula and an island?
+</p><p>
+The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as
+the neck joins the head to the body-is called an <i>isthmus</i>,
+which means <i>neck</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/046_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill46"><img src=
+"images/046.jpg" border="0" alt="PICTURE OF A BAY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF A BAY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/047_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill47"><img src=
+"images/047.jpg" border="0" alt="MAP OF A BAY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MAP OF A BAY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Here is another picture which I wish you to look at. You see where
+the shore bends like a bow; and the water runs a little way into
+the land.
+</p><p>
+Can you think of anything else that is bent like this? Yes-a
+bay-window.
+</p><p>
+Now, when I tell yon that bay means the same as bow, you can almost
+guess the name for this bend in the land. It is called a bay. You
+will easily remember that little word.
+</p><p>
+A wide opening or bend in the land, into which the water flows, is
+usually called a bay.
+</p><p>
+Sometimes, when the opening in the bend is long and narrow, it is
+called a <i>gulf</i>.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/048_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill48"><img src=
+"images/048.jpg" border="0" alt="PICTURE OF A STRAIT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">PICTURE OF A STRAIT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/049_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill49"><img src=
+"images/049.jpg" border="0" alt="MAP OF A STRAIT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">MAP OF A STRAIT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>On the next page is shown a narrow strip of water joining two
+larger bodies of water. The name given to this narrow passage is
+strait, a word meaning narrow.
+</p><p>
+As an isthmus connects two bodies of land, so a strait connects two
+bodies of water.
+</p><p>
+After a rain make little lakes, rivers, bays, etc. Perhaps you may
+find some already made.
+</p><p>
+See whether you can find in the magazines and books at home
+pictures of gulfs, bays, peninsulas, etc.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the following:</i> A peninsula is land almost surrounded
+by water.
+</p><p>
+An isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of
+land.
+</p><p>
+A gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending
+into the land.
+</p><p>
+A strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies
+of water.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l27"><a id="less27"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXVII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Uncle Tom had been telling Fred and me about many strange places he
+had seen. Last of all, he told us about some high mountains he had
+climbed. We wanted to climb one very much. So father said he would
+go with us up a high hill not far from the city.
+</p><p>
+Mother did not need to call us in the morning, for we woke up very
+early. The sky in the east was bright, and we knew that soon we
+should see the sun. We wanted to start at once, but mother said it
+would be better to have breakfast first.
+</p><p>
+We put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut. Father
+gave each of us a stout stick to help us climb. Fred had a
+knapsack, in which mother put some bread, cold meat, crackers, and
+a cup to drink from. In one corner we put some towels.
+</p><p>
+We were soon outside the city, walking along the road. We passed a
+village, and went through fields and woods. By and by we could see
+the land before us rising higher and higher. We saw no longer such
+beautiful farms and gardens as we had passed.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/050_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill50"><img src=
+"images/050.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"AS WE WENT UP THE SLOPE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">AS WE WENT UP THE SLOPE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In a little while we reached the foot of the hill and began to
+ascend. As we went up the slope, we came to steep, rugged places
+that were hard to climb, where we needed our sticks. The trees were
+smaller, and there were many bushes. There were large rocks, too,
+in the sides of the hill. At the foot, the weather was quite warm,
+but it grew cooler and cooler the higher we went.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/051_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill51"><img src=
+"images/051.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WE COULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE STRAIGHT STREETS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WE COULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE STRAIGHT
+STREETS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>"On the summit at last!" cried Fred, as we reached the top.
+</p><p>
+From where we stood, we could see the city with its little straight
+streets, that look so wide when we walk on them. We could see the
+house-tops, too, and the church steeples. Then father showed us the
+village we passed; and the woods we went through. But the trees
+looked like bushes, and some men at the foot of the hill looked no
+larger than the baby.
+</p><p>
+Down the mountain, a little way, we found a spring where the water
+was clear and cool. Here we sat down on a rock, and ate the lunch
+we had brought. While we rested, we watched the little rill that
+flowed from the spring--</p>
+<div class="verse">"Blue in the shadow,<br /> Silver in the sun."</div>
+<p>
+Down the hill, it was larger, and we saw other rills flowing into
+it. When it reached the valley, it was much larger; and farther
+down, father said, boats could sail on it.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/052_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill52"><img src=
+"images/052.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET OF STILL WATER." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET OF STILL
+WATER.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Before us, in the valley, lay a large sheet of still water.
+</p><p>
+"Oh, how pretty!" exclaimed I.
+</p><p>
+"Yes, that is a lake," said father. "How beautiful it looks as the
+sunlight plays on its smooth surface! It reflects in its clear
+water the sky and the trees around it."
+</p><p>
+"I can see an island in the lake," said Fred. "Vessels are sailing
+all round it."
+</p><p>
+"Are all islands small, like that?" he asked.
+</p><p>
+"Oh, no!" said father. "Some islands are hundreds of miles round,
+and have many people living upon them."
+</p><p>
+Fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water,
+and asked whether that, too, was an island.
+</p><p>
+"No," replied father, "that is a peninsula. It is land almost
+surrounded by water. And the narrow neck which joins the peninsula
+to the mainland is called an isthmus.
+</p><p>
+"You see the bend in the land, with the water from the lake running
+in?" asked father.
+</p><p>
+"Yes," said Fred.
+</p><p>
+"That is called a bay. Around every ocean, which is a much larger
+body of water, there are many such bays.
+</p><p>
+"The narrow strip of water, which a boat is just entering, is
+called a strait. The strait separates the island from the
+mainland."
+</p><p>
+Stretching far away to the east was flat, level land, which father
+called a plain. Scattered here and there were many farmhouses and
+quiet villages. Little bright, sparkling streams wound their way
+like silver threads through the green grass of the meadows. It was
+a lovely scene indeed!
+</p><p>
+The sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return. As
+it set--
+</p>
+<div class="verse">A wonderful glory of color,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;A splendor of shifting light--<br />
+Orange and scarlet and purple<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Flamed in the sky so bright.</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l28"><a id="less28"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXVIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">SPRING.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Drops of rain and bits of sunshine<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Falling here and gleaming there,<br />
+Tiny blades of grass appearing.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell of springtime bright and fair.
+</p><p>
+Budding leaves are gently swaying,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Merry glad notes sweetly ring;<br />
+Robins, bluebirds, gayly singing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell of happy, pleasant spring.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Violets, in blue and purple,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By the twinkling water clear;<br />
+Fair spring beauties, frail and dainty,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell the story, spring is here.
+</p><p>
+Cherry, peach, and apple blossoms<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Scattering fragrance far and wide;<br />
+Buttercups and pure white snowdrops<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell of gracious, sweet springtide.
+</p><p>
+<strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;---Lillian
+Cox.</strong></p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l29"><a id="less29"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXIX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USEFUL VEGETABLES.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/053_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill53"><img src=
+"images/053.jpg" border="0" alt="A SPROUT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A SPROUT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/054_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill54"><img src=
+"images/054.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"A VINE BEGINNING TO GROW." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A VINE BEGINNING TO GROW.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="verse"><p>In the heart of a seed buried deep, so deep, A
+dear little plant lay fast asleep.
+</p><p>
+"Wake!" said the sunshine, "and creep to the light."
+</p><p>
+"Wake!" said the voice of the raindrops bright.
+</p><p>
+The little plant heard, and it rose to see
+</p><p>
+What the wonderful outside world might be.</p></div>
+<p>
+What vegetables grow in your neighborhood?
+</p><p>
+Of which do we use the roots as food? Of which the leaves? Of which
+the seeds? Of which the stems or stalks?
+</p><p>
+Which is the most useful garden vegetable? There is no common
+garden vegetable so highly thought of as the potato. How are
+potatoes planted?
+</p><p>
+Answer the questions in writing so as to make a little composition
+about vegetables.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l30"><a id="less30"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USEFUL GRAINS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Wheat and corn are called grain because they are small, hard seeds
+What other kinds of grain can you name?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/055_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill55"><img src=
+"images/055.jpg" border="0" alt="RIPE WHEAT" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">RIPE WHEAT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Which of these grains is used the most? Which makes the choicest
+flour?
+</p><p>
+Some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring. These are called spring
+wheat.
+</p><p>
+Winter wheat is sown in the fall. A few days of sun and rain, and
+the plants spring up like grass, remaining green through the
+winter.
+</p><p>
+What color does the wheat turn as it ripens? When it is ripe what
+is done with it?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" border="0"
+align="right">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/056_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill56"><img src=
+"images/056.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE WEST." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE WEST.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>For what is the flour of wheat used?
+</p><p>
+What is sometimes done with the stalks, or straw?
+</p><p>
+Indian corn is one of the most useful of plants. Do you know why it
+is called Indian corn? It is because the Indians first raised
+it.
+</p><p>
+When is corn planted? How is the land prepared for planting? What
+is done to the corn while the plants are small? When does it ripen?
+How tall does it grow?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/057_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill57"><img src=
+"images/057.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SEVERAL KINDS OF GRAIN." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SEVERAL KINDS OF GRAIN.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What is the stem of the corn called? What are the flowers on the
+stalk of corn called? On what do the grains of corn grow?
+</p><p>
+What use is made of the green stalks and leaves? What use is made
+of the ripe grain? For what are corn-husks largely used?
+</p><p>
+Sweet corn, if boiled when green, is an excellent vegetable. It is
+preserved by canning.
+</p><p>
+A large cornfield, with its tall, straight stalks, covered with
+green shining leaves and crowned by flowers, is a very pleasant
+sight.
+</p><p>
+Corn is sometimes called the national emblem. What does emblem
+mean?
+</p><p>
+What use is made of oats; barley, rye, and buckwheat? Some of these
+grains are useful in two or three ways.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/058_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill58"><img src=
+"images/058.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"ANOTHER GRAIN WHICH WE FIND ON ALMOST EVERY TABLE. " /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">ANOTHER GRAIN WHICH WE FIND ON ALMOST EVERY
+TABLE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>There is another grain which we find on almost every table. It is
+rice. The rice plant, when growing, resembles wheat; but, unlike
+wheat, it needs a great deal of moisture. So the rice-grower sows
+it in fields which he can flood or drain at will.
+</p><p>
+Do you know what people live on rice without any meat at all? Ask
+your teacher to tell you how rice is raised in China and
+Japan.
+</p><p>
+You ought to find something to tell your teacher and classmates
+about the grains.
+</p><p>
+Perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have
+seen.
+</p><p>
+Choose one of the grains, and write what you have Learned about it
+from conversation and observation.</p>
+<div class="verse"><br />
+We plow the fields, and scatter<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The good seed on the land,<br />
+But it is fed and watered<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By God's almighty hand.<br />
+He sends the snow in winter,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The warmth to swell the grain,<br />
+The breezes and the sunshine,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And soft refreshing rain.</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l31"><a id="less31"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FRUITS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Name some trees upon which grow things to eat. What do we call such
+trees?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/059_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill59"><img src=
+"images/059.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE ORANGE TREES ARE LOADED WITH GOLDEN FRUIT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE ORANGE TREES ARE LOADED WITH GOLDEN
+FRUIT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What fruit trees have you seen? What do we call the place where
+many fruit trees grow?
+</p><p>
+Did you ever pick berries? What makes it hard to pick
+blackberries?
+</p><p>
+Name fruits that grow about here. Which grow on trees? Which on
+bushes? Which on vines?
+</p><p>
+Mention the different uses of these fruits.
+</p><p>
+The orange is one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits. It
+grows only in the warmer parts of our country. In winter as well as
+in summer, the orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and
+fragrant blossom. The blossoms are white, and are very
+beautiful.
+</p><p>
+Name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the country.
+</p><p>
+People who live in cold countries need such food as will make them
+warm. What kinds of food are best in cold countries? What people
+live mainly on fish and the flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees
+grow in very cold countries?
+</p><p>
+What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat
+fatty food, for that would heat the body. Do we find in such
+countries grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to
+live upon?
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson,
+so as to make a composition about fruits.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l32"><a id="less32"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USEFUL PLANTS.</div>
+
+<p>
+What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of
+clothing made of cotton.
+</p><p>
+Did you ever see a field of cotton? In the summer the young plant
+is covered with pretty, pale-yellow flowers. In the autumn you see
+the pod or boll which contains the cotton.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/060_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill60"><img src=
+"images/060.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"YOU SEE THE POD OR BOLL" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">YOU SEE THE POD OR BOLL</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>As the pod ripens, it bursts open. The cotton-field is now a pretty
+sight--the bright green leaves, yellow blossoms, and snowy cotton
+all mingled together. Form a picture in your mind of a field of
+cotton in bloom.
+</p><p>
+The cotton is now picked. The first thing is to separate it from
+its seed. This is done by a machine called a cotton-gin.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/061_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill61"><img src=
+"images/061.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"FLAX IS A SMALL PLANT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">FLAX IS A SMALL PLANT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Now it is ready to be pressed in great bales and sent to market. It
+will, at last, go to the cotton mills and be spun into thread, then
+woven into muslin, calico, etc.
+</p><p>
+Are the seeds of any use? They contain a great deal of oil, which
+is pressed out by machinery. What is the name of this oil? What use
+is made of it?
+</p><p>
+There is another plant from which clothing is made.
+</p><p>
+Do you know what plant linen is made from? Linen comes from the
+flax plant.
+</p><p>
+Flax is a small plant which grows two or three feet high, bearing
+on the top a bunch of pretty blue flowers. A field of flax in bloom
+is a very pretty sight.
+</p><p>
+The flax does not grow in a pod like cotton. The stalk of the plant
+is covered with a bark, or skin, containing fibers. These fibers
+are spun into thread, which is woven into a cloth called
+linen.</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/062_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill62"><img src=
+"images/062.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"A PLANT THAT YIELDS NO FOOD." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A PLANT THAT YIELDS NO FOOD.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>The seeds are used for making an oil called <i>linseed oil</i>. For
+what is linseed oil used?
+</p><p>
+Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of
+clothing as those who live in cold countries?
+</p><p>
+What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold
+countries? Would such clothes be comfortable in hot
+countries?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/063_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill63"><img src=
+"images/063.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is
+used in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its
+name?
+</p><p>
+Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.
+</p><p>
+Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax
+plants?
+</p><p>
+Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper
+without a sugar bowl?
+</p><p>
+The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from
+sugar-cane. The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like
+Indian corn when growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is
+filled with the sweet juice that is made into the sugar.
+</p><p>
+When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill. Here they
+pass between great rollers which press out the juice. The liquid is
+then boiled until it turns to sugar.
+</p><p>
+Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree. In the
+early spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is bored in the tree
+and a tube inserted, through which the sap passes to a bucket or
+other vessel placed to receive it. The sap is boiled in large
+kettles and becomes syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into
+sugar.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write</i> what you have learned of <i>cotton</i> and
+<i>linen</i>.</p></div>
+<br />
+<div class="chaptext" id="l33"><a id="less33"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FOREST TREES.</div>
+
+<p>
+In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees?
+Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for
+them.
+</p><p>
+Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful
+to us, especially on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we
+call them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to put on their
+green dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in
+autumn?
+</p><p>
+Name some trees that grow in the woods.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/064_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill64"><img src=
+"images/064.jpg" border="0" alt="A SHADY STREET." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A SHADY STREET.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood is light. A tree
+whose wood is hard. A tree whose wood is soft.
+</p><p>
+Name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness, or the
+beautiful grain, of their wood.
+</p><p>
+What kind of wood are the desks made of? The teacher's table?
+</p><p>
+What kinds of wood are used in making chairs? tables? pianos?
+windows? floors?
+</p><p>
+If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or wagon, which wood
+should we use? Why?
+</p><p>
+From which trees do we get lumber for building?
+</p><p>
+Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough, and is used in
+building ships?
+</p><p>
+What do we call many trees together, like these?
+</p><p>
+What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees?</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="120" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/065_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill65"><img src=
+"images/065.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="70%" align="center" valign="middle">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>We plant tie spire that out-towers the crag,<br />
+We plant the staff for our country's flag,<br />
+We plant the shade, from the hot sun free--<br />
+We plant all these when we plant the tree.
+</p><p>
+What do we plant when we plant the tree?<br />
+We plant the houses for you and me.<br />
+We plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors,<br />
+We plant the studding, the laths, the doors,<br />
+The beams and siding, all parts that be--<br />
+We plant the house when we plant the tree.
+</p><p>
+What do we plant when we plant the tree?<br />
+A thousand things that we daily see.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am
+sure you must have heard of the great trees of California. Some of
+them are one hundred feet around, and nearly four hundred feet
+high,--twice as high as a very tall steeple. In one of these trees,
+if hollowed out, a large family might live.
+</p><p>
+In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which
+you see. Learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their
+proper names.
+</p><p>
+Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables,
+trees, etc. You will enjoy this very much, and it will help you to
+see these things better.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l34"><a id="less34"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">FLOWERS</div>
+
+<p>
+<a href="images/066_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill66"><img src=
+"images/066.1.jpg" alt="FLOWERS" border="0" align="left" />
+<img src="images/066.2.jpg" alt="FLOWERS." border="0" align=
+"left" /></a> A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are many
+flowers, and by helping together they cover the earth with beauty
+and fill the air with sweetness. They seem to have been made to
+give us pleasure.
+</p><p>
+It will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers
+that grow where you live. How many flowers can you mention by name?
+Which do you know at sight? Where would you go to find them?
+</p><p>
+Would you find them all growing in the same place? Which can live
+only in wet places? Which thrive best where there is but little
+moisture?
+</p><p>
+If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers
+shall we be likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which
+are fragrant? Which most beautiful? Which would you like for your
+flower vase? Which would you like to plant and care for in a box of
+earth or a garden-bed?
+</p><p>
+Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves,
+bud, flower? Learn the uses of each part.
+</p><p>
+Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps
+you will commit them to memory.</p>
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="80%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>In the snowing and the blowing,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;In the cruel sleet,<br />
+Little flowers begin their growing<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Far beneath our feet.
+</p><p>
+Softly taps the Spring and cheerly:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;"Darlings, are you there?"<br />
+Till they answer, "We are nearly,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Nearly ready, dear.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>"Where is Winter with his snowing?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Tell us, Spring," they say.<br />
+Then she answers, "He is going,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Going on his way.
+</p><p>
+"Poor old Winter does not love you,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;But his time is past;<br />
+Soon my birds shall sing above you--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Set you free at last."</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l35"><a id="less35"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/067_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill67"><img src=
+"images/067.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND RAIN." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND
+RAIN.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tell why? Plants do not grow
+in hot places called deserts. Can yon think of any reason for
+this?
+</p><p>
+What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time of
+the year can they get these?
+</p><p>
+If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure
+of about its trees and grass and flowers?
+</p><p>
+There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How
+do you suppose the trees grow there?
+</p><p>
+You may get information about plants and things by seeing for
+yourself, by asking others, and by reading books.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the names</i>:
+</p><p>
+Of some grains that we use for food.
+</p><p>
+Of some vegetables that we use for food.
+</p><p>
+Of two plants from which clothing is made.
+</p><p>
+Of woods used in making furniture.
+</p><p>
+Of woods used in building our houses.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l36"><a id="less36"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXVI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">SUMMER RAIN.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="90%" border="0" cellspacing="0"
+cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Let not the silver lily pine,<br />
+The drooping lily pine in vain,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;To feel that dewy touch of thine,<br />
+To drink thy freshness once again,<br />
+Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+</p><p>
+In heat the landscape quivering lies,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The cattle pant beneath the tree;<br />
+Through parching air and purple skies<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;The earth looks up, in vain, for thee;<br />
+For thee--for thee it looks in vain,<br />
+Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>Come thou, and brim the meadow streams,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And soften all the hills with mist,
+</p><p>
+Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;By thee shall herb and flower be kissed;<br />
+And earth shall bless thee yet again,<br />
+Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l37"><a id="less37"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXVII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are
+domestic animals; others are wild.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/068_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill68"><img src=
+"images/068.jpg" border="0" alt="TIGER'S FEET." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">TIGER'S FEET.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+What animals are found where you live?
+</p><p>
+Which are domestic? Which wild?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/071_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill71"><img src=
+"images/071.jpg" border="0" alt="SEIZING CLAW." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SEIZING CLAW.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits?
+flesh?
+</p><p>
+You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What
+use does the cat make of its claws?
+</p><p>
+How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its
+prey?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/070_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill70"><img src=
+"images/070.jpg" border="0" alt="HEN'S FOOT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HEN'S FOOT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of
+its broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill?
+</p><p>
+How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill
+fitted for pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill?
+</p><p>
+Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what
+does each use its feet?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/069_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill69"><img src=
+"images/069.jpg" border="0" alt="DUCK'S FOOT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">DUCK'S FOOT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes?
+</p><p>
+What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used?
+Could a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen?
+</p><p>
+You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it
+leads.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l38"><a id="less38"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXVIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.</div>
+
+<p>
+Name two animals covered with fur.
+</p><p>
+Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.
+</p><p>
+What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is
+hair to animals?
+</p><p>
+What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it
+to them?
+</p><p>
+The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps
+them from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered?
+Why?
+</p><p>
+Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what
+would result?
+</p><p>
+What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see
+that each animal has that covering which suits its habits
+best.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l39"><a id="less39"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XXXIX.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">USES OF ANIMALS.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/072_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill72"><img src=
+"images/072.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What domestic animals are used for food?
+</p><p>
+What wild animals are used for food?
+</p><p>
+From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal?
+</p><p>
+What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/073_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill73"><img src=
+"images/073.jpg" alt="FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?" border=
+"0" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep?
+What articles of dress are made of wool?
+</p><p>
+Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is
+leather prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do
+there?
+</p><p>
+From what animals do we get furs?
+</p><p>
+<br />
+What is silk?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/074_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill74"><img src=
+"images/074.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"THE SILKWORM AND MOTH." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">THE SILKWORM AND MOTH.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is
+fully grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a
+cocoon. If this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change
+to a moth, and the moth would eat its way out of this little house.
+But this, of course, would cut the little threads and spoil the
+silk. As soon, therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot
+water to kill the worm. In this way the silk is saved.
+</p><p>
+Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh
+used? What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with
+the skin? What other uses has the cow?
+</p><p>
+What animal shows the most affection for his master?
+</p><p>
+Mention some kinds of dogs.
+</p><p>
+You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with
+long curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is
+dangerous, the St. Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use
+their dogs, as we use horses, to draw their sledges?
+</p><p>
+Which is the most useful animal to man?
+</p><p>
+Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.
+</p><p>
+<i>Write the names:</i>
+</p><p>
+Of animals useful for food.
+</p><p>
+Of animals which work for man.
+</p><p>
+Of animals useful to us for clothing.
+</p><p>
+Of birds and fowls used for food.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l40"><a id="less40"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XL.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.</div>
+<br />
+<table summary="poem" class="centeredimage" width="100%" border="0" cellspacing=
+"0" cellpadding="20">
+<tr>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>What does it mean when the bluebird comes<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear?<br />
+When violets peep among blades of grass?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that spring is here.
+</p><p>
+What does it mean when berries are ripe?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum?<br />
+When cattle stand under the shady trees?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that summer has come.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td width="50%" align="center" valign="top">
+<table summary="poem" border="0" class="centeredimage">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><p>What does it mean when the crickets chirp,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And away to the south the robins steer?<br />
+When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that autumn is here
+</p><p>
+What does it mean when days are short?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb<br />
+When fields are white with drifted snow?--<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;These are the signs that winter has come.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l41"><a id="less41"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLI.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.</div>
+
+<p>
+The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These
+we must find and dig out.
+</p><p>
+The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many
+useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all
+come out of the earth.
+</p><p>
+But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the
+earth.
+</p><p>
+From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables.
+From oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us
+light. Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use
+in building, are also taken from the earth.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/075_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill75"><img src=
+"images/075.jpg" border="0" alt="OIL WELLS" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">OIL WELLS</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are
+called minerals.
+</p><p>
+The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are
+taken; is called a <i>mine</i>.
+</p><p>
+One of the most useful of minerals is <i>coal</i>. Did you ever
+stop to think how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our
+wheat, it weaves our cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over
+the earth. Hardly any labor can be done without coal.
+</p><p>
+You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame
+and smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard,
+clean-looking coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out
+such great heat, is anthracite coal.
+</p><p>
+Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind
+is gas obtained, hard or soft coal?
+</p><p>
+What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was
+made, and how it got deep down in the earth.
+</p><p>
+What article used with food is found in mines? Does all <i>salt</i>
+come out of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in
+mines?
+</p><p>
+There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their
+lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries,
+with tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt.
+When lighted up with torches, they glitter as if studded with
+precious stones. It is like a fairy palace.
+</p><p>
+Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin,
+and mercury are metals.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/076_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill76"><img src=
+"images/076.jpg" border="0" alt="IRON MINE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IRON MINE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we
+should do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell
+some of the uses of iron:
+</p>
+<div class="verse">Iron vessels cross the ocean.<br />
+Iron engines give them motion;<br />
+Iron pipe our gas delivers,<br />
+Iron bridges span our rivers,<br />
+Iron horses draw our loads,<br />
+Iron rails compose our roads;<br />
+Iron houses, iron walls,<br />
+Iron cannon, iron balls,<br />
+Iron lightning rods on spires,<br />
+Iron telegraphic wires,<br />
+Iron hammers, nails, and screws,<br />
+Iron everything we use.</div>
+<p>
+Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other
+tools are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel.
+Mention some of them.
+</p><p>
+Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into
+money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament
+made of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings
+usually made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes
+these articles?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/077_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill77"><img src=
+"images/077.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What
+does "lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually
+made of pure silver? Why?
+</p><p>
+Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west.
+Sometimes they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found
+in rocks, and the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken
+out.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/078_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill78"><img src=
+"images/078.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to
+get at the silver or gold among the rocks.
+</p><p>
+Gold and silver are called the <i>precious metals</i> because they
+do not rust, and on account of their scarcity.
+</p><p>
+Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall
+be light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into
+melted tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like
+tin itself.
+</p><p>
+A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is
+of this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A
+tin cup is really made of iron.
+</p><p>
+Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a
+knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.
+</p><p>
+Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small
+shot is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid
+motion, from the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel
+of water below. They are next polished and made black, and then are
+ready for sale.
+</p><p>
+You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is
+made of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a
+kind of coal.
+</p><p>
+Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust.
+Cooking vessels are often made of copper.
+</p><p>
+Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin.
+Brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together.
+</p><p>
+Mention some articles made of brass.
+</p><p>
+Write five lines about tin.
+</p><p>
+Write five or more lines about coal.
+</p><p>
+Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l42"><a id="less42"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.</div>
+
+
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/079_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill79"><img src=
+"images/079.jpg" border="0" alt="A GRANITE QUARRY" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A GRANITE QUARRY</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also
+many kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by
+exposure are useful for building. The place from which stones are
+taken for building is called a <i>quarry.</i>
+</p><p>
+The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble,
+and slate.
+</p><p>
+We will first examine a piece of <i>granite.</i>
+</p><p>
+How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when
+polished!
+</p><p>
+Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk
+curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other
+uses of granite?
+</p><p>
+Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is
+hard enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring"
+mean?
+</p><p>
+This is a piece of <i>sandstone</i>, made of little grains of sand.
+It will crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean?
+Brownstone, used in building, is a kind of sandstone.
+</p><p>
+And this is the common gray <i>limestone</i> of which lime used in
+building is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called
+a lime-kiln. Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is
+made?
+</p><p>
+Here are three pieces of <i>marble</i>. This piece is pure white.
+This is colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in
+your mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many
+colored spots--mottled it may be called.
+</p><p>
+Marble is beautiful when polished.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/080_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill80"><img src=
+"images/080.jpg" border="0" alt="A MARBLE QUARRY." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">A MARBLE QUARRY.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of
+furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is
+marble ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good
+for that purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all
+building stones? Why?
+</p><p>
+Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all
+building stones.
+</p><p>
+<i>Chalk</i> is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a
+building stone? Is chalk harder or softer than other stone?
+</p><p>
+You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not
+get along well in school without <i>slate</i>. Slate is easily
+split into thin plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.
+</p><p>
+Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part
+of a house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it
+useful for these purposes?
+</p><p>
+We must not forget <i>brick</i> in our talks about things that come
+out of the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals
+and stone are found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part
+of the ground.
+</p><p>
+Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of
+bricks? What is the man called who builds houses of bricks?
+</p><p>
+Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from
+sand; which is also a part of the ground.
+</p><p>
+In laying brick or stone, the mason uses <i>mortar</i>. Mortar is
+made chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the
+ground.
+</p><p>
+If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all
+you see, and on your return to school tell what you have
+learned.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l43"><a id="less43"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLIII.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING</div>
+<br />
+<p>Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not
+come from the earth?
+</p><p>
+Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in?
+What is a tent?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/082_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill82"><img src=
+"images/082.jpg" border="0" alt="WIGWAMS." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WIGWAMS.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in
+snow houses?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/081_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill81"><img src=
+"images/081.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW HOUSES?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW
+HOUSES?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane
+that grows in warm countries.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" class="centeredimage" width="100" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/083_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill83"><img src=
+"images/083.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone,
+brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house.
+Where and how are they obtained?
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/084_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill84"><img src=
+"images/084.jpg" border="0" alt="WHO LIVE IN HUTS?" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">WHO LIVE IN HUTS?</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear
+and houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and
+churches, which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a
+little, you can name many other things which we need to make our
+homes beautiful. To supply us with all of these things, men must do
+many different kinds of work.
+</p><p>
+Where does the food we eat come from?
+</p><p>
+We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are
+seeds of plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets,
+turnips, and radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are
+the leaves of plants.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/085_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill85"><img src=
+"images/085.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these
+we use for food.
+</p><p>
+Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are
+made from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes
+are made from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats
+are made from straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.
+</p><p>
+Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and
+clothing, do not grow of themselves.
+</p><p>
+The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of
+while growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many
+people at work raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This
+occupation we call <i>agriculture</i> or <i>farming;</i> the people
+we call farmers.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="left" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/086_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill86"><img src=
+"images/086.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"HERDS OF COWS AND OXEN FEEDING." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">HERDS OF COWS AND OXEN FEEDING.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat
+comes from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter
+and cheese.
+</p><p>
+Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are
+made of wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid
+gloves are made of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows;
+sheep, oxen, and goats.
+</p><p>
+But animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully
+raise them. In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds
+of cows and oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures.
+Those animals are called stock. The business of those who raise
+them is called <i>stock-raising.</i>
+</p><p>
+Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does
+the farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a
+meadow?
+</p><p>
+Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing?
+Does a dog graze? A cow?
+</p><p>
+Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens.
+But many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend
+for heat and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more
+useful to us than gold and silver.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/087_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill87"><img src=
+"images/087.1.jpg" alt="A MINE IS LIKE A GREAT CAVERN." border="0"
+align="right" /> <img src="images/087.2.jpg" alt=
+"A MINE IS LIKE A GREAT CAVERN." border="0" align="right" /></a> To
+get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A
+mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches
+and lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is
+damp and close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a
+place. Yet great numbers of persons are employed in
+<i>mining.</i>
+</p><p>
+How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of
+coal-mining? Try to find answers to these questions for yourself.
+If necessary, your teacher will help you.
+</p><p>
+In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other
+trees. Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days
+or weeks through them. From trees we get lumber. Lumber is needed
+for building houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many
+men are employed in cutting down trees and preparing the wood for
+use. This is called <i>lumbering</i>.
+</p><p>
+The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves
+little huts to live in. All through the winter months they work in
+the woods from sunrise to sunset, felling the best trees and
+cutting them into logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered
+ground to the frozen streams, and pile them upon the banks.
+</p><p>
+<a href="images/088_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill88"><img src=
+"images/088.1.jpg" alt="THEY WORK IN THE WOODS." border="0" align=
+"left" /> <img src="images/088.2.jpg" alt="THEY WORK IN THE WOODS."
+border="0" align="left" /></a> Here the logs must rest till the
+snow and ice have melted and the streams are full. Then they are
+floated down to the great saw-mills; and cut up into boards, laths,
+shingles, and other kinds of lumber.
+</p><p>
+What is a forest? Name some forest trees that grow near your
+home.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/089_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill89"><img src=
+"images/089.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"IT IS THE BUSINESS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">IT IS THE BUSINESS OF THOUSANDS OF
+PEOPLE.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The sea yields much that we eat. Some parts abound in codfish,
+mackerel, and herring. Sardines, the little fish that come in
+boxes, are also found in the sea. It is the business of thousands
+of people who live near the ocean to catch fish, salt them, and
+pack them, to send to those who want them for food.
+</p><p>
+Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish?
+</p><p>
+Name some fishes found in fresh water.
+</p><p>
+Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How
+may they be caught?</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l44"><a id="less44"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLIV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING.</div>
+
+<p>
+In the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about
+something else than the occupations we have learned. What do you
+suppose it is?
+</p><p>
+If you go about the city, you will see large buildings several
+stories high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking
+chimneys. These are mills or factories, full of machines in motion
+doing their work almost like human beings.
+</p><p>
+The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed
+for our use. Wheat is changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine
+muslins, and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron
+and steel, into plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons,
+carriages, and all kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must
+not forget are elegant jewelry, all sorts of ornaments for parlors,
+and beautiful toys which you admire so much.
+</p>
+<table summary="illustration" width="100" border="0" align="right" cellpadding="5"
+cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="images/090_l.gif" target="_blank" id="ill90"><img src=
+"images/090.jpg" border="0" alt=
+"BUSY MILLS AND FACTORIES." /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="caption">BUSY MILLS AND FACTORIES.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>It would take a long time to name a small part of the things made
+in the busy mills and factories; but think of the articles used in
+your home, and you may be sure they are manufactured articles. You
+see, <i>manufacturing</i> gives work to many thousands of
+persons.
+</p><p>
+What is cutlery? Name some articles of cutlery.
+</p><p>
+We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need
+things which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he
+needs? By exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods,
+or buying and selling them for money; gives rise to another
+occupation called <i>trade</i>, or <i>commerce</i>. So many people
+spend their time buying and selling grain, vegetables, clothing,
+boots and shoes, or in sending them to places where they are
+needed.
+</p><p>
+On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and
+down, carrying goods from one part of the country to another.
+</p><p>
+Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there
+are no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often
+carried in wagons and on the backs of animals.
+</p><p>
+I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for
+us. Make a list of all the occupations you can think of. Perhaps
+you can think of other occupations we have not named. Is
+dressmaking an occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you
+prefer? Why?
+</p><p>
+If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of
+work. What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the
+place they live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that
+pays them best for their labor.
+</p><p>
+Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to
+make flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among
+the mountains work in the mines. Some keep cows for their milk and
+butter, and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the
+mountain sides afford excellent pasture. People who live near the
+sea will be apt to catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade
+upon the water.
+</p><p>
+Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country.
+Here, as we have learned, most people make their living by working
+in factories, or as merchants in buying and selling goods which
+come from all parts of the world.
+</p><p>
+All people do not live in the same way. Some people have no
+churches, schools, books, or factories.
+</p><p>
+What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do
+they spend their time?</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chaptext" id="l45"><a id="less45"></a>
+<div class="lesson">LESSON XLV.</div>
+<div class="chaphead">A REVIEW LESSON.</div>
+
+<p>
+What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are
+they farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he
+sell the things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and
+tea and other things which he needs?
+</p><p>
+Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the
+people? Do they work in shops or mills or factories?
+</p><p>
+Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles
+are made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom?
+At home? What do you call the men who make these articles?
+</p><p>
+What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery
+store? A dry-goods store? A shoe store? Where did the things in
+these stores come from? Which were made in your city? Which were
+brought from other places?
+</p><p>
+What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the
+wharves? What do the boats or railroads take away? What do they
+bring in return?
+</p><p>
+<a id="test"></a> <i>Write the following:</i>
+</p>
+<form name="review" id="fillintheblanks" method="post" action=
+"#test" onsubmit="alert('That is Correct!')">Farmers raise
+<input type="text" id="question1" />(write the names of all the
+things you can think of).
+<p>
+Miners dig <input type="text" id="question2" /> out of the
+earth.
+</p><p>
+Quarrymen dig <input type="text" id="question3" /> from the
+quarries.
+</p><p>
+A shoemaker makes <input type="text" id="question4" />.
+</p><p>
+A blacksmith makes <input type="text" id="question5" />.
+</p><p>
+Merchants buy and sell <input type="text" id="question6" />.
+<input type="submit" value="( :" style="display: none" />
+</p></form>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Home Geography For Primary Grades
+
+Author: C. C. Long
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2004 [EBook #12228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME GEOGRAPHY FOR PRIMARY GRADES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Ben Courtney and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                      HOME GEOGRAPHY
+                            FOR
+                      PRIMARY GRADES
+
+                            BY
+                     C. C. LONG, Ph.D.
+
+  AUTHOR OF NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS, LESSONS IN ENGLISH, ETC.,
+
+
+
+TO THE TEACHER.
+
+Geography may be divided into the geography of the home and the
+geography of the world at large. A knowledge of the home must be
+obtained by direct observation; of the rest of the world, through the
+imagination assisted by information. Ideas acquired by direct
+observation form a basis for imagining those things which are distant
+and unknown.
+
+The first work, then, in geographical instruction, is to study that
+small part of the earth's surface lying just at our doors. All around
+are illustrations of lake and river, upland and lowland, slope and
+valley. These forms must be actually observed by the pupil, mental
+pictures obtained, in order that he may be enabled to build up in his
+mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms. The hill that he
+climbs each day may, by an appeal to his imagination, represent to him
+the lofty Andes or the Alps. From the meadow, or the bit of level land
+near the door, may be developed a notion of plain and prairie. The
+little stream that flows past the schoolhouse door, or even one formed
+by the sudden shower, may speak to him of the Mississippi, the Amazon,
+or the Rhine. Similarly, the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from
+that of pond or lake. Thus, after the pupil has acquired elementary
+ideas by actual perception, the imagination can use them in
+constructing, on a larger scale, mental pictures of similar objects
+outside the bounds of his own experience and observation.
+
+To effect this, the teacher should visit with her class places where the
+simpler geographical features in miniature may be observed. If the
+school is in the city, pupils may be taken to the parks for this
+purpose. If out-of-door study be impossible, they may be induced to
+recall objects which they have seen on their way to school or on short
+excursions in the neighborhood. In the case of children who have little
+opportunity for observing nature, a drawing, a photograph, or a model
+will be helpful in giving them a proper idea of the matter. It must not
+be forgotten, however, that actual observation by the pupil is necessary
+to seeing clearly and intelligently.
+
+Vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography of the
+world, and considerable time should be given to the study of those
+within the observation of the pupils. Information concerning plants may
+be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in boxes and having
+pupils carefully watch their germination and growth.
+
+Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and
+rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for use,
+not for show.
+
+The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at appropriate
+times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy day a lesson
+about snow. No attempt should be made at "science" teaching, so-called.
+All that should be sought is to get the pupil thoughtfully to observe,
+and thus to awaken his interest in the world about him.
+
+Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most
+pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of the
+teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart information.
+The attention of the child should be directed to what lies around him.
+He must observe, and think, and express his thoughts. Nor should his
+observations be confined to the school and school hours. He should be
+encouraged to obtain his information by his own searching, without
+guidance, and report the results.
+
+The development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by expression.
+"Expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge." Hence, the child
+should be required to reproduce what he has learned. He may do this by
+modeling, drawing, and oral and written description. These are placed in
+the order which should be followed in the training of children.
+
+The inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of
+development is to make, in some plastic material, what he has seen.
+Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar
+excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be
+followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the forms
+seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of the various
+forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be developed as they
+are molded. The memorizing of definitions should seldom be required, and
+should never be made a test of the pupil's knowledge.
+
+Reproduction by the hand should be followed by drawing, whenever this
+can be done. Drawing teaches the child how to see well. It often enables
+him to reveal what could not well be expressed in words. He also becomes
+ready and rapid in the use of the pencil when he has ideas to put on
+paper. Only reasonable accuracy should be required. Practice in making
+fine pictures should not be the end sought, but the development of
+geographical ideas.
+
+Finally, pupils should be led to give clear and connected statements of
+what has been learned. For a language lesson, a written description may
+be prepared, illustrated by a drawing.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+I.--POSITION
+
+II.--HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION
+
+III.--HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION
+
+IV.--HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION
+
+V.--QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION
+
+VI.--WHAT THE WINDS BRING (POEM)
+
+VII.--HOW TO TELL DISTANCE
+
+VIII.--PICTURES AND PLANS
+
+IX.--WRITTEN EXERCISE
+
+X.--GOD MADE THEM ALL (POEM)
+
+XI.--PLAINS
+
+XII.--HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS
+
+XIII.--RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW
+
+XIV.--HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR
+
+XV.--HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER
+
+XVI.--DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN
+
+XVII.--THE FAIRY ARTIST (POEM)
+
+XVIII.--HOW RIVERS ARE MADE
+
+XIX.--MORE ABOUT RIVERS
+
+XX.--THE BROOK (POEM)
+
+XXI.--WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS
+
+XXII.--WATERDROP'S STORY
+
+XXIII.--THE RIVER (POEM)
+
+XXIV.--A MAP
+
+XXV.--FORMS OF LAND AND WATER
+
+XXVI.--MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER
+
+XXVII.--A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS
+
+XXVIII.--SPRING (POEM)
+
+XXIX.--USEFUL VEGETABLES
+
+XXX.--USEFUL GRAINS
+
+XXXI.--FRUITS
+
+XXXII.--USEFUL PLANTS
+
+XXXIII.--FOREST TREES
+
+XXXIV.--FLOWERS
+
+XXXV.--WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW
+
+XXXVI.--SUMMER RAIN (POEM)
+
+XXXVII.--THE PARTS OF ANIMALS
+
+XXXVIII.--THE COVERING OF ANIMALS
+
+XXXIX.--USES OF ANIMALS
+
+XL.--THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS (POEM)
+
+XLI.--THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH
+
+XLII.--MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH
+
+XLIII.--HOW PEOPLE LIVE, AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING
+
+XLIV.--MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING
+
+XLV.--A REVIEW LESSON
+
+
+
+Home Geography.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON I.
+
+POSITION.
+
+Lay your hands upon your desk, side by side.
+
+Which side shall we call the right side? The left side?
+
+Put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from you.
+That part is the back of your desk.
+
+Think which is the front of your desk. Put your hands on the front of
+your desk.
+
+Who sits on your right hand? On your left? At the desk in front of you?
+At the desk behind you?
+
+Turn round. Who is on your right now? On your left? Before you? Behind
+you?
+
+Turn again. Who is now on your right? On your left? Before you? Behind
+you?
+
+NOTE.--Lead children to see that the terms _right, left, front_, and
+_back_ are of little use in telling the position of places, and that
+some fixed standard of direction is necessary.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON II.
+
+HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION.
+
+If I should ask, "Which is the way to your home?" who could tell me what
+I mean?
+
+You all know which way you must go to find your home, but if you should
+wish to go to a place where you have never been, you would ask, perhaps,
+"Which way is it?"
+
+[Illustration: "THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION."]
+
+The way to a place is called _direction_. In order to find a place, we
+must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have names for
+directions, such as _north_, _south_, _east_, and _west_. We may know
+these directions by seeing where the sun is.
+
+Did you ever see the sun rise? Point to the place where you saw the sun
+rise. The direction in which the sun seems to rise is called the _east_.
+
+Did you ever see the sun set? Point to where you saw the sun set. The
+direction in which the sun seems to set is called the _west_. The west
+is just the opposite direction from east.
+
+When do we see the sun rise? Where do we see the sun rise? What is the
+name of this direction? When do we see the sun set? Where do we see it
+set? What is the name of this direction? On which side of the schoolroom
+does the sun rise? On which side does it set? Which is the east side of
+your desk? Which the west side?
+
+When coming to school this morning, in what direction did you see the
+sun? If we walk so that the morning sun shines in our faces, in what
+direction are we going? What direction is behind us?
+
+Now that you know the east, you will be able to find other directions in
+this way: Stretch out your arms so that your right hand points toward
+the east, and your left hand toward the west. You are now facing the
+_north_. The direction behind you is the _south_.
+
+[Illustration: "YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH."]
+
+_Write the following on your slates:_
+
+The sun seems to rise toward the east, and set toward the west. The west
+is just the opposite direction from the east.
+
+When my right hand is pointing to the east, and my left hand to the
+west, my face is toward the north and my back is toward the south.
+
+
+ORAL EXERCISES.
+
+Which is the north side of the schoolroom? Which is the south side? Who
+sits to the north of you? To the south?
+
+In what direction do the pupils face? On which side of your schoolroom
+is the teacher's table? Which sides have no windows? Which sides have no
+doors?
+
+If a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side, which side of
+the room faces the fire? Suppose the wind is blowing from the north, in
+what direction will the smoke go?
+
+In what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground?
+
+What is the first street or road north of the school? The first street
+or road east? South? West?
+
+In what direction is your home from the school? The school from your
+home? The nearest church from the school? The post office from your
+home?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON III.
+
+HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION.
+
+You have learned how to tell north, south, east, and west by the sun;
+but how can we tell these directions at night?
+
+Ask some one to point out to you a group of seven bright stars in the
+north part of the sky. Some people think that this group of stars looks
+like a wagon and three horses; others say that it looks like a plow.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT BEAR.]
+
+The proper name of the group containing these seven stars is the Great
+Bear. The group was given this name because men at first thought it
+looked like a bear with a long tail.
+
+These seven stars are called the Dipper. It is a part of a larger group
+called the Great Bear. Find the two bright twinkling stars farthest from
+its handle. A line drawn through them will point to another star, not
+quite so bright, called the North Star. That star is always in the
+north; so by it, on a clear night, you can tell the other directions at
+once.
+
+_Write on your slates_:
+
+Sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at the
+North Star.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON IV.
+
+HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION.
+
+But there are times when it is cloudy, and neither the sun nor the stars
+can be seen. How can we tell direction then?
+
+Have you ever seen a compass? It is a box in which is a little needle
+swinging on the top of a pin. When this needle is at rest, one end of it
+_points to the north_.
+
+[Illustration: A COMPASS.]
+
+As the needle shows where the north is; it is easy to find the south,
+the east, or the west.
+
+With the compass as a guide, the sailor, in the darkest night, can tell
+in what direction he is going.
+
+North, south, east, and west are called the _chief points_ of the
+compass.
+
+Other directions are northeast, halfway between north and east;
+northwest, halfway between north and west; southeast, halfway between
+south and east; and southwest, halfway between south and west.
+
+[Illustration: POINTS OF THE COMPASS.]
+
+_Write on your slates:_
+
+The chief points of the compass are north, south, east, and west.
+
+Other directions are northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest.
+
+Sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the compass.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON V.
+
+QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION.
+
+Your teacher will give you time to discover answers to these questions.
+She could tell you, but it is better to find them out for yourself.
+
+If I go out of doors, how can I find the north? How can I find it on a
+starlight night? How can I find it on pleasant days? How on rainy days?
+How does a sailor find the north?
+
+If you were lost and knew your home was north, how would you find it? Do
+you know how hunters and Indians who live a great deal in the woods find
+out where the north is? When you are in the woods, notice the amount of
+moss on the north side of trees as compared to that on the south side.
+
+As winter approaches; many of our birds will want to go to a warmer
+country; in what direction will they fly? Point to where ice and snow
+have their home. What direction is that?
+
+In what direction does your shadow fall at sunrise? At sunset? At noon?
+When, during the day, is your shadow shortest?
+
+[Illustration: "IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL?"]
+
+In what direction does your shadow extend from yourself when it is
+shortest?
+
+What time of day is noon? How can we tell when it is noon? When is the
+sun highest in the sky?
+
+[Illustration: "WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE SMOKE?"]
+
+What may we discover by watching the direction of the smoke from the
+chimneys? What does a vane on a steeple tell us? What is a north wind? A
+south wind? An east wind? A west wind?
+
+What kind of weather may be expected from a north wind? From a south
+wind? From an east wind? From a west wind?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON VI.
+
+WHAT THE WINDS BRING.
+
+  Comes the north wind, snowflakes bringing:
+    Robes the fields in purest white,
+  Paints grand houses, trees, and mountains
+    On our window-panes at night.
+
+  Hills and vales the east wind visits,
+    Brings them chilly, driving rain;
+  Shivering cattle homeward hurry,
+    Onward through the darkening lane.
+
+  Heat the south wind kindly gives us;
+    Reddens apples, gilds the pear,
+  Gives the grape a richer purple,
+    Scatters plenty everywhere.
+
+  Flowers sweet the west wind offers,
+    Peeping forth from vines and trees;
+  Brings the butterflies so brilliant,
+    And the busy, humming bees.
+
+  Each wind brings his own best treasure
+    To our land from year to year;
+  Blessings many without measure
+    E'er attend the winds' career.
+
+Lillian Cox.
+
+
+  "Whichever way the wind doth blow.
+   Some heart is glad to have it so;
+   And blow it east or blow it west,
+   The wind that blows, that wind is best."
+
+_Write_ all that you can tell about the wind.
+
+What was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm? Why is
+the north wind cold? Why is the south wind warm?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON VII.
+
+HOW TO TELL DISTANCE.
+
+To tell where a place is, we must know its direction. But this is not
+all; we must also know how far it is from us; that is; its _distance_.
+To find this out we measure.
+
+You have often heard of an _inch_, a _foot_, and a _yard_. This line is
+one inch long |--------|. Your ruler is twelve inches long, that is a
+foot. Three lengths of your ruler make a yard. A yard stick is three
+feet long.
+
+[Illustration: MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES.]
+
+With these measures you can tell how long your slate or your desk is, or
+how long and wide the schoolroom is.
+
+The inch, foot, and yard are used for measuring short distances. But
+when we wish to tell the distance between objects far apart, we use
+another measure called a _mile_. A mile is much longer than a yard.
+
+Think of some object that is a mile from our schoolhouse. How long would
+it take you to walk that distance?
+
+[Illustration: MEASURING LONG DISTANCES.]
+
+
+ORAL EXERCISES.
+
+How many inches long is your slate? How long is your desk? How many feet
+long is your room? How wide is it? What is the distance around the room?
+How many feet wide is each window? Each door? How many yards wide is the
+nearest street or road?
+
+About what is the height of the schoolroom? Of the schoolhouse? Of the
+tallest tree near by? Of the nearest church spire?
+
+About how long is the longest street in the town where you live? Do you
+know how many blocks or squares make a mile? Name the nearest river or
+creek. Give its direction from the school. In what direction does the
+water run? Give the direction and distance of the nearest church. What
+must you know to go to any place?
+
+NOTE.--Have pupils estimate distances by the eye, then verify by actual
+measurement. Continue the exercises until the work becomes quite
+accurate. Correct ideas of distance are necessary in order to understand
+how large the world is, and how far apart places are on its surface.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON VIII.
+
+PICTURES AND PLANS.
+
+You all know what a picture is. But do you know what a plan is?
+
+A little boy wanted to show his cousin, who lived some miles away; the
+shape and size of his house, and how the rooms were arranged. How could
+he do this?
+
+On a large sheet of white paper, he placed lines of blocks in the form
+of his house. Then, with a lead pencil, he drew a line on the paper
+along the sides of the blocks. He next took up the blocks, and there, on
+the paper, was a plan of his house.
+
+[Illustration: "THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS."]
+
+Here is a picture of a schoolroom. We see desks, the teacher's table, a
+chair, a clock, globe, and two maps, in the picture. The picture shows
+these objects as they would appear if we stood at the door behind the
+teacher's table and looked in.
+
+This is a plan of the schoolroom, a picture of which is shown above.
+You see, the plan and picture are quite different.
+
+[Illustration: "THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE."]
+
+The picture shows the objects as we see them before us. The plan shows
+where the objects are, and their direction from one another.
+
+Now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the
+blackboard.
+
+The first thing is to measure the sides of the room. We will suppose the
+two long sides are each forty feet long, and the two short sides each
+thirty feet long. Now we will draw four straight lines on the board for
+the four sides. Of course, the lines must be much shorter than the sides
+themselves, else our plan will be too large.
+
+Make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room. So the lines
+for the long sides will each be forty inches long, and the lines for the
+short sides thirty inches long.
+
+The next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the
+windows, and oblongs for the desks. But we must remember that an inch in
+our plan stands for a foot in the object itself, and therefore we must
+allow as many inches for the width of doors and windows, and for the
+length and width of the desks, as there are feet in the objects
+themselves. Thus, if the door is three feet wide, we must make it three
+inches wide in our plan.
+
+And lastly, we will draw a circle for the globe, and an oblong and
+square for the teacher's table and chair, that shall show just where and
+just how long these objects are.
+
+We have now a _plan_ of the schoolroom. Let us put N. to show the north
+side of the room, S. to show the south side, E. to show the east side,
+and W. to show the west side. We can now tell the direction of one thing
+from another in our plan.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON IX.
+
+WRITTEN EXERCISE.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.]
+
+_Write_ the answers to the following questions, in full sentences:
+
+What is the name of your school? On what street or road is it? Which
+side of the street? Between what streets? In which direction does the
+building face?
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.]
+
+How many rooms has the building? In what part of the building is your
+room? How large is it? How many doors and windows? How many seats?
+
+In what direction is the school from your home? How far is it? How long
+does it take you to walk to school?
+
+EXERCISES IN DRAWING PLANS.
+
+Draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates. It cannot be drawn on your
+slates as large as it was drawn on the board. So let one inch stand for
+ten feet, instead of for one foot; that is, use a _scale_ of one inch
+for every ten feet. Your plan will not be as large as mine, but it will
+show the position of everything as correctly.
+
+Draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table, showing two books and an
+inkstand upon it. First, measure the sides. Then decide to what scale
+you will draw your plan.
+
+Now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds. You must measure not
+only the house, but the width and length of the yard. The plan must show
+the size, shape, and place of everything upon the grounds. (While
+drawing a plan of this kind, it is better to let the pupils face the
+north. The top of the plan should be the north side of the grounds.)
+
+Draw a plan of your own room at home, showing the table, bed, chairs,
+and other objects in it.
+
+
+ORAL EXERCISE.
+
+If the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard, what have we drawn?
+Is a plan the same as a picture? What is the use of a plan? Mention some
+things of which plans can be drawn.
+
+NOTE.--It is wrong to teach that the _top_ of a map or plan is _always_
+north; as often as not, the bottom is north, in plans especially.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON X.
+
+GOD MADE THEM ALL.
+
+[Illustration: "THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING BY."]
+
+  All things bright and beautiful,
+    All creatures great and small,
+  All things wise and wonderful,
+    The good God made them all.
+
+  Each little flower that opens,
+    Each little bird that sings,
+  He made their glowing colors,
+    He made their tiny wings.
+
+  The purple-headed mountain,
+    The river running by,
+  The morning and the sunset,
+    The twinkling stars on high;
+
+  The tall trees in the greenwood,
+    The pleasant summer sun,
+  The ripe fruits in the garden--
+    He made them every one.
+
+  He gave us eyes to see them,
+    And lips that we might tell
+  How great is God Almighty,
+    Who hath made all things well.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XI.
+
+PLAINS.
+
+The floor of our schoolroom is level. The playground is almost, if not
+quite, level. As you look away from the school, is the land nearly
+level? Did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level land?
+
+Let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land, many,
+many times larger than our playground. Such a broad, nearly level
+stretch of land is called a _plain_.
+
+[Illustration: "SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A PLAIN."]
+
+If this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful flowers,
+we should call it a _prairie_. In the summer it is a vast sea of waving
+grass. On the prairie we might find herds of wild horses and cattle,
+which feed upon the rich grass. If it were late in the summer, when the
+grass is dry and crisp, it might catch fire, and we might then see a
+grand sight--a prairie on fire.
+
+We now come to another plain, miles and miles long, miles and miles
+wide. No rain falls here, and therefore we see no grass, nor flowers,
+nor cattle, nor horses, nothing but dry, burning sand, rocks, or gravel.
+We are in a _desert_. But we are so thirsty and tired!
+
+No water to drink, no shade from the burning sun! Suddenly, in the midst
+of the desert, we come to a beautiful grassy spot. There is a cluster of
+date-palm trees, and, better still, a well or a spring of fresh water.
+This pleasant spot in the desert is called an _oasis_. Here we may
+quench our thirst, and rest beneath the shade of the trees.
+
+[Illustration: "THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN OASIS."]
+
+An _oasis_ is a fertile spot in a desert. What does _fertile_ mean? When
+do we say land is fertile? When barren? When desert?
+
+Find a picture of a palm tree, and try to draw it.
+
+If we were really in a desert, we might see a company of merchants
+carrying goods to sell in the countries they visit. Such a company is
+called a _caravan_. The goods are packed in bundles, which are carried
+on camels' backs. The camel can live for a long time without drinking,
+and can carry a heavy load of merchandise a long distance. It is
+sometimes called the ship of the desert.
+
+Why do travelers use camels to cross the desert? Why do they not use
+horses? If you can not find answers to these questions in your books at
+home, ask your teacher about them.
+
+You have seen a small whirlwind in the street. The leaves flew round and
+round, the dust whirled along in clouds. Trees are sometimes torn from
+the ground, and houses overturned, by a strong wind.
+
+Now think of a wind-storm in the desert. A loud, rustling noise is
+heard. Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds which
+darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their camels, cover
+themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the ground.
+
+The poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with their
+backs to the wind until the storm has passed over.
+
+Thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the sand.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XII.
+
+HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS.
+
+The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is high and
+uneven. We all know what a _hill_ is. It is land a little higher than
+the surrounding country.
+
+Is there a hill near where you live? Let us walk to the _top_, and stand
+on its _summit_. We will start from the _foot_ or _base_ of the hill.
+Now we have climbed its steep, rough _sides_ or _slopes_. Was the ascent
+difficult? Is the view from the top fine?
+
+[Illustration: "WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE HILL?"]
+
+What can you see from the top of the hill--meadow, river, lake, town?
+What grow on the hill? What live on the hill?
+
+Which part of a hill is called the base, or foot? The slope, or sides?
+The top, or summit?
+
+Give two names for the lowest part of a hill. Two for the highest part.
+Two for the part between the highest and lowest parts.
+
+Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are
+called _mountains_. Mountains are much higher than hills. Have you ever
+seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A mountain is as high as twenty
+such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high the mountains must
+be!
+
+Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem to
+touch the sky. A man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath his
+feet, while the sun shone where he stood. When it lightened he saw the
+flash far below him.
+
+Is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains? With what are many high
+mountains covered, even in summer?
+
+The land between mountains or hills is called a _valley_. Is there a
+valley near here? What do you call the ground on either side?
+
+Would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valley? Why?
+
+Are mountains of any use?
+
+Yes, hills and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth more
+beautiful. Tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn the clouds
+into drops of water which fall as rain or snow. Then mountains give rise
+to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with grass and flowers.
+Mountains do much good to some countries by keeping off cold winds. They
+also give us coal and iron and other minerals which we find so useful.
+
+[Illustration: "THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN MOUNTAINS."]
+
+Here is a picture. What do you call the very high land on the right and
+on the left? The long, narrow piece of land between the two mountains?
+
+When you look at this picture you must think of a real valley between
+mountains.
+
+Bring pictures of hills and mountains to school; if you can find them.
+
+If you had a molding-board and a few quarts of sand; you might represent
+hills and mountains with valleys between. Think of a real hill while you
+mold.
+
+Draw on your slate a hill you have seen with a little of the surrounding
+country.
+
+_Write:_
+
+A long, narrow piece of land between hills and mountains is called a
+valley.
+
+A hill is land a little higher than the country about it.
+
+A mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the country
+about it.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XIII.
+
+RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW.
+
+  Do you see the dropping rain,
+  Pitter-patter on the pane?
+  How it runs along the street!
+  And it wets our little feet;
+  But it makes the green grass grow,
+  And the tiny streamlets flow.
+
+  Listen to the wintry blast
+  Moaning, shrieking, howling past,
+  Striking with tremendous force
+  Rocks and forests in its course;
+  But it blows the windmills strong,
+  And it sends big ships along.
+
+  Watch the pretty snowflakes fall,
+  Some are large and some are small;
+  Look, they cover all the ground,
+  Miles of dazzling white around;
+  But this covering, I am told,
+  Keeps the earth from frost and cold.
+
+  Ah! and I must work alway,
+  Life's not meant to spend in play;
+  Every moment's fleeting fast,
+  And our day will soon be past;
+  If our work is truly done,
+  It will last though ages run.
+
+Of what use is rain? Of what use is snow? Of what use is wind?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XIV.
+
+HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR.
+
+What happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove?
+
+The water gets hot and boils away.
+
+Where does it go? Is it destroyed?
+
+The water is changed, but it is not destroyed. Coal burns, but we do not
+get rid of it altogether. It is changed into gas and smoke and ashes.
+
+What is the water changed into?
+
+It is changed to vapor. If we let the kettle remain on the fire long
+enough, the water it contains will all pass away as vapor.
+
+Where does the vapor go? The water, though turned into vapor, must be
+somewhere.
+
+It is floating about in the air of the room, though we cannot see it.
+The air holds the vapor, just as a sponge holds water.
+
+Heat expands or swells air. Warm air, therefore, can contain more vapor
+than cold air. On a warm day there may be many times as much moisture in
+the air as on a cold day.
+
+Moisten your slate with a damp sponge. Observe the disappearance of the
+moisture.
+
+Dip your hand in water, and wave it in the air. The water on your hand
+disappears. Where has it gone?
+
+When wet clothes are hung on the line, they soon become dry. What
+becomes of the water in the clothes?
+
+If we set a plate of water out in the sunshine, what happens? Is the
+water lost?
+
+The streets and roads were wet and muddy, now they are dry. What has
+become of the water? Has it all sunk into the ground?
+
+Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early in the
+morning, When the sun shines out and warms the air; what happens?
+
+Why does vapor rise into the air?
+
+Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is
+lighter than air; what do you think ought to happen to it?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XV.
+
+HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER,
+
+Heat, as you have learned, changes water into vapor. You must also know
+that cold turns vapor back into water again.
+
+[Illustration: "THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING WATER."]
+
+Now let us think of the kettle with the boiling water. You will notice a
+little space; quite close to the spout, where nothing can be seen. Is
+there no vapor there?
+
+Yes, there is vapor there, but it cannot be seen; it is invisible. A
+little way from the spout we see something white, like smoke. This is
+only the vapor that has been chilled by the cool air and changed back
+again into water. The water is in the form of very fine particles, and
+may be called water-dust.
+
+Hold a cold plate over boiling water. Observe how the water-dust gathers
+into drops that roll down the plate.
+
+You have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with
+moisture. Where does it come from? Why did it form there? Why does it
+sometimes run down on the cold pane?
+
+The vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings. Explain
+this.
+
+Carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room, and notice what takes place. A
+thin mist at once gathers on the outside of the pitcher. What takes
+place among the little drops of mist? What becomes of these larger
+drops?
+
+Where does the water which collects on the outside of the pitcher come
+from? Does it come through the pitcher from the inside? Would the same
+thing have taken place if some other cold object had been used instead
+of a cold pitcher?
+
+_Write_ out what you have learned about vapor.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XVI.
+
+DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN.
+
+The sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the sea,
+and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot see the
+vapor; but it is in the air around us.
+
+If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing happens.
+Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often seen, in the
+early morning, little drops of water hanging like pearls upon the blades
+of grass.
+
+Now, where do these drops come from? They come from the air. The vapor
+in the air floats against the cold grass and leaves, and is cooled and
+changed into tiny drops of water. We call this _dew_.
+
+Of what use is dew?
+
+If the night is quite cold, the dew will freeze. It is then called
+frost. You have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful pictures
+upon it.
+
+Make a picture of the window as you remember it, covered with the pretty
+things made by the frost.
+
+[Illustration: "WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR."]
+
+When vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very small drops
+of water or minute crystals of ice, and we can see it floating about in
+the air. It is then called a _cloud_. Almost any clear day you may see
+clouds form and then seem to melt away.
+
+You have seen on a blue sky, light, fleecy feather-clouds. They are very
+high up, and it is very cold where they are. You have also noticed the
+clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors. As the sun sank lower and
+lower, how did they change, in shape and color?
+
+When clouds are low down, near the earth, we call them _fogs_ or _mist_.
+
+If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into large
+drops and fall as _rain_. If the drops should freeze in falling, we
+would call them _hail_.
+
+What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain?
+
+[Illustration: "HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A MICROSCOPE?"]
+
+Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes before
+it forms into drops, and falls in the beautiful flakes we call _snow_.
+Have you ever seen snowflakes through a microscope?
+
+Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in winter if
+it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow?
+
+Observe the clouds; fog, rain, snow, dew, frost, and tell what you have
+noticed.
+
+_Write_ what you have _seen_ or _noticed_ about vapor, clouds, rain,
+etc.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XVII.
+
+THE FAIRY ARTIST.
+
+  Oh, there is a little artist
+    Who paints in the cold night hours
+  Pictures for little children
+    Of wondrous trees and flowers!
+
+  Pictures of snow-white mountains
+    Touching the snow-white sky;
+  Pictures of distant oceans
+    Where pretty ships sail by.
+
+  Pictures of rushing rivers
+    By fairy bridges spanned;
+  Bits of beautiful landscape
+    Copied from elfin land.
+
+  The moon is the lamp he paints by;
+    His canvas the window pane;
+  His brush is a frozen snowflake;
+    Jack Frost the artist's name.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XVIII.
+
+HOW RIVERS ARE MADE.
+
+Have you ever seen a brook or creek? A river? Is there a brook or river
+near here? Who can tell where it begins? where the water conies from
+that fills it? where it goes? Let us try to understand this.
+
+As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the air in winds
+up the sides of mountains, it turns into water again, and comes falling
+down as rain.
+
+Now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go. Some of the
+water runs off on the surface, down the mountain slope. Some sinks into
+the ground, and runs along in little streams below the surface. It will
+appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as a _spring_. The
+spring is the beginning of a river.
+
+Did you ever see a spring? Where was it? Was it shaded by trees? Where
+did the water come from? Did you drink from it? Was the water pure and
+cold? Where did the water go after leaving the spring?
+
+[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?"]
+
+From the spring flows a tiny, thread-like stream, so small that we can
+easily step across it. This little stream is called a _rill_.
+
+Other rills meet this, and form a larger stream, which is called a
+_brook_ or _creek_.
+
+[Illustration: RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH.]
+
+As the brook flows on, it is joined by other streams, until, little by
+little, it becomes a wide and deep _river_ on which large boats may
+float. At last, it finds its way into the ocean.
+
+Where a river begins is its _source_. The place where it flows into
+another body of water is called its _mouth_. The land over which it
+flows is its _bed_.
+
+A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is on
+our right hand, and the left bank is on our left.
+
+Do you live near a river? Where does the water come from? In what
+direction does it flow? Why does it flow in such direction? Does it wind
+about much? Does it flow into the ocean, or into another river?
+
+Is the water fresh or salt? What grow on its banks? Near which bank do
+you live?
+
+Make a picture of a spring, and a brook flowing from it. Draw the tall
+grass and plants that grow near it.
+
+Write the names of all the rivers you have seen.
+
+_Write the following:_
+
+Water flowing out of the ground is called a spring.
+
+From springs flow small streams called rills, brooks, or creeks.
+
+A large stream of water flowing through the land is called a river.
+
+A small stream of water flowing into a larger one is called a tributary.
+
+The source of a river is where it begins. The place where it empties
+into another body of water is its mouth.
+
+Every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand bank.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XIX.
+
+MORE ABOUT RIVERS.
+
+Let us have another chat about the river. We may fancy that we are
+following it in its course to the sea. We shall then learn for ourselves
+many things we do not know about rivers.
+
+We will begin our journey at its source. Here it is a little rill,
+formed by water that trickles from a spring, or by the melting of snow.
+
+As it flows on, it is joined by many other little streams, until it
+grows to be much larger.
+
+There is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream. Do
+you know what it is? The word, is _tributary_. Tributaries are often
+called _branches_.
+
+Before we leave this part of the river, I wish you to learn another hard
+word.
+
+You have seen the water run off the roof of a _shed_. The ridge; or
+highest part of the roof, divides the rain that falls on it, so that
+part of the rain flows down the one side, and part of it flows down the
+other side.
+
+[Illustration: "HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES."]
+
+Now, hills, like the roof of a house, send off streams on both sides.
+When it rains, or the snow melts, some of the water goes down on one
+side, some on the other. And that is why the hills which divide or part
+the waters of streams are called a _water-parting_ or _water-shed_.
+
+Let us now go further down the stream.
+
+Here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope. Its waters foam and
+dash between the great rocks that lie in the stream. Such places in the
+river are called _rapids_. Can you tell why they are so called?
+
+[Illustration: "SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS."]
+
+The stream flows on. It has now reached a high ledge of rock. Over this
+it leaps, making a great foam and noise.
+
+When the water of a river falls over high rocks, it is called a
+waterfall or _cataract_.
+
+You may have seen the Falls of Niagara, the greatest waterfall in the
+world.
+
+[Illustration: "YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA."]
+
+The course of our river is now through a lower country. The valley in
+which it flows spreads out, and the stream grows wider and wider. The
+water moves slower and slower.
+
+Why is the river swift in some places, and in others slow?
+
+At length it flows through an almost level country. It is here widest
+and deepest. Its course is more winding.
+
+Do you know why it is crooked and winding?
+
+Because on the steep hillside the water runs very rapidly, and is not
+easily turned aside. Where the ground is nearly level, it runs slowly,
+and is easily turned from its course.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XX.
+
+THE BROOK.
+
+      From a fountain
+      In a mountain,
+    Drops of water ran
+  Trickling through the grasses;
+    So our brook began.
+
+      Slow it started;
+      Soon it darted,
+    Cool and clear and free,
+  Rippling over pebbles,
+    Hurrying to the sea.
+
+      Children straying
+      Came a-playing
+    On its pretty banks;
+  Glad, our little brooklet
+    Sparkled up its thanks.
+
+      Blossoms floating,
+      Mimic boating,
+    Fishes darting past,
+  Swift, and strong, and happy,
+    Widening very fast.
+
+      Bubbling, singing,
+      Rushing, ringing,
+    Flecked with shade and sun.
+  Soon our pretty brooklet
+    To the sea has run.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXI.
+
+WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS.
+
+Would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work they
+do?
+
+Notice what happens when it rains. Little tiny streams are formed, which
+chase each other down the slopes. See how they cut away the loose soil
+and carry it off. Notice how muddy this loose soil makes the water. What
+becomes of this loose soil, or mud?
+
+Fill a jar with water. Put in a handful of mud from the nearest stream.
+Shake the jar, and the water is muddy. Let it stand awhile. What do you
+notice? The water is clear, and the soil has settled to the bottom.
+
+Follow the streams to the valley where they unite to form a river. When
+does the load of mud it carries settle? Here, where the water scarcely
+moves, we find some of the soil spread out over the ground near the
+river banks.
+
+You have seen a river overflow its banks. When the water went down, it
+left a layer of rich mud, which made the soil very fertile.
+
+[Illustration: "THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE LOAM."]
+
+Have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered with
+rich grass and clover?
+
+Well, these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has been
+washed down the streams from the far-off hills and mountains.
+
+Look at the jar again. Which settled first, the coarse material or fine
+loam? What kind of a deposit will be made in the upper course of a
+river? What kind toward the mouth?
+
+High up in the valley, when the river is low, we see _pebbles_ in its
+bed; lower down, the pebbles are worn into _gravel;_ and as we get still
+farther down, we find the gravel ground into _sand_.
+
+Examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river. Some are
+quite smooth and round. They were not always so, but had sharp edges. Do
+you know what made them round?
+
+When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones down
+the mountain side and into the valley. As they are carried down the
+stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are smoothed and
+rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles themselves are ground at
+last into gravel and fine sand.
+
+This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows in
+the sides of the mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into fine
+soil, and carrying it into the valleys below.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXII.
+
+WATERDROP'S STORY.
+
+Patter, patter, fall the raindrops on the brown leaves in the woods. Mr.
+Squirrel's bright eyes sparkle as he peeps out of his queer little home,
+a hole in the tree; his store of nuts has been carefully hidden away.
+
+Splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him. Such a friendly little
+drop it is, for soon it tells this little woodland dweller of all its
+travels.
+
+Let us listen, for we may hear too:
+
+"My home," began the Waterdrop, "is in the wide blue sea, where I live
+with many, many other drops.
+
+"One day as we rode up and down on the big waves, the sun shone down on
+us, and we grew warmer. Each little drop felt, 'Oh, if I could only get
+away from the other drops, how much cooler I should be!' Then each tiny
+drop separated from the others, and grew so small you could not see it.
+
+"We, of course, grew lighter, lighter than the air. Up, up we rose into
+the bright blue sky. When we got pretty high, where the air was cool, we
+came closer together again and formed a great fleecy white _cloud_, that
+cast its shadow over everything. Then a friendly wind carried us along,
+and soon we left the sea behind. Far below; we could see green fields
+and waving woods."
+
+"You must have been very happy" said the little squirrel.
+
+"Yes; it was a merry life we led, as we floated hither and thither,
+playing with the sun-beams," replied the Waterdrop.
+
+"But we came at last to a purple mountain, and a chill wind began to
+blow. How we shivered with the cold! Then we huddled close together to
+get warm. We were now heavy again--so heavy that we could not stay up in
+the air.
+
+"Then,
+
+  'I'm going down to cheer a flower,'
+    Cried a little drop of rain;
+  'I hear it sigh. It droops its head
+    As if in weary pain.'
+
+  'And I will go!' 'And I!' 'And I!'
+    Cried all the raindrops near.
+  So down we went in merry haste
+    The whole wide field to cheer.
+
+"The drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little
+drops for the cool drink. Even the great tall trees nodded their heads
+in welcome."
+
+"The grass on the hillside and in the valley must have been grateful,
+too, for your coming," said the squirrel. "It always looks so fresh and
+green after a shower. But, tell me, what became of _you_?"
+
+"I fell where the ground was brown and bare, stopped for a moment, then
+went down, down into the ground, where all was dark. I met other drops
+trying to get out, and we went on together, turning first this way, then
+that way, till we burst into the sunshine again."
+
+"We rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water; then I ran with
+the rest down the mountain side, slipping over smooth pebbles, and
+tumbling over sharp rocks, until I found myself in a deep, swift stream,
+where plants and trees grew on either bank."
+
+[Illustration: "SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS."]
+"As I was hurried along, I heard a great roaring noise made by the river
+falling over a high ledge of rocks, as a cataract or waterfall. Suddenly
+we fell over the rocks so steep and high that we went leaping and
+dashing in all directions. We rose in the air in a fine gray mist, then
+sank back again into the foam-covered stream.
+
+[Illustration: "THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL."]
+
+"Soon we were in a broad, quiet river, flowing past the grassy hills and
+green pastures. Then we came to a big mill-wheel, upon which we jumped,
+and by our weight made it turn over and over, and thus move the
+machinery in the mill. Here we were tossed in the air, whirled around,
+and at last flung back into the river, where we sailed slowly and
+quietly as before.
+
+"By and by, we saw large boats floating on the water. We passed towns
+and cities with busy streets and many people; and as our river widened,
+and we heard the big sea waves dashing against the shore, we knew our
+brothers and sisters were singing a welcome home.
+
+[Illustration: "WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES."]
+
+"And now farewell, little squirrel. My story is done, and I must hasten
+to my home in the sea. Perhaps we shall meet again some day. I may float
+down to you, a white-winged snowflake, or patter down as I came this
+time, a tiny raindrop."
+
+_Write the following:_
+
+The water rises from the sea in vapor.
+
+The vapor is turned into clouds, which fall in rain or snow.
+
+The rain forms rivers, which flow back again into the sea.
+
+Thus the water is always going round and round in its long and curious
+journey--up to the clouds in vapor, down in rain, back in streams to the
+place it started from.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXIII.
+
+THE RIVER.
+
+  "Oh, tell me, pretty river,
+    Whence do thy waters flow?
+  And whither art thou roaming,
+    So smoothly and so slow?"
+
+  "My birthplace was the mountain,
+    My nurse the April showers;
+  My cradle was a fountain,
+    O'er-curtained by wild flowers.
+
+  "One morn I ran away,
+    A madcap, noisy rill;
+  And many a prank that day
+    I played adown the hill!
+
+  "And then 'mid meadowy banks,
+    I flirted with the flowers,
+  That stooped with glowing lips
+    To woo me to their bowers.
+
+  "But these bright scenes are o'er,
+    And darkly flows my wave;
+  I hear the ocean's roar--
+    And there must be my grave!"
+
+Where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem? Are
+rivers born? What is meant by "My nurse the April showers"? "I flirted
+with the flowers"? Explain the last stanza.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXIV.
+
+A MAP
+
+A drawing made to show a room, or a house; or the school-yard, or even a
+village, is called a plan.
+
+Drawings which represent land and water are called maps. You may learn
+from maps where the countries, and mountains, and rivers, and cities are
+that you have seen. It also shows how far places are from one another.
+
+Here is a map showing mountains and rivers. The many short lines facing
+each other represent mountains. To show the very high part of the
+mountains, the lines are drawn close to each other, making that part of
+the map look dark. The line winding about, like the stream itself,
+represents a river. The line, as you see, is made thicker and thicker
+toward its mouth. From this you may know that the river itself becomes
+broader and broader as it flows toward the sea.
+
+But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river, or
+the lines which face each other are mountains. If you do, you will learn
+very little of geography. When you look at these lines, you must _think_
+of the real things which they stand for--the lofty mountains, with their
+covering of forests, and with long, narrow valleys between them; the
+winding, gently flowing river, bearing boats upon its waters.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXV.
+
+FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.
+
+You all know what a pond is. Is there a pond near where you live? Did
+you ever fish in it? Did you ever walk round it?
+
+When a stream, on its way to the ocean, flows into a basin or hollow in
+the land, the water spreads out and fills it. A hollow in the land
+filled with water is called a _lake_, or, if it be quite small, a
+_pond_.
+
+What is a lake made of? What is round it? Suppose some one who never saw
+a lake were to ask you what a lake is, what would you say?
+
+What do we find in lakes? Would you not like to sail on a lake?
+
+In the hollows among mountains are great numbers of beautiful lakes. In
+their clear waters may be seen the mountains, the forests, and the sky,
+as in a looking-glass. At night the moon and stars may be seen below you
+as plainly as above.
+
+Here is a picture of a pretty lake in a valley.
+
+[Illustration: A PRETTY LAKE IN A VALLEY.]
+
+You see a river flowing from the hills beyond. Into what is it flowing?
+The river that lets the water _into_ the lake is called an _inlet_.
+
+You see another river that lets the water _out_ of the lake. This river
+we call the _outlet_ of the lake.
+
+Make a lake on your molding-board, or in the sand near your home.
+Represent its inlet and outlet.
+
+Out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters play.
+We could not go to this land without crossing the water; the water is on
+all sides of it. Such a little piece of land is called an _island_.
+
+Did you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? You will remember that
+he went up a hill in search of water. When he got to the top of the
+hill, he saw that he was on an island. How did he know?
+
+Have you ever seen an island? What island was it? Could you sail round
+it? What was on every side of it? What grew on it? What is an island?
+
+If there is a brook or lake near your home, how can you make an island?
+
+Opposite is a picture of a river and a lake. Make a map of the same
+river and lake on your slate. Notice how the coast or shore of the lake
+bends in and out.
+
+_Write the following_:
+
+A lake is water surrounded by land.
+
+The land near the water of a lake is called its shore.
+
+An island is a little piece of land surrounded by water.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXVI.
+
+MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF A PENINSULA.]
+
+An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land with water all round
+it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that has water _nearly_ all
+round it. This form of land is called a _peninsula_. The word peninsula
+means _almost an island_.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF A PENINSULA.]
+
+In the picture we see a narrow strip of land which extends far out into
+the water. You will notice that the land has water all round; except at
+one place.
+
+What is the name for land that has water on all sides but one? What is a
+peninsula?
+
+How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the difference
+between a peninsula and an island?
+
+The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as the
+neck joins the head to the body-is called an _isthmus_, which means
+_neck_.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF A BAY.]
+
+Here is another picture which I wish you to look at. You see where the
+shore bends like a bow; and the water runs a little way into the land.
+
+Can you think of anything else that is bent like this? Yes-a bay-window.
+
+Now, when I tell yon that bay means the same as bow, you can almost
+guess the name for this bend in the land. It is called a bay. You will
+easily remember that little word.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF A BAY.]
+
+A wide opening or bend in the land, into which the water flows, is
+usually called a bay.
+
+Sometimes, when the opening in the bend is long and narrow, it is called
+a _gulf_.
+
+On the next page is shown a narrow strip of water joining two larger
+bodies of water. The name given to this narrow passage is strait, a word
+meaning narrow.
+
+As an isthmus connects two bodies of land, so a strait connects two
+bodies of water.
+
+[Illustration: PICTURE OF A STRAIT.]
+
+After a rain make little lakes, rivers, bays, etc. Perhaps you may find
+some already made.
+
+See whether you can find in the magazines and books at home pictures of
+gulfs, bays, peninsulas, etc.
+
+_Write the following:_ A peninsula is land almost surrounded by water.
+
+An isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of land.
+
+A gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending into
+the land.
+
+A strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies of
+water.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF A STRAIT.]
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXVII.
+
+A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS.
+
+Uncle Tom had been telling Fred and me about many strange places he had
+seen. Last of all, he told us about some high mountains he had climbed.
+We wanted to climb one very much. So father said he would go with us up
+a high hill not far from the city.
+
+Mother did not need to call us in the morning, for we woke up very
+early. The sky in the east was bright, and we knew that soon we should
+see the sun. We wanted to start at once, but mother said it would be
+better to have breakfast first.
+
+We put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut. Father gave
+each of us a stout stick to help us climb. Fred had a knapsack, in which
+mother put some bread, cold meat, crackers, and a cup to drink from. In
+one corner we put some towels.
+
+We were soon outside the city, walking along the road. We passed a
+village, and went through fields and woods. By and by we could see the
+land before us rising higher and higher. We saw no longer such beautiful
+farms and gardens as we had passed.
+
+[Illustration: "AS WE WENT UP THE SLOPE."]
+
+In a little while we reached the foot of the hill and began to ascend.
+As we went up the slope, we came to steep, rugged places that were hard
+to climb, where we needed our sticks. The trees were smaller, and there
+were many bushes. There were large rocks, too, in the sides of the hill.
+At the foot, the weather was quite warm, but it grew cooler and cooler
+the higher we went.
+
+[Illustration: "WE COULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE STRAIGHT STREETS."]
+
+"On the summit at last!" cried Fred, as we reached the top.
+
+From where we stood, we could see the city with its little straight
+streets, that look so wide when we walk on them. We could see the
+house-tops, too, and the church steeples. Then father showed us the
+village we passed; and the woods we went through. But the trees looked
+like bushes, and some men at the foot of the hill looked no larger than
+the baby.
+
+Down the mountain, a little way, we found a spring where the water was
+clear and cool. Here we sat down on a rock, and ate the lunch we had
+brought. While we rested, we watched the little rill that flowed from
+the spring--
+
+  "Blue in the shadow,
+  Silver in the sun."
+
+Down the hill, it was larger, and we saw other rills flowing into it.
+When it reached the valley, it was much larger; and farther down, father
+said, boats could sail on it.
+
+[Illustration: "IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET OF STILL WATER."]
+
+Before us, in the valley, lay a large sheet of still water.
+
+"Oh, how pretty!" exclaimed I.
+
+"Yes, that is a lake," said father. "How beautiful it looks as the
+sunlight plays on its smooth surface! It reflects in its clear water the
+sky and the trees around it."
+
+"I can see an island in the lake," said Fred. "Vessels are sailing all
+round it."
+
+"Are all islands small, like that?" he asked.
+
+"Oh, no!" said father. "Some islands are hundreds of miles round, and
+have many people living upon them."
+
+Fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water, and
+asked whether that, too, was an island.
+
+"No," replied father, "that is a peninsula. It is land almost surrounded
+by water. And the narrow neck which joins the peninsula to the mainland
+is called an isthmus.
+
+"You see the bend in the land, with the water from the lake running in?"
+asked father.
+
+"Yes," said Fred.
+
+"That is called a bay. Around every ocean, which is a much larger body
+of water, there are many such bays.
+
+"The narrow strip of water, which a boat is just entering, is called a
+strait. The strait separates the island from the mainland."
+
+Stretching far away to the east was flat, level land, which father
+called a plain. Scattered here and there were many farmhouses and quiet
+villages. Little bright, sparkling streams wound their way like silver
+threads through the green grass of the meadows. It was a lovely scene
+indeed!
+
+The sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return. As it
+set--
+
+  A wonderful glory of color,
+    A splendor of shifting light--
+  Orange and scarlet and purple
+    Flamed in the sky so bright.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXVIII.
+
+SPRING.
+
+  Drops of rain and bits of sunshine
+    Falling here and gleaming there,
+  Tiny blades of grass appearing.
+    Tell of springtime bright and fair.
+
+  Budding leaves are gently swaying,
+    Merry glad notes sweetly ring;
+  Robins, bluebirds, gayly singing,
+    Tell of happy, pleasant spring.
+
+  Violets, in blue and purple,
+    By the twinkling water clear;
+  Fair spring beauties, frail and dainty,
+    Tell the story, spring is here.
+
+  Cherry, peach, and apple blossoms
+    Scattering fragrance far and wide;
+  Buttercups and pure white snowdrops
+    Tell of gracious, sweet springtide.
+
+Lillian Cox.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXIX.
+
+USEFUL VEGETABLES.
+
+In the heart of a seed buried deep, so deep, A dear little plant lay
+fast asleep. "Wake!" said the sunshine, "and creep to the light."
+
+"Wake!" said the voice of the raindrops bright.
+
+The little plant heard, and it rose to see
+
+What the wonderful outside world might be.
+
+[Illustration: A SPROUT.]
+
+What vegetables grow in your neighborhood?
+
+[Illustration: A VINE BEGINNING TO GROW.]
+
+Of which do we use the roots as food? Of which the leaves? Of which the
+seeds? Of which the stems or stalks?
+
+Which is the most useful garden vegetable? There is no common garden
+vegetable so highly thought of as the potato. How are potatoes planted?
+
+Answer the questions in writing so as to make a little composition about
+vegetables.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXX.
+
+USEFUL GRAINS.
+
+Wheat and corn are called grain because they are small, hard seeds What
+other kinds of grain can you name?
+
+[Illustration; RIPE WHEAT.]
+
+Which of these grains is used the most? Which makes the choicest flour?
+
+Some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring. These are called spring
+wheat.
+
+Winter wheat is sown in the fall. A few days of sun and rain, and the
+plants spring up like grass, remaining green through the winter.
+
+What color does the wheat turn as it ripens? When it is ripe what is
+done with it?
+
+For what is the flour of wheat used?
+
+[Illustration: HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE WEST.]
+
+What is sometimes done with the stalks, or straw?
+
+Indian corn is one of the most useful of plants. Do you know why it is
+called Indian corn? It is because the Indians first raised it.
+
+When is corn planted? How is the land prepared for planting? What is
+done to the corn while the plants are small? When does it ripen? How
+tall does it grow?
+
+[Illustration: SEVERAL KINDS OF GRAIN.]
+
+What is the stem of the corn called? What are the flowers on the stalk
+of corn called? On what do the grains of corn grow?
+
+What use is made of the green stalks and leaves? What use is made of the
+ripe grain? For what are corn-husks largely used?
+
+Sweet corn, if boiled when green, is an excellent vegetable. It is
+preserved by canning.
+
+A large cornfield, with its tall, straight stalks, covered with green
+shining leaves and crowned by flowers, is a very pleasant sight.
+
+[Illustration: "ANOTHER GRAIN WHICH WE FIND ON ALMOST EVERY TABLE."]
+
+Corn is sometimes called the national emblem. What does emblem mean?
+
+What use is made of oats; barley, rye, and buckwheat? Some of these
+grains are useful in two or three ways.
+
+There is another grain which we find on almost every table. It is rice.
+The rice plant, when growing, resembles wheat; but, unlike wheat, it
+needs a great deal of moisture. So the rice-grower sows it in fields
+which he can flood or drain at will.
+
+Do you know what people live on rice without any meat at all? Ask your
+teacher to tell you how rice is raised in China and Japan.
+
+You ought to find something to tell your teacher and classmates about
+the grains.
+
+Perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have seen.
+
+Choose one of the grains, and write what you have Learned about it from
+conversation and observation.
+
+  We plow the fields, and scatter
+    The good seed on the land,
+  But it is fed and watered
+    By God's almighty hand.
+  He sends the snow in winter,
+    The warmth to swell the grain,
+  The breezes and the sunshine,
+    And soft refreshing rain.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXI.
+
+FRUITS.
+
+Name some trees upon which grow things to eat. What do we call such
+trees?
+
+[Illustration: "THE ORANGE TREES ARE LOADED WITH GOLDEN FRUIT."]
+
+What fruit trees have you seen? What do we call the place where many
+fruit trees grow?
+
+Did you ever pick berries? What makes it hard to pick blackberries?
+
+Name fruits that grow about here. Which grow on trees? Which on bushes?
+Which on vines?
+
+Mention the different uses of these fruits.
+
+The orange is one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits. It
+grows only in the warmer parts of our country. In winter as well as in
+summer, the orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and fragrant
+blossom. The blossoms are white, and are very beautiful.
+
+Name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the country.
+
+People who live in cold countries need such food as will make them warm.
+What kinds of food are best in cold countries? What people live mainly
+on fish and the flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees grow in very cold
+countries?
+
+What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat
+fatty food, for that would heat the body. Do we find in such countries
+grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to live upon?
+
+_Write_ answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson, so as to
+make a composition about fruits.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXII.
+
+USEFUL PLANTS.
+
+What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of
+clothing made of cotton.
+
+Did you ever see a field of cotton? In the summer the young plant is
+covered with pretty, pale-yellow flowers. In the autumn you see the pod
+or boll which contains the cotton.
+
+[Illustration: "YOU SEE THE POD OR BOLL."]
+
+As the pod ripens, it bursts open. The cotton-field is now a pretty
+sight--the bright green leaves, yellow blossoms, and snowy cotton all
+mingled together. Form a picture in your mind of a field of cotton in
+bloom.
+
+The cotton is now picked. The first thing is to separate it from its
+seed. This is done by a machine called a cotton-gin.
+
+[Illustration: "FLAX IS A SMALL PLANT."]
+
+Now it is ready to be pressed in great bales and sent to market. It
+will, at last, go to the cotton mills and be spun into thread, then
+woven into muslin, calico, etc.
+
+Are the seeds of any use? They contain a great deal of oil, which is
+pressed out by machinery. What is the name of this oil? What use is made
+of it?
+
+There is another plant from which clothing is made.
+
+Do you know what plant linen is made from? Linen comes from the flax
+plant.
+
+Flax is a small plant which grows two or three feet high, bearing on the
+top a bunch of pretty blue flowers. A field of flax in bloom is a very
+pretty sight.
+
+The flax does not grow in a pod like cotton. The stalk of the plant is
+covered with a bark, or skin, containing fibers. These fibers are spun
+into thread, which is woven into a cloth called linen.
+
+[Illustration: "A PLANT THAT YIELDS NO FOOD."]
+
+The seeds are used for making an oil called _linseed oil_. For what is
+linseed oil used?
+
+Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of
+clothing as those who live in cold countries?
+
+What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold countries?
+Would such clothes be comfortable in hot countries?
+
+There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is used
+in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its name?
+
+Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.
+
+Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax
+plants?
+
+Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper without a
+sugar bowl?
+
+[Illustration: "SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT."]
+
+The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from sugar-cane.
+The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like Indian corn when
+growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is filled with the sweet
+juice that is made into the sugar.
+
+When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill. Here they pass
+between great rollers which press out the juice. The liquid is then
+boiled until it turns to sugar.
+
+Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree. In the early
+spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is bored in the tree and a tube
+inserted, through which the sap passes to a bucket or other vessel
+placed to receive it. The sap is boiled in large kettles and becomes
+syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into sugar.
+
+_Write_ what you have learned of _cotton_ and _linen_.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXIII.
+
+FOREST TREES.
+
+In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees?
+Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for them.
+
+Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful to
+us, especially on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we call
+them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to put on their green
+dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in autumn?
+
+Name some trees that grow in the woods.
+
+[Illustration: A SHADY STREET.]
+
+Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood is light. A tree whose
+wood is hard. A tree whose wood is soft.
+
+Name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness, or the
+beautiful grain, of their wood.
+
+What kind of wood are the desks made of? The teacher's table?
+
+What kinds of wood are used in making chairs? tables? pianos? windows?
+floors?
+
+If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or wagon, which wood
+should we use? Why?
+
+From which trees do we get lumber for building?
+
+Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough, and is used in
+building ships?
+
+What do we call many trees together, like these?
+
+What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees?
+
+  What do we plant when we plant the tree?
+  We plant the houses for you and me.
+  We plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors,
+  We plant the studding, the laths, the doors,
+  The beams and siding, all parts that be--
+  We plant the house when we plant the tree.
+
+  What do we plant when we plant the tree?
+  A thousand things that we daily see.
+
+  We plant tie spire that out-towers the crag,
+  We plant the staff for our country's flag,
+  We plant the shade, from the hot sun free--
+  We plant all these when we plant the tree.
+
+There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am sure you
+must have heard of the great trees of California. Some of them are one
+hundred feet around, and nearly four hundred feet high,--twice as high
+as a very tall steeple. In one of these trees, if hollowed out, a large
+family might live.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA.]
+
+In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which you
+see. Learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their proper
+names.
+
+Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables,
+trees, etc. You will enjoy this very much, and it will help you to see
+these things better.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXIV.
+
+FLOWERS
+
+[Illustration: FLOWERS]
+
+A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are many flowers, and by
+helping together they cover the earth with beauty and fill the air with
+sweetness. They seem to have been made to give us pleasure.
+
+It will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers that
+grow where you live. How many flowers can you mention by name? Which do
+you know at sight? Where would you go to find them?
+
+Would you find them all growing in the same place? Which can live only
+in wet places? Which thrive best where there is but little moisture?
+
+If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers shall
+we be likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which are
+fragrant? Which most beautiful? Which would you like for your flower
+vase? Which would you like to plant and care for in a box of earth or a
+garden-bed?
+
+Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves, bud,
+flower? Learn the uses of each part.
+
+Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps you
+will commit them to memory.
+
+  In the snowing and the blowing,
+    In the cruel sleet,
+  Little flowers begin their growing
+    Far beneath our feet.
+
+  Softly taps the Spring and cheerly:
+    "Darlings, are you there?"
+  Till they answer, "We are nearly,
+    Nearly ready, dear.
+
+  "Where is Winter with his snowing?
+    Tell us, Spring," they say.
+  Then she answers, "He is going,
+    Going on his way.
+
+  "Poor old Winter does not love you,
+    But his time is past;
+  Soon my birds shall sing above you--
+    Set you free at last."
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXV.
+
+WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW.
+
+Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tell why? Plants do not grow in
+hot places called deserts. Can yon think of any reason for this?
+
+What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time of the
+year can they get these?
+
+If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure of
+about its trees and grass and flowers?
+
+There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How do you
+suppose the trees grow there?
+
+You may get information about plants and things by seeing for yourself,
+by asking others, and by reading books.
+
+[Illustration: "IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND RAIN."]
+
+_Write the names_:
+
+Of some grains that we use for food.
+
+Of some vegetables that we use for food.
+
+Of two plants from which clothing is made.
+
+Of woods used in making furniture.
+
+Of woods used in building our houses.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXVI.
+
+SUMMER RAIN.
+
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+    Let not the silver lily pine,
+  The drooping lily pine in vain,
+    To feel that dewy touch of thine,
+  To drink thy freshness once again,
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+
+  In heat the landscape quivering lies,
+    The cattle pant beneath the tree;
+  Through parching air and purple skies
+    The earth looks up, in vain, for thee;
+  For thee--for thee it looks in vain,
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+
+  Come thou, and brim the meadow streams,
+    And soften all the hills with mist,
+
+  Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams
+    By thee shall herb and flower be kissed;
+  And earth shall bless thee yet again,
+  Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXVII.
+
+THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.
+
+Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are domestic
+animals; others are wild.
+
+[Illustration: TIGER'S FEET.]
+
+What animals are found where you live?
+
+Which are domestic? Which wild?
+
+Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits? flesh?
+
+You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What use
+does the cat make of its claws?
+
+How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its prey?
+
+[Illustration: DUCK'S FOOT.]
+
+[Illustration: HEN'S FOOT.]
+
+Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of its
+broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill?
+
+How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill fitted for
+pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill?
+
+[Illustration: SEIZING CLAW.]
+
+Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what does
+each use its feet?
+
+Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes?
+
+What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used? Could
+a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen?
+
+You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it leads.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXVIII.
+
+THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.
+
+Name two animals covered with fur.
+
+Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.
+
+What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is hair
+to animals?
+
+What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it to
+them?
+
+The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps them
+from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered? Why?
+
+Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what would
+result?
+
+What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see that
+each animal has that covering which suits its habits best.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XXXIX.
+
+USES OF ANIMALS.
+
+What domestic animals are used for food?
+
+What wild animals are used for food?
+
+[Illustration: "WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?"]
+
+From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal?
+
+What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?
+
+From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep? What
+articles of dress are made of wool?
+
+[Illustration: "FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?"]
+
+Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is leather
+prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do there?
+
+From what animals do we get furs?
+
+What is silk?
+
+[Illustration: THE SILKWORM AND MOTH.]
+
+Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is fully
+grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a cocoon. If
+this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change to a moth, and
+the moth would eat its way out of this little house. But this, of
+course, would cut the little threads and spoil the silk. As soon,
+therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot water to kill the
+worm. In this way the silk is saved.
+
+Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh used?
+What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with the skin?
+What other uses has the cow?
+
+What animal shows the most affection for his master?
+
+Mention some kinds of dogs.
+
+You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with long
+curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is dangerous, the St.
+Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use their dogs, as we use
+horses, to draw their sledges?
+
+Which is the most useful animal to man?
+
+Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.
+
+_Write the names:_
+
+Of animals useful for food.
+
+Of animals which work for man.
+
+Of animals useful to us for clothing.
+
+Of birds and fowls used for food.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XL.
+
+THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.
+
+  What does it mean when the bluebird comes
+    And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear?
+  When violets peep among blades of grass?--
+    These are the signs that spring is here.
+
+  What does it mean when berries are ripe?
+    When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum?
+  When cattle stand under the shady trees?--
+    These are the signs that summer has come.
+
+  What does it mean when the crickets chirp,
+    And away to the south the robins steer?
+  When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?--
+    These are the signs that autumn is here
+
+  What does it mean when days are short?
+    When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb
+  When fields are white with drifted snow?--
+    These are the signs that winter has come.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLI.
+
+THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.
+
+The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These we
+must find and dig out.
+
+The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many
+useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all come
+out of the earth.
+
+But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the earth.
+
+From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables. From
+oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light.
+Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use in building,
+are also taken from the earth.
+
+Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are
+called minerals.
+
+The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are
+taken; is called a _mine_.
+
+One of the most useful of minerals is _coal_. Did you ever stop to think
+how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our wheat, it weaves our
+cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over the earth. Hardly any labor
+can be done without coal.
+
+[Illustration: OIL WELLS.]
+
+You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame and
+smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard, clean-looking
+coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out such great heat, is
+anthracite coal.
+
+Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind is gas
+obtained, hard or soft coal?
+
+What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was made,
+and how it got deep down in the earth.
+
+What article used with food is found in mines? Does all _salt_ come out
+of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in mines?
+
+There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their
+lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries, with
+tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt. When lighted
+up with torches, they glitter as if studded with precious stones. It is
+like a fairy palace.
+
+Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, and
+mercury are metals.
+
+Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we should
+do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell some of the
+uses of iron:
+
+[Illustration: IRON MINE.]
+
+  Iron vessels cross the ocean.
+  Iron engines give them motion;
+  Iron pipe our gas delivers,
+  Iron bridges span our rivers,
+  Iron horses draw our loads,
+  Iron rails compose our roads;
+  Iron houses, iron walls,
+  Iron cannon, iron balls,
+  Iron lightning rods on spires,
+  Iron telegraphic wires,
+  Iron hammers, nails, and screws,
+  Iron everything we use.
+
+Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other tools
+are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel. Mention some of
+them.
+
+Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into
+money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament made
+of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings usually
+made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes these
+articles?
+
+[Illustration: CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE.]
+
+Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What does
+"lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually made of
+pure silver? Why?
+
+Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes
+they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and
+the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out.
+
+[Illustration: "SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS."]
+
+Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get
+at the silver or gold among the rocks.
+
+Gold and silver are called the _precious metals_ because they do not
+rust, and on account of their scarcity.
+
+Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall be
+light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted
+tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like tin itself.
+
+A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is of
+this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A tin cup
+is really made of iron.
+
+Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a
+knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.
+
+Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small shot
+is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion, from
+the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel of water below.
+They are next polished and made black, and then are ready for sale.
+
+You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is made
+of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a kind of
+coal.
+
+Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust.
+Cooking vessels are often made of copper.
+
+Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is
+made by mixing copper and zinc together.
+
+Mention some articles made of brass.
+
+Write five lines about tin.
+
+Write five or more lines about coal.
+
+Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLII.
+
+MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.
+
+[Illustration: A GRANITE QUARRY.]
+
+We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also many
+kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by exposure
+are useful for building. The place from which stones are taken for
+building is called a _quarry._
+
+The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble, and
+slate.
+
+We will first examine a piece of _granite._
+
+How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when polished!
+
+Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk
+curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other uses
+of granite?
+
+Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is hard
+enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring" mean?
+
+This is a piece of _sandstone_, made of little grains of sand. It will
+crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean? Brownstone,
+used in building, is a kind of sandstone.
+
+And this is the common gray _limestone_ of which lime used in building
+is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called a lime-kiln.
+Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is made?
+
+Here are three pieces of _marble_. This piece is pure white. This is
+colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in your
+mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many colored
+spots--mottled it may be called.
+
+Marble is beautiful when polished.
+
+[Illustration: A MARBLE QUARRY.]
+
+In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of
+furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is marble
+ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good for that
+purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all building stones?
+Why?
+
+Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all building
+stones.
+
+_Chalk_ is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a building stone?
+Is chalk harder or softer than other stone?
+
+You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not get
+along well in school without _slate_. Slate is easily split into thin
+plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.
+
+Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part of a
+house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it useful for
+these purposes?
+
+We must not forget _brick_ in our talks about things that come out of
+the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals and stone are
+found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part of the ground.
+
+Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of bricks?
+What is the man called who builds houses of bricks?
+
+Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from sand;
+which is also a part of the ground.
+
+In laying brick or stone, the mason uses _mortar_. Mortar is made
+chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground.
+
+If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all you
+see, and on your return to school tell what you have learned.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLIII.
+
+HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING
+
+[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW HOUSES?"]
+
+Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come
+from the earth?
+
+Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in? What
+is a tent?
+
+[Illustration: WIGWAMS.]
+
+A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in snow
+houses?
+
+[Illustration: HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO.]
+
+In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane that
+grows in warm countries.
+
+What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone,
+brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house. Where
+and how are they obtained?
+
+[Illustration: "WHO LIVE IN HUTS?"]
+
+We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear and
+houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and churches,
+which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a little, you can name
+many other things which we need to make our homes beautiful. To supply
+us with all of these things, men must do many different kinds of work.
+
+Where does the food we eat come from?
+
+We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are seeds of
+plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets, turnips, and
+radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of
+plants.
+
+[Illustration: "OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT."]
+
+Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these we
+use for food.
+
+Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are made
+from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are made
+from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats are made from
+straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.
+
+Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and
+clothing, do not grow of themselves.
+
+The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while
+growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many people at work
+raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This occupation we call
+_agriculture_ or _farming;_ the people we call farmers.
+
+Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat comes
+from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter and
+cheese.
+
+Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are made of
+wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid gloves are made
+of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows; sheep, oxen, and
+goats.
+
+But animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully raise
+them. In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of cows and
+oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures. Those animals are
+called stock. The business of those who raise them is called
+_stock-raising._
+
+[Illustration: "HERDS OF COWS AND OXEN FEEDING."]
+
+Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does the
+farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a meadow?
+
+Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing? Does
+a dog graze? A cow?
+
+Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens. But
+many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend for heat
+and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more useful to us
+than gold and silver.
+
+[Illustration: "A MINE IS LIKE A GREAT CAVERN."]
+
+To get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A
+mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches and
+lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is damp and
+close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a place. Yet great
+numbers of persons are employed in _mining._
+
+How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of coal-mining?
+Try to find answers to these questions for yourself. If necessary, your
+teacher will help you.
+
+In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other trees.
+Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days or weeks
+through them. From trees we get lumber. Lumber is needed for building
+houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many men are employed in
+cutting down trees and preparing the wood for use. This is called
+_lumbering_.
+
+The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves little
+huts to live in. All through the winter months they work in the woods
+from sunrise to sunset, felling the best trees and cutting them into
+logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered ground to the frozen
+streams, and pile them upon the banks.
+
+[Illustration: "THEY WORK IN THE WOODS."]
+
+Here the logs must rest till the snow and ice have melted and the
+streams are full. Then they are floated down to the great saw-mills; and
+cut up into boards, laths, shingles, and other kinds of lumber.
+
+What is a forest? Name some forest trees that grow near your home.
+
+The sea yields much that we eat. Some parts abound in codfish, mackerel,
+and herring. Sardines, the little fish that come in boxes, are also
+found in the sea. It is the business of thousands of people who live
+near the ocean to catch fish, salt them, and pack them, to send to those
+who want them for food.
+
+[Illustration: "IT IS THE BUSINESS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE."]
+
+Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish?
+
+Name some fishes found in fresh water.
+
+Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How may
+they be caught?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLIV.
+
+MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING.
+
+In the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about
+something else than the occupations we have learned. What do you suppose
+it is?
+
+If you go about the city, you will see large buildings several stories
+high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking chimneys. These are
+mills or factories, full of machines in motion doing their work almost
+like human beings.
+
+The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed for
+our use. Wheat is changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine muslins,
+and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron and steel, into
+plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons, carriages, and all
+kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must not forget are elegant
+jewelry, all sorts of ornaments for parlors, and beautiful toys which
+you admire so much.
+
+[Illustration: "BUSY MILLS AND FACTORIES."]
+
+It would take a long time to name a small part of the things made in the
+busy mills and factories; but think of the articles used in your home,
+and you may be sure they are manufactured articles. You see,
+_manufacturing_ gives work to many thousands of persons.
+
+What is cutlery? Name some articles of cutlery.
+
+We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need things
+which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he needs? By
+exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods, or buying and
+selling them for money; gives rise to another occupation called _trade_,
+or _commerce_. So many people spend their time buying and selling grain,
+vegetables, clothing, boots and shoes, or in sending them to places
+where they are needed.
+
+On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down,
+carrying goods from one part of the country to another.
+
+Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are
+no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often carried
+in wagons and on the backs of animals.
+
+I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us.
+Make a list of all the occupations you can think of. Perhaps you can
+think of other occupations we have not named. Is dressmaking an
+occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you prefer? Why?
+
+If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of work.
+What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the place they
+live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best
+for their labor.
+
+Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to make
+flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among the
+mountains work in the mines. Some keep cows for their milk and butter,
+and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the mountain sides
+afford excellent pasture. People who live near the sea will be apt to
+catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade upon the water.
+
+Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country. Here,
+as we have learned, most people make their living by working in
+factories, or as merchants in buying and selling goods which come from
+all parts of the world.
+
+All people do not live in the same way. Some people have no churches,
+schools, books, or factories.
+
+What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do they
+spend their time?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON XLV.
+
+A REVIEW LESSON.
+
+What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are they
+farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he sell the
+things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and tea and other
+things which he needs?
+
+Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the people? Do
+they work in shops or mills or factories?
+
+Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles are
+made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom? At home?
+What do you call the men who make these articles?
+
+What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery store? A
+dry-goods store? A shoe store? Where did the things in these stores come
+from? Which were made in your city? Which were brought from other
+places?
+
+What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the wharves?
+What do the boats or railroads take away? What do they bring in return?
+
+
+_Write the following:_
+
+Farmers raise (write the names of all the things you can think of).
+
+Miners dig _______________ out of the earth.
+
+Quarrymen dig ___________ from the quarries.
+
+A shoemaker makes ___________.
+
+A blacksmith makes __________.
+
+Merchants buy and sell __________.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME GEOGRAPHY FOR PRIMARY GRADES ***
+
+***** This file should be named 12228.txt or 12228.zip *****
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