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diff --git a/old/12077-8.txt b/old/12077-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b47a419 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12077-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20915 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippines: Past and Present (Volume 1 +of 2), by Dean Conant Worcester + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: The Philippines: Past and Present (Volume 1 of 2) + +Author: Dean Conant Worcester + +Posting Date: January 28, 2013 [EBook #12077] +Release Date: April 19, 2004 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILIPPINES V.1/2 *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project +Gutenberg. + + + + + + + + + The Philippines Past and Present + + + + + + + + + Peace and Prosperity. + + This chance photograph showing General Emilio Aguinaldo as he is + to-day, standing with Director of Education Frank L. Crone, beside a + field of corn raised by Emilio Aguinaldo, Jr., in a school contest, + typifies the peace, prosperity, and enlightenment which have been + brought about in the Philippine Islands under American rule. + + + + + + + + + The Philippines Past and Present + + + By + + Dean C. Worcester + + Secretary of the Interior of the Philippine Islands 1901-1913; + Member of the Philippine Commission, 1900-1913 + + Author of "The Philippine Islands and Their People" + + + + In Two Volumes -- With 128 Plates + Volume I + 1914 + + + + + + +CONTENTS + +VOL. I + + +Chapter + +I. View Point and Subject-Matter +II. Was Independence Promised? +III. Insurgent "Coöperation" +IV. The Premeditated Insurgent Attack +V. Insurgent Rule and the Wilcox-Sargent Report +VI. Insurgent Rule in the Cagayan Valley +VII. Insurgent Rule in the Visayas and Elsewhere +VIII. Did We Destroy a Republic? +IX. The Conduct of the War +X. Mr. Bryan and Independence +XI. The First Philippine Commission +XII. The Establishment of Civil Government +XIII. The Philippine Civil Service +XIV. The Constabulary and Public Order +XV. The Administration of Justice +XVI. Health Conditions +XVII. Baguio and the Benguet Road +XVIII. The Coördination of Scientific Work + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +VOL. I + + +Peace and Prosperity +Fort San Antonio Abad, showing the Effect of the Fire from Dewey's +Fleet +Felipe Buencamino +The San Juan Bridge +Insurgent Prisoners +Typical Insurgent Trenches +Inside View of Insurgent Trenches at the Bagbag River +General Henry W. Lawton +Feeding Filipino Refugees +The First Philippine Commission +The Second Philippine Commission +The Return of Mr. Taft +Governor-general James F. Smith with a Bontoc Igorot Escort +Governor-general Forbes in the Wild Man's Country +The Philippine Supreme Court +An Unsanitary Well +A Flowing Artesian Well +An Unimproved Street in the Filipino Quarter of Manila +An Improved Street in the Filipino Quarter of Manila +Disinfecting by the Acre +An Old-style Provincial Jail +Retreat at Bilibid Prison, Manila +Bilibid Prison Hospital +Modern Contagious Disease Ward, San Lazaro Hospital +Filipina Trained Nurses +Staff of the Bontoc Hospital +A Victim of Yaws before and after Treatment with Salvarsan +The Culion Leper Colony +Building the Benguet Road +Freight Autos on the Benguet Road +The Famous Zig-zag on the Benguet Road +A Typical Baguio Road +One of the First Benguet Government Cottages +Typical Cottages at Baguio +A Baguio Home +The Baguio Hospital +Government Centre at Baguio +A Scene in the Baguio Teachers' Camp +The Baguio Country Club +The Bureau of Science Building, Manila +The Philippine General Hospital +The College of Medicine and Surgery, Manila +An Old-style Schoolhouse, with Teachers and Pupils +A Modern Primary School Building +Old-style Central School Building +Modern Central School Building +Typical Scene in a Trade School +An Embroidery Class +Philippine Embroidery +Filipino Trained Nurses +A School Athletic Team +Filipina Girls playing Basket-ball +University Hall, Manila +Bakídan +In Hostile Country +Travel under Difficulties +Dangerous Navigation +A Negrito Family and their "House" +A Typical Negrito +Typical Kalingas +Settling a Head-hunting Feud +Entertaining the Kalingas +An Ifugao Family +Ifugao Dancers +An Ifugao Dancer +Ifugao Rice Terraces + + + + + + + THE PHILIPPINES PAST AND PRESENT + + + + +CHAPTER I + +View Point and Subject-Matter + + +It is customary in Latin countries for a would-be author or orator to +endeavour, at the beginning of his book or his speech, to establish +his status. Possibly I have become partially Latinized as the result +of some eighteen years of residence in the Philippines. At all events +it is my purpose to state at the outset facts which will tend to +make clear my view point and at the same time briefly to outline the +subject-matter which I hereinafter discuss. + +As a boy I went through several of the successive stages of collector's +fever from which the young commonly suffer. First it was postage +stamps; then birds' nests, obtained during the winter season when no +longer of use to their builders. Later I was allowed to collect eggs, +and finally the birds themselves. At one time my great ambition was to +become a taxidermist. My family did not actively oppose this desire +but suggested that a few preliminary years in school and college +might prove useful. + +I eventually lost my ambition to be a taxidermist but did not lose my +interest in zoölogy and botany. While a student at the University of +Michigan I specialized in these subjects. I was fortunate in having +as one of my instructors Professor Joseph B. Steere, then at the +head of the Department of Zoölogy. Professor Steere, who had been a +great traveller, at times entertained his classes with wonderfully +interesting tales of adventure on the Amazon and in the Andes, Peru, +Formosa, the Philippines and the Dutch Moluccas. My ambition was +fired by his stories and when in the spring of 1886 he announced his +intention of returning to the Philippines the following year to take +up and prosecute anew zoölogical work which he had begun there in +1874, offering to take with him a limited number of his students who +were to have the benefit of his knowledge of Spanish and of his wide +experience as a traveller and collector, and were in turn to allow him +to work up their collections after their return to the United States, +I made up my mind to go. + +I was then endeavouring to get through the University on an allowance +of $375 per year and was in consequence not overburdened with surplus +funds. I however managed to get my life insured for $1500 and to +borrow $1200 on the policy, and with this rather limited sum upon +which to draw purchased an outfit for a year's collecting and sailed +with Doctor Steere for Manila. Two other young Americans accompanied +him. One of these, Doctor Frank S. Bourns, was like myself afterwards +destined to play a part in Philippine affairs which was not then +dreamed of by either of us. + +We spent approximately a year in the islands. Unfortunately we had +neglected to provide ourselves with proper official credentials and +as a result we had some embarrassing experiences. We were arrested by +suspicious Spanish officials shortly after our arrival and were tried +on trumped-up charges. On several subsequent occasions we narrowly +escaped arrest and imprisonment. + +The unfriendly attitude of certain of our Spanish acquaintances +was hardly to be wondered at. They could not believe that sensible, +civilized human beings would shoot tiny birds, pay for eggs the size +of the tip of one's little finger more than hens' eggs were worth, +undergo not a few hardships and run many risks while living in the +simplest of native houses on very inadequate food, unless actuated by +some hidden purpose. At different times they suspected us of looking +for gold deposits, of designing to stir up trouble among the natives, +or of being political spies. + +When Doctor Bourns came back with the American troops in 1908 and +I returned as a member of the first Philippine Commission in 1909, +this last supposition became a fixed belief with many of our former +Spanish acquaintances who still remained in the islands, and they +frankly expressed their regret that they had not shot us while they +had the chance. + +Over against certain unpleasant experiences with those who could +not understand us or our work I must set much kind and invaluable +assistance rendered by others who could, and did. + +All in all we spent a most interesting year, visiting eighteen of +the more important islands. [1] + +Throughout this trip we lived in very close contact with the Filipinos, +either occupying the _tribunales_, the municipal buildings of their +towns, where they felt at liberty to call and observe us at all hours +of the day and night, or actually living in their houses, which in +some instances were not vacated by the owners during our occupancy. + +Incidentally we saw something of several of the wild tribes, including +the Tagbanuas of Palawan, the Moros of Joló, Basilan and Mindanao, +and the Mangyans of Mindoro. + +We experienced many very real hardships, ran not a few serious risks +and ended our sojourn with six weeks of fever and starvation in the +interior of Mindoro. While we would not have cut short our appointed +stay by a day, we were nevertheless delighted when we could turn our +faces homeward, and Doctor Bourns and I agreed that we had had quite +enough of life in the Philippines. + +Upon my arrival at my home in Vermont a competent physician told my +family that I might not live a week. I however recuperated so rapidly +that I was able to return to the University of Michigan that fall +and to complete the work of my senior year. I became a member of the +teaching staff of the institution before my graduation. + +Little as I suspected it at the time, the tropics had fixed their +strangely firm grip on me during that fateful first trip to the Far +East which was destined to modify my whole subsequent life. I had +firmly believed that if fortunate enough to get home I should have +sense enough to stay there, but before six months had elapsed I was +finding life at Ann Arbor, Michigan, decidedly prosaic, and longing +to return to the Philippines and finish a piece of zoölogical work +which I knew was as yet only begun. + +Doctor Bourns, like myself, was eager to go back, and we set out to +raise $10,000 to pay the expenses of a two-years collecting tour, in +the course of which we hoped to visit regions not hitherto penetrated +by any zoölogist. + +Times were then getting hard, and good Doctor Angell, the president +of the university, thought it a great joke that two young fellows +like ourselves should attempt to raise so considerable a sum to be +spent largely for our own benefit. Whenever he met me on the street he +used to ask whether we had obtained that $10,000 yet, and then shake +with laughter. One of the great satisfactions of my life came when, +on a beautiful May morning in 1890, I was able to answer his inquiry +in the affirmative. + +He fairly staggered with amazement, but promptly recovering himself +warmly congratulated me, and with that kindly interest which he has +always shown in the affairs of young men, asked how he could help +us. Through his kindly offices and the intervention of the State +Department we were able to obtain a royal order from the Spanish +government which assured us a very different reception on our return +to the Philippines in August from that which had been accorded us on +the occasion of our first visit to the islands. + +There was now revealed to us a pleasing side of Spanish character +which we had largely missed during our first visit. Satisfied +as to our identity and as to the motives which actuated us, the +Spanish officials, practically without exception, did everything +in their power to assist us and to render our sojourn pleasant and +profitable. Our mail was delivered to us at points fifty miles distant +from provincial capitals. When our remittances failed to reach us +on time, as they not infrequently did, money was loaned to us freely +without security. Troops were urged upon us for our protection when we +desired to penetrate regions considered to be dangerous. Our Spanish +friends constantly offered us the hospitality of their homes and +with many of them the offer was more than _pro forma_. Indeed, in +several instances it was insisted upon so strongly that we accepted +it, to our great pleasure and profit. + +Officials were quite frank in discussing before us the affairs of +their several provinces, and we gained a very clear insight into +existing political methods and conditions. + +During this trip we lived in even closer contact with the Filipino +[2] population than on the occasion of our first visit. Our rapidly +growing knowledge of Spanish, and of Visayan, one of the more important +native dialects, rendered it increasingly easy for us to communicate +with them, gain their confidence and learn to look at things from +their view point. They talked with us most frankly and fully about +their political troubles. + +During this our second sojourn in the Philippines, which lengthened to +two years and six months, we revisited the islands with which we had +become more or less familiar on our first trip and added six others +to the list. [3] We lived for a time among the wild Bukidnons and +Negritos of the Negros mountains. + +After my companion had gone to Borneo I had the misfortune to contract +typhoid fever when alone in Busuanga, and being ignorant of the nature +of the malady from which I was suffering, kept on my feet until I +could no longer stand, with the natural result that I came uncommonly +near paying for my foolishness with my life, and have ever since +suffered from resulting physical disabilities. When able to travel, +I left the islands upon the urgent recommendation of my physician, +feeling that the task which had led me to return there was almost +accomplished and sure that my wanderings in the Far East were over. + +Shortly after my return to the United States I was offered a position +as a member of the zoölogical staff of the University of Michigan, +accepted it, received speedy promotion, and hoped and expected to +end my days as a college professor. + +In 1898 the prospect of war with Spain awakened old memories. I fancy +that the knowledge then possessed by the average American citizen +relative to the Philippines was fairly well typified by that of a +good old lady at my Vermont birthplace who had spanked me when I was a +small boy, and who, after my first return from the Philippine Islands, +said to me, "Deanie, are them Philippians you have been a visitin' +the people that Paul wrote the Epistle to?" + +I endeavoured to do my part toward dispelling this ignorance. My +knowledge of Philippine affairs led me strongly to favour armed +intervention in Cuba, where similar political conditions seemed to +prevail to a considerable extent, and I fear that I was considered +by many of my university colleagues something of a "jingo." Indeed, +a member of the University Board of Regents said that I ought to be +compelled to enlist. As a matter of fact, compulsion would have been +quite unnecessary had it not been for physical disability. + +My life-long friend and former travelling companion, Doctor Bourns, +was not similarly hampered. He promptly joined the army as a medical +officer with the rank of major, and sailed for the islands on the +second steamer which carried United States troops there. As a natural +result of his familiarity with Spanish and his wide acquaintanceship +among the Filipinos, he was ordered from the outset to devote his +time more largely to political matters than to the practice of his +profession. He did all that he could to prevent misunderstandings +between Filipinos and Americans. He assisted as an interpreter at +the negotiations for the surrender of Manila on August 13, 1898, +after taking part in the attack on the city. Later he was given +the rather difficult task of suppressing a bad outbreak of smallpox +among the Spanish prisoners of war, which he performed with great +success. He was finally made chief health officer of Manila, although +he continued to devote himself largely to political matters, got +numberless deserving Filipinos out of trouble, and rapidly increased +his already wide circle of Filipino friends. Through his letters I +was kept quite closely in touch with the situation. + +Meanwhile I decided that the Philippines were not for me, asked for +and obtained leave for study in Europe, and in December 1898 set +out for New York to engage passage for myself and my family. I went +by way of Washington in order to communicate to President McKinley +certain facts relative to the Philippine situation which it seemed +to me ought to be brought to his attention. + +I believed that there was serious danger of an outbreak of hostilities +between Filipinos and Americans, and that such a catastrophe, resulting +from mutual misunderstanding, might be avoided if seasonable action +were taken. I have since learned how wrong was this latter belief. My +previous experience had been almost exclusively with the Visayans and +the wild tribes, and the revolution against the United States was at +the outset a strictly Tagálog affair, and hence beyond my ken. + +President McKinley very kindly gave me all the time I wanted, displayed +a most earnest desire to learn the truth, and showed the deepest and +most friendly interest in the Filipinos. Let no man believe that then +or later he had the slightest idea of bringing about the exploitation +of their country. On the contrary, he evinced a most earnest desire +to learn what was best for them and then to do it if it lay within +his power. + +To my amazement, at the end of our interview he asked me whether I +would be willing to go to the islands as his personal representative. + +I could not immediately decide to make such a radical change in my +plans as this would involve, and asked for a week's time to think +the matter over, which was granted. I decided to go. + +Meanwhile, the President had evolved the idea of sending out a +commission and asked me if I would serve on it. I told him that I would +and left for my home to make preparations for an early departure. A +few days later he announced the names of the commissioners. They were +Jacob Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University; Major-General +Elwell S. Otis, then the ranking army officer in the Philippines; +Rear-Admiral George Dewey, then in command of the United States fleet +in Philippine waters; Colonel Charles Denby, who had for fourteen +years served as United States Minister to China, and myself. + +Colonel Denby was delayed in Washington by public +business. Mr. Schurman and I reached Yokohama on the morning of +February 13, and on arrival there learned, to our deep regret, that +hostilities had broken out on the fourth instant. We reached Manila on +the evening of March 4, but Colonel Denby was unable to join us until +April 2. Meanwhile, as we could not begin our work in his absence, +I had an exceptional opportunity to observe conditions in the field, +of which I availed myself. + +I served with the first Philippine Commission until it had completed +its work, and was then appointed to the second Philippine Commission +without a day's break in my period of service. + +The members of this latter body were William H. Taft of Ohio; Luke +E. Wright of Tennessee; Henry C. Ide of Vermont; Bernard Moses of +California, and myself. Briefly stated, the task before us was to +establish civil government in the Philippine Islands. After a period +of ninety days, to be spent in observation, the commission was to +become the legislative body, while executive power continued to be +vested for a time in the military. + +This condition endured until the 4th of July, 1901, on which +day Mr. Taft was appointed civil governor. On September 1, 1901, +each of the remaining original members of the commission became +an executive officer as well. Mr. Wright was appointed secretary +of commerce and police; Mr. Ide, secretary of finance and justice; +Mr. Moses, secretary of public instruction, and I myself, Secretary +of the Interior. On the same day three Filipino members were added +to the commission: Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Sr. Benito Legarda and +Sr. José R. de Luzuriaga. + +Until the 16th of October, 1907, the Commission continued to serve as +the sole legislative body. It is at the present time the upper house +of the Philippine Legislature, the Philippine Assembly, composed of +eighty-one elective members, constituting the lower house. + +I have therefore had a hand in the enactment of all legislation put +in force in the Philippine Islands since the American occupation, with +the exception of certain laws passed during my few and brief absences. + +As secretary of the interior it fell to my lot to organize and +direct the operations of a Bureau of Health, a Bureau of Govermnent +Laboratories, a Bureau of Forestry, a Bureau of Public Lands, a Bureau +of Agriculture, a Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes, a Mining Bureau +and a Weather Bureau. Ultimately, the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes +and the Mining Bureau were incorporated with the Bureau of Government +Laboratories to form the Bureau of Science, which continued under my +executive control. The Bureau of Agriculture was transferred to the +Department of Public Instruction in 1909. + +I was at the outset given administrative control of all matters +pertaining to the non-Christian tribes, which constitute, roughly +speaking, an eighth of the population of the Philippines, and until +my resignation retained such control throughout the islands, except +in the Moro Province, which at an early day was put directly under +the governor-general. + +I participated in the organization of civil government in the several +provinces of the archipelago, and myself drafted the Municipal Code +for the government of the towns inhabited by Filipinos, as well as +the Special Provincial Government Act and the Township Government +Act for that of the provinces and settlements inhabited chiefly by +the non-Christian tribes. + +At the outset we did not so much as know with certainty the names +of the several wild and savage tribes inhabiting the more remote and +inaccessible portions of the archipelago. As I was unable to obtain +reliable information concerning them on which to base legislation +for their control and uplifting, I proceeded to get such information +for myself by visiting their territory, much of which was then quite +unexplored. + +After this territory was organized into five so-called "Special +Government Provinces," some of my Filipino friends, I fear not +moved solely by anxiety for the public good, favoured and secured a +legislative enactment which made it my official duty to visit and +inspect these provinces at least once during each fiscal year. I +shall always feel indebted to them for giving me this opportunity to +become intimately acquainted with some of the most interesting, most +progressive, and potentially most important peoples of the Philippines. + +When in 1901 I received the news that a central government was soon to +be established, I was in the Sub-province of Lepanto on my first trip +through the wilder and less-known portions of northern Luzon. During +each succeeding year I have spent from two to four months in travel +through the archipelago, familiarizing myself at first hand with +local conditions. + +I have frequently taken with me on these inspection trips +representatives of the Bureaus of Forestry, Agriculture, Science +and Health to carry on practical investigations, and have made it my +business to visit and explore little known and unknown regions. There +are very few islands worthy of the name which it has not been my +privilege to visit. + +The organization of an effective campaign against diseases like bubonic +plague, smallpox, Asiatic cholera and leprosy in a country where no +similar work had ever previously been undertaken, inhabited by people +profoundly ignorant of the benefits to be derived from modern methods +of sanitation, and superstitious to a degree, promptly brought me +into violent conflict with the beliefs and prejudices of a large +portion of the Filipino population. + +A similar result followed the inauguration of an active campaign for +the suppression of surra, foot and mouth disease, and rinderpest, +which were rapidly destroying the horses and cattle. + +From the outset I was held responsible for the enforcement of marine +and land quarantine regulations, which were at first very obnoxious +to the general public. + +When the Pure Food and Drugs Act adopted by Congress for the United +States was made applicable to the Philippines without any provision for +its enforcement, this not altogether pleasant duty was assigned to me. + +I did not seek appointment to the Philippine service in the first +instance. The political influence at my command has never extended +beyond my own vote. During a period of twelve years my removal was +loudly and frequently demanded, yet I saw President Schurman, Colonel +Denby, General Otis, Admiral Dewey, Commissioner Moses, Governor Taft, +Governor Wright, Governor Ide, Governor Smith, Secretary Shuster, +Commissioner Tavera, Commissioner Legarda and Governor Forbes, all my +colleagues on one or the other of the Philippine commissions, leave +the service, before my own voluntary retirement on September 15, 1913. + +I had long expected a request for my resignation at any time, and +had often wished that it might come. Indeed I once before tendered +it voluntarily, only to have President Taft say that he thought I +should withdraw it, which I did. I am absolutely without political +ambition save an earnest desire to earn the political epitaph, +"He did what he could." + +During my brief and infrequent visits to the United States I have +discovered there widespread and radical misapprehension as to +conditions in the Philippines, but have failed to find that lack of +interest in them which is commonly said to exist. On the contrary, +I have found the American public keenly desirous of getting at the +real facts whenever there was an opportunity to do so. + +The extraordinary extent to which untrue statements have been accepted +at their face value has surprised and deeply disturbed me. I have +conversed with three college presidents, each of whom believed that +the current expenses of the Philippine government were paid from the +United States Treasury. + +The preponderance of false and misleading statements about the +Philippines is due, it seems to me, primarily to the fact that it is +those persons with whom the climate disagrees and who in consequence +are invalided home, and those who are separated from the service in +the interest of the public good, who return to the United States and +get an audience there; while those who successfully adapt themselves to +local conditions, display interest in their work and become proficient +in it, remain in the islands for long periods during which they are +too busy, and too far from home, to make themselves heard. + +Incidentally it must be remembered that if such persons do attempt to +set forth facts which years of practical experience have taught them, +they are promptly accused of endeavouring to save their own bread and +butter by seeking to perpetuate conditions which insure them fat jobs. + +When I think of the splendid men who have uncomplainingly laid down +their lives in the military and in the civil service of their country +in these islands, and of the larger number who have given freely of +their best years to unselfish, efficient work for others, this charge +fills me with indignation. + +The only thing that kept me in the Philippine service for so long +a time was my interest in the work for the non-Christian tribes and +my fear that while my successor was gaining knowledge concerning it +which can be had only through experience, matters might temporarily +go to the bad. It has been my ambition to bring this work to such a +point that it would move on, for a time at least, by its own momentum. + +I am now setting forth my views relative to the past and present +situation in the islands because I believe that their inhabitants +are confronted by a danger graver than any which they have before +faced since the time when their fate wavered in the balance, while the +question whether the United States should acquire sovereignty over them +or should allow Spain to continue to rule them was under consideration. + +It is my purpose to tell the plain, hard truth regardless of the effect +of such conduct upon my future career. It has been alleged that my +views on Philippine problems were coloured by a desire to retain my +official position. Nothing could be further from the truth. Indeed, +no man who has not served for long and sometimes very weary years +as a public official, and has not been a target for numerous more +or less irresponsible individuals whose hands were filled with mud +and who were actuated by a fixed desire to throw it at something, +can appreciate as keenly as I do the manifold blessings which attend +the life of a private citizen. + +I trust that I have said enough to make clear my view point, and +now a word as to subject-matter. It is my intention to correct some +of the very numerous misstatements which have been made concerning +past and present conditions in the Philippines. I shall quote, from +time to time, such statements, both verbal and written, and more +especially some of those which have recently appeared in a book +entitled "The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912," +by James H. Blount, who signs himself "Officer of the United States +Volunteers in the Philippines, 1899-1901; United States District +Judge in the Philippines, 1901-1905." + +Judge Blount has indulged so freely in obvious hyperbole, and has made +so very evident the bitter personal animosities which inspire many +of his statements, that it has been a genuine surprise to his former +associates and acquaintances that his book has been taken seriously. + +It should be sufficiently evident to any unprejudiced reader that in +writing it he has played the part of the special pleader rather than +that of the historian. He has used government records freely, and as +is usually the case when a special pleader quotes from such records, +the nature of the matter which he has omitted is worthy of more than +passing attention. I shall hope to be able to fill some of the gaps +that he has left in the documentary history of the events which he +discusses and by so doing, very materially to change its purport. + +As public documents have been so misused, and as a new administration +is bestowing on Filipinos political offices, and giving them +opportunities, for which they are as yet utterly unprepared, thus +endangering the results of years of hard, patient, self-sacrificing +work performed by experienced and competent men, it becomes necessary +to strike home by revealing unpleasant facts which are of record +but have not heretofore been disclosed because of the injury to +reputations and the wounding of feelings which would result from their +publication. In doing this I feel that I am only discharging a duty to +the people of the United States, who are entitled to know the truth if +the present possibility of Philippine independence is to be seriously +considered, and to the several Filipino peoples who are to-day in +danger of rushing headlong to their own utter and final destruction. + +At the outset I shall discuss the oft-asserted claim that the Filipino +leaders were deceived and betrayed by American officials whom they +assisted, and that this unpardonable conduct led to the outbreak of +active hostilities which occurred just prior to the arrival at Manila +of the first Philippine Commission. + +I shall then show that these leaders never established a +government which adequately protected life and property, or gave +to their people peace, happiness or justice, but on the contrary +inaugurated a veritable reign of terror under which murder became a +governmental institution, while rape, inhuman torture, burying alive +and other ghastly crimes were of common occurrence, and usually went +unpunished. The data which I use in establishing these contentions +are for the most part taken directly from the Insurgent records, +in referring to which I employ the war department abbreviation +"P.I.R." followed by a number. + +I next take up some of the more important subsequent historical events, +describing the work of the first Philippine Commission, and showing +in what manner the government established by the second Philippine +Commission has discharged its stewardship, subsequently discussing +certain as yet unsolved problems which confront the present government, +such as that presented by the existence of slavery and peonage, and +that of the non-Christian tribes. For the benefit of those who, like +Judge Blount, consider the Philippines "a vast straggly archipelago of +jungle-covered islands in the south seas which have been a nuisance to +every government that ever owned them," I give some facts as to the +islands, their climate, their natural resources and their commercial +possibilities, and close by setting forth my views as to the present +ability of the civilized Cagayans, Ilocanos, Pampangans, Zambals, +Pangasináns, Tagálogs, Bicols and Visayans, commonly and correctly +called _Filipinos_, to establish, or to maintain when established, +a stable government throughout Filipino territory, to say nothing +of bringing under just and effective control, and of protecting and +civilizing, the people of some twenty-seven non-Christian tribes which +constitute an eighth of the population, and occupy approximately half +of the territory, of the Philippine Islands. + +I wish here to acknowledge my very great indebtedness to Major +J. R. M. Taylor, who has translated and compiled the Insurgent [4] +records, thereby making available a very large mass of reliable +and most valuable information without which a number of chapters of +this book would have remained unwritten. Surely no man who bases his +statements concerning Filipino rule on the facts set forth in these +records can be accused of deriving his information from hostile or +prejudiced sources. + +Of them, Major Taylor says:-- + + "No one reading the Insurgent records can fail to be + impressed with the difference between the Spanish and + the Tagálog documents. Many of the former are doubtless + written with a view to their coming into the hands of the + Americans, or with deliberate purpose to have them do so, + and are framed accordingly. All Tagálog documents, intended + only for Filipinos, say much that is not said in the Spanish + documents. The orders of the Dictator [5] to his subjects + were conveyed in the latter series of documents." + + + + + +CHAPTER II + +Was Independence Promised? + + +It has long been the fashion in certain quarters to allege, or to +insinuate, that American consuls and naval officers promised the +Insurgent leaders that the independence of the Philippines would be +recognized by the United States. It has been claimed by some that +the coöperation of the Insurgents in the military operations against +Manila was sought for and secured. Others say that they were at least +_de facto_ allies of the United States, and that they were in the +end shamelessly betrayed and wantonly attacked. + +These are very serious charges. I shall prove, chiefly by the Insurgent +records, that each of them is false. I ask the forbearance of my +readers if, in the three chapters which I devote to these matters, +I quote documentary evidence at length. When original documents +or extracts from them tell a clear and reasonably concise story, +I sometimes insert them bodily in the text. In other cases I give my +own version of the facts which they set forth, but give the full text +in foot-notes. In nearly all instances references are given to sources +of documentary information. I greatly regret that Taylor's narrative, +with its very numerous supporting documents, is not readily accessible +to the student of history. It ought to have been published, but never +got beyond the galley-proof stage. In referring to it, I am therefore +obliged to use the word Taylor followed by the letters and figures +designating the page of this galley proof on which the passage referred +to is found. Whenever possible I give the War Department numbers [6] +of Insurgent documents, but in a few cases can give only the exhibit +numbers assigned by Taylor in printing the documents. + +As his exhibits are serially arranged it is easy to find any one of +them. Copies of his work may be found in the War Department and in +the office of the Chief of the Philippine Constabulary. + +Referring to the charge that the Insurgents were deceived, even had +deceit been practised as claimed, Aguinaldo would have had no just +ground for complaint, for he himself not only frankly advocated its +use, but deliberately employed it in his dealings with the Americans, +as clearly appears in records hereinafter cited. [7] However, most +Americans hold to a standard very different from his. Was it departed +from in this instance? + +Aguinaldo has specifically and repeatedly charged that Pratt and Dewey +promised him the recognition of the independence of the Philippines +by the United States. [8] + +Judge Blount has referred to the "_de facto_ alliance between the +Americans and Aguinaldo," and has dwelt at length on "promises, +both expressed and implied," which were subsequently repudiated +by Consul Pratt, Admiral Dewey and Generals Anderson and Merritt, +constantly suggesting, even when he does not specifically charge, +bad faith on the part of these officers of the United States. [9] + +On analyzing his statements we find that he is discreetly non-committal +as to exactly what were the expressed promises, nor does he make it so +plain as might be desired what legitimate inferences were deducible +from the acts of the Americans in question. He quotes an alleged +statement of General Anderson to the effect that:-- + + "Whether Admiral Dewey and Consuls Pratt, Wildman, [10] and + Williams [11] did or did not give Aguinaldo assurances that a + Philippino government would be recognized, the Phillippinos + certainly thought so, judging from their acts rather than + from their words. Admiral Dewey gave them arms and ammunition, + as I did subsequently at his request." [12] + +Before discussing these charges I will briefly review certain +historical facts, knowledge of which will be useful in considering +them. + +In August, 1896, an insurrection against Spain had broken out in the +Philippines under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, a resident of +Cavite Viejo, who had been a school teacher, and was, at that time, +_gobernadorcillo_ [13] of his town. + +It had been terminated by the so-called "Treaty of Biacnabató," +signed in Manila on December 15, 1897. + +This document provided for the surrender of "Don Emilio Aguinaldo, +Supreme Chief of the Insurgents in arms," and Don Marciano Llanera +and Don Baldomero Aguinaldo, his subordinates, together with their +soldiers and arms. + +"The Excellent Señor General in Chief" of the Spanish forces was to +"provide the necessary means for supporting the lives" of those who +surrendered before a certain fixed date. + +In actual practice what was done was to agree to pay them $800,000 +[14] in three instalments, the first of $400,000, the second and +third of $200,000 each. + +Aguinaldo and certain other leaders were to take up their residence +outside the islands. Their deportation was duly provided for, and +Aguinaldo and twenty-six of his companions were taken to Hongkong, +on the Spanish steamer _Uranus_; arriving there on December 31, 1897. + +On January 2, 1898, $400,000 were deposited in the Hongkong Bank, +to the credit of Aguinaldo and Co. + +The Insurgent leaders remaining at Biacnabató had a meeting under the +presidency of Isabelo Artacho, an Ilocano [15] who was the ranking +officer in the absence of Aguinaldo, and requested that the second +instalment, of $200,000, be paid to them. The Spanish governor-general, +Primo de Rivera, acceded to their request, and they divided the money, +although Aguinaldo denied their right to do so, claiming that it +should have been sent to Hongkong. + +The third payment of $200,000 was apparently never made. Primo de +Rivera says that he turned over a check for $200,000 to his successor, +General Augustin, in April, 1898; giving as his reason for refusing to +pay it to the Insurgents that there seemed to him to be no prospect of +its being equitably divided among those who were entitled to receive +it under the agreement. + +Aguinaldo and his associates claimed that certain reforms were promised +by the Spanish government at the time the treaty of Biacnabató +was negotiated, and as these measures were not put into effect, +they organized a junta or revolutionary committee at Hongkong. It +included in its membership a number of Filipino political exiles, +then residing at that place. + +The men who composed this organization soon fell to quarrelling and +it became necessary to come to a definite understanding as to its +aims. Under the arrangement finally reached, the junta, as a whole, +was charged with the work of propaganda outside of the archipelago; +with all diplomatic negotiations with foreign governments; and +with the preparation and shipment of such articles as were needed +to carry on the revolution in the Philippines. It was to be allowed +voice by Aguinaldo's government in any serious question which might +arise abroad, and would aid that government in bringing the civil +administration of the Philippines to the level of that of the most +advanced nations. + +Trouble soon arose among the former Insurgent leaders over the division +of the funds deposited at Hongkong. + +Taylor gives a trustworthy and concise account of the events of this +period, and as it is of historic interest, and makes clear just +how Aguinaldo came to go to Singapore, meet Pratt, and enter into +negotiations with him, I quote extensive extracts from it. [16] + + "From January 4 to April 4, Aguinaldo withdrew from the + banks 5786.46 pesos in part interest on the money he had + deposited. This was used to pay the expenses of himself and his + companions in Hongkong. These expenses were kept at a minimum; + the money was drawn and spent by him. If one of the men with + him needed a new pair of shoes, Aguinaldo paid for them; + if another wanted a new coat, Aguinaldo bought it. Minute + accounts were kept, which are on file among his papers, + and it is seen from them that his expenses were exceeding + his income, which could only be 12,000 pesos a year, while he + was living at the rate of 22,000, with constant demands being + made upon him by men who came from the Philippines. Life was + not easy under these conditions. Aguinaldo's companions were + entirely dependent upon him. Their most trivial expenses had + to be approved by him, and he held them down with a strong + hand. They were men living in a strange land, among a people + whose language they did not speak, having nothing to do but + quarrel among themselves, exiles waiting for a chance to + return to their own country, which they watched with weary + eyes while they guarded the embers by which they hoped to + light the fires of a new insurrection. + + "The men who had accompanied Aguinaldo to Hongkong were + not the only Filipinos domiciled there; a number of men had + taken refuge in that British colony after the events of 1872, + and some of them at least had prospered. Some of them, like + the members of the Cortes family, seem to have had almost + no relations with the followers of Aguinaldo; some, like + J. M. Basa, knew them and took part in some of the meetings of + the governing groups, but were probably not admitted to their + full confidence, as Aguinaldo and his immediate following + wanted and were working for independence and independence + alone, while the Filipinos who had long lived in Hongkong + wanted to see the archipelago lost to Spain, but had no + confidence in the ability of the country to stand alone or + in the fitness of Aguinaldo and his following to direct the + councils of a state. The character of the new refugees did + not inspire confidence in these older men, who hoped for a + protectorate by or annexation to the United States. + + "On May 6, 1898, the consul-general of the United States there + informed the State Department that D. Cortés, M. Cortés, + A. Rosario, Gracio Gonzaga, and José Maria Basa (50), all + very wealthy land-owners, bankers, and lawyers of Manila, + desired to tender their allegiance and the allegiance of + their powerful families in Manila to the United States, + and that they had instructed all their connections to render + every aid to the United States forces in Manila. On May 14 he + forwarded statements of other Filipinos domiciled in Hongkong, + not members of the junta, that they desired to submit their + allegiance and the allegiance of their families in the + Philippine Islands to the United States. One of Aguinaldo's + followers, writing somewhat later, spoke with bitterness + of the rich old men who went about calling their companions + 'beggarly rebels,' but these men were rich, and their names and + their apparent adhesion to the cause represented by Aguinaldo + would inspire confidence in him among men of property in + the Philippines. They were, accordingly, not to be lightly + alienated; therefore, at first, at least, no open break took + place with them, but their attitude toward the leaders of + the insurrection is shown by the fact that after the early + summer of 1898 they took no, or very little, part in the + insurgent movement, although they were living in Hongkong, + the seat of the junta, which conducted the propaganda for + the insurgent government of the Philippines. + + * * * * * + + "But, in fact, Aguinaldo had no just conception of the + conditions and of the opportunities which were about to open + before the Hongkong junta, for although war between Spain and + the United States was imminent and a United States squadron + was in Hongkong threatening Manila, Aguinaldo was chiefly + concerned in finding how to avoid losing the money which + had been received from the Spanish government as the price + of his surrender. The importance of his presence near the + Philippines in case of war did not occur to him, or if it did + occur to him anything which he could obtain there from the + aid of the United States probably seemed for the moment of + little consequence compared with escaping from his wrangling + companions with enough money to live on in Paris. + + "Artacho, who had received 5000 pesos as his share of the + second payment, arrived in Hongkong and on April 5 demanded + 200,000 pesos of the insurgent funds, probably under the + agreement that he should establish a company in Hongkong + for the benefit of the former leaders and not merely of + those who had accompanied Aguinaldo. But the leaders in + Hongkong had denounced that agreement, and refused to pay. He + then entered suit before the supreme court of Hongkong, + calling upon Aguinaldo for an accounting of the trust funds + deposited in his hands for the benefit of Artacho and others, + and asked for an injunction restraining Aguinaldo or any + member of the junta from handling or disposing of any part + of said funds. He filed as evidence copies of the Biacnabató + agreement and of the agreement made by the leaders on December + 19. This suit was brought not merely in the name of Artacho, + but in that of all the exiles who were described as living + in exile in Hongkong in accordance with an agreement made + with the Spanish Government. Artacho probably had adherents + among these men, some at least of whom were utterly weary + of waiting in Hongkong and of living upon what was doled out + to them. Some at least saw no chance of any other fate than + indefinite exile spent in dependence upon the inner group + for even the means of existence. + + "The suit was in equity, and called for an accounting for the + trust funds which the complainant recognized were legally + in the hands of Aguinaldo. It could be carried on only + with great difficulty without his presence and without his + account books. Meetings were held, and Artacho was denounced + as attempting to extort blackmail, but he refused to yield, + and Aguinaldo, rather than explain the inner workings of the + Hongkong junta before a British court, prepared for flight. A + summons was issued for his appearance before the supreme court + of Hongkong on April 13, 1898, but he was by that time beyond + its jurisdiction. + + "He drew out the 50,000 pesos from the Chartered Bank, + which had become due according to the terms of the deposit, + and perhaps such other sums as could be drawn upon by check, + engaged passage for Europe by way of Singapore for G. H. del + Pilar, J. M. Leyba, and himself under assumed names, appointed + V. Belarmino to succeed to his functions, and gave him checks + signed in blank to draw the interest of the sums on deposit to + provide for the support of the exiles. He gave as his reason + for departure that he was going to remain under cover until + Artacho could be bought off, but he intended to go far afield + for this purpose, as he gave his destination as Europe and + the United States. + + "Aguinaldo and his companions probably sailed from Hongkong + on April 8, 1898, and arrived in Singapore on April 21, after + stopping in Saigon. War between the United States and Spain + had been rendered inevitable by the resolution of Congress + demanding that Spain should withdraw her forces from Cuba, + and was declared on April 21. Although Aguinaldo and his + followers did not appreciate the influence which conditions on + the other side of the world might have upon the future of the + Philippines, it happened that in Singapore at that time there + was an Englishman named Bray who did. He had been a member of + the civil service in India, and had lived for some years in the + Philippines, but he had fallen upon evil days and was engaged + in writing letters to the Singapore _Free Press_ upon the + Philippines, and in retailing such information as was in his + possession concerning them to the United States consul-general + in Singapore, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, for transmittal to + Commodore Dewey. Bray heard of the arrival of Aguinaldo and + realized what could be done with him, and that if the matter + were well handled it might be to his own advantage. He went + at once to see Aguinaldo and informed him that the United + States consul-general was anxious to see him. He went to the + consul-general and informed him of the importance of Aguinaldo, + and that he was in Singapore. Aguinaldo had to be persuaded + to agree to a meeting. The consul-general was anxious for it, + and it took place, according to Aguinaldo, on the night of + April 22 (according to Pratt, on the morning of April 24). The + statement made by Aguinaldo is probably correct. According + to his account book, he paid $11 on April 23, 1898, for a + telegram to the Hongkong junta concerning the negotiations + 'with America.' + + "Aguinaldo knew but little English, Pratt knew no Spanish, so + in their interview Bray acted as interpreter. An interpreter + who is interested in the subject of the discussion may + be a dangerous man. It is impossible to say what he told + Aguinaldo. Certainly Pratt did not know; but whatever was + said during these conversations it is within the limits + of possibility that Pratt may have been made to say by the + interpreter more than he intended, and that his statements of + what would probably be granted by the United States Government + and his expression of good wishes for the cause of Filipino + independence may have been translated as assurances and as + promises. Bray, who, according to his Filipino former friends, + was apt to talk too much, may have talked too much on this + occasion, and so the myth of the formal agreement between + Aguinaldo on behalf of the Filipino insurgents and Pratt on + behalf of the United States grew up, a fiction which Bray + himself, with a natural desire to add to his own importance, + did his best to circulate. + + "Bray did not ask for his reward at the time, but probably + reckoned upon making himself indispensable as an adviser, + so that later he could make his own terms. For a time he + wrote letters of advice to Aguinaldo, which may have had + some influence upon the line of conduct which he adopted, and + later was employed in furnishing from Hongkong news to various + newspapers of events and conditions in the Philippines. His + cablegrams shortly before the outbreak of hostilities between + the United States and the insurgents were more picturesque + than veracious, but they were apparently considered effective, + as Aguinaldo ordered that he should be given $5000. He wanted + more, but the Hongkong junta did not trust him, and he ceased + to be in their employment." [17] + +As we shall see, Bray did not do all of the interpreting at Singapore, +and we shall be able to determine with some accuracy what actually +transpired there. + +We can now consider understandingly the charges made against Pratt +and Dewey. + +It has been claimed over and over again, that Pratt promised Aguinaldo +recognition of tile independence of the Philippines if he and his +people would cooperate with the United States forces against Spain. + +Aguinaldo himself made the charge in his "Reseña Verídica" [18] +in the following words:-- + + "In this interview Consul Pratt told me that because the + Spaniards had not complied with the agreement of Biac-na-bató, + the Filipinos had a right to renew their interrupted revolution + and advised me to take up arms anew against Spain, assuring me + that America would give the Filipinos the greatest advantages + (mayores ventajas). Then I asked the Consul what advantages the + United States would concede to the Philippines, suggesting, + when I had the proper opening, the propriety of making an + agreement in writing, to which the Consul answered that he + would report, by telegraph, on the subject to Mr. Dewey, + who was the chief of the expedition against the Philippines, + and who had ample powers from President McKinley. + + "On the following day, between 10 and 12 in the morning, we + again took up the matter, Consul Pratt saying that the admiral + had answered my inquiry by saying that the United States + would at least recognize the independence of the Philippine + government under a naval protectorate, but that there was no + necessity to put it in writing, as the words of the admiral + and the American consul were sacred and would be fulfilled, + not being like those of the Spaniards, and finally, that the + Government of North America was a very honourable Government, + a very just and very powerful one." [19] + +On April 27, 1908, Pratt telegraphed the Secretary of State as +follows: -- + + "General Aguinaldo gone my instance Hongkong arrange with + Dewey coöperation insurgents Manila. + + "_Pratt_." + +On the 28th he wrote the Secretary, explaining how he had come to +meet Aguinaldo, and stating just what he had done. He said:-- + + "At this interview, after learning from General Aguinaldo + the state of an object sought to be obtained by the present + insurrectionary movement, which, though absent from the + Philippines, he was still directing, I took it upon myself, + whilst explaining that I had no authority to speak for the + Government, to point out the danger of continuing independent + action at this stage; and, having convinced him of the + expediency of cooperating with our fleet, then at Hongkong, + and obtained the assurance of his willingness to proceed + thither and confer with Commodore Dewey to that end, should + the latter so desire, I telegraphed the Commodore the same + day as follows, through our consul-general at Hongkong:-- + + "'Aguinaldo, insurgent leader, here. Will come Hongkong + arrange with Commodore for general cooperation insurgents + Manila if desired. Telegraph. + + "'_Pratt_.'" + +The Commodore's reply read thus:-- + + "'Tell Aguinaldo come soon as possible. + + "'_Dewey_.'" + +Pratt adds:-- + + "I received it late at night, and at once communicated to + General Aguinaldo, who, with his aide-de-camp and private + secretary, all under assumed names, I succeeded in getting + off by the British Steamer _Malacca_, which left here on + Tuesday the 26th. + + "Just previous to his departure, I had a second and last + interview with General Aguinaldo, the particulars of which + I shall give you by next mail. + + "The general impressed me as a man of intelligence, ability, + and courage, and worthy the confidence that had been placed + in him. + + "I think that in arranging for his direct cooperation with the + commander of our forces, I have prevented possible conflict of + action and facilitated the work of occupying and administering + the Philippines. + + "If this course of mine meets with the Government's approval, + as I trust it may, I shall be fully satisfied; to Mr. Bray, + however, I consider there is due some special recognition + for most valuable services rendered. + + "How that recognition can best be made I leave to you to + decide. + + "I have, etc." [20] + +It will be noted that Pratt explained to Aguinaldo that he had no +authority to speak for the government; that there was no mention in +the cablegrams between Pratt and Dewey of independence or indeed of +any conditions on which Aguinaldo was to coöperate, these details +being left for future arrangement with Dewey; and that Pratt thought +that he had prevented possible conflict of action and facilitated +the work of occupying and administering the Philippines. + +The particulars as to the second and last interview between Aguinaldo +and Pratt were embodied in the following letter:-- + + "No. 213. _Consulate-General of the United States._ + + "_Singapore_, April 30, 1898. + + "_Sir_: Referring to my dispatch No. 212, of the 28th instant, + I have the honor to report that in the second and last + interview I had with Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo on the eve of his + departure for Hongkong, I enjoined upon him the necessity, + under Commodore Dewey's direction, of exerting absolute + control over his forces in the Philippines, as no excesses + on their part would be tolerated by the American Government, + the President having declared that the present hostilities + with Spain were to be carried on in strict accord with modern + principles of civilized warfare. + + "To this General Aguinaldo fully assented, assuring me that + he intended and was perfectly able, once on the field, to + hold his followers, the insurgents, in check and lead them + as our commander should direct. + + "The general stated that he hoped the United States would + assume protection of the Philippines for at least long enough + to allow the inhabitants to establish a government of their + own, in the organization of which he would desire American + advice and assistance. + + "These questions I told him I had no authority to discuss. + + "I have, etc., + + "_E. Spencer Pratt_, + + "_United States Consul-General_." + +In a subsequent communication written on July 28, 1898, Pratt made +the following statement:-- + + "I declined even to discuss with General Aguinaldo the + question of the future policy of the United States with + regard to the Philippines, that I held out no hopes to him + of any kind, committed the government in no way whatever, + and, in the course of our confidences, never acted upon + the assumption that the Government would cooperate with + him--General Aguinaldo--for the furtherance of any plans + of his own, nor that, in accepting his said cooperation, + it would consider itself pledged to recognize any political + claims which he might put forward." [21] + +What reason if any is there for denying the truth of this allegation? + +I will give in full Blount's statement as to what occurred at a +meeting held at Singapore, to celebrate the early successes of Dewey +and Aguinaldo, as it constitutes his nearest approach to a direct +claim, that any one at any time promised independence:-- + + "First there was music by the band. Then followed the formal + reading and presentation of the address by a Dr. Santos, + representing the Filipino community of Singapore. The address + pledged the 'eternal gratitude' of the Filipino people to + Admiral Dewey and the honored addressee; alluded to the glories + of independence, and to how Aguinaldo had been enabled; by the + arrangement so happily effected with Admiral Dewey by Consul + Pratt, to arouse eight millions of Filipinos to take up arms + 'in defence of those principles of justice and liberty of + which your country is the foremost champion' and trusted + 'that the United States... will efficaciously second the + programme arranged between you, sir, and General Aguinaldo + in this port of Singapore, and secure to us our independence + under the protection of the United States.' + + "Mr. Pratt arose and 'proceeded, speaking in French,' + says the newspaper--it does not say Alabama French, but + that is doubtless what it was--'to state his belief that the + Filipinos would prove and were now proving themselves fit for + self-government.' The gentleman from Alabama then went on to + review the mighty events and developments of the preceding six + weeks, Dewey's victory of May 1st, 'the brilliant achievements + of your own distinguished leader, General Emilio Aguinaldo, + _cooperating on land with the Americans at sea_,' etc. 'You + have just reason to be proud of what has been and is being + accomplished by General Aguinaldo and your fellow-countrymen + under his command. When, six weeks ago, I learned that General + Aguinaldo had arrived _incognito_ in Singapore, I immediately + _sought him out_. An hour's interview convinced me that he + _was the man for the occasion_; and, having communicated + with Admiral Dewey, I accordingly arranged for him to join + the latter, which he did at Cavite. The rest you know.'" [22] + +Now, it happens that Dr. Santos himself forwarded his speech, and +his version of Pratt's reply thereto, in a letter to Aguinaldo, dated +Singapore, June 9, 1898. As he served as interpreter, he, if any one, +should know what Pratt said. After describing the change in tone of +the Singapore _Free Press_, with which strained relations had formerly +existed, and the subsequent friendliness of the editor of this paper +and that of the _Straits Times_, he says that on the previous afternoon +he went with the other Filipinos to greet Pratt. He continues:-- + + "This occasion was unusually opportune by reason of ours having + been victorious and immediately after the cry of our worthy + chief which found an echo in this colony. For this purpose 30 + or more Filipinos--9 of the higher class, 15 musicians and the + remainder of the middle class--went to greet Consul A., here, + and on the invitation of Mr. Bray we ascended. He received us + in his private office, and it was imposing to see that the only + decoration was the American flag which covered the desk, and in + its centre, a carved wooden frame holding the portrait of our + worthy chief. He shook hands with all of us, and I introduced + them all. We found there also, and were introduced to, the + Editor of the _Straits Times_ and the _Free Press_ of here, + and after being thus assembled, after a musical selection, + I read the following speech in French:-- + + "'_His Excellency, The Consul General of the United + States of America in Singapore_: + + "'_Your Excellency_: The Filipinos of all social + classes residing in this port, have come to greet + Your Excellency as the genuine representative of + the great and powerful American Republic in order to + express to you our eternal gratitude for the moral + and material support given by Admiral Dewey to our + General Aguinaldo in his campaign for the liberty of + eight million Filipinos. The latter and we ourselves + hope that the United States, your nation, persevering + in its humanitarian policy, will without cessation and + (with) decided energy continue to support the programme + agreed upon in Singapore between Your Excellency and + General Aguinaldo, that is to say, the Independence + of the Philippine Islands, under an American + protectorate. Accept our cordial acknowledgments and + congratulations on being the first one in accepting + and supporting this idea which time and events have + well developed to the great satisfaction of our + nation. Finally, we request you, Most Excellent Sir, + to express to your worthy President and the American + Republic, our sincere acknowledgments and our fervent + wishes for their prosperity. I have concluded.' + + "The Consul replied hereto in French, in more or less the + following terms:-- + + "'You have nothing to thank me for, because I have only + faithfully followed the instructions received from my + Government; the fact of the sudden departure of your General + will permit you to infer that I have done so. I shall in any + case inform my Government of your good wishes and I thank you + in its name. You know that your wishes are mine also, and for + this reason at the last interview I had with Mr. Aguinaldo, + I repeated to him that he should observe the greatest humanity + possible in the war, in order that our army, our soldiers, + our nation and all the other nations may see that you are + humane and not savages, as has erroneously been believed.' + + "After this there was enthusiastic applause for the Consul; + he offered us all cigars, glasses of very fine sherry, and + lemonade for the musicians and the majority. The toasts were + offered with the sherry by your humble servant, Sres. Cannon, + Enríquez, Celio, Reyes, the Consul, the editors of the _Free + Press_, _Straits Times_ and Mr. Bray. We drank to America + and her humanitarian work of redemption; to the Philippines + with America; we gave thanks to the Consul, to Mr. Bray as an + important defender; we drank to the _Free Press_ for taking + such an interest in our affairs, and to the _Straits Times_ + (sarcastically); but I was very careful not to propose a toast + to our general, which was done at the proper time by 'Flaco' + [23] when we gave three cheers; for the sake of courtesy we + cheered for England, which had been so hospitable to us, and + when everybody had become quiet, the Editor of the _Straits + Times_ took his glass in his hand and cried in a loud voice, + 'The Philippine Republic,' to which we all responded. 'Flaco' + disappeared a moment, and when he returned he brought with + him the American flag, and formally presented it to us in + French, which I interpreted to all in Spanish, as follows: + 'Gentlemen: The American Consul, with his deep affection for + us, presents us this flag as the greatest and most expressive + remembrance which he can give us. The red stripes stand for + the generous blood of her sons, shed to obtain her liberty; + the white stripes stand for her virginity and purity as our + country; the blue background indicates the sky and each star + represents a free and independent State; this is America, and + the Consul is desirous that we also should have so glorious + a history as hers and that it may be as brilliant as could + be wished, securing peace with respect, and may God be our + help and guide in securing liberty. Viva and with it our + most sincere thanks for so signal a courtesy.' Hereupon, to + the surprise of everybody as no one expected it, the Consul + requested that some Filipino airs be played which seemed to + please him very much. Finally, about 6.15, we left, very well + satisfied with the reception accorded us and the kindness + of the Consul. Mr. Bray asked me for the text of my speech, + which I insert above and I secured from the Consul his French + text, which I enclose in my letter to Naning. Without anything + further for the present, awaiting your reply and your opinion + as to the above, as also orders and instructions for the + future, I am, + + "Yours, etc. + + (Signed) "_Isidoro de los Santos_." + +To this letter Major Taylor has appended the following note:-- + + "(_Note by Compiler._--In a letter written in Tagalog to + Aguinaldo on June 6 by Santos he describes the American consul + general as having cried out 'Hurrah for General Aguinaldo, + hurrah for the Republic of the Philippines' and then, having + apparently taken several drinks, he passed up and down the + room waving the American flag before giving it to the assembled + Filipinos (P.I.R., 406.7).)" [24] + +This final statement does not present the representative of the United +States government at Singapore in a very favourable light, but I take +the facts as I find them. If now we compare the speech actually made +by Dr. Santos with Blount's version of it, we shall find that with +the exception of the words "eternal gratitude" the passages which +he encloses in quotation marks are not in the original at all. The +glories of independence are not alluded to, nor is there so much as +a suggestion that Aguinaldo had been enabled to arouse eight millions +of Filipinos to take up arms, which he certainly had not done. + +Dr. Santos in his speech did resort to a stereotyped Filipino procedure +so very commonly employed that those of us who have dealt much with +his people have learned to meet it almost automatically. It consists +in referring to one's having said just exactly what one did not say, +and then if one fails to note the trap and avoid it, in claiming that +because one did not deny the allegation one has admitted its truth. + +Aguinaldo himself later repeatedly resorted to this procedure in his +dealings with Dewey and others. + +In the present instance Santos employed it rather cleverly when he +expressed the hope that the United States would "continue to support +the programme agreed upon in Singapore, between your Excellency and +General Aguinaldo, that is to say, the independence of the Philippine +Islands under an American protectorate." + +Now if this was agreed to, Aguinaldo later constantly violated his +part of the agreement, for we shall see that he stated over and +over again, in correspondence with members of the junta and others, +that a protectorate would be considered only if absolute independence +finally proved unattainable, but there is no reason to believe that +any such agreement was made. + +Dr. Santos read his speech to Mr. Pratt in French. Blount implies, +whether rightly or wrongly I do not know, that Pratt's knowledge +of French was poor. At all events Pratt in his reply made not the +slightest reference to the hope expressed by Santos that the United +States would continue to support the programme which Santos said +had been agreed upon between Pratt and Aguinaldo, and claim of a +promise of independence based on these speeches must obviously be +abandoned. There is no doubt that Pratt personally sympathized with +the ambitions of the Filipino leaders, and openly expressed his +sympathy on this and other occasions, but to do this was one thing +and to have attempted to compromise his government would have been +another and very different one. The shrewd Filipinos with whom he +was dealing understood this difference perfectly well. + +It is a regrettable fact that there exists some reason to believe that +his sympathy was not purely disinterested. Aguinaldo claims that Pratt +wished to be appointed "representative of the Philippines in the United +States to promptly secure the official recognition of our independence" +and that he promised him "a high post in the customs service." [25] + +It will be noted that several sentences and phrases in Blount's +statement are enclosed in quotation marks. From what were they +quoted? The next paragraph in his book tells us:-- + + "Says the newspaper clipping which has preserved the Pratt + oration: At the conclusion of Mr. Pratt's speech, refreshments + were served, and as the Filipinos, _being Christians, + drink alcohol_, there was no difficulty in arranging as to + refreshments." [26] + +The use of this clipping from the Singapore _Free Press_ illustrates +admirably Blount's methods. The _Free Press_ had at first displayed +a marked coldness toward the insurgent cause, but its editor, +Mr. St. Clair, was opportunely "seen" by Bray, who reported that as a +result of his visit, both the editor and the paper would thereafter be +friendly, and they were. In other words, the _Free Press_ became the +Singapore organ of the insurrection, and its editor, according to Bray, +"a true and loyal friend" of Aguinaldo. + +Blount claims to have made "an exhaustive examination of the records +of that period." [27] Why then did he use as evidence a newspaper +clipping from an Insurgent organ, instead of Santos's letter? + +Blount endeavours to make capital out of the fact that Pratt forwarded +to the State Department a proclamation which he says was gotten up +by the Insurgent leaders at Hongkong and sent to the Philippines in +advance of Aguinaldo's coming. He says that it was headed "America's +Allies" and quotes from it as follows:-- + + "Compatriots: Divine Providence is about to place independence + within our reach.... The Americans, not from mercenary + motives, but for the sake of humanity and the lamentations + of so many persecuted people, have considered it opportune, + etc. [Here follows a reference to Cuba.] At the present + moment an American squadron is preparing to sail for the + Philippines.... The Americans will attack by sea and prevent + any reënforcements coming from Spain; ... we insurgents must + attack by land. Probably you will have more than sufficient + arms, because the Americans have arms and will find means + to assist us. _There where you see the American flag flying, + assemble in numbers; they are our redeemers!_" [28] + +The translation that he used is that given in Senate Document No. 62, +L. 60, and is none too accurate. He allows it to be inferred that +this proclamation was actually issued. It was not. Its history is +as follows:-- + +On May 16, 1898, J. M. Basa, a Filipino, who had lived in Hongkong +since 1872, on account of his connection with the troubles of that +year, wrote letters [29] to a number of friends recommending the +widest possible circulation of a proclamation enclosed therewith, as +an aid to the American policy in the Philippines "in the war against +the tyrannical friars and the Spaniards." + +With these letters there were sent two different proclamations, +each beginning with the words "Fellow Countrymen." The first, which +is the one referred to by Blount, continues:-- + + "Divine Providence places us in a position to secure our + independence, and this under the freest form to which all + individuals, all people, all countries, may aspire. + + "The Americans, more for humanity than for self-interest, + attentive to the complaints of so many persecuted Filipinos, + find it opportune to extend to our Philippines their protective + mantle, now that they find themselves obliged to break their + friendship with the Spanish people, because of the tyranny + they have exercised in Cuba, causing all Americans, with whom + they have great commercial relations, enormous damages. + + "At this moment an American fleet is prepared to go to the + Philippines. + + "We, your fellow-countrymen, fear that you will make use of + your arms to fire upon the Americans. No, brothers; do not + make such a mistake; rather (shoot) kill yourselves than + treat our liberators as enemies. + + "Do not pay attention to the decree of Primo de Rivera, + calling on you to enlist for the war, for that will cost + you your lives: rather die than act as ingrates toward our + redeemers, the Americans. + + * * * * * + + "Note well that the Americans have to attack by sea, at the + same time avoiding reinforcements which may come from Spain; + therefore the insurrection must attack by land. Perhaps you + will have more than sufficient arms, as the Americans have + arms, and will find the means to aid you. + + "Whenever you see the American flag, bear in mind that they + are our redeemers." [30] + +On the margin is written: "Viva, for America with the Philippines!" + +Apparently what Basa here means by independence is independence from +Spain, for it is known that he was in favour of annexation to the +United States, and in the second proclamation we find the following:-- + + "This is the best opportunity which we have ever had for + contriving that our country (all the Philippine Archipelago) + may be counted as another Star in the Great Republic of + the United States, great because of its wisdom, its wealth, + and its constitutional laws. + + "Now is the time to offer ourselves to that great nation. With + America we shall have development in the broadest sense + (of advancement) in civilization. + + "With America we shall be rich, civilized and happy. + + "Fellow patriots, add your signatures to those which have + already been given. Explain to all our fellow countrymen the + benefits of this change, which will be blessed by Heaven, + by men and by our children. + + "Viva America with the Philippines!!!" [31] + +The letters were undoubtedly given to Aguinaldo for delivery on his +arrival. They were never delivered, and it is reasonable to suppose, +especially as Basa, who was a man of importance and means, was a +member of the group who desired annexation to the United States, that +Aguinaldo took the letters along in order to avoid a rupture with him +and then quietly suppressed them. Obviously, however, he sent or gave +a copy of the first one to Pratt, presumably without the written words: +"Viva, for America with the Philippines!" + +And now comes a bit of evidence as to what occurred at Singapore +which I consider incontrovertible. + +Aguinaldo returned promptly to Hongkong and on May 4, 1898, a meeting +of the junta was held. The minutes of this meeting, [32] signed by +each of the several Filipinos present, form a part of the Insurgent +records which have come into the possession of the United States +Government. They state among other things that:-- + + "The temporary Secretary read the minutes of the preceding + meeting, which were approved. The temporary President reported + that D. Emilio Aguinaldo had just arrived from Singapore and + it became necessary for him to take possession of the office + to which he has been elected." + +After the transaction of some further business Aguinaldo was summoned, +appeared at the meeting, and was duly installed as President. Then:-- + + "The President described the negotiations which took place + during his absence in Singapore with the American Consul of + that English colony. Both agreed that the President should + confer with the Admiral commanding the American squadron in + Mirs Bay, and if the latter should accept his propositions, + advantageous, in his judgment, to the Philippines, he would go + to said country in one of the cruisers which form the fleet + for the purpose of taking part in the present events. And + as he did not find the Admiral, he thought it well to have + an interview with the American Consul of this colony on the + day of his arrival, but was not satisfied with such interview. + + "Considering the critical conditions in the Philippines at + present, he begged the committee to discuss the advisability of + his going to said islands with all the leaders of prominence + in the last rebellion residing in this colony, in case the + Admiral gave them an opportunity to do so." + +Note that there is here absolutely not one word of any promise +of independence made to Aguinaldo by Pratt or any one else. Is it +conceivable that Aguinaldo in describing "the negotiations which +took place during his absence in Singapore with the American Consul +of the English Colony" would, by any chance, have failed to inform +his associates in Hongkong of such an extraordinary and fortunate +occurrence as the promising by Mr. Pratt and Admiral Dewey that the +United States would recognize Philippine independence? + +Sandico [33] thought that Aguinaldo ought to go, for-- + + "From conferences which he had with the Admiral of the + American fleet and with the American Consul in this colony, + he believed that under present conditions it was absolutely + necessary for the President to go to the Philippines, since, + according to the American Consul, Manila had been taken by + said fleet, and a provisional government was now being formed + in that capital. The intervention of the President in the + formation of that government is undoubtedly essential, since + his prestige, which everybody recognizes, would evidently + prevent dissensions among the sons of the country, and it + would be possible thereby to obtain a perfect organization + both for the military and civil evolution of that country. + + "Srs. Garchitorena [34] and Apacible [35] expressed themselves + in similar terms. Notwithstanding the previous remarks, + the President insisted that he considered it reckless for + him to go to the Philippines without first making a written + agreement with the Admiral, as it might happen, if he placed + himself at his orders, that he might make him subscribe to + or sign a document containing proposals highly prejudicial + to the interests of the country, from which might arise the + following two very grave contingencies: + + "1st. If he should accept them, he would undoubtedly commit + an unpatriotic act, and his name would justly be eternally + cursed by the Filipinos. + + "2d. If he should refuse, then the break between the two + would be evident. + + "And to avoid this sad dilemma, he proposed to the committee + that the four parties (?) of the insurgents now here, under + charge of the competent chiefs authorized in writing by him, + should go to the Philippines to intervene, after a conference + with the Admiral, in these important questions; such means, + in his opinion, should be first employed to ascertain in an + authentic manner what the intentions of the United States + in regard to that country are; and if his intervention is + absolutely necessary, he would not object to go at once to + the Philippines, endeavouring by all the means in his power + to remedy the critical condition of the country, to which he + had offered, and always would willingly offer, to sacrifice + his life." + +Why adopt means to learn from the admiral what the intentions of the +United States were in regard to the Philippines if both he and Pratt +had already promised recognition of independence? + + "Srs. Sandico, Garchitorena, Gonzaga [36] and Apacible + replied that they were fully convinced the Admiral of the + American squadron would furnish the President all the arms + which he might desire, since the former was convinced that + the fleet could do nothing in the Philippines unless it were + used in conjunction with the insurgents in the development + of their plans of war against the Spanish government.... The + authority to treat which the President desired to give to the + other chiefs, without reflecting at all upon their personal + qualifications, they did not believe would be as efficacious + as his personal intervention which is necessary in grave + affairs, such as those the subject of discussion; there would + be no better occasion than that afforded them to insure the + landing of the expeditionary forces on those islands and to + arm themselves at the expense of the Americans and to assure + the situation of the Philippines in regard to our legitimate + aspirations against those very people. The Filipino people, + unprovided with arms, would be the victims of the demands + and exactions of the United States; but, provided with arms, + would be able to oppose themselves to them, struggling for + independence, in which consists the true happiness of the + Philippines. And they finished by saying that it made no + difference if the Spanish government did demand the return + of the P400,000, and if the demand were allowed in an action, + since the object of the sum would be obtained by the Admiral + furnishing the Filipinos the arms which they required for + the struggle for their legitimate aspirations." + +Here, then, was a definite plan to obtain arms from the Americans to +be used if necessary "against those very people" later. + + "The President, with his prestige in the Philippines, would be + able to arouse those masses to combat the demands of the United + States, if they colonized that country, and would drive them, + if circumstances rendered it necessary, to a Titanic struggle + for their independence, even if they should succumb in shaking + off the yoke of a new oppressor. If Washington proposed to + carry out the fundamental principles of its constitution, + there was no doubt that it would not attempt to colonize the + Philippines, or even to annex them. It was probable then that + it would give them independence and guarantee it; in such + case the presence of the President was necessary, as he would + prevent dissensions among the sons of the country who sought + office, who might cause the intervention of European powers, an + intervention which there was no reason to doubt would be highly + prejudicial to the interests of the country.... What injury + could come to the Philippines, even if we admitted that the + Admiral would not give arms to the President on account of his + refusal to sign a document prejudicial to the country, after + he had taken all means to provide for her defence? None. Such + an act of the President could not be censured, but, on the + other hand, would be most meritorious, because it would be + one proof more of his undoubted patriotism." + +Not one word of any promise of independence do we find in this +remarkable document. On the contrary it furnishes conclusive proof +that no such promise had been made and that the future relations +between Filipinos and Americans were still completely uncertain. + +And now comes some direct evidence. Bray and St. Clair, the latter +the editor of the Insurgent organ in Singapore, were present on +the occasion when independence was said to have been promised by +Pratt. Bray subsequently declared in the most positive terms that it +was promised. St. Clair wrote him a letter taking him roundly to task +for this claim, in the following very interesting terms:-- + + "I felt it to be my duty to let Pratt know that you still hold + that you and Santos have evidence that will controvert his, + (and) he was, of course, extremely disappointed, because he + (is) quite aware of what took place in Spanish, and as to + turning of his conversation into a pretense of agreement + he knows nothing. He says very truly: 'My own party, the + Democrats, will say if they read this book--If this man takes + it upon himself to be a Plenipotentiary without authority, we + had better not employ him any more--I frankly cannot understand + your action, as to its unwisdom I have no doubt at all.' + + "Admiral Dewey goes home, it is believed, to advise the + President on Naval and Colonial Affairs, he knows exactly + what did take place and what did not, and I should know if + he had any ground to think that the slightest promise was + made by Pratt to Aguinaldo he would declare it unauthorized + and decline to sanction it. I am certain Pratt reported what + he supposed took place accurately; he had no surety on what + you might have said, naturally. + + "And, curiously, you never mentioned to me anything of + the agreement as having taken place then, nor in the paper + you communicated to me was there any mention of one, nor + did Pratt know of any. It is only more recently that the + fiction took shape. 'The wish father to the thought,' or + the statement repeated till it has become believed by the--, + [37] this is common. + + "Now I would like to urge you, from the practical point + of view, to drop any such foolishness. The vital thing, + and nothing else counts, is what Dewey said and did when + he at last met Aguinaldo. That, that, that, is the thing, + all else is empty wind. + + "Supposing that Pratt and Wildman had covered inches of + paper with 'Clauses' and put on a ton of sealing wax as + consular seals, what, pray, to any common sense mind would + all that have been worth? Nothing!! Nothing!! And yet, + where is the agreement, where is the seal? Where are there + any signatures? And if you had them--waste paper--believe + me, that all this potter about Pratt and Wildman is energy + misdirected. The sole thing to have impressed upon the + public in America would be the chaining of Dewey and + Aguinaldo together as participants in common action; you + surely comprehend this means! Think and think again; it + means success as far as it is possible. The other work is + not only lost, but does not gain much sympathy, especially + this criticism of the conduct of American troops; things may + be true that are not expedient to say. Sink everything into + Dewey-Aguinaldo coöperation, that was on both sides honest + even if it did not imply any actual arrangement, which, of + course, Dewey himself could not make. That here you have the + facts,--undenied--incontrovertible." [38] + +The following letter of Bray to Aguinaldo, dated January 12, 1899, +seems to me to throw much light on the question of how these claims +relative to the promised recognition of Filipino independence sometimes +originated and were bolstered up:-- + + "With regard to your proclamation, there is still a trump card + to be played. Did you not say that the basis of any negotiation + in Singapore was the Independence of the Philippines under an + American protectorate? This is what Consul Pratt telegraphed + and to which Dewey and Washington agreed; as I figured up + the 'price' of the telegram, I know very well what occurred, + and I am ready to state it and to swear to it when the proper + time comes. There are five of us against one in the event of + Consul Pratt receiving instructions to deny it. Furthermore, + Mr. St. Clair knows what happened and I am certain that he + also would testify. St. Clair still has the rough draft as + an historical relic, and St. Clair is a true and loyal friend + of yours, as is your humble servant." [39] + +The utter unscrupulousness of Bray is shown by his claim that St. Clair +would confirm his false statements, made as it was after receiving +St. Clair's letter above quoted. + +But Bray did not wait for Aguinaldo to play this trump card. He tried +to play it himself by cabling Senator Hoar, on the same day, that as +the man who introduced General Aguinaldo to the American government +through the consul at Singapore he was prepared to swear that the +conditions under which Aguinaldo promised to cooperate with Dewey +were independence under a protectorate. [40] + +Let us now trace Aguinaldo's subsequent movements, and see what +promises, if any, were made to him by Wildman and Dewey. He had +returned to Hongkong with two companions, all travelling under assumed +names. Only his most trusted friends among the members of the junta +were at first allowed to know where he was living. + +His situation was a difficult one. It was necessary for him to come +to some sort of a temporary arrangement with Artacho, if he was to +avoid legal difficulties, and to reëstablish himself with some of +his companions, who had accused him of deserting with the intention +of going to Europe to live on money which belonged to them. When +harmony had been temporarily restored through the good offices of +Sandico, Aguinaldo had an interview with Consul General Wildman. He +has since claimed that Wildman, too, promised him independence, but +the truth seems to be that he himself said he was anxious to become +an American citizen. This being impossible, he wanted to return to +the Philippines and place himself under Dewey's orders. He wanted to +help throw off the yoke of Spain, and this done, would abide by the +decision of the United States as to the fate of the Philippines. [41] + +Any claim that Aguinaldo had been promised independence by Wildman, or, +indeed, that the latter had been allowed to know that the Filipinos +desired it, seems to me to be negatived, not only by Wildman's own +statements, but by a letter from Agoncillo to Aguinaldo written on +August 5, 1908, in which he says:-- + + "The American consul left my house to-day at 3 o'clock, as I + had requested an interview with him before his departure, and + I was unable to go to the Consulate on account of the swelling + of my feet. From our conversation I infer that independence + will be given to us. I did not, however, disclose to him + our true desires.... Said consul approved my telegram to + McKinley, which has been sent to-day through him, a copy of + which is herewith enclosed. If they accept our representative + in the commission, we may arrive at a friendly understanding, + and it will enable us to prepare for the fight in case they + refuse to listen to our request. On the other hand, if at + the very beginning they refuse to admit our representative, + we will at once be in a position to know what should be done, + _i.e._ to prepare for war." [42] + +On May 4, 1898, the Hongkong junta voted that Aguinaldo ought to go +to the Philippines, and go he did. It would seem that he at first gave +up the idea of joining Dewey, for on May 11 he wrote a cipher letter, +giving minute directions for the preparation of signals to assist +his ship in making land, by day or by night, at Dingalan Bay on the +east coast of Luzon; directing the capture of the town of San Antonio, +just back of Capones Islands, in Zambales, and ending with the words: +"We will surely arrive at one of the two places above mentioned, +so you must be prepared." + +Something led him again to change his mind, and he finally sailed on +the _McCulloch_. + +In his "Reseña Verídica" written later for political purposes, +Aguinaldo has definitely claimed that Dewey promised him that +the United States would recognize the independence of the Filipino +people. I will let him tell his own story, confronting his statements +with those of the admiral. + + "May 19, 1898. + + "The _McCulloch_ started at eleven o'clock on the morning of + the 17th of May for the Philippines; we anchored, between + twelve and one o'clock on the afternoon of the 19th, in + the waters of Cavite, and immediately the launch of the + Admiral--with his aid and private secretary--came to convey + me to the _Olympia_, where I was received, with my aid, + Sr. Leyva, with the honors of a general, by a section of + marine guards." [43] + +Relative to this matter, Admiral Dewey has testified: [44] + + "_The Chairman_. You, of course, never saluted the flag? + + _Admiral Dewey_. Certainly not; and I do not think I ever + called Aguinaldo anything but Don Emilio; I don't think I + ever called him 'General.' + + _The Chairman_. And when he came on board ship was he received + with any special honors at the side? + + _Admiral Dewey_. Never." + +The "Reseña Verídica" continues:-- + + "The Admiral received me in a salon, and after greetings of + courtesy I asked him 'if all the telegrams relative to myself + which he had addressed to the Consul at Singapore, Mr. Pratt, + were true.' He replied in the affirmative, and added, 'that + the United States had come to the Philippines to protect its + natives and free them from the yoke of Spain.' + + He said, moreover, that 'America was rich in territory and + money, and needed no colonies,' concluding by assuring me, + 'to have no doubt whatever about the recognition of Philippine + independence by the United States.' Thereupon he asked me + if I could get the people to arise against the Spaniards and + carry on a rapid campaign." [45] + +As we have seen, Dewey sent only one telegram to Pratt about +Aguinaldo. It merely directed that the latter be sent. + + "I then expressed to him my profound acknowledgment for the + generous help which the United States was giving the Filipino + people, as well as my admiration for the magnificence and + goodness of the American people. I also stated to him that + 'before leaving Hongkong, the Filipino Colony had held a + meeting, at which was discussed and considered the possibility + that--after defeating the Spaniards--the Filipinos might have a + war with the Americans, if they should refuse to recognize our + independence, who were sure to defeat us because they should + find us tired out, poor in ammunitions and worn out in the war + against the Spaniards,' requesting that he pardon my frankness. + + "The Admiral replied that he 'was delighted at my sincerity, + and believed that both Filipinos and Americans should treat + each other as allies and friends, clearly explaining all + doubts for the better understanding between both parties,' and + added that, 'so he had been informed, the United States would + recognize the independence of the Filipino people, guaranteed + by the word of honor of the Americans,--more binding than + documents which may remain unfulfilled when it is desired + to fail in them as happened with the compacts signed by the + Spaniards, advising me to form at once a Filipino national + flag, offering in virtue thereof to recognize and protect + it before the other nations, which were represented by the + various squadrons then in the Bay; although he said we should + conquer the power from the Spaniards before floating said + flag, so that the act should be more honourable in the sight + of the whole world, and, above all, before the United States, + in order that when the Filipino ships with their national + flag would pass before the foreign squadrons they should + inspire respect and esteem.' + + "Again I thanked the Admiral for his good advice and generous + offers, informing him that if the sacrifice of my life was + necessary to honor the Admiral before the United States, + I was then ready to sacrifice it. + + "I added that under such conditions I could assure him that + all the Filipino people would unite in the revolution to + shake off the yoke of Spain; that it was not strange that + some few were not yet on his side on account of lack of arms + or because of personal expediency. + + "Thus ended this first conference with Admiral Dewey, to whom + I announced that I would take up my residence at the Naval + Headquarters in the Cavite Arsenal." [46] + +Further on, in the same document, Aguinaldo advances the claim that +on the occasion of the visit of General Anderson and Admiral Dewey +the latter again promised him independence. + +He says:-- + + "In the same month of July, the Admiral, accompanied by General + Anderson, presented himself, and after greetings of courtesy + said to me: 'You have seen confirmed all of what I promised + and said to you. How pretty your flag is. It has a triangle, + and it looks like Cuba's. Will you give me one as a reminder + when I return to America?' + + "I replied to him that I was convinced of his word of + honour and that there was no necessity whatever to draw up + in documentary form his agreements, and as for the flag, + that he could count on it, even at that very moment. + + "Dewey continued: 'Documents are not complied with when + there is no honour, as has happened with your agreement + with the Spaniards, who have failed in what was written + and signed. Trust in my word for I hold myself responsible + that the United States will recognize the independence of + the country. But I recommend to you [plural.--TR.] to keep + everything which we have talked about and agreed upon with + a great deal of secrecy for the present. And, moreover, + I entreat you [plural.--TR.] to be patient if our soldiers + should insult some Filipino, because, as volunteers, they + are yet lacking in discipline.'" [47] + +Admiral Dewey has testified as follows, concerning the recognition +of Philippine independence by him:-- + + "_The Chairman_. You remember the question of your recognizing + his republic was a good deal discussed and you wrote me a + letter, which I read in the senate. Of course, I am only + asking now about what you said in the letter. There was no + recognition of the republic? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Never. I did not think I had any authority to + do it and it never occurred to me to do it. There was a sort + of a reign of terror; there was no government. These people + had got power for the first time in their lives and they + were riding roughshod over the community. The acts of cruelty + which were brought to my notice were hardly credible. I sent + word to Aguinaldo that he must treat his prisoners kindly, + and he said he would." + +He has further testified that he never as much as heard of independence +until the appearance of Aguinaldo's proclamation of June 15, 1898:-- + + "_Admiral Dewey_.... Then when I heard that our troops were + coming I asked him to withdraw his troops from Cavite and make + room for our men. He demurred at this, but finally withdrew + and established headquarters across the bay at a place called + Bacoor, from which place on the 15th of June he sent me a + proclamation declaring the independence of the Philippines. + + "_The Chairman_. Was that the first? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. That was the first intimation; the first + I had ever heard of independence of the Philippines. + + "_The Chairman_. He had said something to you-- + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Not a word. He had done what I told him. He + was most obedient; whatever I told him to do he did. I attached + so little importance to this proclamation that I did not even + cable its contents to Washington, but forwarded it through + the mails. I never dreamed that they wanted independence." + +Remembering that Admiral Dewey was not being interrogated as to the +statements of the "Reseña Veridica," it will be seen that he has, +nevertheless, covered them fully. + +It was my good fortune to be long and intimately associated with +Admiral Dewey while serving on the first Philippine commission. He +always grew indignant when the subject of any promises relative to +independence said to have been made by him was so much as mentioned, +and gave to the commission in writing the following:-- + + "The statement of Emilio Aguinaldo, under date of Sept. 23, + published in the _Springfield Republican_, so far as it + relates to reported conversations with me, or actions of mine, + is a tissue of falsehood. I never, directly or indirectly, + promised the Filipinos independence. I never received Aguinaldo + with military honors, or recognized or saluted the so-called + Filipino flag. I never considered him as an ally, although + I did make use of him and the natives to assist me in my + operations against the Spaniards." [48] + +As Dewey's allegations flatly contradict those of Aguinaldo, we +must choose between the two. While I have no doubt as to where +the choice will fall, I will now submit some additional matter of +interest. Let us first consider the history of the "Reseña Verídica" +in which Aguinaldo makes the charges above quoted. On September 12, +1899, Buencamino wrote of it to Apacible in Hongkong, saying:-- + + "This work is entitled 'Reseña Verídica de la Revolución + Filipina' in which Don Emilio relates in detail his acts with + Admiral Dewey. It has been distributed to the Consuls and + you are ordered to reprint it there translated into English + and send some copies to the United States, even though only + a thousand, if you deem it advisable. Send copies also to + Europe, Señor Agoncillo taking charge of the publication. If + the Agent you may have selected for the United States should + still be there, it would be advisable for him to take a copy + of the pamphlet with him for its publication. + + "This is an order of the Government which I take pleasure in + transmitting to you for due execution." [49] + +But there was a change of heart about giving the pamphlet to the +consuls, for under date of September 30 Buencamino wrote:-- + + "We have not distributed them here in order that Otis may + not counteract the effects that we desire to produce with + this publication, through his usual machinations. Nor do we + believe it advisable to make this pamphlet public in those + colonies before your arrival in the United States." [50] + +To this letter he added in cipher the following postscript to Pablo +Ocampo, in charge of Aguinaldo's correspondence in Manila:-- + + "At last moment--Nota bene: + + "Don't deliver any copy of the 'Reseña Verídica' to the + Consuls, even though it was so directed in the beginning of + the letter. All except one, which is for you, will be sent + to Hong-kong, Don Pedro de la Viña being bearer of the same, + as also of the other documents. The copy intended for you + is neither to be divulged nor published, for strict reserve + is required until those which are being sent arrive at their + destination." [51] + +The reason for preserving such secrecy relative to this document +until it could reach its destination and work its harm is of course +obvious. Its statements were so outrageously false that they would +have been instantly and authoritatively contradicted had it been +issued seasonably at Manila. + +The truth is that Aguinaldo's claim that he had been promised +independence was a gradual growth. Let us trace it. + +On May 21, he wrote a circular letter to "My dear brother," inviting +the recipients and their companions to meet him at once, and arrange +the best way to entrap all the enemy in their homes. + +In this he says that he has promised the American admiral that they +will "carry on modern war" and adds: "Even if a Spaniard surrenders, +he must be pardoned and treated well, and then you will see that +our reputation will be very good in all Europe, which will declare +for our independence; but if we do not conduct ourselves thus, the +Americans will decide to sell us or else divide up our territory. As +they will hold us incapable of governing our land, we shall not secure +our liberty, rather the contrary; our own soil will be delivered over +to other hands." [52] + +In this letter, written on the very day of the interview at which he +subsequently claimed that Admiral Dewey had promised independence, +does he make any claim that this had occurred? No, he very distinctly +implies the contrary. Is it believable that if he could truly have +said "The United States, through its representatives Dewey and Pratt, +has promised to recognize our independence" he would have failed to +do so when this would instantly have secured him the vigorous support +which he was then uncertain of obtaining? I think not. + +In this letter Aguinaldo specifically directs that deceit be employed +and that Spanish officers be treacherously attacked. The practising of +deceit was a carefully considered part of the insurgent policy. In a +letter from Hongkong dated July 21, 1898, Agoncillo writes as follows +to Mabini: [53]-- + + "the time will come when disguises must be set aside and + we will see who is deceiving whom. The statements made by + some of the commanders of the fleet here to Don Emilio and + myself were to the effect that the exclusive purpose of the + Government at Washington with regard to the Filipinos, is to + grant this country independence, without any conditions, + although I said to myself that such a purpose was too + philanthropical. Don Emilio knew what I thought then, and + I still think the same; that is to say that we are the ones + who must secure the independence of our country by means of + unheard of sacrifices and thus work out its happiness." [54] + +Aguinaldo himself frankly advocated the use of deceit. He practised +what he preached. Simeon Villa, one of his companions on his +subsequent flight through Northern Luzon, before he finally took +refuge at Palanan, kept a diary, which constitutes an official record +of this long journey. In it he has inserted some bits of history of +other days, of which none is more interesting than his account of the +beginning of hostilities against the Spaniards, in August, 1896. From +it we learn that Aguinaldo, who was known to the friar of his town to +be both a mason and a chief of the Katipúnan, was in danger during +August, and on the night of the 29th of that month called a meeting +of all the compromised persons of the place, who agreed that on the +following day he should "make representations to the governor of the +province." Villa says that he was greatly beloved by the governor and +his wife. Early on the following morning, he "presented himself to the +governor, and in the name of the people of Cavite Viejo, offered him +their respects and their loyalty to Spain," at the same time asking +a garrison of a hundred men for his town, which the governor promised +to send at once if the captain-general approved. + +That afternoon he reported the results of his efforts to his +fellow-conspirators, "and told them that then was the opportune moment +for rising against the Spaniards." He initiated the uprising himself +the next morning. [55] + +Could deceit be more deliberately practised or treachery more frankly +employed? + +I have indulged in this digression to show that Aguinaldo could +hardly have complained had the methods which he used against others +been employed against him. He was never deceived by the Americans, +but his claims relative to independence grew rapidly, and he was soon +deceiving his own people. + +On May 24th, he issued no less than four proclamations. One of +these, doubtless intended to be seen by Americans, made no mention +of Independence, but said: [56]-- + +"The great powerful North American nation has offered its disinterested +protection to secure the liberty of this country." + +In another proclamation, doubtless intended for a different use, +he made the statement that the great North American nation had come +to give decisive and disinterested protection, "considering us as +sufficiently civilized and capable of governing ourselves." [57] + +On June 5, having practically gained control of Cavite Province, he +felt strong enough to announce that independence would be proclaimed +on June 12, and on that date he did proclaim it in a decree. + +The Admiral of the American Squadron, with the commanders and officers +of his command, was invited to the ceremonies, but none of them +went. As it was important for Aguinaldo to have some one there to +pose as a representative of the United States, he utilized for this +purpose a certain "Colonel" Johnson, an ex-hotel keeper of Shanghai, +who was running a cinematograph show. He appeared as Aguinaldo's chief +of artillery and the representative of the North American nation. [58] + + * * * * * + +Even as late as October 3, 1898, Agoncillo in a memorandum addressed to +President McKinley did not claim that independence had been promised, +but said:-- + + "As soon as the Spanish-American war began, the American + representatives and officials in Singapore, Hongkong and + Manila, invited the natives of the Philippines to assist + the American arms, which they did gladly and loyally, as + allies, with the conviction that their personality would + be recognized, as well as their political, autonomous and + sovereign rights." [59] + +In it he does, however, claim that the organization of a government +independent of America and Spain was accomplished with the tacit +consent of the admiral commanding the fleet and with that of the +general and military and political commanders of the United States +of North America in the Philippines. + + "Who, knowing these facts, not only did not object but accepted + them as a consummated legal act, and maintained official + relations with the new organization, making use thereof in + its subsequent actions and for the subsequent development of + the campaign, which was consequently brought to such a happy + end." [60] + +This is a second illustration of the stereotyped insurgent procedure +of announcing a policy and then claiming that failure to attack it +meant acquiescence in it. Admiral Dewey says that he did not even read +this proclamation. There was no reason why he should have done so, +as it did not deal with matters which he was authorized to settle. He +had no instructions relative to the recognition of new governments, +and he sent this document to Washington without comment, as he should +have done. [61] + +Apropos of this claim that American officers tacitly recognized +the Insurgent government, certain passages from an unsigned +document in the handwriting of Mabini, prepared about July 15, +1898, are of interest. Mabini, speaking of the attitude of the +Americans, says, "Notwithstanding all this and in spite of their +protestations of friendship, they have always refused to recognize +that government." Also, "If they persist in refusing to recognize our +government, we shall see ourselves compelled to come to an agreement +with any other government that will consent to recognize us on friendly +terms." [62] + +This statement is certainly sufficiently specific as to whether +Americans had recognized the Insurgent government on or before the +date when it was written. + +Let us now consider the relations between Aguinaldo and General +Anderson. + +Blount attempts to make much of a cablegram, sent by the latter, in +which, after describing the Filipinos, he adds, "The people expect +independence." Blount says:-- + + "That cablegram of July 22nd, above quoted, in which the + commanding general of our forces in the Philippines advises + the Washington Government, 'The people expect independence' + is the hardest thing in the public archives of our government + covering that momentous period for those who love the memory of + Mr. McKinley to get around. After the war with the Filipinos + broke out, McKinley said repeatedly in public speeches, + 'I never dreamed they would turn against us.'" [63] + +If there is nothing harder than this to get around the memory of +President McKinley will not suffer, as the important thing is not +what Aguinaldo had led his people to expect, but what the American +officials had promised him. The President was certainly not bound to +believe that the Filipinos would turn against us even if they did +then expect independence. Blount has seen fit to leave unmentioned +certain other facts which are very pertinent in this connection. + +Apparently sometime during September, 1898, Sandico made the following +statement in a letter to Aguinaldo:-- + + "I also have to inform you that Señores Basa, Cortés and + Co. have congratulated the Government of the United States + upon the capture of Manila, stating at the same time that now + that Filipino soil had been soaked with American blood, the + Islands must remain American. I believe that a telegram should + be sent immediately, to counteract that sent by them." [64] + +Probably Sandico did not know that on August 15, 1898, Agoncillo +had transmitted another telegram to President McKinley through +Consul-General Wildman, reading as follows:-- + + "Agoncillo, my Commissioner and Ambassador-Extraordinary, + representing the provisional government of the Philippine + Islands, in its name and the name of its President, Emilio + Aguinaldo, congratulates you on the successful termination of + the war, and commends the occupancy of Manila. I assure the + United States of the allegiance and unquestioning support + of our people, and petition that we be granted one or more + representatives on the commission that is to decide the future + of our Islands." [65] + +It would appear, therefore, that the President had more information +on this subject than was transmitted by General Anderson! + +Not only did the latter passively refrain from recognizing Aguinaldo's +pretensions, but on July 22, 1898, he wrote to him as follows:-- + + "I observe that your Excellency has announced yourself + Dictator and proclaimed martial law. As I am here simply in + a military capacity, I have no authority to recognize such + an assumption. I have no orders from my government on the + subject." [66] + +The effort to keep Americans in ignorance of the true state of affairs +was kept up until further deception was useless. Consul Williams, +for instance, wrote on June 16, 1898:-- + + "For future advantage, I am maintaining cordial relations + with General Aguinaldo, having stipulated submissiveness to + our forces when treating for their return here. Last Sunday, + 12th, they held a council to form provisional government. I + was urged to attend, but thought best to decline. A form of + government was adopted, but General Aguinaldo told me today + that his friends all hoped that the Philippines would be held + as a colony of the United States of America." [67] + +Yet on Sunday, June 12, Aguinaldo had in reality proclaimed the +independence of the Philippines. Few Americans at this time knew any +Spanish and none understood Tagalog, so that it was comparatively +easy to deceive them. What Consul Williams reported was what Aguinaldo +considered it expedient to have him believe. + +The following undated letter from Aguinaldo to Mabini, supposed to have +been sent at this time, is of especial interest in this connection:-- + + "My dear Brother: I do not want to go there [where the + addressee is] until after the visit of the American Consul, + because I do not wish the negotiations to end in an ultimatum, + and in order that you may tell him all that is favourable for + the cause of our Nation. I charge you with the task of giving + him a reply, and if he should ask about me tell him that + since the time of his last visit there I have not recovered + from my illness. If anything important should happen we can + communicate with each other by telegraph, using a code in + matters that require secrecy." [68] + +In a letter supposed to have been written during November, 1898, +prepared for Aguinaldo's signature and addressed to Señor McKinley, +President of the Republic of the United States of North America, but +apparently never sent, Aguinaldo renews the charge [69] previously +made in his "Reseñia Verídica," that Pratt and Dewey promised +independence. It need not be further discussed. + +The climax was finally reached in an official protest against the +Paris Treaty written by Agoncillo in Paris on the 12th of December, +1898, in which occurs the following:-- + + "The United States of America, on their part, cannot allege + a better right to constitute themselves as arbitrators as to + the future of the Philippines. + + "On the contrary, the demands of honour and good faith impose + on them the explicit recognition of the political status of + the people, who, loyal to their conventions, were a devoted + ally of their forces in the moments of danger and strife. The + noble general Emilio Aguinaldo and the other Filipino chiefs + were solicited to place themselves at the head of the suffering + and heroic sons of that country, to fight against Spain and + to second the action of the brave and skilful Admiral Dewey. + + "At the time of employing their armed coöperation, both the + Commander of the _Petrel_ and Captain Wood in Hongkong, before + the declaration of war, the American Consuls-General Mr. Pratt + in Singapore, Mr. Wildman, in Hongkong, and Mr. Williams in + Cavite, acting as international agents of the great American + nation, at a moment of great anxiety offered to recognize + the independence of the Filipino nation, as soon as triumph + was obtained. + + "Under the faith of such promises, an American man-of-war, + the _McCulloch_ was placed at the disposal of the said leaders + and which took them to their native shores; and Admiral Dewey + himself, by sending the man-of-war; by not denying to General + Aguinaldo and his companions the exacting of his promises, + when they were presented to him on board his flag-ship in + the Bay of Manila; by receiving the said General Aguinaldo + before and after his victories and notable deeds of arms, + with the honours due the Commander-in-Chief of an allied + army, and chief of an independent state; by accepting the + efficacious coöperation of that Army and of those Generals; + by recognizing the Filipino flag, and permitting it to be + hoisted on sea and land, consenting that their ships should + sail with the said flag within the places which were blockaded; + by receiving a solemn notification of the formal proclamation + of the Philippine nation, without protesting against it, + nor opposing in any way its existence; by entering into + relations with those Generals and with the national Filipino + authorities recently established, recognized without question + the corporated body and autonomous sovereignty of the people + who had just succeeded in breaking their fetters and freeing + themselves by the impulse of their own force." [70] + +It will be noted that the claim constantly grows. The commander of +the _Petrel_ Captain Wood, Consul Wildman and Consul Williams are +now included among those alleged to have promised independence, and +it is claimed that Aguinaldo was received with the honours due the +chief of an independent state when he visited Admiral Dewey, whereas +his own original claim was that he was received with the honours due +a general, which is quite a different matter. + +As a matter of fact, American officers usually addressed and treated +Aguinaldo as a general. The extent to which they were able to use +his organization to further the ends of their government will be set +forth later. + +In a letter to Wildman, dated August 7, 1898, Aguinaldo admits that +there is no agreement, but says that he cannot tell the peoples that +it does not exist, "fearing that I may not be able to restrain the +popular excitement." [71] He begs Wildman to use his influence on his +government so that it will realize the inadvisability of deciding the +fate of the people "without considering their will duly represented by +my government." Is it conceivable that, if there had been any ground +for claiming a promise of independence, Aguinaldo would have failed +to mention it at this time? + +We may summarize the well-established facts as follows:-- + +Consul-General Pratt was, or professed to be, in hearty sympathy +with the ambition of the Filipino leaders to obtain independence, and +would personally have profited from such a result, but he refrained +from compromising his government and made no promises in its behalf. + +Admiral Dewey never even discussed with Aguinaldo the possibility +of independence. + +There is no reason to believe that any subordinate of the Admiral +ever discussed independence with any Filipino, much less made any +promise concerning it. + +Neither Consul Wildman nor Consul Williams promised it, and both +were kept in ignorance of the fact that it was desired up to the last +possible moment. + +It is not claimed that either General Anderson or General Merritt +made any promise concerning it. + +The conclusion that no such promise was ever made by any of these +men is fully justified by well-established facts. + +Aguinaldo himself carefully refrained at the outset from saying, +in any document which Americans could read, that independence +had been promised, and advanced this claim only when the growing +strength of his land force had given him confidence. He repeated it, +with increasing emphasis, as his army increased in size, ultimately +openly threatening war if his pretensions were not recognized. In +doing this, he was merely carrying out a carefully prearranged plan, +agreed upon by the Hongkong junta. + +And now let us examine the claim that the insurgents were our "faithful +allies" and "coöperated" with us in the taking of Manila. We shall +find that this subject richly repays investigation. + + + + + + +CHAPTER III + +Insurgent "Coöperation" + + +I have previously [72] called attention to the minutes of a session +of the Hongkong junta held on May 4, 1898, from which it indirectly +appears that the Filipino leaders at that time hoped to secure arms +at the expense of the Americans and purposed to attack them later if +it seemed advisable. + +The treacherous policy then outlined was never departed from by +Aguinaldo and his associates, who sailed for Manila with their eyes +wide open, knowing full well that they had been promised nothing; +prepared to match their wits against those of Admiral Dewey, and +intent on deceiving him and on securing from him arms to be used +first against the Spaniards and later against the Americans, after +they had been employed to help bring about the downfall of Spain. + +There exists a significant circular signed "J.M.B." [73] believed +to have been an outright forgery, both from its tenor and from the +fact that the signature "J.M.B." is not in the handwriting of Basa's +letter hereinbefore quoted. + +It contains the following statements:-- + + "The true patriots have organized a committee to which + I belong, naming Aguinaldo as President and Agoncillo as + Vice-President. The latter and three others have commenced + diplomatic negotiations with the Admiral and American Consul, + and we infer that they are trying to make colonies of us, + although they said they would give us independence. The + Committee deemed it advisable to simulate belief, at the same + time equipping ourselves with arms. + + "We have accepted arms offered by the Admiral which will be + disembarked in the Philippines by the squadron. + + "A part of our forces will aid the Americans by fighting with + them in order to conceal our real intentions, and part will + be held in reserve. If America triumphs and proposes a colony, + we shall reject such offer and rise in arms. + + "A separate expedition will disembark at whatever point may + be considered suitable. + + "José Alejandrino embarked with the American squadron in + order to give secret instructions to the Chiefs. + + "Be very cautious about this exceedingly delicate point; + you will communicate with prudent and intelligent chiefs who + will recognize the gravity of the subject." [74] + +Here, then, in a faked-up letter on which Basa's initials were forged +in order to gain the prestige of his name for this treacherous plan, +we have definitely set forth the purpose of the Filipinos to deceive +the Americans by allowing a part of the Insurgent force to fight with +them, and then to attack them. + +Reference has already been made to Agoncillo's advice to Aguinaldo, +given under date of August 26, 1898, to the effect that friendly +relations should be maintained with the Americans until the diplomatic +negotiations at Paris should end; that an effort should be made +to find out the future status of the islands "by deceitful means," +and that confidence should never be put in the Americans. + +Aguinaldo put the whole matter in a nutshell in a postscript to this +letter, saying:-- + + "You should issue an order commanding that all our chiefs + should employ a policy of friendship toward the Americans until + our status is defined; but said order should be confidentially + given. Try to mislead them." [75] + +Bray also very strongly advised awaiting the results of the Paris +conference. [76] + +Blount claims that the Filipinos hoped that the Treaty of Paris +would leave their country to them as it left Cuba to the Cubans, +[77] and adds that having helped us take the city of Manila, they +"felt that they had been 'given the double cross,'" "believed that +the Americans had been guilty of a duplicity rankly Machiavellian, +and that was the cause of the war." [78] + +The quotations already given from Insurgent records show plainly +that the principal thing for which the Filipinos were waiting was +the ousting of Spain from the Philippines by the United States; those +which follow show that war was by no means inevitable as a result of +a a decision at Paris adverse to Filipino hopes, for the question of +whether a United States protectorate, or even annexation to the United +States, might be considered, was left open to a very late date. [79] + +It has been claimed not only that the Insurgents whipped the Spaniards +without our assistance, but whipped them so thoroughly that Spanish +sovereignty had practically disappeared from the islands at the time +Manila surrendered. It has further been alleged that "decrepit" +Spain "could not possibly have sent any reinforcements to the +Philippines. Besides, the Filipinos would have 'eaten them up.'" [80] + +But the Filipinos had fought Spain before and were by no means +sanguine. Their more intelligent and reasonable men clearly foresaw +that they could not win unaided. Señor Antonio Regidor was at the +time residing in London. He was a Filipino of unusual intelligence and +exceptionally good education. He took a keen interest in the situation, +and on July 28, 1898, telegraphed Agoncillo as follows:-- + + "In the name of the Filipinos, you should immediately send + a telegraphic message to MacKinley, requesting him not to + abandon the islands, after having fought as brothers for a + common cause. Pledge him our unconditional adhesion, especially + of well-to-do people. To return to Spain, in whatever form, + would mean annihilation, perpetual anarchy. Filipinos en + masse should visit the consuls at Hongkong, Singapore. London + commerce support it. Influence Aguinaldo to accept American + flag, flying it everywhere, thus obliging them to remain." [81] + +This leaves no room for doubt as to Regidor's views, but Agoncillo +did not share them. He replied on July 29:-- + + "Provisional government's aspiration is independence. Make + this campaign." [82] + +Regidor was not to be persuaded. On July 30 he replied as follows, +addressing his communication to Basa: + + "America vacillating as to remaining fears conflicts later with + natives international question other difficulties necessary to + encourage her all of you submit united unconditionally raising + American flag great demonstrations necessary to influence + outside opinion show islands resolved united America high + circles advise in view present circumstances only feasible + programme is protectorate." [83] + +Obviously, Agoncillo was somewhat impressed by this cablegram, for +on August 1 in a letter to Aguinaldo he made the following statements +and inquiries:-- + + "If the American troops leave us alone there, the questions + which will arise are these: Have we sufficient arms to maintain + the war against Spain in order to secure our independence? If + the other nations are opposed to our independence and wish + that we should continue under the Spanish sovereignty, + have we sufficient strength to wage a war and obtain victory + over Spain and over them in the future? If you think that we + have not sufficient strength to fight against them, should + we accept independence under the American protectorate? And + if so, what conditions or advantages should we give to the + United States? You should carefully consider the preceding + questions, and I suggest that you should, in a confidential + manner, consult them with your cabinet-in-banc, as well as + with your private secretary and military chiefs of rank; + and your decision be notified to our representatives abroad + in order that they may know what they must do in their + negotiations. You will see from the telegram addressed to + me by Regidor that he suggests to me to send a message to + MacKinley requesting him not to abandon us, and to submit + to them [the U. S.] unconditionally. As I do not agree with + him and as I cannot take any action which is against the + instructions of the government, I replied to him that the + only desire of our government is independence. This may be + seen from the enclosed telegram. On account of this reply, + he was, I think, somewhat offended, as he afterwards sent a + telegram to Joviales [Basa] instead of to me. The latter, + upon receiving the telegram, convened all the boastful + patriots, and they adopted a resolution to send a message + to MacKinley requesting annexation. Fortunately, in the + meeting there was present Dr. Justo Lucban, who protested + against such measure. In view of this protest, they again + agreed that I should be present in the meeting, since I am + the representative of our government. At the meeting where + I was present, I pointed out the inadvisability of their + resolution, stating, as one of the reasons, that we should + await your instructions in regard to the matter before sending + any message of that character. So the message was not sent; + but I was later informed that Basa had, after all, sent it + yesterday, because he believed that it would not injure our + cause. Upon learning this, I was carried away by passion and + went so far as to say to Basa the following: 'Many of us, + especially myself, think ourselves to be wise, without being + so; politicians for what we hear from others; we claim to be + patriots, but we are only so in words; we wish to be chiefs, + but none of us act in a way worthy of a chief.' To this he + did not reply. Perhaps his conscience accused him of an act + of treachery, since we agreed in the meeting to await your + letter. What union can you expect from this people?" [84] + +Note that the Basa here referred to is the man whose initials were +forged on the letter quoted on page 67. + +In the course of the above-mentioned letter Agoncillo came back once +more to the question of independence under a protectorate and made +it very clear that at this late day he did not know whether this was +or was not what the Filipinos desired. [85] + +On August 21, Apacible obviously did not think that it would be an +easy matter to escape from Spanish domination, much less that the +islands were already rid of it, for he wrote to Mabini that the United +States were likely again to deliver the Filipinos into the hands of +Spain. He said that "if events will be what their telegrams indicate, +we have a dark and bloody future before us. To be again in the hands +of Spain will mean a long and bloody war, and it is doubtful whether +the end will be favourable to us... Spain free from Cuba and her +other colonies will employ her energy to crush us and will send here +the 150,000 men she has in Cuba." [86] Apacible thought that the best +thing was independence under an American protectorate. + +On August 7, 1898, Aguinaldo warned Agoncillo that in the United States +he should "not accept any contracts or give any promises respecting +protection or annexation, because we will see first if we can obtain +independence." [87] + +Even annexation to the United States was not excluded by Aguinaldo +from the possible accepted solutions, for in outlining the policy of +the Philippine government to Sandico on August 10, 1898, he wrote:-- + + "The policy of the government is as follows: 1st. To struggle + for the independence of 'the Philippines' as far as our + strength and our means will permit. Protection or annexation + will be acceptable only when it can be clearly seen that the + recognition of our Independence, either by force of arms or + diplomacy, is impossible." [88] + +On August 26, 1898, Aguinaldo was still ready to consider annexation +if necessary. [89] He was apparently not sanguine at this time as +to the result of a continued struggle with Spain. At all events, +he wanted the help of the Americans if such a struggle was to come, +and desired to know on what terms it could be had. [90] + +Meanwhile the Filipinos in Hongkong who favoured annexation made +themselves heard. + +On July 18, 1898, Consul-General Wildman wrote from that place:-- + + "I believe I know the sentiments of the political leaders + and of the moneyed men among the insurgents, and, in spite + of all statements to the contrary, I know that they are + fighting for annexation to the United States first, and + for independence secondly, if the United States decides to + decline the sovereignty of the Islands. In fact, I have had + the most prominent leaders call on me and say they would not + raise one finger unless I could assure them that the United + States intended to give them United States citizenship if + they wished it." [91] + +We have already noted the action of Basa and the Cortez family who +insisted that the Islands must remain American, [92] and that of +Agoncillo, who cabled President McKinley in Aguinaldo's name and his +own, congratulating him on the outcome of the war, commending the +occupation of Manila, and assuring the people of the United States +of the allegiance and unquestioning support of the Filipinos, [93] +but it is to be feared that the sending of this cablegram was only +one more move in the Insurgent game of deceit. + +There were annexationists in Manila as well as in Hongkong. [94] +Indeed we know that some of the strongest and best of the Filipinos +there were in favour of it. + +Felipe Buencamino, writing in 1901, said:-- + + "In June of 1898, Don Cayetano Arellano [95] addressed to + Don Felipe Buencamino and Don Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista a + letter written from the town of Pagsanján, province of Laguna, + in reply to one addressed to him by those two gentlemen. In + this letter Don Cayetano outlined the idea of union with the + United States and said: 'Avoid all doing and undoing, and + when America has established a stable order of affairs, then + it will be time enough to make laws.' Mabini, whose influence + at that time was in the ascendant in Aguinaldo's government, + paid no heed to this wise advice. In October of 1898, while + the Philippine government was established in Malolos, and + before congress had promulgated a Philippine constitution, + Messrs. Arellano and Pardo [96] still more earnestly advocated + union with America, the first as secretary of foreign affairs + and the latter as chief diplomat. Their plan consisted in + asking the United States to acknowledge the independence + of the country under a protectorate through the mediation + of General Otis, and this plan was accepted at a cabinet + meeting by Don Emilio Aguinaldo. But on the following day + Sandico came and told Aguinaldo that he had had a conference + with the Japanese consul and had been told by him: 'that if + Aguinaldo would support absolute independence the Japanese + Government would help.' Aguinaldo believed Sandico's story + (which turned out to be absolutely false) and did not carry + out the resolution adopted by the cabinet. Messrs. Arellano + and Pardo, after this affront, separated themselves from + the Malolos government. Aguinaldo told me afterwards that + he had received a letter from Agoncillo, dated Washington, + assuring him that a majority of the American people were + inclined to acknowledge the independence of the Philippines + and of Cuba." [97] + +But annexationists were not confined, in the Philippines, to the +vicinity of Manila. + +As late as September 6 Consul Williams reported that a delegation from +four thousand Visayan soldiers, a delegation which also represented +southern business interests, had come to him and pledged loyalty to +annexation. [98] + +Clearly, then, the situation early in September was as follows: All +were agreed that the assistance of the United States was necessary +in getting rid of Spanish sovereignty. + +Under the plan of Aguinaldo and his followers friendly relations were +to be maintained with the United States, if possible, until Spain +was ousted from her Philippine territory, and then they were to "show +their teeth," and see "who was deceiving whom," resorting to "force of +arms" if necessary. Protection or annexation would be accepted only +when it could be clearly seen that the recognition of independence, +won either by force of arms or by diplomacy, was impossible. + +Other influential and patriotic Filipinos favored annexation to the +United States or a United States protectorate, but their views were +in the end ignored by Aguinaldo and his following, and as the latter +had the guns their ideas prevailed. + +The Treaty of Paris, which terminated Spanish sovereignty in the +Philippines, was signed on December 10, 1898. It is important to +bear this date in mind later, when considering the Insurgent records +relative to the preparations which were so carefully made for attacking +the American troops. + +And now let us consider the actual facts as to the coöperation alleged +to have been asked by Americans and given by Filipinos. The following +points are not in dispute:-- + +Pratt asked Aguinaldo to coöperate with Dewey. + +Aguinaldo was taken to Manila with the understanding that he would +do so. + +Dewey assisted Aguinaldo by destroying the main Spanish fleet; by +bringing him and his associates back to the Philippines; by furnishing +them arms and ammunition; by blockading Manila and by keeping at a safe +distance the Spanish mosquito fleet, which would have made dangerous, +or impossible, the landing of the arms subsequently imported by +the Insurgents. + +Aguinaldo successfully attacked the Spanish garrisons in the provinces +and used the arms and ammunition captured, or brought in by deserters, +to equip a force which surrounded and attacked Manila, drove large +numbers of people into the walled city, thus rendering the position +of the Spanish garrison very difficult in the face of a possible +bombardment, and prevented this garrison from betaking itself to the +provinces, as it might otherwise have done, leaving Manila to shift +for itself. + +Aguinaldo was powerless to take the place by assault. + +It lay at the mercy of Dewey's guns, and it would have been possible +for the Admiral to take it at any time, but he could not at first +have garrisoned it with United States forces, and never thought of +attempting to use Insurgent forces for this purpose. + +Did Dewey really want or need Aguinaldo's help? Let us consider his +testimony on the subject:-- + + "_Senator Carmack_. You did want a man there who could organize + and rouse the people? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I didn't want anybody. I would like to say + now that Aguinaldo and his people were forced on me by Consul + Pratt and Consul Wildman; I didn't do anything-- + + "_Senator Carmack_. Did they have any power to force him + upon you? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes; they had in a way. They had not the + official power, but one will yield after a while to constant + pressure. I did not expect anything of them; I did not + think they would do anything. I would not have taken them; + I did not want them; I did not believe in them; because, + when I left Hongkong, I was led to suppose that the country + was in a state of insurrection, and that at my first gun, + as Mr. Williams put it, there would be a general uprising, + and I thought these half dozen or dozen refugees at Hongkong + would play a very small part in it." [99] + +The picture of the poor admiral, busy getting his fleet ready +for battle, pestered by officious consuls on the one hand and by +irresponsible Filipinos on the other, is pathetic; but it had its +humorous features, which were not lost on the Admiral himself. I +quote the following:-- + + "_Senator Patterson_. Was there any communication between + you and Pratt in which the matter of a written pledge or + agreement with Aguinaldo was discussed with reference to the + Philippine Islands? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. No. + + "_Senator Patterson_. What became of the correspondence, + Admiral, if you know? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. It is all in the Navy Department. When I + turned over my command my official correspondence was all + sent to the Navy Department. + + "_Senator Patterson_. You retained all of your letters from + any United States officials? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. No; they went to the Department. + + "_Senator Patterson_. I mean you did not destroy them. + + "_Admiral Dewey_. No; I did not destroy them. + + "_Senator Patterson_. And you turned them over to the Navy + Department? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes; our regulations require that. I may say + that for my own information I kept copies of certain telegrams + and cablegrams. I don't think I kept copies of Mr. Pratt's + letters, as I did not consider them of much value. He seemed to + be a sort of busybody there and interfering in other people's + business and I don't think his letters impressed me. + + "_Senator Patterson_. He was the consul-general? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes; but he had nothing to do with the + attack on Manila, you know. + + "_Senator Patterson_. I understand that. + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I received lots of advice, you understand, + from many irresponsible people. + + "_Senator Patterson_. But Pratt was the consul-general of + the Government there? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes; he was consul-general. + + "_Senator Patterson_. And he communicated with you, giving you + such information as he thought you might be interested in, + and among other information he gave you was this concerning + Aguinaldo? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I don't remember; no, I really don't + remember his telling me anything about Aguinaldo more than + that cablegram there, and I said he might come. And you see + how much importance I attached to him; I did not wait for him. + + "_Senator Patterson_. What you said was: 'Tell Aguinaldo to + come as soon as possible.' + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes; but I did not wait a moment for him. + + "_Senator Patterson_. Yes; but there was a reason for that. + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I think more to get rid of him than + anything else. + + "_Senator Carmack_. Rid of whom? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Of Aguinaldo and the Filipinos. They were + bothering me. I was very busy getting my squadron ready for + battle, and these little men were coming on board my ship at + Hongkong and taking a good deal of my time, and I did not + attach the slightest importance to anything they could do, + and they did nothing; that is, none of them went with me + when I went to Mirs Bay. There had been a good deal of talk, + but when the time came they did not go. One of them didn't + go because he didn't have any toothbrush. + + "_Senator Burrows_. Did he give that as a reason? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes; he said, 'I have no toothbrush.'" [100] + +However, Dewey ultimately yielded to the pressure exercised on him by +Pratt and Wildman, and allowed Aguinaldo and some of his associates to +be brought to Manila. Having them there he proposed to get assistance +from them, not as allies, but as a friendly force attacking a common +enemy, in its own way. + +Let us continue with his testimony as to cooperation between Aguinaldo +and the naval forces of the United States:-- + + "_Senator Patterson_. Then, Admiral, until you knew that + they were going to send land forces to your assistance you + thought there was a necessity to organize the Filipinos into + land forces, did you? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. No; not a necessity. + + "_Senator Patterson_. You thought it might prove of value + to you? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I testified here, I think, in a way that + answers that. I said to Aguinaldo, 'There is our enemy; + now, you go your way and I will go mine; we had better act + independently.' That was the wisest thing I ever said. + + "_Senator Patterson_. But you stated that you were using + these people and they were permitted to organize, that you + might use them. + + "_Admiral Dewey_. They were assisting us. + + "_Senator Patterson_. Very well, they were to assist you. Did + you not either permit them or encourage them--I do not care + which term you use--to organize into an army, such as it was, + that they might render you such assistance as you needed? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. They were assisting us, but incidentally + they were fighting their enemy; they were fighting an enemy + which had been their enemy for three hundred years. + + "_Senator Patterson_. I understand that, Admiral. + + "_Admiral Dewey_. While assisting us they were fighting their + own battles, too. + + "_The Chairman_. You were encouraging insurrection against + a common enemy with which you were at war? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I think so. I had in my mind an illustration + furnished by the civil war. I was in the South in the civil + war, and the only friends we had in the South were the negroes, + and we made use of them; they assisted us on many occasions. I + had that in mind; I said these people were our friends, and + 'we have come here and they will help us just exactly as the + negroes helped us in the civil war.' + + "_Senator Patterson_. The negroes were expecting their + freedom-- + + "_Admiral Dewey_. The Filipinos were slaves, too. + + "_Senator Patterson_. What were the Filipinos expecting? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. They wanted to get rid of the Spaniards; + I do not think they looked much beyond that. I cannot recall + but I have in mind that the one thing they had in their minds + was to get rid of the Spaniards and then to accept us, and + that would have occurred--I have thought that many times--if + we had had troops to occupy Manila on the 1st day of May + before the insurrection got started; these people would have + accepted us as their friends, and they would have been our + loyal friends--I don't know for how long, but they would have + been our friends then. + + "_Senator Patterson_. You learned from Pratt, or Wildman, + or Williams, very early, did you not, that the Filipinos + wanted their own country and to rule their own country; + that that is what they were expecting? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I heard from Williams that there was an + insurrection there against the Spaniards. The Spaniards were + very cruel to them, and I think they did not look much beyond + getting rid of them. There was one, Dr. Rizal, who had the + idea of independence, but I don't think that Aguinaldo had + much idea of it. + + "_Senator Carmack_. Then what useful purpose did the Filipino + army serve; why did you want the Filipino army at all? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I did not want them. + + "_Senator Carmack_. Did you not want the Filipino forces? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. No, not really. It was their own idea coming + over there. We could have taken the city at any moment we + had the troops to occupy it." + +Admiral Dewey has made the following statements relative to the +importance of Aguinaldo's military operations:-- + + "Then he began operations toward Manila, and he did wonderfully + well. He whipped the Spaniards battle after battle, and finally + put one of those old smoothbore guns on a barge, and he wanted + to take this up--wanted me to tow it up so he could attack the + city with it. I said, 'Oh, no, no; we can do nothing until + our troops come.' I knew he could not take the city without + the assistance of the navy, without my assistance, and I knew + that what he was doing--driving the Spaniards in--was saving + our own troops, because our own men perhaps would have had to + do that same thing. He and I were always on the most friendly + terms; we had never had any differences. He considered me + as his liberator, as his friend. I think he had the highest + admiration for us because we had whipped the Spaniards who + had been riding them down for three hundred years. + + * * * * * + + "_Senator Patterson_ (continuing). You sent this short dispatch + to the Secretary of the Navy:-- + + "'Aguinaldo, the revolutionary leader, visited the _Olympia_ + yesterday. He expects to make general attack on May 31. Doubt + his ability to succeed. Situation remains unchanged.' + + "Do you recall that visit? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes. + + "_Senator Patterson_. He came to tell you, did he, that he + was going to make a general attack, and you-- + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes. + + "_Senator Patterson_. And you doubted his ability to succeed? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. And he wanted me to assist him. He wanted + me to tow one of his guns up into position. I knew he could + not take the city; of course he could not. + + "_Senator Patterson_. Did you urge that he should not make + the attack? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I do not remember that; very likely I did. + + "_Senator Patterson_. And was he not persuaded or restrained + by you from doing so? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I do not remember; but it is very likely. I + did not want to see a lot of them killed unnecessarily, + because I knew they could not take that walled city. They had + no artillery, and they could not take it, I knew very well, + and I wanted the situation to remain as it was until our + troops came to occupy it. + + "_Senator Patterson_. But you found that whenever you expressed + a strong objection to anything being done at that time that + Aguinaldo yielded to your request? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Up to the time the army came he did + everything I requested. I had not much to do with him after + the army came." [101] + +But Dewey's influence over Aguinaldo was not sufficient to prevent +his looting, as the following extracts from his testimony show:-- + + "_Senator Patterson_. Is that what you mean when you say he + looted--that he made reprisals for his army, took provisions + and whatever was necessary? That is what you meant? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. That is one part of it. + + "_Senator Carmack_. This was taking provisions for the use + of the army? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. That is one thing he did. + + "_Senator Carmack_. You said you did not object to that at + the time? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. No. It would have been useless; he got + beyond me very soon--he got out of my hands very soon. [102] + + "_Senator Carmack_. You said yesterday you suspected that + Aguinaldo took the lion's share of the provisions that were + gathered for the army. What was the ground upon which you + made that accusation? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Because he was living in Malolos like a + prince, like a king, in a way that could only have come about + by his taking the lion's share. Then, in regard to his looting, + I repeat what I said yesterday. He began within forty-eight + hours after he landed in Cavite to capture and take everything + he wanted. I know these things of my own knowledge, because + I saw the loot brought in; and I know that every dollar that + was taken from the workingmen at the navy-yard was taken at + the threat of death. [103] + + * * * * * + + "_Senator Patterson_. Do you believe in this proclamation he + was uttering falsehoods to the Filipino people? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes; I do absolutely. I think he was there + for gain--for money--that independence had never up to that + time entered his head. He was there for loot and money. That + is what I believe, since you ask me my belief; I believe that + implicitly. [104] + + * * * * * + + "_Senator Patterson_. And you found nothing to cause any + doubt as to his loyalty up to the time until after Manila + surrendered? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. His loyalty to whom? + + "_Senator Patterson_. To you and to the cause for which he + was fighting? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I began to suspect he was not loyal to us + about the time our troops arrived, when he demurred at moving + out of Cavite to make room for our troops. + + "_Senator Patterson_. Do you mean by that that you feared + that he was commencing to think more of independence than + the success of the American cause? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Yes." [105] + +We have seen to what extent Aguinaldo coöperated with the marine +forces of the United States. Now let us examine the claim that he +cooperated with the land forces after their arrival. + +One of the things which the Insurgents are said to have accomplished +was the maintenance of an effective land blockade which prevented the +entrance of provisions, and produced a very serious food shortage. Both +Otis and Dewey have stated that they did this, but we learn from the +Insurgent records how erroneous was this conclusion. [106] + +The landing of the American troops for the attack on Manila was +not actively opposed by the Filipinos, but it was narrowly and +distrustfully watched. + +Necessary transportation requested by General Anderson was ultimately +furnished by Aguinaldo, but only grudgingly after a three weeks' +delay, and as a result of threats that it would be seized if not +voluntarily supplied. + +The necessary positions in the trenches around Manila from which to +make the attack on that city were, in part at least, yielded to the +Americans by the Filipinos upon the request of the former. + +The Insurgents twice informed the Spaniards in advance of projected +American attacks. + +They carried out their own attack on the city without regard to the +plans, or the requests, of the Americans. They secretly treated with +the Spaniards in the endeavour to secure the surrender of the city +to themselves. + +After the capitulation to the Americans had been agreed upon, and +on the very morning of the day of the surrender, they endeavoured +to push home an attack. Disregarding the request that they keep out +of the final assault, they crowded into the city with, and after, +the American troops. They fired on Spanish soldiers on the city wall +while a flag of truce was flying, provoking a return fire which killed +and wounded American soldiers. + +They demanded for themselves Malacañang palace and other buildings +and a share in "the war booty." They promptly looted the parts of the +city which they occupied, and ultimately retired from their positions +within the city limits on the evening of their last day of grace +after being warned by General Otis that if they did not do so they +would be driven out. + +I will now quote from the records in support of these statements. + +The following is the programme of "coöperation" outlined to Aguinaldo +by Bray in a letter dated June 30, 1898:-- + + "I am very anxious to receive the news of the capitulation of + Manila and I hope that General Augustín will be obliged to turn + over his sword to you in person and not to the Americans. You + are by right entitled to it and I should like to see it so from + a political standpoint, as I am of the opinion that you should + declare the independence of the Philippines before the arrival + of General Merritt, appointed by the President to be Governor + with full powers to establish a provisional government. + + * * * * * + + Any attempt on the part of the Americans to garrison the + interior towns with their troops or any other act which might + be construed as a conquest, should meet with resistance. + + * * * * * + + "After having written these lines, I had another conference + with Mr. St. Clair of the Free Press, who sent for me regarding + the question of independence. He has had a consultation with + the Supreme Judge of this place, and he is of opinion that you + should proclaim independence at once, notwithstanding what + Admiral Dewey and Consul Williams say against it, and this + should be done before General Merritt can arrive. A Government + having been thus constituted in due form, the Americans would + have no right to invade the Philippines without committing a + violation of international law. They are no longer fighting + against the Spaniards against whom they declared war. The + advice of Consul Williams to delay this, is a diplomatic play + to gain time until the arrival of General Merritt, because he + is well aware of the false position said General would find + himself in. The key to the situation is now in your hands; + do not permit any one to take it away from you. The Americans + have done nothing but bombard and destroy the Spanish fleet + on the high seas; they have not conquered any land, but in + the meantime the control of the Philippines has passed by + conquest from the hands of the Spaniards and the Americans + have no right to enter further. Under certain conditions and + guarantees, permit the landing of American troops; but be + very careful, they must not be permitted to land until they + execute an agreement with the duly constituted government of + the Philippines, respecting all its institutions, and they must + under no pretext whatever be permitted to garrison any place + except the municipal limits of Manila, Cebú, and Iloílo, and + even therein care should be observed ... You must not permit a + single soldier to land without having these guarantees." [107] + +When General Anderson, with the first United States troops of +occupation, arrived at Manila Bay, Aguinaldo did not call on him, +as an "ally" might have been expected to do. Later, however, Admiral +Dewey and General Anderson went to see Aguinaldo, but without any +of the ceremony of an official military call, the Admiral saying to +General Anderson:-- + + "Do not take your sword or put on your uniform, but just put + on your blouse. Do not go with any ceremony." [108] + +And they went in that way. + +On July 4, 1898, General Anderson wrote Aguinaldo definitely requesting +his coöperation in the following words:-- + + "For these reasons I desire to have the most amicable relations + with you, and to have you and your force coöperate with us + in the military operations against the Spanish forces." [109] + +On July 5 Aguinaldo replied, thanking General Anderson for the + + "amicable sentiments which the natives of these islands + inspire in the Great North American nation," [110] + +and also for his desire to have friendly relations with the Filipinos +and treat them with justice, courtesy and kindness. There is, +however, not a word relative to coöperation in his reply, and +Anderson apparently never renewed his request for coöperation in +military operations. + +On July 6 he wrote to Aguinaldo again, saying:-- + + "I am encouraged by the friendly sentiment expressed by + Your Excellency in your welcome letter received on the 5th + instant, to endeavour to come to a definite understanding, + which I hope will be advantageous to both. Very soon we expect + large additional land forces, and it must be apparent to you + as a military officer that we will require much more room to + camp our soldiers and also store room for our supplies. For + this I would like to have Your Excellency's advice and + coöperation, as you are best acquainted with the resources + of the country." [111] + +To this letter there was no reply. However, in a letter dated July +9, 1898, to the Adjutant-General of the United States Army, General +Anderson says of Aguinaldo:-- + + "When we first landed he seemed very suspicious, and not at + all friendly, but I have now come to a better understanding + with him and he is much more friendly and seems willing to + coöperate. But he has declared himself Dictator and President, + and is trying to take Manila without our assistance. This + is not probable, but if he can effect his purpose he will, + I apprehend, antagonize any attempt on our part to establish + a provisional government." [112] + +Evidently, however, coöperation, even in the matter of getting +necessary transportation, did not materialize, for on July 17 +S. R. Jones, Chief Quartermaster, wrote Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "We will want horses, buffaloes, carts, etc., for + transportation, bamboo for shelter, wood to cook with, etc. For + all this we are willing to pay a fair price, but no more. We + find so far that the native population are not willing to give + us this assistance as promptly as required. But we must have + it, and if it becomes necessary we will be compelled to send + out parties to seize what we may need. We would regret very + much to do this, as we are here to befriend the Filipinos. Our + nation has spent millions in money to send forces here to + expel the Spaniards and to give good government to the whole + people, and the return we are asking is comparatively slight. + + "General Anderson wishes you to inform your people that we are + here for their good, and that they must supply us with labor + and material at the current market prices. We are prepared + to purchase five hundred horses at a fair price, but cannot + undertake to bargain for horses with each individual owner." + +Aguinaldo sent this letter by a staff officer to General Anderson +inquiring whether it was sent by authority of the latter, who then +indorsed on it in a statement that it was. Nevertheless, Major Jones +reported on July 20 that it was impossible to secure transportation +except upon Aguinaldo's order and that the natives had removed their +cart wheels and hidden them, from which it is to be inferred that +the transportation requested had not been furnished. + +Obviously General Anderson was informed that Aguinaldo had given +orders against furnishing the transportation desired, for on July 21 +he wrote the Adjutant-General of the Army as follows:-- + + "Since I wrote last, Aguinaldo has put in operation an + elaborate system of military government, under his assumed + authority as Dictator, and has prohibited any supplies being + given us, except by his order. As Go this last, I have written + to him that our requisitions on the country for horses, ox + carts, fuel, and bamboo (to make scaling ladders) must be + filled, and that he must aid in having them filled." + +On July 23 General Anderson wrote Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "_General_: When I came here three weeks ago I requested Your + Excellency to give what assistance you could to procure means + of transportation for the American Army, as it was to fight + the cause of your people. So far we have received no response. + + "As you represent your people, I now have the honor to make + requisition on you for five hundred horses and fifty oxen and + ox carts. If you cannot secure these I will have to pass you + and make requisition directly on the people. + + "I beg leave to request an answer at your earliest convenience. + + "I remain with great respect, etc." [113] + +To this letter, Aguinaldo replied as follows:-- + + "Replying to your letter of yesterday, I have the honor to + manifest to Your Excellency that I am surprised beyond measure + at that which you say to me in it, lamenting the non-receipt + of any response relative to the assistance that you have asked + of me in the way of horses, carabaos, and carts, because I + did reply through the bearer that I was disposed to issue + proper orders whenever you advised me of the number of these, + giving me notice in advance. + + "I have sent orders to the nearest provinces in order that + within the shortest time possible horses be brought for sale, + but I cannot assure Your Excellency that we will have the + number of 500 that you need, because there are not many horses + in this vicinity, owing to deaths from epizoötic diseases in + January, February, and March last. + + "Whenever we have them collected, I shall have the pleasure + to advise Your Excellency. + + "I have also ordered to be placed at my disposal 50 carts that + I shall place at your disposition when you need them, provided + you give me previous notice four days in advance." [114] + +General Anderson replied:-- + + "Your favour of the 26th ultimo in relation to requisitions + for cattle, horses, etc., is satisfactory I regret that + there should have been any misunderstanding about it. The + people to whom we applied even for the hiring of carromatas, + etc., told our people that they had orders to supply nothing + except by your orders. I am pleased to think that this was + a misapprehension on their part." [115] + +From this series of communications it appears that it took three +weeks, and a very direct threat to seize transportation, to bring +about Aguinaldo's promise of assistance in securing it. What help +had he given, meanwhile, in other matters? + +On July 14, 1899, General Anderson wrote asking him to assist American +officers in making reconnaissance of the approaches to Manila, and +to favor them with his advice. [116] + +On July 19, 1899, he again wrote Aguinaldo asking him to allow Major +J. F. Bell, [117] who was gathering information for General Merritt, +to see maps, and further requesting him to place at Bell's disposal any +available information about the force of the enemy and the topography +of the country. [118] + +On July 21 he wrote again asking for passes for a Lieutenant +E. I. Bryan and party, who were making a reconnaissance. [119] + +Such records as I have been able to find do not show what response, +if any, Aguinaldo made to these several requests, but General +Anderson's original views as to the willingness of the Insurgents to +coöperate with him underwent an early change, for on July 18, 1898, +in a letter to the Adjutant-General of the United States Army he +makes the following statement:-- + + "The Insurgent chief, Aguinaldo, has declared himself Dictator + and self-appointed President. He has declared martial law + and promulgated a minute method of rule and administration + under it. + + "We have observed all official military courtesies, and he + and his followers express great admiration and gratitude to + the great American republic of the north, yet in many ways + they obstruct our purposes and are using every effort to take + Manila without us. + + "I suspect also that Aguinaldo is secretly negotiating with + the Spanish authorities, as his confidential aide is in + Manila." [120] + +This suspicion was entirely justified, as we shall see later. + +On July 24 Aguinaldo wrote a letter to General Anderson in effect +warning him not to disembark American troops in places conquered by +the Filipinos from the Spaniards without first communicating in writing +the places to be occupied and the object of the occupation. [121] + +Aguinaldo's assumption of civil authority on July 15, 1899, did not +pass unnoticed. On July 21 General Anderson wrote the Adjutant-General +of the army concerning it:-- + + "His assumption of civil authority I have ignored, and let + him know verbally that I could, and would, not recognize it, + while I did not recognize him as a military leader. It may + seem strange that I have made no formal protest against + his proclamation as Dictator, his declaration of martial + law, and publication and execution of a despotic form of + government. I wrote such a protest, but did not publish it, + at Admiral Dewey's request, and also for fear of wounding + the susceptibilities of Major-General Merritt, but I have let + it be known in every other way that we do not recognize the + Dictatorship. These people only respect force and firmness. I + submit, with all deference, that we have heretofore underrated + the natives. They are not ignorant, savage tribes, but have + a civilization of their own; and although insignificant in + appearance, are fierce fighters, and for a tropical people + they are industrious. A small detail of natives will do more + work in a given time than a regiment of volunteers." + +Because he was invited as general rather than as president, Aguinaldo +refused to attend a parade and review on the 4th of July. This fact +is, in itself, an answer to his claim that the Americans were tacitly +recognizing his pretensions. + +After referring to this incident, Blount says:-- + + "On subsequent anniversaries of the day in the Philippines + it was deemed wise simply to prohibit the reading of our + declaration before gatherings of the Filipino people. It + saved discussion." [122] + +This statement is incorrect. I myself was present the following +year when the declaration was read on the Luneta to a considerable +gathering of Filipinos among whom were many school children, and it +has often been read since. + +The landing of American troops at Parañaque and their going into +camp near that town on July 15 caused much excitement, and a lively +interchange of telegrams between Insurgent officers followed. [123] + +They were suspicious of the intentions of the Americans, [124] and +trouble soon began. + +On July 16 General Noriel telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "An American has come here who says that he is a Colonel of + the Army whom we should obey; and that it is your desire. We + did not listen to him, awaiting your order." + +On the back of the telegram is written the following:-- + + "Reply.--You should not obey. What this American Colonel says + is a lie. Be cautious so as not to be deceived. You should + require from him proof. Be always vigilant, but upright, + also all of the officers and soldiers must be strict and not + timid." [125] + +Obviously there was no real coöperation between American and Filipino +troops at this time. General Anderson ignored General Aguinaldo's +request for information as to places where American troops were to +land in Filipino territory and the objects of disembarking them. + +The Americans proceeded with their plans for the attack upon Manila, +and it became desirable to occupy some of the Insurgent trenches. On +July 29 Arévalo telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "In conference with General Greene I asked for an official + letter, a copy of which I send you: 'Headquarters 2nd Brigade, + U. S. Expeditionary Forces, Camp Dewey, near Manila, July 29th, + 1898. _El Señor Noriel, General de Brigade_. Sir: In pursuance + of our conversation of yesterday and the message which Captain + Arévalo brought to me during the night, I beg to inform you + that my troops will occupy the intrenchments between the Camino + Real and the beach, leaving camp for that purpose at 8.00 + o'clock this morning. I will be obliged if you will give the + necessary orders for the withdrawal of your men. Thanking you + for your courtesy, I remain, very respectfully, your obedient + servant, _F. V. Greene, Brigadier General_, commanding.'" [126] + +This clear direct declaration of intention by General Greene is the +actual transaction referred to by Blount as "Jockeying the Insurgents +out of their trenches." He bases his statements concerning the matter +on a newspaper report. + +The attitude of the army officers in the matter of obtaining permission +to occupy the trenches needed in preparing for the assault on the +city could not have been more correct. + +On August 10 General Merritt gave the following emphatic instructions +relative to the matter:-- + + "No rupture with Insurgents. This is imperative. Can ask + Insurgent generals or Aguinaldo for permission to occupy + their trenches, but if refused not to use force." + +On the same day General Anderson wrote to Aguinaldo, asking +permission to occupy a trench facing blockhouse No. 14, in order +to place artillery to destroy it. The permission was granted on the +following day. + +During the early part of August, Aguinaldo seems to have avoided +conferences with American officers. On the second of the month Mabini +wrote him how he had put off Admiral Dewey's aid with a false statement +that he did not know Aguinaldo's whereabouts. [127] + +The landing of American troops at Parañaque for the assault on Manila +led to the concentration of Insurgent troops at the neighbouring town +of Bacoor. [128] + +On August 8 Fernando Acevedo [129] wrote to General Pío del Pilar +that the Americans were going to attack the next day and that,-- + + "It is requisite and necessary before their attack takes place + to-morrow, that you to-morrow or to-night annihilate them, + sparing none, for the way they have deceived us, and will + again without fail, in the contract signed by Sr. Emilio; + and convince yourself, my friend, that it is necessary to do + this; and when it is done the whole world will wonder and say + that we have done well, and will not be able to give out that + the people here are fools spending the time sucking their + fingers." [130] + +Worse yet, information was sent to the Spaniards of the proposed +American attack on the 13th instant, as is shown by the following +letter:-- + + "(Battalion of Cazadores, No. 2. Expeditionary. Office of + the Lieutenant-Colonel. Private.) + + "_Señor Don Artemio Ricarte_: [131] + + "My Dear Sir: I have received to-day your kind letter giving + warning of the attack on Manila, and I thank you for your + personal interest in me, which, on my part, I reciprocate. I + assure you that I am yours, most truly and sincerely, + + "_Luis Martinez Alcobendas_. + + "_Singalon_, August 10, 1898." [132] + +According to Taylor, this was not the first occurrence of this +sort. He says:-- + + "The officers of the United States Army who believed that + the insurgents were informing the Spaniards of the American + movements were right. Sastrón has printed a letter from Pío + del Pilar, dated July 30, to the Spanish officer commanding + at Santa Ana, in which Pilar said that Aguinaldo had told him + that the Americans would attack the Spanish lines on August 2 + and advised that the Spaniards should not give way, but hold + their positions. Pilar added, however, that if the Spaniards + should fall back on the walled city and surrender Santa Ana + to himself, he would hold it with his own men. Aguinaldo's + information was correct, and on August 2 eight American + soldiers were killed or wounded by the Spanish fire." [133] + +Taylor continues:-- + + "And yet Aguinaldo claimed to be an ally of the Americans. It + is not probable that these were the only two such letters + written. Aguinaldo had by this time found out that although he + could defeat the scattered Spanish detachments, he could not + defeat the Spanish force holding the lines of Manila. He did + not want the Americans in the Philippines. They were in his + way, and he had already made up his mind that if they did not + give him what he wanted, he would drive them out by force. He + saw very early that it was extremely improbable that he should + obtain from them what he wanted; accordingly all losses both + among Spaniards and Americans would, from Aguinaldo's point + of view, inure to his benefit. The best possible thing for + him would be to hold his own force intact while they wore + each other out. The Spanish losses, small as they were, + occurred in front of the American lines, not in front of the + Filipinos. There is no reason, accordingly, for believing + that the Filipinos suffered heavily. To arrange that the + Spaniards should inflict losses upon the Americans, while he + saved his own men, showed ingenuity on the part of Aguinaldo; + but it was decidedly not the conduct of an ally." [134] + +The feeling toward the American troops at this time is further shown +by a telegram from General Pío del Pilar, sent from San Pedro Macati +on August 10, 1898:-- + + "Commandant Acebedo writes that the Spaniards are about + to surrender because they want to turn over the place; the + Americans want them to leave only the batteries and say that + they will station themselves in said batteries. It appears + that they want to deceive us; they do not want to give us + arms, and if they do not give us arms, we shall attack them + and drive them out. I await your reply." [135] + +This is perhaps not quite the kind of coöperation that Admiral Dewey +and Generals Anderson and Merritt had expected. + +The truth is that the Insurgents were determined to capture Manila for +themselves, not only because of the "war booty," for which they were +hungry, but because of the status which they felt that the taking of +the capital of the Philippines would assure them. The great importance +which they attached to this plan is shown in communications written +by Agoncillo, Aguinaldo and others. [136] + +Of conditions at this time, Taylor says:-- + + "On July 7, Aguinaldo appointed Artemio Ricarte and Pantaleón + García to negotiate the surrender of Manila by the Spaniards + to him (Exhibit 155). On July 5 Pantaleón García was planning + to enter Manila by way of Tondo or of Santa Cruz (P.I.R., + 243.7). On the 9th Aguinaldo ordered that rice should be + gathered from the towns of Manila Province for the use of his + troops in the decisive attack upon Manila which he intended + making in a few days (P.I.R., 1087. 5). + +"Aguinaldo, finding that his chance of obtaining Manila for himself was +growing steadily less, now determined to force himself into the city +with the Americans and demand a consideration for the assistance he +had rendered them during the siege. It is true he had assisted them, +but his assistance had not been intentional. It was the result of +the operations he was carrying on for his own ends. The operations of +the Filipinos and the Americans were against Spain as a common enemy +of both; but the operations were not joint operations, and although +their purpose was a common purpose, it was not a mutual one. On August +8 Aguinaldo appointed General Ricarte commander in the operations +about Manila, ordered him to respect the property of all foreigners, +and told him that in case his troops succeeded in entering Manila they +were to carry their flag and plant it there (P.I.R., 703. 2). Judging +from an unsigned draft of a letter, he must have warned the foreign +consuls in Manila about the same time to gather under the protection +of their flags all of their fellow-citizens who had not taken refuge +on the vessels in the bay, so that when his troops entered the city +no foreign lives would be taken, and no foreign property would be +injured. The earnestness with which he urged that all foreigners not +Spaniards should take steps to identify themselves and their property +shows that he considered the persons and property of Spanish civilians +as fair booty of war." [137] + +There was certainly no need of Insurgent assistance in the assault +on Manila. + +The reports which reached Aguinaldo that the surrender of Manila had +been agreed upon in advance were correct, as is shown by the following +testimony of Admiral Dewey: + + "_Senator Patterson_. When did you reach an understanding + with the Spanish commander upon the subject, [138]--how long + before the 12th or 13th of August? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. Several days before. + + "_Senator Patterson_. To whom did you communicate the + arrangement that you had? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. General Merritt and, of course, all of my own + captains--General Merritt, and I think a council of officers on + board of one of the steamers. I think there were several army + officers present when I told the General that; and I may say + here that I do not think General Merritt took much stock in it. + + "_Senator Patterson_. What statement did you make to them, + Admiral, in substance? + + "_Admiral Dewey_. That the Spaniards were ready to surrender, + but before doing so I must engage one of the outlying forts. I + selected one at Malate, away from the city. [139] They said I + must engage that and fire for a while, and then I was to make + a signal by the international code, 'Do you surrender?' Then + they were to hoist a white flag at a certain bastion; and I + may say now that I was the first one to discover the white + flag. We had 50 people looking for that white flag, but I + happened to be the first one who saw it. I fired for a while, + and then made the signal according to the programme. We could + not see the white flag--it was rather a thick day--but finally + I discovered it on the south bastion; I don't know how long + it had been flying there when I first saw it." [140] + +On August 12, the day before Manila surrendered, Buencamino telegraphed +Aguinaldo, urging him in the strongest terms to attack that night so +that Americans might be obliged to ask him to stop, with the result +that the Insurgents would be included in the official negotiations. He +further advised Aguinaldo that he must not suspend his attack because +the Americans suspended theirs. [141] + +General Anderson tells us that, on the evening of August 12, +he received an order from General Merritt to notify Aguinaldo to +forbid the Insurgents under his command from entering Manila. This +notification was delivered to Aguinaldo that night, and was received +by him with anger. [142] + +On the following morning the Insurgents actually made an independent +attack of their own, as planned. [143] It promptly led to trouble +with the Americans, and at 8 A.M. Aguinaldo received a telegram from +General Anderson sternly warning him not to let his troops enter +Manila without the consent of the American commander on the south +side of the Pasig River. [144] + +Aguinaldo apparently took no action in response to this request, +except to direct General Riego de Dios, who was at Cavite, to go +with Buencamino without losing a moment and ask for an explanation, +in writing if possible. [145] + +At 10.50 A.M. he telegraphed General Anderson saying that his troops +were being forced, by threats of violence, to retire from positions +which they had taken, and asking Anderson to order his troops to +avoid difficulty with the Insurgent forces. Aguinaldo said that he +had directed his men to aid the American forces if the latter are +attacked by a common enemy, but was discreetly silent on the subject +of their entering Manila. [146] + +Fifteen minutes later, at 11.05, he received a reply to his telegram +to General Riego de Dios, in which that officer communicated the +views of Araneta [147] and Buencamino, who had been unable to find +General Anderson. This important communication follows:-- + + "Most urgent. Araneta and Buencamino having been consulted in + regard to your telegram of to-day, they confirm capitulation, + and in regard to the telegraphic note of General Anderson + they are of the opinion, first that we should continue + hostilities while we ask for an explanation; second, that + explanation should be in the following terms: Inquire reason + for note and ask why our troops are not to enter Manila without + permission of the American commander; third, in case the (terms + of?) capitulation is given as the reason, to answer that we + do not suspend our attempt to enter Manila. Its capitulation + is not favourable to our independence. General Anderson is not + here. General Merritt is probably in Manila. Only Admiral Dewey + is in the Bay. We ask authorization to express our explanation + in the proposed terms and to have a conference with Admiral + Dewey in order to have our claims reach General Merritt." [148] + +An endorsement written by Mabini and signed by Aguinaldo on the above +paper reads:-- + + "I authorize every assertion of right, but state that we + believe that we have the right to enter Manila without + permission as we have a part in the surrender of the + Spaniards. They would not have surrendered if our troops had + not cut off their retreat to the interior. Besides but for us + the landing of troops would have cost them much blood. Obtain + an answer as soon as possible in order to lay a protest before + the consuls in case it is necessary." [149] + +Naturally, trouble followed. At 1.30 P.M. General Ricarte telegraphed +to Aguinaldo:-- + + "Americans wish to put us out. Give directions." [150] + +Apparently about the same hour he wired more at length, as follows:-- + + "Most urgent. American troops rearguard our trenches. Mabolo + and San José warn us that they will fire on us when the time + comes. Impossible to remain there without disagreeing with + them. Since 5 o'clock this morning we have been furiously + attacking. Americans firing incessantly, Spaniards silent. No + losses yet." [151] + +At 3.52 he wired again:-- + + "General Pío del Pilar informs me of the following: 'Come here, + if possible, as our soldiers at the barrio of Concepción + are not allowed to go out and we are prohibited to move + on any farther. We it was who succeeded in capturing that + place. Come here or there will be trouble, since they are + driving me away, and refusing to listen to what I say.' I am + at this very moment going to aforesaid place." [152] + +At 5 P.M. another was sent by Ricarte to Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "Colonel San Miguel arrived here from Ermita. Regional + Exposition, Agricultural College and other buildings are + ours. Our flag flies already at Ermita. Colonel Agapito Donzón + with his troops is in the Pérez building, Paco. Colonels Julian + Ocampo and Isidoro Tolentino are in the convent of Ermita. All + houses without flag are guarded by our soldiers." [153] + +At 6.15 P.M. he telegraphed as follows:-- + + "I inform you that the chiefs of our troops have reported to + me that our flag at Singalong church (_visita_) was removed by + the Americans and they hoisted theirs instead, not allowing + us to approach thereto. General Pío del Pilar is at present + at the barrio of Concepción. Americans prohibited him to move + on any farther. How can he enter Manila?" [154] + +No attention was paid to General Anderson's request that the Insurgent +troops should not enter Manila without permission. They crowded forward +with and after the American forces. Coming out on Bagumbayan drive, +they found American and Spanish troops confronting each other but not +firing, the former on the drive, the latter on the neighbouring city +wall. A flag of truce was waving from the south bastion, nevertheless +the Insurgents fired on the Spanish forces, provoking a return fire +which killed and wounded American soldiers. Of this incident General +Greene has said:-- + + "At this point the California regiment a short time before + had met some insurgents who had fired at the Spaniards on the + walls, and the latter, in returning the fire, had caused a loss + in the California regiment of 1 killed and 2 wounded." [155] + +Some of these matters must have come to the attention of General +Anderson, for he sent Aguinaldo a telegram, received by the latter +at 6.35 P.M., as follows:-- + + "Dated Ermita Headquarters 2nd Division 13 to + Gen. Aguinaldo. Commanding Filipino Forces.--Manila, + taken. Serious trouble threatened between our forces. Try + and prevent it. Your troops should not force themselves in + the city until we have received the full surrender then we + will negotiate with you. + + "_Anderson_, commanding." [156] + +It appears that the Insurgent troops took the suburb of Santa Ana, +and captured Spanish and Filipino officers and men. [157] + +In view of the known facts, how absurd becomes the following contention +of Aguinaldo, advanced in his "Reseña Verídica:-- + + "Our own forces could see the American forces land on the beach + of the Luneta and of the Paseo de Santa Lucía. The Spanish + soldiers, who were on the walls of the city, drew the attention + of every one because they did not fire on the former, a mystery + which was explained at nightfall of that day, by the news of + the capitulation of the place by General Señor Jáudenes [158] + to the American General, Mr. Merritt, a capitulation which + the American Generals claimed for themselves, an infraction of + what had been agreed upon with Admiral Dewey, in regard to the + formation of plans for the attack and taking of Manila by the + two armies, American and Filipino, together and in combination. + + "This inexplicable line of conduct on the part of the American + officers was made clearer by the telegrams, which General + Anderson addressed to me, from Maytubig on the said 13th day, + requesting that I should order our troops not to enter Manila, + which request was refused, inasmuch as it was contrary to what + was agreed upon, and to the high ends of the Revolutionary + Government, which, on taking upon itself the immense work of + besieging Manila, during the two months and a half, sacrificing + thousands of lives and millions in material interests, could + not surely have done so with any object other than that of + capturing Manila and the Spanish garrison which with firmness + and tenacity defended that place." [159] + +On August 14 Aguinaldo telegraphed General Anderson as follows:-- + + "My troops, who have been for so long besieging Manila, + have always been promised that they could appear in it, + as you know and cannot deny, and for this reason, and on + account of the many sacrifices made of money, and lives, I + do not consider it prudent to issue orders to the contrary, + as they might be disobeyed against my authority. Besides, I + hope that you will allow the troops to enter because we have + given proofs many times of our friendship, ceding our positions + at Parañaque, Pasay, Singálon and Maytubig. Nevertheless, + if it seems best to you, and in order to enter into a frank + and friendly understanding and avoid any disagreeable conflict + before the eyes of the Spaniards, I will commission Don Felipe + Buencamino and others, who will to-day go out from our lines + and hold a conference with you, and that they will be safe + during the conference." [160] + +Aguinaldo and his associates pressed the demand for joint +occupation. On August 13 Admiral Dewey and General Merritt informed +the government that since the occupation of Manila and its suburbs +the Insurgents outside had been insisting on this, and asked how far +they might proceed in enforcing obedience in the matter. + +They were informed by a telegram dated August 17 that the President +of the United States had directed:-- + + "That there must be no joint occupation with the + Insurgents. The United States in the possession of Manila city, + Manila bay and harbor must preserve the peace and protect + persons and property within the territory occupied by their + military and naval forces. The insurgents and all others + must recognize the military occupation and authority of the + United States and the cessation of hostilities proclaimed + by the President. Use whatever means in your judgment are + necessary to this end." [161] + +This left the military and naval commanders no option in the premises, +and in any event dual occupation was out of the question because of +the lawlessness of the Insurgent troops. + +At this very time they were looting the portions of the city which +they occupied, and as is abundantly shown by their own records were +not confining their attacks to Spaniards, but were assaulting their +own people and raiding the property of foreigners as well. [162] The +continuation of such a condition of affairs was manifestly impossible. + +The Insurgents promptly demanded their share in the "war booty," +and asked certain other extraordinary concessions as follows:-- + + "(4) Our sacrifices in coöperating in the siege and taking + of Manila being well known, it is just that we should share + in the war booty. + + "(5) We demand for our use the palace of Malacañang and the + Convents of Malate, Ermita and Paco or San Fernando de Dilao. + + "(6) We demand that the civil offices of Manila be filled + by North Americans and never by Spaniards; but if General + Merritt should require some Filipinos we should be pleased if + he will grant our President, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, the favour + of recommending select and skilled Filipinos. The jurisdiction + of the authorities of Manila shall not be recognized beyond + the municipal radius. + + "(7) The American forces shall not approach nor penetrate + our military positions without permission of the respective + commanders thereof and shall evacuate all the positions + which they occupy at the present time beyond the municipal + radius; Spaniards who pass our lines without permission of + the commander will be considered as spies. + + * * * * * + + "(10) Lastly we state clearly that our concessions and + petitions do not signify on our part that we recognize the + sovereignty of North America in these islands, as they are + made necessary by the present war." [163] + +Under the instructions of the President these demands could not be +acceded to. Nor could they have been acceded to had there been no +such instructions. In this connection the following extract from +General Jáudenes's cablegram for June 8th to his home government is +highly significant:-- + + "Population of suburbs have taken refuge in walled city from + fear of outrages of insurgents, preferring to run risks of + bombardment, which has not yet begun." [164] + +It would seem that the population of the suburbs did not have a high +idea of Insurgent discipline. + +That their apprehensions were not groundless is shown by a passage +in a letter sent the following day to Governor-General Augustin +by Buencamino:-- + + "Manila being surrounded by land and by sea, without hope of + assistance from anywhere, and Señor Aguinaldo being disposed to + make use of the fleet in order to bombard, if Your Excellency + should prolong the struggle with tenacity, I do not know, + frankly, what else to do other than to succumb dying, but + Your Excellency knows that the entrance of 100,000 Indians, + [165] inflamed with battle, drunk with triumph and with + blood, will produce the hecatomb from which there will not + be allowed to escape either women, children, or Peninsular + friars,--especially the friars; and, I believe that the rights + of humanity, imperilled in such a serious way, should be well + considered by Your Excellency, for however dear glory and + military duty may be, although worth as much or more than + existence itself there is no right by which they should be + won at the cost of the rights of humanity, and the latter + outweigh every consideration and all duty." [166] + +Don Felipe knew his own people. He also knew, none better, what they +had in mind at this time. + +As it was the Insurgent forces made the most of such opportunity as +they had, and their own records show it. + +In the suburbs of Manila they sacked and committed outrages, +threatening people with their arms, and this was still going on a +week after the fall of Manila. [167] + +General Pío del Pilar was believed to be responsible for much of this +misconduct, and Mabini proposed that as it was necessary for him to +leave the vicinity of Manila, and they could not remove him by force, +he be promoted. [168] + +Some time during this month Sandico wrote Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "The Americans have already heard of the frequent cases + of kidnapping (_dukut_) occurring in Tondo, San Sebastián + and San Miguel. Last night some of ours were surprised in + the act of kidnapping a person. I have also heard that many + persons are asking for contributions of war. I tell them [169] + that you know nothing of all this and that if some persons + are kidnapped it is due to the hate of the natives for the + Spanish spies and secret police, which is great." [170] + +Evidently Sandico continued to interest himself in the matter of +preventing disorder, for on September 24, 1898, he wrote Aguinaldo +from Manila as follows:-- + + "By authority of General Don Pío del Pilar and accompanied + by the War Auditor, Señor Urbano, we entered a prison where + the individuals Mariano de la Cruz and Mariano Crisóstomo + were kept. They were almost prostrated. They had lately + been released from Bilibid where they had been confined + for political crimes. On being asked the reason for their + imprisonment they began by showing us their bodies from which + blood still issued as the result of the barbarous treatment + received from Major Carmona who, by the way, is the same + person of whom I spoke to you in one of my previous letters; + I declared to you then that he had assaulted, revolver in hand, + a man in the middle of one of the most frequented streets of + the suburb of Paco on pure suspicion. + + "The prisoners in question stated that if they admitted the + accusations made against them it was for fear of greater + punishments promised by said Major. The officer of the guard + took the liberty of striking with his fist the one who dared + to express himself so. + + "Before such a spectacle Major Bell found himself forced to + tell them that brutal acts are not precisely a recommendation + for a country that wished to be free and that they, the + Americans, do not arrest any one without just cause. [171] + + "I take the liberty of calling your attention to the matter + in question and other abuses in order that the measures you + may think fit be adopted to remedy this evil. In fact, we are + making a target of ourselves in the sight of all nations, + especially so in that of the Americans who note any act of + ours and judge us secretly now in order to do so later in + public. To make light of this is to plant a seed of future + injury to us, because many will desire to place themselves + under the protection of the American flag, seeing that ours + refuses to defend the citizens' individual rights. + + "I, for my part, ask that Major Carmona be arrested together + with his accomplices in the matter so that it may serve as + a lesson not only for him but also for those who think like + him." [172] + +Obviously Sandico's protest of September 24 did not produce the +desired result, for on September 28 he wrote Aguinaldo a long letter +complaining that in Manila personal security did not exist, people +were being tortured and murdered, kidnapping and theft were very +frequent, and these abuses were being committed by Filipino officers +and men. Some of the things which had come to his knowledge were of +such a nature that he preferred to speak to Aguinaldo privately about +them. [173] + +Murder, pillaging, torture of prisoners, kidnapping, theft--these +are not pleasant things, but they continued to occur, and Aguinaldo, +who apparently desired to prevent them, was powerless to do so. He +did not dare discipline General Pío del Pilar, nor remove him from +the vicinity of Manila, and the soldiers of that officer continued +to work their will on their own unfortunate and helpless people. + +Aguinaldo at first flatly refused to direct the disorderly Insurgent +forces to leave Manila. The American commander showed great forbearance +and negotiations continued. + +On August 16, 1898, the Diplomatic Commission (Buencamino and Gregorio +Araneta) telegraphed Aguinaldo that a clause in a proposed agreement +requiring prior permission of Insurgent officers before American +troops could pass or approach their lines had greatly displeased +General Anderson who declined to treat until after the withdrawal of +Noriel's troops from Manila. [174] + +Aguinaldo's reply, sent on August 17, 1898, shows that he had already +made up his mind to fight the Americans, for it contains the following +significant words: "The conflict is coming sooner or later and we +shall gain nothing by asking as favours of them what are really our +rights." [175] + +While negotiations were pending General Merritt sent Major J. F. Bell +to Aguinaldo with a letter and also with a memorandum in which were +the words:-- + + "In case you find Aguinaldo inclined to be generous in his + arrangements with us, you may communicate to him as follows: + ..." + +There follow six paragraphs, of which the third is of special +importance. It reads as follows:-- + + "(3) That I have every disposition to represent liberally + the Government at Washington, which I know is inclined to + deal fairly with him and his people; but not knowing what the + policy of that Government will be, I am not prepared to make + any promises, except that in the event of the United States + withdrawing from these islands care will be taken to leave + him _in as good condition as he was found by the forces of + the Government_. [176] + +Relative to the italicized portion of this statement Major Bell says:-- + + "I was pressed to explain further just what meaning General + M. meant to convey by the underscored portion of this remark, + but I replied that I had repeated the language General M. had + used to me, and I preferred they should seek any further + explanation from him, lest I might unwittingly fall into error + if I undertook to explain his meaning myself. Their lack of + definiteness and my unwillingness to comment upon the language + seemed to arouse their apprehensions and suspicions. They + have been trying ever since to obtain in writing some definite + promise on this subject." [177] + +Aguinaldo ordered that the machinery of the water works be started up +at once, a thing which was very necessary as Manila was suffering from +lack of water. I should be glad if I could leave this matter here, +but I cannot, for Major Bell elsewhere makes the further statement:-- + + "Attention is invited to General Merritt's promise made known + to Aguinaldo by me verbally, namely, that in the event of the + United States withdrawing from these islands, care would be + taken to leave Aguinaldo in as good condition as he was found + by the forces of the Government. From a remark the General + made to me I inferred he intended to interpret the expression + 'forces of the Government' to mean the naval forces, should + future contingencies necessitate such an interpretation." [178] + +Let us hope that Major Bell misunderstood General Merritt's +intention. If this is not the case, I must say in all frankness that +in my opinion it was General Merritt's intention to indulge in sharp +practice. + +Obviously, the American naval forces did not find Aguinaldo in any +"condition," in the sense in which General Merritt uses the term. On +the contrary, they brought him from Hongkong and assisted him in +starting a revolution. The negotiations in question were relative +to the positions held by the Insurgents at the time the negotiations +took place, and General Merritt's promise could not legitimately be +interpreted to refer to anything else. + +Had Aguinaldo accepted his offer, a most embarrassing situation would +have resulted. General Merritt was obviously not authorized to make +such a proposition in the first instance, and the only honourable +course left open to him would have been to advise Washington of his +improper action and beg the Government to support him in it and thus +save the honour of the country. + +Fortunately, Aguinaldo did not act upon the promise nor accept the +offer. On the contrary, he promptly and indignantly denied that he +was committed to anything, and sought to impose new conditions which +were not acceded to. + +Meanwhile some one doubtless got hold of General Merritt and called +his attention to the fact that in making this offer he had grossly +exceeded his authority, for in his reply to Aguinaldo's protest +General Merritt says:-- + + "So far as any promises as to what should be done in the event + of a conclusion of a treaty between the United States and Spain + are concerned, it is utterly impossible for me as the military + representative only of the United States to make any promises + such as you request. As you have already been informed, you + may depend upon the good will of the Americans out here and + the Government, of which you already know the beneficence, + to determine these matters in the future." [179] + +Coming, as this statement did, after the offer made in the memorandum +hereinbefore referred to, it must have aroused the suspicions of +Aguinaldo and his associates, and in my opinion Merritt's conduct in +making such a proposal in the first instance was inexcusable. + +Before he could terminate the negotiations which followed he was called +away, and turned this matter, together with other unfinished business, +over to his successor, General E. S. Otis. + +On August 31, 1898, the latter official wrote to Aguinaldo as +follows:-- + + "_General Aguinaldo, Bacoor_: + + "Referring to promise made by General Merritt to reply to + your letter of August 27 within four days, I desire to state + that he was unexpectedly ordered away and had not opportunity + to reply. Being unacquainted with the situation, I must take + time to inform myself before answering, which I will do at + the earliest opportunity. + + "_Otis_." + +On September 8 General Otis wrote Aguinaldo a long letter fully +discussing the whole situation in the light of the complete information +which he had meanwhile obtained. Since so much has been made of this +incident by Blount and others, I invite attention to the following +extracts from General Otis's letter, which embody a fair and judicial +statement of the conditions which existed:-- + + "You designate certain lines within the suburbs of the + city of Manila, to which you promise to retire your troops, + and name as conditions precedent: First, protection to your + shipping by the United States Navy, and the free navigation of + your vessels within the waters in United States occupation; + second, restitution to your forces of all positions which + are now occupied by your troops, in the event that treaty + stipulations between the United States and Spain surrender to + the last-named government the territory occupied by the former; + and thirdly, that United States troops now occupying positions + beyond the lines you name shall retire within the same. + + "A discussion of your proposition to hold, jointly, with + the United States Government, the city of Manila, involves + consideration of some of the other concessions you desire to + be made, and to that I will at once refer. I wish to present + the matter, in the first instance, in its legal aspect, + although, from remarks contained in former correspondence, + I am of the opinion that you are fully aware how untenable + the proposition is. The United States and Spain were and + are belligerent parties to a war, and were so recognized + by the civilized world. In the course of events the entire + city of Manila, then in full possession of Spanish forces, + was surrendered to the first-named belligerent power. The + articles of agreement and capitulation gave the United States + Government full occupancy of the city and defences of Manila, + and that Government obligated itself to insure the safety + of the lives and property of the inhabitants of the city + to the best of its ability. By all the laws of war and all + international precedents the United States authority over + Manila and its defences is full and supreme, and it cannot + escape the obligations which it has assumed. + + * * * * * + + "But conceding, as you do, the strictly legal right of my + Government to hold and administer the affairs of the city + of Manila and its suburbs (I thus conclude from expressions + contained in former correspondence and from my appreciation of + your intellectual attainments), you base your proposition--a + joint occupation--upon supposed equitable grounds, referring + to the sacrifices your troops have made and the assistance they + have rendered the American forces in the capture of Manila. It + is well known they have made personal sacrifices, endured + great hardships, and have rendered aid. But is it forgotten + that my Government has swept the Spanish navy from the seas + of both hemispheres; sent back to Spain the Spanish army and + navy forces, recently embarked for your destruction, and the + secure holding of the Philippine possessions; that since May + 1 last its navy has held the city of Manila at its mercy, + but out of consideration of humanity refused to bombard it, + preferring to send troops to demand surrender, and thereby + preserve the lives and property of the inhabitants? Is it + forgotten that the destruction of the Spanish navy and the + retention of Spanish armed men in its European possessions + has opened up to you the ports of the Island of Luzon and + held Spain helpless to meet its refractory subjects? + + * * * * * + + "Apart from all legal and equitable considerations, and + those having their origin in personally conceived ideas of + justice, I wish respectfully to call your attention to the + impracticability of maintaining a joint occupation of Manila + and its suburbs, and in this I know that I shall have the + approval of your excellent judgment. It would be extremely + difficult to prevent friction between our respective forces, + which might result in unfortunate consequences, labor as we may + for continued harmonious relations. Located in close proximity, + irresponsible members of our organizations, by careless or + impertinent action, might be the means of inciting grave + disturbances; and in this connection I call to your attention + the recent shooting affair at Cavite, which still requires + investigation. There might also arise conflict of authority + between our subordinate officers. Even now, within precincts + in entire actual possession of our troops, I find that permits + are given to citizens, who are styled local presidents, to make + arrests, to carry arms, etc., in violation of our instructions + and authority, and that several cases of kidnapping have + taken place. In pursuance of our obligations to maintain, + in so far as we can, domestic tranquillity, our officers have + arrested suspected parties, and they have asserted (with what + element of truth I know not) that the insurgent forces are the + offenders. I have declined to accept their statements, as I + prefer to believe the contrary, although it would appear that + officers connected with those forces have issued the permits + to which I allude. Such interference with our administration + of civil affairs must eventually result in conflict. + + "... And here permit me to remark upon a view of the subject + you have advocated in support of the plea for dual occupation + of the city's suburbs. Your forces, you say in substance, + should have a share in the booty resulting from the conquest + of the city, on account of hardships endured and assistance + rendered. The facts on which you base your conclusion granted, + your conclusion, under the rules of war which are binding on my + Government, does not follow, for it has never recognized the + existence of spoils of war, denominated 'booty,' as have many + European governments. No enemy's property of any kind, public + or private, can be seized, claimed by, or awarded to, any of + its officers or men, and should they attempt to appropriate + any of it for their individual benefit, they would be very + severely punished through military tribunals, on which have + been conferred by law very sweeping jurisdiction. The enemy's + money and property (all that is not necessary to be expended in + administering local affairs in the enemy's territory) must be + preserved for final arbitrament or settlement by and between + the supreme authorities of the nations concerned. My troops + cannot acquire booty nor any individual benefit by reason of + the capture of an enemy's territory. I make this comment, + believing that you hold erroneous opinions in respect to + individual advantages which occupation bestows. + + "I request your indulgence while I briefly consider the + concessions you ask us to make as conditions precedent to the + retirement of your forces to the lines indicated by your note + of the 27th ultimo. + + "The first is: Protection to your shipping and free navigation + to your vessels. Neither the extent of protection nor the limit + of free navigation you request is understood. Certainly you + could not mean protection on the high seas, or in the ports + not in the rightful possession of the United States. That, + as you are fully aware, could only be effected by treaty, + or guarantee, following international recognition of + the belligerent rights of the Philippine revolutionary + government. While the existing armistice continues, the + United States are in rightful possession, in so far as the + navigable waters of the Philippine Islands are concerned, only + of the bay of Manila and its navigable tributaries. Within the + same all vessels of trade and commerce and the war vessels + of recognized national powers sail freely as long as the + sovereignty of my Government is not assailed nor the peace of + the locality threatened. In this respect, whatever concessions + are extended by way of relaxation of trade restrictions, + incident to war, to the citizens of these islands will be + extended to all alike, and discrimination in this regard + is neither intended nor permitted. Admiral Dewey exercises + supervision over all naval matters, and they are in no way + related to the duties conferred upon me by law. Nor would + it avail should I seek his consent for greater latitude of + action, for even if disposed to grant special concessions he + could not do so, and I doubt if the supreme authority of my + Government could now, under the prevailing truce with Spain, + invest him with the requisite powers to do so and at the same + time preserve its international obligations. + + "The second concession named by you is restitution of positions + in the city of Manila to your forces, in case the treaty + of peace remands to Spain the territory surrendered under + the late capitulatory articles; and the third and last is a + promise to retire our troops within the lines indicated by + you, as the lines on which you desire your troops to remain + permanently. These propositions, having a kindred nature, + may be considered together, and, indeed, have already been + impliedly answered. From previous statements of facts and + logical conclusions made and stated in this communication, + concerning the nature of the obligations resting on the United + States with regard to the territory to which they have the + legal right of possession under contracting articles with + Spain, it is evident that neither in law or morals can the + concessions be made. I would be powerless to grant them in any + aspect of the case, being nothing more than an agent to carry + out the instructions of the executive head of my Government and + not being vested with discretionary power to determine matters + of such moment. In the present instance I am not only powerless + to accede to your request, but have been strictly enjoined + by my Government, mindful of its international promises and + national honour, which it has never broken nor sacrificed, + not to accede joint occupation of the city and suburbs of + Manila and am directed specially to preserve the peace and + protect persons and property within the territory surrendered + under the terms of the Spanish capitulation. These mandates + must be obeyed. + + "Thus have I endeavoured with all candor and sincerity, + holding nothing in reserve, to place before you the situation + as understood by me, and I doubt not by the Republic + which I represent. I have not been instructed as to what + policy the United States intends to pursue in regard to its + legitimate holdings here, and hence I am unable to give you + any information on the subject. That it will have a care + and labor conscientiously for the welfare of your people I + sincerely believe. It remains for you, beneficiaries of its + sacrifices, to adopt a course of action which will manifest + your good intentions and show to the world the principles + which actuate your proceedings. + + * * * * * + + "It only remains for me to respectfully notify you that I am + compelled by my instructions to direct that your armed forces + evacuate the entire city of Manila, including its suburbs + and defences, and that I shall be obliged to take action with + that end in view within a very short space of time should you + decline to comply with my Government's demands; and I hereby + serve notice on you that unless your troops are withdrawn + beyond the line of the city's defences before Thursday, + the 15th instant, I shall be obliged to resort to forcible + action, and that my Government will hold you responsible for + any unfortunate consequences which may ensue. + + * * * * * + + "In conclusion, I beg to inform you that I have conferred + freely with Admiral Dewey upon the contents of this + communication and am delegated by him to state that he fully + approves of the same in all respects; that the commands of + our Government compel us to act as herein indicated, and + that between our respective forces there will be unanimity + and complete concert of action." + +This calm and temperate discussion of the situation, coupled with +the firm statement of intention with which it closed, produced a +decided effect on Aguinaldo. Concerning the events to which it led, +General Otis has made this statement:-- + + "On September 13, a commission sent by Aguinaldo and consisting + of three members, one of whom was the treasurer and another + the attorney-general of the insurgent government, called + for the purpose of discussing the subject of my letter of + the 8th. They asked me to withdraw it and simply request + in writing that the insurgent troops retire to the line + designated by General Merritt, which I refused to do, stating + that unless they withdrew as directed we would be obliged to + resort to force. They then asked that I withdraw the letter + and issue a request unaccompanied by any threat to use force, + as Aguinaldo was fearful that he would be unable to remove + his troops upon a demand. To which I replied that the letter + of the 8th instant would stand. They then said that as the + demands of that letter must remain unchanged, the insurgents + would withdraw as directed therein, but that if I would express + in writing a simple request to Aguinaldo to withdraw to the + lines which I designated--something which he could show to the + troops and induce them to think that he was simply acting upon + a request from these headquarters--he would probably be able to + retire his men without much difficulty; that, of course, they + themselves understood the direction to withdraw, which would + be obeyed, and thereupon repeated their desire to obtain a note + of request, whereupon I furnished them with the following:-- + + "'_Office U. S. Military Governor in the_ + + "'_Philippine Islands_, + + "'_Manila_, P. I., September 13, 1898. + + "'_The Commanding General of the Philippine Forces_: + + "'_Sir_: Referring to my communication of September + 8, I have the honour to inform you that I have had a + most agreeable conversation with certain gentlemen who + are in the interests of your revolutionary government + upon the matters therein contained. We have discussed + at length the complications now existing, which will + exist, and will doubtless increase, while our troops + continue to occupy jointly certain districts of the + city of Manila. I have urged upon them the necessity + of the withdrawal of your troops in order that the + friendly relations which have always been maintained + by and between them and the forces of the United + States Government may be perpetuated. I am sure that + the gentlemen fully appreciate my sentiments and + will clearly report them to you. May I ask you to + patiently listen to their report of our conversation? + + "'It is my desire that our friendly intercourse and + mutual amicable relations be continued; that they be + not jeopardized if we can by consistent action avoid + it, and such, I am certain, is the desire of yourself + and associates. + + "'May I ask, therefore, that you withdraw your troops + from Manila? + + "'Permit me to add in conclusion that I have that + confidence in your ability and patriotism which will + lead you to accede to this request. + + "'I am, with great respect, your most obedient servant, + + (Signed) "'_E. S. Otis_, + + "'Major-General, U. S. V., + + "'United States Military Governor in the Philippines.' + + "In reply to which, on the 16th, the following was received:-- + + "'_Malolos, Bulacan_, September 16, 1898. + + "'_The Commanding General of the American Forces_: + + "'_My Dear Sir_: Referring to your esteemed + communication, dated the 13th instant, I have the + honour to inform you that I have given appropriate + orders that my troops should abandon their most + advanced positions within some of the suburbs, and + that they should retire to points where contact with + yours would be more difficult, in order to avoid all + occasion for conflict. + + "'I hope that by these presents you will be fully + convinced of my constant desire to preserve amicable + relations with the American forces, even at the risk + of sacrificing a part of the confidence placed in my + government by the Philippine people. + + "'A consideration of my many occupations will serve to + excuse me for not having answered with the promptness + desired. + + "'Your very respectful servant, + + (Signed) "'_Emilio Aguinaldo_.' + + "On the evening of the 15th the armed insurgent organizations + withdrew from the city and all of its suburbs, as + acknowledged by their leaders, excepting from one small + outlying district. This certain agents of Aguinaldo asked + on the previous day to be permitted to retain for a short + time, on the plea that the general officer in command [180] + would not obey instructions, and they proposed to remove his + men gradually by organizations and thereafter to punish him + for his disobedience. The withdrawal was effected adroitly, + as the insurgents marched out in excellent spirits, cheering + the American troops." [181] + +I have given the facts thus fully for the reason that this is the one +instance I have found in which a promise was made, fortunately in the +form of an offer which was not accepted, and then withdrawn. It has +seemed to me that the reasons why General Merritt should never have +made it, and why General Otis could not possibly have renewed it, +should be fully set forth. + +On September 7, 1898, General Otis had cabled to Washington that +Admiral Dewey and he considered conditions critical, and that +the number of armed Insurgents in the city was large and rapidly +increasing. He stated that on the 8th he would send a notification +to Aguinaldo that unless the latter's troops were withdrawn beyond +the line of the suburbs of the cry before September 15 he would be +obliged to resort to forcible action and that the United States would +hold Aguinaldo responsible for any unfortunate consequences which +might ensue. + +Aguinaldo still hoped to obtain recognition of his government by the +United States, but did not consider such recognition probable, and +pushed preparations to attack if a favorable opportunity should offer. + +Before occupying ourselves with these preparations, let us briefly +review the results of our investigations as to Insurgent coöperation +with the American forces up to this time. + +Taylor has made the following excellent summary of the case:-- + + "Up to this time Aguinaldo had continued a desultory + warfare with the Spanish troops in Manila. That none of his + attacks were very serious is shown from the Spanish reports + of casualties; but although he had failed to secure the + surrender of the city to himself, he had kept its garrison + occupied and within their works. The American force on land + was now strong enough to begin offensive operations. So + far the relations between the Americans and Aguinaldo had + not been really friendly. They were in his way, and yet he + could not break with them, for he hoped to use them for the + attainment of the designs which he had by this time frankly + declared. The Americans had listened to these declarations, + and had not answered them, nor was it possible to answer + them. The American forces were there under the instructions + of the President to make war on Spain and to establish a + military government in the Philippines. Aguinaldo had declared + himself a dictator and the Philippines independent. To have + recognized him in his civil capacity, to have dealt with him + in his civil capacity, would have meant a recognition of his + government by the military commander in the field--a thing + impossible and unlawful. Officers of the United States forces + are not empowered to recognize governments; that function is + reserved to the President of the United States; and in this + case he, in his orders to the Secretary of War, dated May 19, + copies of which were forwarded to General Merritt for his + guidance, informed him that the army of occupation was sent + to the Philippines 'for the twofold purpose of completing the + reduction of the Spanish power in that quarter and of giving + order and security to the islands while in the possession + of the United States.' These instructions contemplated the + establishment of a military government in the archipelago by + military officials of the United States. + + * * * * * + + "it is true that in spite of the date of these instructions + General Merritt in San Francisco had received no copy of + them on August 28, three days after the departure of General + Anderson, and what that officer knew of them could only have + been what General Merritt remembered of the contents of an + unsigned copy of them shown him at the White House, but they + were in accordance with the practice of the United States + Government in occupying conquered territory, that practice + General Anderson well knew, and his relations with Aguinaldo + were guided by it. + + * * * * * + + "It has been claimed that Aguinaldo and his followers received + the impression at this time from their conversation with + American officers that the United States would undoubtedly + recognize the independence of the Philippines, and that the + cooperation of the insurgents was due to this impression. There + was no cooperation. That he attempted in vain to secure the + surrender of Manila to himself was not cooperation. That + he refrained from attacking the Americans and occasionally + permitted them to be furnished supplies, for which they paid, + was not cooperation. The fact that for a time their plans and + his plans were parallel does not mean cooperation. Aguinaldo + was forced by the exigencies of the situation, by the necessity + of strengthening his hold upon the people, by the necessities + of his operations against the Spaniards, to make Spaniards + and natives alike believe that all that he did was with + the aid of the Americans by whom he would be supported in + all his acts. He needed their support, and if he could not + obtain that he needed the appearance of their support for the + attainment of his ends; and this he was forced to purchase by + compliance, or apparent compliance, with their demands. But + his compliance with them, as all American officers serving + there well knew, was never willing, was never complete, + and was never given except under pressure. It is true that + writers upon the subject, speaking with the confidence which is + born of insufficient and incomplete information, assure their + readers that any government but that of the United States, any + colonial administrators but Americans, would have been able to + obtain the hearty cooperation of Aguinaldo and his followers by + judicious concessions to them at this time. The only concession + which would have obtained that hearty cooperation would have + been the recognition of the independence of the Philippines + under a United States protectorate, of Aguinaldo clothed with + the plenitude of the powers of the Katipúnan as dictator, and + a promise to promptly withdraw from the islands. This promise + the Government of the United States could not make. Until the + ratification of a treaty of peace with Spain the insurgents of + the Philippine Islands were rebellious subjects of Spain, and + with them, except as fighting men, no relations could be had. + + * * * * * + + "No report of operations or returns of strength were rendered + by Aguinaldo at this or any other time to any American + commander, and no American commander ever rendered such + returns to him. At the time of General Merritt's arrival, and + until Manila was occupied by the Americans, the insurgents and + United States troops were united solely by the fact that they + had Manila as a common objective. Conditions were such that + the Americans, in order to obtain its surrender, had to avoid + doing anything which might cause the insurgents to attack them + and perhaps make terms with Spain; while Aguinaldo and his + followers, in order to accomplish the surrender of Manila to + themselves, had to maintain such relations with the Americans + as would induce the Spaniards to believe that their fleet + was at his disposal, [182] and also such apparent harmony + and cooperation with them in the execution of their plans + that the recalcitrant among the Filipinos would be forced to + believe that the Americans would in all ways use their forces + to support Aguinaldo in the attainment of his desires. + + "General Merritt saw this and the necessity for immediately + taking such steps as would lead to his occupation of + Manila. With the arrival of the third expedition he was able + to pass through the insurgent lines between Camp Dewey and + Manila, for he had sufficient force to accept no refusal + from Aguinaldo. + + "In his report he said that the insurgents had obtained + positions of investment opposite the Spanish lines along + their full extent, and that on the bay front their lines ran + within 800 yards of San Antonio Abad. The approaches to the + beach and village of Pasay were in their possession. + + "'This anomalous state of affairs, namely, having a line + of quasi-hostile native troops between our forces and the + Spanish position, was, of course, very objectionable, but it + was difficult to deal with owing to the peculiar conditions + of our relations with the insurgents.... As General Aguinaldo + did not visit me on my arrival nor offer his services as a + subordinate military leader, and as my instructions from the + President fully contemplated the occupation of the islands by + the American land forces, and stated that "the powers of the + military occupant are absolute and supreme and immediately + operate upon the political condition of the inhabitants," + I did not consider it wise to hold any direct communication + with the insurgent leader until I should be in possession + of the city of Manila, especially as I would not until + then be in a position to issue a proclamation and enforce + my authority in the event that his pretensions should clash + with my designs. For these reasons the preparations for the + attack on the city were pressed and the military operations + conducted without reference to the situation of the insurgent + forces. The wisdom of this course was subsequently fully + established by the fact that when the troops at my command + carried the Spanish entrenchments, extending from the sea to + the Pasay road on the extreme Spanish right, we were under + no obligation, by prearranged plans of the mutual attack, + to turn to the right and clear the front still held by the + insurgents, but were able to move forward at once and occupy + the city and the suburbs.'" [183] + +All that the Insurgents and the Americans ever had in common was an +enemy. They each fought that enemy in their own way. There was no +coöperation. On the part of the Insurgents there was treachery. I +will submit further evidence of this fact. + + + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +The Premeditated Insurgent Attack + + +It will be remembered that the minutes of the session of the Hong +Kong junta at which Aguinaldo reported the result of his negotiations +with Pratt and received his instructions relative to the trip to +Manila, recorded the fact that there would be no better occasion for +the expeditionary forces "to arm themselves at the expense of the +Americans," and that provided with arms the Filipino people would +be able to oppose themselves to the United States and combat their +demands if they attempted to colonize the country. [184] + +The possible, if not the probable, desirability of attacking the +United States troops was, it is evident, clearly foreseen from the +beginning. Active preparations for doing this now soon began. + +Although Insurgent officers in full uniform freely visited Manila at +all times, Aguinaldo wrote on October 1 to his commander in Laguna +Province that he must not permit Americans there without passes. He +was to get rid of them civilly, but he was to keep them out and inform +all authorities there of his instructions. + +On August 24 an American soldier was killed and others were wounded in +Cavite by Insurgent troops who fired from behind. An Insurgent officer +in Cavite at the time reported on his record of services that he-- + + "took part in the movement against the Americans on the + afternoon of the 24th of August, under the orders of the + commander of the troops and the adjutant of the post." + +This shows that the movement was ordered, but the Insurgents promptly +realized that it was ill advised. + +On August 28 General Llanera was reported to be preparing for +operations against the Americans. He was ordered to suspend his +preparations. The same day General P. Mercado Rizal, commanding in +Laguna Province, wrote Mabini asking whether they were to consider +the Americans as their allies or their enemies. He wanted to know +whether the war was to stop or continue becoming more furious. This +not because he desired to ask questions about the secrets of the +government, but because he wished to prepare the minds of the people +for the future. Mabini's answer has not been found. + +We have already noted that on August 8 Fernando Acevedo wrote General +Pío del Pilar recommending that he attack and annihilate the American +troops; that on August 10 Pilar wrote Aguinaldo suggesting that +the Americans be attacked, and that on August 17 Aguinaldo stated" +"The conflict is coming sooner or later." [185] + +At this time Sandico entered the service of the Americans as an +interpreter and acted as a spy, endeavouring to keep his people fully +informed relative to the plans and acts of his employers. Incidentally +he endeavoured to convince the latter that the barbarities really +committed by Insurgent officers and troops in Manila were perpetrated +by enemies of the Insurgent cause who wished to discredit it. + +In a letter dated September 21, 1898, Apacible says that the conflict +will come sooner or later and asks Aguinaldo if it would not be +better for them to provoke it before the Americans concentrate their +troops. [186] + +On September 10 General Garcia reported to Aguinaldo that on the +previous night the Americans had attempted to push back his line +at San Lazaro, and that morning had concentrated and penetrated the +Insurgent territory, making a reconnaissance through the fields about +Sampaloc. Aguinaldo put an endorsement on this communication saying +that he had long since ordered that the Insurgent line should not +be passed. He instructed Garcia to throw troops in front of the +Americans at Sampaloc, and order them to leave, and to warn the +bolo men. Obviously, little more was needed to provoke an Insurgent +attack. [187] + +An unsigned draft of an order in Aguinaldo's handwriting dated Malolos, +September 13 (?), 1898, [188] shows how tense was the situation +while the question of withdrawal of the Insurgent forces from the +city of Manila was under consideration. It contains instructions +for General Pío del Pilar, General P. Garcia and General Noriel or +Colonel Cailles. Their purpose is hardly open to doubt. + +General Pío del Pilar was directed:-- + + "To have a detachment posted in the interval from the branch + of the river of Paco in a northerly direction to the bridge + and so on up to the Pasig river in the direction of Pandacan, + the river serving as a line until the suburb of Panque is + reached which will be under our jurisdiction. Proceed to + execute this order on its receipt, posting detachments where + they are necessary and trenches will be made without loss + of time working day and night. Do not rest for by doing so + we may lose the opportunity; beg of the troops to assist in + the formation of intrenchments. Matters have a bad aspect, + we especially expect something Wednesday and Thursday, the + 15th and 16th of this month. The danger is imminent on the + mentioned days, also in the time that follows. + + "Keep strict vigilance at all hours. In case you receive orders + to leave that place, do not do so on any account without my + orders, happen what may.... + + "Concentrate all your forces in Santa Ana before the day + arrives. + + "Warn your soldiers against firing at random as the Spaniards + did, if possible have them calculate the number of their + antagonists and how much ammunition there is in comparison + with the number of the attacking force, in fact, there are + occasions when each shot fired kills as many as four men. + + "I hope you will see to the execution of these instructions + and that you will maintain the honour of the Philippines by + your courage and in no way permit your rights to be trampled + underfoot." [189] + +General Garcia was instructed as follows:-- + + "On Wednesday, the 14th of this month, you will post + detachments in the points indicated by lines on the enclosed + plan. On receipt of this and as soon as you learn its contents, + proceed secretly to determine the most suitable places to + post detachments and immediately post our troops and have + intrenchments made employing day and night in this work. Beg + this of our soldiers." [190] + +The instructions to Noriel or Cailles read as follows:-- + + "At eight o'clock in the morning of Wednesday, the 14th, + withdraw your command from the town of Malate as indicated + on the enclosed plan, from the bridge in Singalong and in a + straight line from there to the branch of the river in Paco + will be the line of our jurisdiction even though we may not + be of one mind in the matter. On receipt of this proceed to + determine the most suitable places to post our troops even + if they are not supplied with batteries; on posting the + detachments give instructions to have intrenchments made + immediately without resting, especially on the days of the + 15th and 16th. Since affairs have a serious aspect, do not + lose vigilance and be on the alert at all times.... + + "Concentrate all the forces and have a call to arms in Cavite + so that all the troops may be in Pasay on Wednesday night. + + "In case the Americans attempt to order you out do not leave + your posts, happen what may, but exercise prudence and be + prepared leaving them to give the provocation. Answer them + that you have no instructions given you with regard to what + they ask." [191] + +Obviously the maintenance of peace at this time hung by a very slender +thread. On September 14 the governor of Cavite telegraphed Aguinaldo +as follows:-- + + "Most urgent. I desire to know from you the result of the + ultimatum. Advise me if we must prepare our troops for action + to-morrow. I await a reply." [192] + +But war was not to begin at this time. On September 23 Bray wrote +to Aguinaldo advising him to maintain a defensive attitude until +the result of the negotiations at Paris should become known, giving +way to the Americans and not showing his teeth. He could take the +offensive later if advisable and should have little difficulty in +settling accounts with the American soldiers. [193] + +Bray suggested the possibility of an alliance between the American and +the Spanish soldiers if a conflict should arise before the departure +of the latter. [194] + +Meanwhile preparations for the attack progressed. During September, +Sandico wrote Aguinaldo suggesting the urgent necessity of reorganizing +the "masons" and the Katipúnan, [195] and that all be furnished with +knives, to be kept hidden so that they might be "ready for any event." + +In spite of efforts to keep the Insurgent soldiers in hand, feeling +among them ran high, and they wanted to fight. [196] On November 30, +1898, General Mascardo telegraphed from San Fernando to Aguinaldo +asking if he might begin firing in order to prevent the American +troops from disembarking, and Aguinaldo promptly answered in the +affirmative. [197] + +On December 5 Malvar telegraphed from Lipa that according to a despatch +from Batangas, American divers were working unceasingly and that a +subordinate had ordered that they be fired on if they attempted to +land. Aguinaldo replied that he did not mind their working at sea, but +that they must not be allowed to land under any circumstances. [198] + +On December 6 Sandico telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "The difficulty of last night at the San Juan picket with + the American troops has been adjusted without prejudice. Our + preparations ought to continue. Awaiting orders." [199] + +San Juan was where the firing commenced on February 4, 1899. + +On December 9 Cailles wired Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "Report to you that there are 3000 Americans in front of + our position at Singalong. I do not know what they wish; + if they enter Pineda I open fire." [200] + +By this time the Insurgents had made up their minds that the +Americans, who had been bearing their insults in silence, were +cowards. Aguinaldo's indorsement on this telegram reads:-- + + "Answered: Nevertheless the 3000 American soldiers are few + against my Colonel and his 300 soldiers, and I believe you + have more than that number. E.A., Dec. 12, 1898." [201] + +Relative to the insults which were at this time showered upon +Americans, Taylor has made the following statement: [202]-- + + "Fortune had been good to Aguinaldo and his associates in the + eight months during which the United States had prevented Spain + from relieving her beleaguered garrisons in the Philippines, + and she might still be kind. The men about Aguinaldo who had + risen farthest and fastest could not endure the thought of + having to accept subordinate positions in a government not + directed by themselves. The halberdiers at the door of the + palace of the president saluted them as the halberdiers at + the doorway of his lordship the governor-general in Manila + had struck the marble steps with their halberds at the + coming of the Spanish generals. They swaggered down the + streets of Malolos, clashing their swords behind them, + and they knew that if they won, the Philippines would + be divided into fiefs which they, as dukes and marquises, + would hold in feudal tenure from a Malay potentate. They were + confident. They held Luzón. They held the people. They had + no intention of returning to office stools or to the life of + outlaws and hunted men. The United States force in Manila + was small and America was far. It was true that they might + have to fight for the prize which they had seized, but the + military leaders about Aguinaldo were confident of winning in + case they fought. They believed the Americans were afraid of + them and would be easily beaten. American soldiers had been + seized and had been insulted by the followers of Aguinaldo + and no resort had been made to force. The Americans had been + ordered to avoid bringing on an engagement and had obeyed. It + is also probable that many of the insults to which they had + been subjected were not appreciated by them. A tall soldier + from western America paid no attention to the insults hurled + at him in a language which he did not understand. And yet + the small excited Filipinos might retire feeling that the + American had tamely submitted to insult worse than a blow." + +By the middle of December, Aguinaldo had placed in position in the +vicinity of Manila all of the field guns in his possession. + +The Treaty of Paris was signed on December 10. It provided for the +termination of Spanish sovereignty in the Philippines. This was what +the Insurgents had been waiting for, and thereafter things moved +rapidly. It is obvious that an attack was definitely planned for +at this time, for on December 21, Commandant F. E. Rey telegraphed +Aguinaldo that the second chief of the second zone of Manila had +directed him to assist by entering that city as soon as they opened +fire against the American troops. [203] + +On the following day Cailles reported that he had occupied blockhouse +No. 12, which was within the American lines, and added the following +significant statement:-- + + "The order of yesterday was, on hearing the first shots + from Santa Ana, for my whole force to hurl themselves on + the American line of trenches, and to follow the living to + Manila. The dead can lie with the dead. Yesterday we were + content waiting for the arming of the San Quintin." [204] + +San Quintin's Day was the anniversary of the Sicilian vespers, the +massacre of the French in Sicily in 1268. Obviously the Insurgents +were planning something similar for Manila. + +For some reason the attack was not made as planned, but there was +no intention of abandoning it. Within fifteen days of January 1 some +40,000 Filipinos left Manila. Why? On January 7, Aguinaldo wrote to +Señor Benito Legarda at Manila, saying:-- + + "I beg you to leave Manila with your family and come here to + Malolos, but not because I wish to frighten you--I merely + wish to warn you for your satisfaction, although it is not + yet the day or the week." [205] + +Many details of the plan of attack have come into our +possession. Doctor Manuel Xeres Burgos wrote Aguinaldo during January +relative to a plan for an uprising of the prisoners in Bilibid Prison, +saying that it should by all means come "before the movement is begun +anywhere else," and calling attention to the necessity of stationing +men to prevent the American soldiers near by in the Zorilla theatre +from coming to the rescue. On the back of this letter there is a +sketch plan showing where bolo men were to be stationed, ready to +attack these soldiers. [206] + +In his message to Congress dated January 1, 1899, Aguinaldo said:-- + + "I consider arguments unnecessary in support of the proposed + amendments, every one knows that our newborn Republic now has + to fight for its existence against giants in ambition and in + power." [207] + +An unsigned letter addressed to Apacible on January 4, 1899, contains +the following statement:-- + + "It appears that conflict with the Americans is imminent +and inevitable. Several of their vessels with thousands of +soldiers commanded by General Miller were sent to Iloilo on +December 20th last to take that port together with the whole +of Visayas and Mindanao." [208] + +On January 4 the following significant telegram was sent out:-- + + "Circular Telegram from the Secretary of the Interior to + Provincial Presidents, wherever there may be Telegraphic + Service, to be communicated to the Local Chiefs of each Town. + + "_Malolos_, January 4, 1899, 9.35 A.M. + + "To the Provincial President of the Province of Pangasinán: + + "Hasten the preparation of all the towns in order to oppose the + American invasion. See that all the inhabitants prepare their + bolos and daggers; also that in each street and barrio national + militia is organized, each six of whom should be commanded by + a corporal, each thirteen by a sergeant, each twenty-six by + a second lieutenant, each fifty-two by a first lieutenant, + and each one hundred and four by a captain, directing that + the soldiers of the national militia elect their own officers, + informing all that upon our attitude depends our salvation. + + _Lingayen_, January 4, 1899." + +There is a note thereon which reads:-- + + "Communicate this to all of the local chiefs, and to the + commanding general." + + (Signed by initials which are illegible, but evidently those + of the Provincial President.) [209] + +On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation which contains +the following statement:-- + + "The said generals accepted my concessions in favor of + peace and friendship as indications of weakness. Thus it is, + that with rising ambition, they ordered forces to Iloilo on + December 26, with the purpose of acquiring for themselves + the title of conquerors of that portion of the Philippine + Islands occupied by my govermnent. + + * * * * * + + "My government cannot remain indifferent in view of such a + violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by + a nation which has arrogated to itself the title, 'champion + of oppressed nations.' Thus it is that my government is + ready to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to + take forcible possession of the Visayan Islands. I announce + these rights before the world, in order that the conscience of + mankind may pronounce its infallible verdict as to who are the + true oppressors of nations and the tormentors of human kind. + + "Upon their heads be all the blood which may be shed." [210] + +Three days later this proclamation, which was rather dangerously like +a declaration of war, was reissued with a significant change in the +last one of the passages quoted, the words "attempt to take forcible +possession of any part of the territory submitted to its jurisdiction" +being substituted for the words "attempt to take forcible possession +of the Visayan Islands." + +On January 8, 1899, at 9.40 P.M., Sandico telegraphed Aguinaldo +as follows:-- + + "_Note_.--In consequence of the orders of General Rios to his + officers, as soon as the Filipino attack begins the Americans + should be driven into the Intramuros district and the Walled + city should be set on fire." [211] + +Preparations for the attack, which was to begin inside the city +of Manila, were now rapidly pushed to conclusion. I quote Taylor's +excellent summary of them:-- + + "After Aguinaldo's proclamation of January 5 the number of + organizations charged with an attack within the city increased + rapidly and it is possible that those which had been formed + during Spanish rule had never been disbanded. Sandico's + clubs for athletic exercises and mutual improvement formed + a nucleus for these bodies and the directing boards of + the popular committees took up the work of recruiting, + while some of the members became officers of the militia or + sandatahan. On January 6 the commander of militia in Trozo, + Manila, reported that 1130 soldiers had been enrolled by the + popular committee. On January 7 Bonifacio Arévalo forwarded + to the head of the central committee a list of the officers + of the battalion which had just been organized in Sampaloc + for the defence of their liberties. Apparently about the + same time J. Limjap submitted to Sandico a project for + arming the prisoners in Bilibid Prison with the arms of the + American soldiers quartered in the Zorrilla Theatre across + the street. He said:-- + + "'Jacinto Limjap having been proclaimed commander of the + volunteers of the penitentiary, I ask you to authorize the + creation of a disciplinary battalion and the provisional + appointments of officers for 600 sandatahan, or militia, + ready to provide themselves by force with the American rifles + in the Zorrilla Theatre.' + + "He followed by a statement of the officers desired. It was + not difficult for him to obtain volunteers there to rob, + to burn, to rape and to murder. These were the crimes for + which they were serving sentences. The political prisoners + had been released.... + + "On January 18 Sandico approved of the officers for the first + battalion organized by the committees of Sampaloc; on January + 27 he approved those of the second battalion. By January 22 two + battalions had been organized in Quiapo. At least one regiment + of eight companies was raised in Binondo, for on January 23 + its commander forwarded a roll of the officers to Aguinaldo + for his approval.... On January 25 T. Sandico, at Malolos, + submitted for approval the names of a number of officers of the + territorial militia in the city of Manila. On January 30, 1899, + a roll of four companies just organized in Malate was forwarded + approved by T. Sandico, and on the same day the committee + of Trozo, Manila, applied to T. Sandico for permission to + recruit a body for the defence of the country. The regiment + of 'Armas Blancas' had already been raised in Tondo and + Binondo. It was in existence there in December, 1898, and + may have been originally organized to act against Spain. On + February 2 all officers of the territorial militia in Manila + reported at Caloocan, in accordance with orders of Sandico, + for the purpose of receiving their commissions and taking the + oath to the flag. A man who took part in this ceremony wrote + that a multitude of men were present in uniform, and that + the oath was administered by Gen. Pantaleón García. There is + no reason for believing that this is a complete statement of + sandatahan organized in Manila by the end of January, and yet + this statement gives a force of at least 6330 men. General + Otis said that this force had been reported to him as being + 10,000 men. It is probably true that only a small number of + them had rifles; but armed with long knives and daggers they + could have inflicted much damage in a sudden night attack in + the narrow and badly lighted streets of Manila. On January 9, + 1899, Aguinaldo wrote his instructions for the sandatahan + of Manila. Members of this body were to enter the houses + of the American officers on the pretext of bringing them + presents. Once in they were to kill. The sentinels at the + gates of the barracks were to be approached by men dressed as + women and killed. The gates of the barracks held and as many + officers as possible treacherously murdered, the sandatahan + were to rise throughout the city, and by attacking in the + rear the United States troops on the outer line were to aid + in opening a way for Aguinaldo's force. To further increase + the confusion and perhaps to punish the natives who had not + joined them, the sandatahan were to fire the city. + + * * * * * + + "It is a fair deduction from Luna's orders for an uprising + in Manila, from Aguinaldo's instructions for the sandatahan, + from other documents among the papers of the insurgents and + from what was done in Manila on February 22 that Aguinaldo + and his advisers about the middle of January, 1899, drew up a + plan of attack upon Manila which would, if carried out, have + inflicted a severe blow upon the Americans. It was not carried + out, but that was not the fault of Aguinaldo or of Luna. + + "It is true that the instructions were general; but that + particular instructions were given by Aguinaldo himself for + the murder of General Otis is shown by his note on the back + of a document presented to him. [212] + + "... And then there was nothing abhorrent to Aguinaldo and + the men about him in beginning a war by the murder of the + commanding general on the other side. + + * * * * * + + "... Aguinaldo and all his followers have declared that on + February 4 the Americans attacked the unsuspecting Filipinos + who were using their utmost efforts to avoid a war. And yet + here in Aguinaldo's own handwriting is the record of the + fact that on January 10, 1899, he ordered the murder of the + American commander. + + "The attack which Aguinaldo was preparing to deliver upon + and in Manila was not to be a mere raid such as the bandits + of Cavite were in the habit of making upon the defenceless + towns. The plan was a piece of calculated savagery in which + murder and outrage were considered means to accomplish a + purpose. The servants were to kill their employers; organized + bands, dressed in the dress of civilians, living in the city + of Manila under the government of the Americans, in many cases + employed by the Americans, were to suddenly fall upon the + barracks of the American soldiers and massacre the inmates; + all Americans in the streets were to be killed, the city was + to be fired and its loot was to be the reward of loyalty to + Aguinaldo. If this plan had been carried out no white man and + no white woman would have escaped. The reinforcements from + the United States would have arrived to find only the smoking + ruins of Manila. Buencamino had warned General Augustín what + the fate of Manila would be if taken by a horde of Indians + drunk with victory. That fate was now deliberately planned + for the city. Aguinaldo planned to occupy the capital not as + it had been occupied by the Americans. He planned to take it + as Count Tilly took Magdeburg. + + "The authors of this plan were not savages. Mabini, + Sandico, and Luna, Asiatics educated in European schools, + were men of trained and subtle minds. With them cruelty + and assassination was not a matter of savage impulse but of + deliberate calculation; with them assassination was employed + as an effective addition to political propaganda, and murder + as an ultimate resource in political manoeuvres." [213] + +Some portions of Aguinaldo's instructions to the _sandatahan_ are +particularly worthy of perpetuation, as they illustrate his ideas +as to the conduct which should be observed by cultured, patriotic, +honourable and very humane men, who were not cruel:-- + + "_Art_. 3. The chief of those who go to attack the barracks + should send in first four men with a good present for the + American commander. Immediately after will follow four others + who will make a pretence of looking for the same officer + for some reason and a larger group shall be concealed in the + corners or houses in order to aid the other groups at the first + signal. This wherever it is possible at the moment of attack. + + "_Art_. 4. They should not, prior to the attack, look at + the Americans in a threatening manner. To the contrary, + the attack on the barracks by the sandatahan should be a + complete surprise and with decision and courage. One should + go alone in advance in order to kill the sentinel. In order + to deceive the sentinel one of them should dress as a woman + and must take great care that the sentinel is not able to + discharge his piece, thus calling the attention of those + in the barracks. This will enable his companions who are + approaching to assist in the general attack. + + "_Art_. 5. At the moment of the attack the sandatahan should + not attempt to secure rifles from their dead enemies, but + shall pursue, slashing right and left with bolos until the + Americans surrender, and after there remains no enemy who + can injure them, they may take the rifles in one hand and + the ammunition in the other. + + "_Art_. 6. The officers shall take care that on the + tops of the houses along the streets where the American + forces shall pass there will be placed four to six men, + who shall be prepared with stones, timbers, red-hot iron, + heavy furniture, as well as boiling water, oil and molasses, + rags soaked in coal oil ready to be lighted and thrown down, + and any other hard and heavy objects that they can throw on + the passing American troops. At the same time in the lower + parts of the houses will be concealed the sandatahan, who will + attack immediately. Great care should be taken not to throw + glass in the streets, as the greater part of our soldiers + go barefooted. On these houses there will, if possible, + be arranged, in addition to the objects to be thrown down, + a number of the sandatahan, in order to cover a retreat or + to follow up a rout of the enemy's column, so that we may be + sure of the destruction of all the opposing forces. + + "_Art_. 7. All Filipinos, real defenders of their country, + should live on the alert to assist simultaneously the inside + attack at the very moment that they note the first movement + in whatever barrio or suburb, having assurance that all + the troops that surround Manila will proceed without delay + to force the enemy's line and unite themselves with their + brothers in the city. With such a general movement, so firm + and decided against the Americans, the combat is sure to be a + short one, and I charge and order that the persons and goods + of all foreigners shall be respected and that the American + prisoners shall be treated well. + + * * * * * + + "_Art_. 9. In addition to the instructions given in paragraph + 6, there shall be in the houses vessels filled with boiling + water, tallow, molasses and other liquids, which shall be + thrown as bombs on the Americans who pass in front of their + houses, or they can make use of syringes or tubes of bamboo. In + these houses shall be the sandatahan who shall hurl the + liquids that shall be passed to them by the women and children. + + "_Art_. 10. In place of bolos or daggers, if they do not + possess the same, the sandatahan can provide themselves with + lances and arrows with long sharp heads, and these should be + shot with great force in order that they may penetrate well + into the bodies of the enemy, and these should be so made that + in withdrawal from the body the head will remain in the flesh. + + * * * * * + + "_Art_. 12.... Neither will you forget your sacred oath and + immaculate banner; nor will you forget the promises made + by me to the civilized nations, whom I have assured that + we Filipinos are not savages, nor thieves, nor assassins, + nor are we cruel, but on the contrary, that we are men of + culture and patriotism, honourable and very humane." [214] + +Aguinaldo enjoined order on his subordinates. [215] + +The Filipinos were now ready to assume the offensive, but desired, if +possible, to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. They +made no secret of their desire for conflict, but increased their +hostile demonstrations and pushed their lines forward into forbidden +territory. Their attitude is well illustrated by the following extract +from a telegram sent by Colonel Cailles to Aguinaldo on January 10, +1899:-- + + "Most urgent. An American interpreter has come to tell me to + withdraw our forces in Maytubig fifty paces. I shall not draw + back a step, and in place of withdrawing, I shall advance a + little farther. He brings a letter from his general, in which + he speaks to me as a friend. I said that from the day I knew + that Maquinley (McKinley) opposed our independence I did not + want any dealings with any American. War, war, is what we + want. The Americans after this speech went off pale." [216] + +Aguinaldo approved the hostile attitude of Cailles, for there is a +reply in his handwriting which reads:-- + + "I approve and applaud what you have done with the Americans, + and zeal and valour always, also my beloved officers and + soldiers there. I believe that they are playing us until the + arrival of their reinforcements, but I shall send an ultimatum + and remain always on the alert.--E. A. Jan. 10, 1899." [217] + +On this same day Aguinaldo commissioned Feliciano Cruz and Severino +Quitiongco to assassinate General Otis. [218] + +On January 13 Noriel and Cailles telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "We desire to know results of ultimatum which you mention + in your telegram, and we also wish to know what reward our + Government is arranging for the forces that will be able + first to enter Manila." + +This telegram is endorsed in Aguinaldo's handwriting: + + "As to the contents of your telegram, those who will be the + heroes will have as their rewards a large quantity of money, + extraordinary rewards, promotions, crosses of Biak-na-bató, + Marquis of Malate, Ermita, Count of Manila, etc., besides the + congratulations of our idolizing country on account of their + being patriotic, and more, if they capture the regiments with + their generals, and, if possible, the chief of them all who + represents our future enemies in Manila, which (lot?) falls + to you, or, better said, to General Noriel and Colonel Cailles. + + "The ultimatum has not been sent, but it will be within a + few days. + + (Signed) "E. A. + + "_Malolos_, Jan. 14, 1899." [219] + +On January 14, 1899, the people at Aparri shouted: "Death to the +Americans," and held a review to celebrate the rupture of friendly +relations with the United States. [220] + +At this time Aguinaldo had a dream about a victorious attack upon +Manila and telegraphed it to some of his officers. General García +replied from Caloocan on January 17 that the dream would come true +as soon as the conflict with the Americans began. [221] + +In January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo was still not quite ready, and ordered +that the Filipino soldiers in the walled city keep on good terms with +the Americans, in order to deceive them, "since the hoped-for moment +has not yet arrived." [222] + +The Insurgents grew surer and surer that the Americans were cowards, +[223] and openly boasted that when the attack began they would drive +them into the sea. + +On January 21 General Otis wrote to Admiral Dewey that:-- + + "The insurgents will not now permit us to cross their lines and + have been very insulting to our officers, calling to them that + very shortly they will give us battle. My best information + is that they have fully determined to attack both outside + and within the city before our additional troops arrive, + and the least spark may start a conflagration." [224] + +As the date of the proposed attack drew near, the work of strengthening +the Insurgent positions around Manila was pushed with all possible +speed. [225] + +About the middle of January General Otis stationed the First Nebraska +Regiment upon the high ground at Santa Mesa for sanitary reasons. Of +conditions at this time, and of the circumstances leading to the +actual outbreak of hostilities Taylor says:-- + + "During the latter part of January General Otis was informed + on good insurgent authority that the insurgents meditated an + attack upon those troops, and he was advised to remove them, + as in their exposed position they would kill them all. General + MacArthur, under whose command the regiment was, placed + two guns in position there, as it was fully expected that + the insurgents would direct their attack upon that point, + as in fact they did. On February 4, 1899, the tents of the + regiment covered the ridge, and its outposts extended along + the San Juan River, a small stream which formed part of the + line of delimitation between the Americans and the insurgents. + + "For some days before the outbreak of hostilities the pressure + of the insurgents was constant along this position, so constant + indeed that in the light of subsequent events it indicated a + premeditated purpose on the part of some one in the insurgent + army to force a collision at that point. On February 2 General + MacArthur, commanding the Second Division of the Eighth Army + Corps, wrote to the commanding general of the Filipino troops + in the third zone in front of him that-- + + "'An armed party from your command now occupies the village in + front of blockhouse No. 7, at a point considerably more than + a hundred yards on my side of the line, and is very active in + exhibiting hostile intentions. This party must be withdrawn + to your side of the line at once. From this date if the line + is crossed by your men with arms in their hands they must be + regarded as subject to such action as I may deem necessary.' + + "Colonel San Miguel, who commanded at San Juan del Monte, + replied upon the receipt of this communication that the action + of his troops was foreign to his wishes and that he would + give immediate orders for them to retire. At about half past + 8 on the night of February 4 a small insurgent patrol entered + the territory within the American lines at blockhouse No. 7 + and advanced to the little village of Santol in front of an + outpost of the Nebraska regiment. This was the same point from + which the insurgents had been compelled to retire on February + 2. An American outpost challenged, and then as the insurgent + patrol continued to advance the sentinel fired, whereupon the + insurgent patrol retired to blockhouse No. 7, from which fire + was immediately opened upon the Americans. This fire spread + rapidly down the American and insurgent lines and both forces + at once sprang to arms." [226] + +General Otis's account of the opening of active hostilities follows:-- + + "On the night of February 2 they sent in a strong detachment + to draw the fire of our outposts, which took up a position + immediately in front and within a few yards of the same. The + outpost was strengthened by a few of our men, who silently bore + their taunts and abuse the entire night. This was reported to + me by General MacArthur, whom I directed to communicate with + the officer in command of the insurgent troops concerned. His + prepared letter was shown me and approved, and the reply + received was all that could be desired. However, the agreement + was ignored by the insurgents and on the evening of February 4 + another demonstration was made on one of our small outposts, + which occupied a retired position at least 150 yards within + the line which had been mutually agreed upon, an insurgent + approaching the picket and refusing to halt or answer when + challenged. The result was that our picket discharged his + piece, when the insurgent troops near Santa Mesa opened a + spirited fire on our troops there stationed. + + "The insurgents had thus succeeded in drawing the fire of + a small outpost, which they had evidently labored with all + their ingenuity to accomplish, in order to justify in some + way their premeditated attack. It is not believed that the + chief insurgent leaders wished to open hostilities at this + time, as they were not completely prepared to assume the + initiative. They desired two or three days more to perfect + their arrangements, but the zeal of their army brought on + the crisis which anticipated their premeditated action. They + could not have delayed long, however, for it was their object + to force an issue before American troops, then en route, + could arrive in Manila." [227] + +Thus began the Insurgent attack, so long and so carefully planned +for. We learn from the Insurgent records that the shot of the American +sentry missed its mark. There was no reason why it should have provoked +a hot return fire, but it did. + +The result of the ensuing combat was not at all what the Insurgents +had anticipated. The Americans did not drive very well. It was but a +short time before they themselves were routed and driven from their +positions. + +Aguinaldo of course promptly advanced the claim that his troops had +been wantonly attacked. The plain fact is that the Insurgent patrol in +question deliberately drew the fire of the American sentry, and this +was just as much an act of war as was the firing of the shot. Whether +the patrol was acting under proper orders from higher authority is +not definitely known. + +In this connection the following telegram sent by Captain Zialcita +from Santa Ana on February 4, 1899, at 9.55 P.M., to Major Gray, +San Juan del Monte, is highly interesting: + + "I received the telegram forwarded from Malolos. General + Ricarte is not here. I believe (that if the) Americans + open fire we shall attack. Will ask instructions (of) + Malolos." [228] + +This looks as if Zialcita at least knew that something was to be done +to draw the American fire. + +Aguinaldo's first statement relative to the opening of hostilities +is embodied in a general order dated Malolos, February 4, 1899, +and reads in part as follows:-- + + "Nine o'clock P.M., this date, I received from Caloocan + station a message communicated to me that the American forces, + without prior notification or any just motive, attacked our + camp at San Juan del Monte and our forces garrisoning the + blockhouses around the outskirts of Manila, causing losses + among our soldiers, who in view of this unexpected aggression + and of the decided attack of the aggressors, were obliged to + defend themselves until the firing became general all along + the line. + + "No one can deplore more than I this rupture of hostilities. I + have a clear conscience that I have endeavoured to avoid it + at all costs, using all my efforts to preserve friendship + with the army of occupation, even at the cost of not a few + humiliations and many sacrificed rights. + + * * * * * + + "... I order and command:-- + + "1. Peace and friendly relations between the Philippine + forces and the American forces of occupation are broken, + and the latter will be treated as enemies, with the limits + prescribed by the laws of war. + + "2. American soldiers who may be captured by the Philippine + forces will be treated as prisoners of war. + + "3. This proclamation shall be communicated to the accredited + consuls of Manila, and to congress, in order that it may + accord the suspension of the constitutional guarantees and + the resulting declaration of war." [229] + +Aguinaldo's protestations relative to his efforts to avoid hostilities +are absurd, in view of his own instructions concerning the attack to +be made simultaneously within and without the city of Manila. + +There is other correspondence which throws light on the situation which +existed immediately prior to the outbreak of hostilities. On January +25, 1899, Agoncillo cabled from Washington to Apacible in Hongkong: +"Recommend you await beginning American aggression, justifying our +conduct nations." [230] + +Apacible apparently did not take this view of the matter, for on +January 31 he wrote to Aguinaldo that the Senate in Washington would +take final vote upon the treaty of peace between the United States +and Spain on February 6, and said:-- + + "It is urgently necessary for America to answer us immediately + before the ratification of the treaty. A conflict after the + ratification of the treaty would be unfavorable to us in + public opinion." [231] + +Obviously this letter might be interpreted as a recommendation +that hostilities begin before February 6 if America did not answer +meanwhile. It was evidently well understood in Hongkong that +Aguinaldo's receipt of Apacible's letter might cause war to begin, +for on February 3, 1899, Bray, anticipating the outbreak of hostilities +of the following day, cabled Senator Hoar at Washington as follows:-- + + "Receive caution news hostilities Manila discredited here + denied Filipino circles supposed political move influence vote + Senate to-day any ease insignificant skirmish due intentional + provocation. + + "_Bray_." [232] + +The extracts from the Insurgent records above quoted leave no escape +from the conclusion that the outbreak of hostilities which occurred on +February 4, 1899, had been carefully prepared for and was deliberately +precipitated by the Filipinos themselves. + +Blount says:-- + + "It would be simply wooden-headed to affirm that they ever + expected to succeed in a war with us." [233] + +It may have been wooden-headed for the Filipinos to expect this, but +expect it they certainly did. We have seen how they held their soldiers +in check until after Spain had been ousted from the Philippines by +the Treaty of Paris as they had originally planned to do. It now only +remained to carry out the balance of their original plan to get rid +of the Americans in one way or another. + +General Otis states that "when Aguinaldo had completed his preparations +for attack he prepared the outlines of his declaration of war, the +full text of which was published at Malolos on the evening, and very +shortly after, hostilities began. This declaration was circulated in +Manila on the morning of February 5." [234] + +The Insurgents brought down upon themselves the punishment which they +received on February 4 and 5. + +Blount has stated [235] that if the resolutions of Senator Bacon +introduced on January 11, 1899, had passed, we never should have had +any war with the Filipinos. The resolutions in question concluded +thus:-- + + "That the United States hereby disclaim any disposition or + intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control + over said islands except for the pacification thereof, and + assert their determination when an independent government + shall have been duly erected therein entitled to recognition + as such, to transfer to said government, upon terms which + shall be reasonable and just, all rights secured under the + cession by Spain, and to thereupon leave the government and + control of the islands to their people." + +I must take issue with Blount as to the effect which these resolutions +might have had if passed. The Insurgents felt themselves to be fully +competent to bring about such pacification of the islands as they +deemed necessary. At the time the resolutions were presented in the +Senate their soldiers were straining at the leash, ready to attack +their American opponents upon the most slender excuse. Aguinaldo +himself could not have held them much longer, and it is not impossible +that they got away from him as it was. They would have interpreted the +passage of the Bacon resolutions as a further evidence of weakness, +and hastened their attack. As we have seen, "war, war, war" was what +they wanted. + +Blount has endeavoured to shift the responsibility for the outbreak +of hostilities to the United States by claiming that certain words +italicized by him in what he calls the "Benevolent Assimilation +Proclamation" were necessarily, to the Insurgents, "fighting +words." The expressions referred to have to do with the establishment +of United States sovereignty and the exercise of governmental control +in the Philippine Islands. + +These words were not "fighting words," the Insurgent policy being, +as I have shown by the records, to consider the acceptance of a +protectorate or of annexation in the event that it did not prove +possible to negotiate absolute independence, or probable that the +American troops could be driven from the islands. + +The growing confidence of the Insurgents in their ability to whip +the cowardly Americans, rather than any fixed determination on their +part to push a struggle for independence to the bitter end, led to +their attack. + + + + + + +CHAPTER V + +Insurgent Rule and the Wilcox-Sargent Report + + +The Good Book says, "By their fruits ye shall know them, whether +they be good or evil," and it seems proper to apply this test to the +Insurgents and their government. + +The extraordinary claim has been advanced that the United States +destroyed a republic in the Philippines and erected an oligarchy on +its ruins. Various writers and speakers who have not gone so far as +this have yet maintained that Aguinaldo and his associates established +a real, effective government throughout the archipelago during the +interim between his return and the outbreak of hostilities with the +United States. + +In summarizing conditions on September 15, 1898, Judge Blount says: +[236]-- + + "Absolute master of all Luzon outside Manila at this time, + with complete machinery of government in each province + for all matters of justice, taxes, and police, an army of + some 30,000 men at his beck, and his whole people a unit + at his back, Aguinaldo formally inaugurated his permanent + government--permanent as opposed to the previous provisional + government--with a Constitution, Congress, and Cabinet, + patterned after our own, [237] just as the South American + republics had done before him when they were freed from Spain, + at Malolos, the new capital." + +He refers to our utter failure to understand "what a wonderfully +complete 'going concern' Aguinaldo's government had become +throughout the Philippine Archipelago before the Treaty of Paris was +signed." [238] + +He bases his claim as to the excellent state of public order in the +Insurgent territory at this time on a report of Paymaster W. E. Wilcox +and Naval Cadet L. R. Sargent of the United States Navy, who between +October 8 and November 20, 1898, made a long, rapid trip through +northern Luzon, traversing the provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, +Tarlac, Pangasinán, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, Cagayan, +South Ilocos and Union, in the order named, thence proceeding to +Dagupan and down the railroad through Pangasinán, Tarlac, Pampanga +and Bulacan to Manila. + +He says that these gentlemen found the authority of Aguinaldo's +government universally acknowledged, the country in a state of perfect +tranquillity and public order, [239] with profound peace and freedom +from brigandage and the like. [240] + +Now if it be true that Aguinaldo established complete machinery of +government throughout all of Luzon outside of Manila for all matters +of justice, taxes and police, so that life and property were safe +and peace, tranquillity and justice assured, we may well dispense +with quibbling as to whether the proper name was applied to such +government. But did he? + +Let us examine with some care the history of the Wilcox-Sargent trip, +and see if we can gain further light from other sources relative to +the condition of public order in the territory which they traversed. + +I propose, for the most part, to let the captured Insurgent records +speak for themselves, as it is fair to assume that Insurgent officers +were at no pains to represent conditions as worse than they really +were. In view of the fragmentary character of these records, we may +also assume that the complete story would be still more interesting +and instructive than the one which I have been able to reconstruct. + +Messrs. Sargent and Wilcox were almost everywhere hospitably received, +and were entertained with dinners and dances after the inimitable +fashion of the hospitable Filipino everywhere. They gained a very +favourable impression of the state of public order in the provinces +through which they passed for the reason that from the very start +their trip was strictly personally conducted. They saw exactly what +it was intended that they should see and very little more. Their +progress was several times interrupted for longer or shorter periods +without adequate explanation. We now know that on these occasions the +scenery so carefully prepared in advance for them had become a little +disarranged and needed to be straightened up. Facts which I will cite +show that most shocking and horrible events, of which they learned +nothing, were occurring in the territory through which they passed. + +For a considerable time before their departure American visitors +had been carefully excluded from the Insurgent territory, but the +Filipino leaders decided to let these two men go through it to the +end that they might make as favourable a report as possible. How +carefully the way was prepared for American visitors is shown by the +following telegram:-- + + "_San Pedro, Macati_, + + "July 30, 1898. + + "To the Local Presidente of Pasig: + + "You are hereby informed that the Americans are going to + your town and they will ask your opinion [of what the people + desire.--Tr.] You should answer them that we want a republican + government. The same answer must be given throughout your + jurisdiction. + + (Signed) "Pío Del Pilar, + + "General of the Second Zone." [241] + +Now General Pilar had an uncomfortable way of killing people who did +not obey his orders, and under the rules of the Insurgent government +he was abundantly justified in so doing. His suggestions as to what +visiting Americans should be told or shown would be likely to be +acceded to. Certainly this seems to have been the case in the present +instance, for on the same day General Noriel reported as follows: [242] + + "President R. G., Bacoor, from Gen. Noriel, Pineda, July 30, + 12.10 P.M.: I inform your excellency that some commissioners of + the American admiral are making investigations in the region + around Pasay as to the wishes and opinion of the people as to + the government. To-day I received a statement from some, giving + the answer: 'Free government under American protectorate [copy + mutilated, two or three words missing here] the President.'" + +Blount quotes with approval Admiral Dewey's statement made shortly +after the return of Wilcox and Sargent that in his opinion their report +"contains the most complete and reliable information obtainable +in regard to the present state of the northern part of Luzon +Island." [243] This was true. + +The admiral might have gone further and said that it contained +practically the only information then obtainable in regard to +conditions in the territory in question, but as I shall conclusively +show it was neither complete nor reliable. + +Judge Blount in describing the experiences of Messrs. Wilcox and +Sargent naïvely makes the statement that: + + "The tourists were provided at Rosales by order of Aguinaldo + with a military escort, 'which was continued by relays all + the way to Aparri.'" [244] + +It certainly was! + +Very little Spanish was then spoken in Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela or +Cagayan. What opportunity had these two men, ignorant as they were +of the native dialects, to learn the sinister facts as to what had +been and was occurring in the territory which they visited? + +No one can fail to be delighted with Filipino hospitality, which +was lavishly bestowed upon them everywhere, and it is only natural +that they should have reported favourably upon what they saw. It +was about this time that an order was issued [245] that fronts of +buildings should be whitewashed, streets cleaned and fences repaired +with a view to showing every one, and especially travellers through +the territory of the Insurgents, that they were "not opposed to a +good such as a refined and civilized people should have." Doubtless +the report of the two men from Dewey's fleet was made in the best +of faith. I will now endeavour to show what were some of the actual +conditions in the territory through which they passed. + +_Bulacan_ + +They first visited Bulacan. They do not mention hearing of the +activities of a Chinaman named Ignacio Paua, who had been given +the rank of colonel by Aguinaldo and assigned the task of extorting +contributions for the revolution from his countrymen. In a letter to +Aguinaldo written on July 6, 1898, Paua states that he has collected +more than $1,000 from the Chinese of these small towns, but asks +for an order "prohibiting the outrages that are being committed +against such merchants as are not our enemies." He further says, +"When the contributions from the Chinamen of all the pueblos shall +have been completed I wish to publish a proclamation forbidding any +injury to the Chinamen and any interference with their small business +enterprises," and adds that "the natives hereabouts themselves are +the people who are committing said abuses." [246] + +Apparently Paua had no objection to the committing of outrages against +merchants that were the enemies of the cause, nor does he seem to have +objected to injury to Chinamen before contributions were completed. His +own methods were none too mild. On August 27, 1898, General Pío del +Pilar telegraphed Aguinaldo that five Insurgent soldiers, under a +leader supposed to be Paua, had entered the store of a Chinaman, +and tried to kidnap his wife, but had left on the payment of $10 and +a promise to pay $50 later, saying that they would return and hang +their fellow countryman if the latter amount was not forthcoming. [247] + +Paua was later made a general in consideration of his valuable +services! + +_Pampanga_ + +Our travellers next visited Pampanga. Here they apparently overlooked +the fact that Aguinaldo did not have "his whole people a unit at +his back." The citizens of Macabebe seem not to have approved of the +Aguinaldo regime, for the Insurgent records show that:-- + + "Representatives of the towns of Pampanga assembled in San + Fernando on June 26, 1898, and under the presidency of General + Maximino Hizon agreed to yield him complete 'obedience as + military governor of the province and representative of + the illustrious dictator of these Philippine Islands.' The + town of Macabebe refused to send any delegates to this + gathering." [248] + +It may be incidentally mentioned that Blount has passed somewhat +lightly over the fact that he himself during his army days commanded +an aggregation of sturdy citizens from this town, known as Macabebe +scouts, who diligently shot the Insurgents full of holes whenever they +got a chance. He incorrectly refers to them as a "tribe or clan." [249] +It is absurd to call them a tribe. They are merely the inhabitants +of a town which has long been at odds with the neighbouring towns of +the province. + +Things had come to a bad pass in Pampanga when its head wrote that +the punishment of beating people in the plaza and tying them up so +that they would be exposed to the full rays of the sun should be +stopped. He argued that such methods would not lead the people of +other nations to believe that the reign of liberty, equality and +fraternity had begun in the Philippines. [250] + +When it is remembered that persons tied up and exposed to the full rays +of the sun in the Philippine lowlands soon die, in a most uncomfortable +manner, we shall agree with the head of this province that this custom +has its objectionable features! + +_Tarlac_ + +While the failure of Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent to learn of the +relations between the Tagalogs of Macabebe and their neighbours, +or of the fact that people were being publicly tortured in Pampanga, +is perhaps not to be wondered at under the circumstances, it is hard +to see how they could have failed to hear something of the seriously +disturbed conditions in Tarlac if they so much as got off the train +there. + +On August 24 the commissioner in charge of elections in that province +asked for troops to protect him, in holding them in the town of +Urdaneta, against a party of two thousand men of the place, who were +going to prevent them. + +On September 22 the secretary of the interior ordered that the +requirements of the decree of June 18, establishing municipal +governments, should be strictly complied with, as in many of the towns +"the inhabitants continue to follow the ancient methods by which the +friars exploited us at their pleasure and which showed their great +contempt for the law." [251] + +The following letter to Aguinaldo, from Juan Nepomuceno, Representative +from Tarlac, speaks for itself as to conditions in that province +on December 27, 1898, shortly after the American travellers passed +through it on their return:-- + + "I regret exceedingly being compelled to report to you that + since Sunday the 25th instant scandalous acts have been + going on in the Province of Tarlac, which I represent. On the + night of the Sunday mentioned the entire family of the Local + Chief of Bamban was murdered, and his house and warehouse + were burned. Also the Tax Commissioner and the Secretary, + Fabian Ignacio, have been murdered. Last night Señor Jacinto + Vega was kidnapped at the town of Gerona; and seven travellers + were murdered at O'Donnel, which town was pillaged, as well as + the barrio of Matayumtayum of the town of La Paz. On that day + various suspicious parties were seen in the town of Pañique + and in the same barrio, according to reliable reports which + I have just received. + + "All this general demoralization of the province, according + to the information which I have obtained, is due to the fact + that the province is dissatisfied with the Provincial Chief, + Señor Alfonso Ramos, and with Major Manuel de León; for this + is substantiated by the fact that all the events described + occurred since last Sunday, when Señor Alfonso Ramos returned, + to take charge of the Office of Provincial President, after + having been detained for several days in this town. Wherefore, + I believe that in order to restore tranquillity in the + province, consideration be given to various documents that + have been presented to the Government and to the standing + Committee of Justice; and that there be removed from office + Señor Alfonso Ramos, as well as said Señor Manuel de León, + who has no prestige whatever in this province. Moreover on + the day when fifty-four soldiers of the command deserted, + he himself left for San Fernando, Pampanga." [252] + +On November 30, 1898, General Macabulos sent Aguinaldo a telegram [253] +from which it evidently appears that there was an armed uprising in +Tarlac which he was endeavouring to quell and that he hoped for early +success. Apparently, however, his efforts to secure tranquillity were +not entirely successful, for on December 18 he telegraphed Aguinaldo +as follows:-- + + "In a telegram dated to-day Lieut. Paraso, commanding + a detachment at Camilin, informs me that last night his + detachment was attacked by Tulisanes (robbers). The fire + lasted four hours without any casualties among our men. This + afternoon received another from the captain commanding said + detachment, informing me of the same, and that nothing new + has occurred. The people of the town await with anxiety the + result of the charges they have made, especially against the + local president and the justice of the peace, the original + of which I sent to your high authority." [254] + +Obviously the police machinery was not working quite smoothly when +a detachment of Insurgent troops could be kept under fire for four +hours by a robber band, and perhaps the attacking party were not all +"robbers." Soldiers do not ordinarily carry much to steal. + +We obtain some further information from the following telegram of +December 27, 1898, sent by the secretary of the interior to the +President of the Revolutionary Government:-- + + "Most urgent. According to reports no excitement except in + Bangbang, Tarlac, which at 12 A.M., 25th, was attacked by + Tulisanes [bandits or robbers,--D.C.W.]. The local presidente + with his patrols arrested six of them. On continuing the + pursuit he met in Talacon a party too large to attack. At 7 + A.M. of the 26th the town was again attacked by criminals, + who killed the tax collector, and others who burnt some + houses, among them that of the local presidente, and his + stables, in which he lost two horses. I report this for your + information." [255] + +Evidently tax collectors were not popular in Tarlac. + +Still further light is shed on the situation by a telegram from the +secretary of the interior to Aguinaldo, dated December 28, 1898:-- + + "According to my information the excitement in Tarlac + increases. I do not think that the people of the province + would have committed such barbarities by themselves. For + this reason the silence of General Macabulos is suspicious; + to speak frankly, it encourages the rebels. Some seven hundred + of them, with one hundred and fifty rifles, entered Pañique, + seized the arms of the police, the town funds, and attacked the + houses of the people. I report this for your information. All + necessary measures will be taken." [256] + +Note also the following from the secretary of the interior, under +date of December 27, 1898, to Aguinaldo:-- + + "I have just learned that not only in Bangbang, but also + in Gerona, Onell, and other places in Tarlac, men have been + assaulted by numerous Tulisanes, armed with rifles and bolos, + who are killing and capturing the inhabitants and attacking + travellers, robbing them of everything they have. The President + should declare at once that that province is in state of + siege, applying martial law to the criminals. That--(remainder + missing)." [257] + +The secretary of agriculture took a more cheerful view of the +situation. Under date of December 28 he telegraphed Aguinaldo as +follows:-- + + "The events in Bangbang, Tarlac Province, according to a + witness here worthy of credit, have arisen from an attempt + to procure vengeance on the local presidente, and robbery of + Chinese shops. Hence they are without political importance. The + tax collector killed, and a countryman servant of the local + presidente wounded. They burnt two houses of the local + presidente, a stable, and a warehouse for sugar-cane." [258] + +Obviously the robbery of Chinese shops and the killing of a few +individuals was at first considered by the secretary of agriculture +to be without political importance. Evidently he changed his mind, +however, for on the same day, December 28, 1898, he telegraphed +Aguinaldo as follows:-- + + "I think it necessary to send Aglipay [259] to quiet + Tarlac. Send for him. If you desire, I will go to Tarlac to + investigate the causes of the disorders, in order to find a + remedy for them." [260] + +At this stage of events Aguinaldo was summoned to Malolos by a telegram +from Mabini under date of December 29, which reads as follows:-- + + "Most urgent. You must come here immediately. Trías is sick. We + can come to no decision in regard to the Tarlac matter. Cannot + constitute a government without you." [261] + +The measures which were actually taken are set forth in another +telegram of the same date from the secretaries of war and interior +to Aguinaldo, which reads as follows:-- + + "We have sent civil and military commissioners to Tarlac; + among them the Director of War and persons of much moral + influence, in order to stifle the disturbances. The necessary + instructions have been given them and full powers for the + purpose, and as far as possible to satisfy the people. Have + also sent there six companies of soldiers with explicit + instructions to their commander to guard only the towns, and + make the people return to a peaceful life, using a policy of + attraction for the purpose." [262] + +Let us hope that the commander was able to attract the people with +his six companies of soldiers, and make them return to a peaceful life. + +Still further light is thrown on the situation in Tarlac by the +following extract from "Episodios de la Revolucion Filipina" by Padre +Joaquin D. Duran, an Augustinian priest, Manila, 1901, page 71:-- + + "At that period the Filipinos, loving order, having been + deceived of the emancipation promise, changed by the Katipúnan + into crimes and attacks on the municipality of the pueblos, + discontent broke out in all parts, and, although latent in some + provinces, in that of Tarlac was materialized in an ex-sergeant + of the late Spanish civil guard. A valorous and determined + man, he lifted up his flag against that of Aguinaldo. One + hundred rifles were sufficient to terrorize the inhabitants + of said province, crushing the enthusiastic members of the + revolutionary party.... Having taken possession of four towns, + Pecheche would have been everywhere successful if ambition + and pride had not directed his footsteps. In January, 1899, + the Aguinaldista commander of Tarlac province, afraid that + his whole province would espouse the cause of the sergeant, + attempted by every means in his power to interrupt his + career, not hesitating to avail himself of crime to destroy + the influence of Pecheche with the many people who had been + incensed by the Katipúnan and had in turn become firm partisans + of the Guards of Honour. + + "The Ilocano Tranquilino Pagarigan, local presidente at + that time of Camiling, served as an admirable instrument for + this purpose.... Pecheche was invited to a solemn festivity + organized by Tranquilino, who pretended to recognize him as + his chief, and rendering himself a vassal by taking an oath + to his flag. He accepted the invitation, and after the mass + which was celebrated went to a meal at the convent, where, + after the meal was over, the members of the K.K.K. surrounded + Pecheche and 10 of his officers and killed them with bolos + or tied them and threw them out of the windows and down the + staircase. Some priests were held captive in the building + where this took place and were informed of what had taken + place immediately afterwards." + +This extract shows how easy it then was for any man of determination +to acquire a following, especially if he could dispose of a few +rifles. It also gives an excellent idea of the methods employed by +the Insurgents in dealing with those who opposed their rule. + +General Fred D. Grant once told me, with much amusement, of an +interesting experience during a fight on Mt. Arayat in Pampanga. His +men took a trench and captured some of its occupants. Several of these +were impressed as guides and required to show the attacking forces +the locations of other trenches. At first they served unwillingly, +but presently became enthusiastic and rushed the works of their +quondam fellow-soldiers in the van of the American attack. Finally +they begged for guns. Grant added that he could start from Bacolor +for San Fernando any morning with a supply of rifles and pick up +volunteers enough to capture the place, and that on the return trip +he could get enough more to attack Bacolor! + +_Pangasinán_ + +And now we come to Pangasinán, the most populous province of Luzon, +and the third in the Philippines in number of inhabitants. + + "In July, 1898, the officer in Dagupan wrote to the commanding + general of Tarlac Province that he would like to know whom + he was required to obey, as there were so many officials of + all ranks who gave him orders that it was impossible for him + to know where he stood." [263] + +In a letter dated August 17, 1898, to Aguinaldo, Benito Legarda +complained that a bad impression had been produced by the news from +Dagupan that when the Insurgents entered there, after many outrages +committed upon the inmates of a girls' school, every officer had +carried off those who suited him. [264] + +What should we say if United States troops entered the town of +Wellesley and raped numerous students at the college, the officers +subsequently taking away with them the young ladies who happened +to suit them? Yet things of this sort hardly caused a ripple in the +country then under the Insurgent flag, and I learned of this particular +incident by accident, although I have known Legarda for years. + +I quote the following general description of conditions in Pangasinán +from a letter addressed by Cecilio Apóstol to General Aguinaldo on +July 6, 1898:-- + + "You probably know that in the Province of Pangasinán, of + one of the towns in which your humble servant is a resident, + the Spanish flag through our good fortune has not flown here + for the past few months, since the few Spaniards who lived + here have concentrated in Dagupan, a place not difficult of + attack, as is said. + + "But this is what is going on in this Province" There exist + here two Departmental Governments, one calling itself that + of Northern Luzón and of which Don Vicente del Prado is + the President, and the other which calls itself that of + Northern and Central Luzón, presided over by Don Juliano + Paraiso. Besides these two gentlemen, there are two governors + in the province(!) one Civil Political Military, living in + Lingayen, named Don Felipe J. Bartolomé, and another living in + Real Guerrero, a town of Tayug, named Don Vicente Estrella. And + in addition there are a large number of Administrators, + Inspectors, Military Judges, Generals, ... they cannot be + counted. It is a pandemonium of which even Christ, who + permits it, cannot make anything. Indeed, the situation is + insupportable. It reminds me of the schism in the middle + ages when there were two Popes, both legitimate, neither + true. Things are as clear as thick chocolate, as the + Spaniards say. In my poor opinion, good administration is + the mother-in-law of disorder, since disorder is chaos and + chaos produces nothing but confusion, that is to say, death. + + "I have had an opportunity, through the kindness of a friend, + to read the decree of that Government, dated June 18th, of + the present year, and the accompanying 'Instructions for + the government of towns and provinces.' Article 9 of the + said decree says that the Superior Government will name + a commissioner for each province with the special duty + of establishing there the organization set forth in the + decree. Very well so far: which of the so-called Presidents of + Northern or of Northern and Central Luzón is the commissioner + appointed by that government to establish the new organization + in that province? Are military commanders named by you for + Pangasinán? I would be very much surprised if either of them + could show his credentials. Aside from these, the fact remains + that in those instructions no mention is made of Presidents + of Departments, there is a manifest contradiction in their + jurisdictions, since while one calls himself president of a + Departmental Government, of Northern Luzón, the other governs + the Northern and Central portion of the Island, according to + the seals which they use. + + "And, nevertheless, a person calling himself the General + Administrator of the Treasury and the said Governor of the + Province, both of whom live in Tayug, came to this town when + the Spaniards voluntarily abandoned it and gathered all the + people of means, and drew up an act of election, a copy of + which is attached. From it you will see how this organization + violates the provisions of the decree of the 18th of June. + + "Another item: They got up a contract with the people of means + of this town, and did the same thing in the other towns, + in which contract they exact from us $1250 which they call + contributions of war (see document No. 2 attached). Among + the doubtful powers of these gentlemen is the one to exact + these sums included? + + "Have they express orders from that Government? + + "Perhaps these blessed gentlemen--they are high flyers there is + no doubt about that,--have struck the clever idea of calling + themselves generals, governors, etc., in order to enjoy a + certain prestige and to give a certain color of legality to + their acts--this, although they don't know an iota of what + they are doing. But what I am sure of, and many other men + also, is that there is no order, that here there is not a + single person in authority whom to obey. This superfluity of + rulers will finally lead to strained relations between them + and the towns of this province will end by paying the piper. + + "But we poor ignorant creatures in so far as the republican + form of government is concerned, in order to avoid worse + evils took them at their word, obeyed them like automatons, + hypnotized by the title of 'Insurgents' which they applied to + themselves. But when I had an opportunity to read the said + decree, doubts were forced upon me, I began to suspect--may + God and they pardon me--that they were trying to impose upon + us nicely, that, shielded by the motto, 'have faith in and + submit to the will of the country' they came to these towns + 'for business.' + + "In order to dissipate this doubt, in order to do away with + abuses, if there are abuses, I made up my mind to send you this + account of the condition of things here. I flatter myself that + when you learn of the lamentable situation of this province, + you will soon deign to take steps to establish order, because + thereon depends the tranquillity of Pangasinan and in the + end a strict compliance with your superior orders. + + "There will be no limit to the thanks of the people of this + province if their petitions secure favourable consideration and + an immediate response from the high patriotism and honourable + standpoint of the Supreme Dictator of the Philippines." [265] + +It will be noted that the picture thus drawn by Señor Apóstol differs +in certain important particulars from that painted in such engaging +colours by Judge Blount. + +In September, 1898, the civil governor of Pangasinán had to have an +escort of troops in passing through his province. [266] + +On November 20, 1898, the head of the town of San Manuel wrote the +provincial governor that his people could no longer support the troops +quartered on them, as the adherents of the Katipúnan had burned or +stolen all of their property. [267] + +The sum total of Blount's description of affairs in this, the +most populous province of Luzón, is derived from the narrative of +Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent and reads as follows:-- + + "In Pangasinán 'the people were all very respectful and polite + and offered the hospitality of their homes.'" [268] + +Doubtless true, but as a summary of conditions perhaps a trifle +sketchy. + + +_Nueva Ecija_ + +Nueva Ecija was the next province visited by Wilcox and Sargent. They +have failed to inform us that:-- + + "In December, 1899, certain men charged with being members + of this society [Guards of Honour] were interrogated in Nueva + Ecija as to their purposes. One of those questioned said:-- + + "'That their purpose was one day, the date being unknown to + the deponent, when the Ilocanos of Batac came, to rise up + in arms and kill the Tagálos, both private individuals and + public employees, excepting those who agreed to the former, + for the reason that honours were granted only to the Tagálos, + and but few to the Ilocanos.'" [269] + +Blount has assured us that the Filipinos were a unit at Aguinaldo's +back and were and are an united people, and here are the Ilocanos of +Nueva Ecija spoiling his theory by remembering that they are Ilocanos +and proposing to kill whom? Not certain individual Filipinos, who +might have offended them, but the Tagálogs! + +That there were other troubles in Nueva Ecija is shown by the following +statement:-- + + "On January 7, 1899, the commissioner of Aguinaldo's treasury + sent to collect contributions of war in Nueva Ecija Province + reported that the company stationed in San Isidro had become + guerillas under command of its officers and opposed his + collections, stating that they were acting in compliance with + orders from higher authority." [270] + +And now, in following the route taken by our tourist friends, we +reach Nueva Vizcaya and the Cagayan valley. + + + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +Insurgent Rule in the Cagayan Valley + + +Nueva Vizcaya is drained by the Magát River, a branch of the +Cagayan. While the provinces of Isabela and Cagayan constitute the +Cagayan valley proper, Blount includes Nueva Vizcaya in the territory +covered by this designation, and for the purpose of this discussion +I will follow his example. + +Especial interest attaches to the history of Insurgent rule, in the +Cagayan valley, as above defined, for the reason that Blount himself +served there as a judge of the court of first instance. He says: +[271]-- + + "The writer is perhaps as familiar with the history of that + Cagayan valley as almost any other American." + +He was. For his action in concealing the horrible conditions which +arose there under Insurgent rule, with which he was perfectly familiar, +and in foisting on the public the account of Messrs. Wilcox and +Sargent, as portraying the conditions which actually existed there, +I propose to arraign him before the bar of public opinion. In so +doing I shall consider these conditions at some length. We have much +documentary evidence concerning them in addition to that furnished +by the Insurgent records, although the latter quite sufficiently +demonstrate many of the more essential facts. + +In describing the adventures of Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent in this +region, Judge Blount says: [272]-- + + "There [273] they were met by Simeon Villa, military commander + of Isabela province, the man who was chief of staff to + Aguinaldo afterwards, and was captured by General Funston + along with Aguinaldo in the spring of 1901." + +The facts as to Villa's career in the Cagayan valley are especially +worthy of note as they seem to have entitled him, in the opinion of +his superiors, to the promotion which was afterward accorded him. He +was an intimate friend of Aguinaldo and later accompanied him on his +long flight through northern Luzon. + +On August 10, 1898, Colonel Daniel Tirona, a native of Cavite Province +and one of the intimates of Aguinaldo, was ordered to proceed to Aparri +in the Insurgent steamer _Filipinas_ and establish the revolutionary +government in northern Luzon. In doing this he was to hold elections +for office-holders under Aguinaldo's government and was authorized +to approve or disapprove the results, his action being subject to +subsequent revision by Aguinaldo. His forces were composed of four +companies armed with rifles. + +Tirona reached Aparri on August 25 and promptly secured the surrender +of the Spaniards there. + +He was accompanied by Simeon Villa, the man under discussion, and by +Colonel Leyba, who was also very close to Aguinaldo. + +Abuse of the Spanish prisoners began at once. It is claimed that the +governor of North Ilocos, who was among those captured, was grossly +mistreated. + +Taylor briefly summarizes subsequent events as follows: [274]-- + + "Whatever the treatment of the Spanish governor of Ilocos + may really have been, there is testimony to show that some + of the other prisoners, especially the priests, were abused + and outraged under the direction of S. Villa and Colonel + Leyba, both of whom were very close to Aguinaldo. Some of + the Spanish civil officials were put in stocks and beaten, + and one of the officers who had surrendered at Aparri was + tortured to death. This was done with the purpose of extorting + money from them, for it was believed that they had hidden + funds in place of turning them over. All the Spaniards were + immediately stripped of everything they had. The priests were + subjected to a systematic series of insults and abuse under + the direction of Villa in order to destroy their influence + over the people by degrading them in their eyes. It was for + this that they were beaten and exposed naked in the sun; and + other torture, such as pouring tile wax of burning candles + into their eyes, was used to make them disclose where they + had hidden church vessels and church funds. The testimony of + a friar who suffered these outrages is that the great mass + of the people saw such treatment of their parish priests + with horror, and were present at it only through fear of the + organized force of the Katipúnan." + +Taylor's statement is mildness itself in view of the well-established +facts. + +The question of killing the Spanish prisoners, including the friars, +had previously been seriously considered, [275] but it was deemed wiser +to keep most of the friars alive, extort money from them by torture, +and offer to liberate them in return for a large cash indemnity, or for +political concessions. Day after day and week after week Villa presided +at, or himself conducted, the torture of ill-fated priests and other +Spaniards who fell into his hands. Even Filipinos whom he suspected +of knowing the where-abouts of hidden friar money did not escape. + +The following information relative to the conduct of the Insurgents in +the Cagayan valley is chiefly taken from manuscript copy of _"Historia +de la Conquista de Cagayan por los Tagalos Revolucionarios,"_ in +which the narratives of certain captured friars are transcribed and +compiled by Father Julian Malumbres of the Dominican Order. + +The formal surrender of Aparri occurred on August 26. Tirona, his +officers and his soldiers, promptly pillaged the _convento_. [276] +The officers left the Bishop of Vigan ten pesos, but the soldiers +subsequently took them away from him. Wardrobes and trunks were +broken open; clocks, shoes, money, everything was carried off. Even +personal papers and prayer-books were taken from some of the priests, +many of whom were left with absolutely nothing save the few remaining +clothes in which they stood. + +On the same day Villa, accompanied by Victa and Rafael Perea, [277] +went to the _convento_ and told the priests who were imprisoned +there that their last hour had come. He shut all of them except the +bishop and five priests in a room near the church, then separated +the Augustinians, Juan Zallo, Gabino Olaso, Fidel Franco, Mariano +Rodriguez, and Clemente Hidalgo, from the others and took them into +the lower part of the _convento_ where he told them that he intended +to kill them if they did not give him more money. The priests told +him that they had given all they had, whereupon he had their arms +tied behind their backs, kicked them, struck them and whipped them +with rattans. + +Father Zallo was thrown on his face and savagely beaten. Meanwhile +two shots were fired over the heads of the others and a soldier called +out "One has fallen," badly frightening the priests who had remained +shut in the room. Villa then returned with soldiers to this room, +ordered his men to load, and directed that one priest step forward +to be shot. Father Mariano Ortiz complied with this request, asking +that he be the first victim. Villa, however, contented himself with +threatening him with a revolver and kicking and striking him until +he fell to the floor. He was then beaten with the butts of guns. + +Father José Vazquez, an old man of sixty years, who had thrown some +money into a privy to keep it from falling into the hands of the +Insurgents, was stripped and compelled to recover it with his bare +hands, after which he was kicked, and beaten with rattans. + +Father Aquilino García was unmercifully kicked and beaten to make +him give up money, and this sort of thing continued until Villa, +tired out with the physical exertion involved in assaulting these +defenceless men, departed, leaving his uncompleted task to others, +who continued it for some time. + +The net result to the Insurgents of the sacking of the _convento_ +and of the tortures thus inflicted was approximately $20,000 gold in +addition to the silver, bank notes, letters of credit, jewels, etc., +which they obtained. + +On September 5 Villa had Fathers Juan Recio and Buenaventura Macia +given fifty blows each, although Father Juan was ill. + +Villa then went to Lalloc, where other priests were imprisoned. On +September 6 he demanded money of them, causing them to be kicked and +beaten. Father Angel was beaten in an especially cruel manner for +the apparent purpose of killing him, after which he was thrust into +a privy. Father Isidro Fernandez was also fearfully abused. Stripped +of his habit, and stretched face down on the floor, he was horribly +beaten, and was then kicked, and struck with the butt of a revolver +on the forehead. + +A little later the priests were offered their liberty for a million +dollars, which they were of course unable to furnish. Meanwhile the +torture continued from time to time. + +On August 30 Tuguegarao was taken by the Insurgents without +resistance. Colonel Leyba promptly proceeded to the _convento_ +and demanded the money of the friars as spoil of war. He found only +eight hundred pesos in the safe. Father Corujedo was threatened with +death if he did not give more. Other priests were threatened but not +tortured at this time. The prisoners in the jail were liberated, +but many of them had promptly to be put back again because of the +disorder which resulted, and that same evening Leyba was obliged to +publish a notice threatening robbers with death. + +At midnight on September 3 Father Corujedo was taken from the +_convento_ by Captain Diego and was again asked for money. Replying +that he had no more to give, he was beaten with the hilt of a sabre +and stripped of his habit, preparatory to being executed. A mock +sentence of death was pronounced on him and he was placed facing to +the west to be shot in the back. Diego ordered his soldiers to load, +adding, "When I count three all fire," but the fatal count was not +completed. Three priests from Alcala were given similar treatment. + +The troubles of the priests imprisoned at Tuguegarao were sufficiently +great, but they were augmented a thousand fold when Villa arrived on +September 11. He came to the building where they were imprisoned, +bearing a revolver, a sabre and a great quantity of rattans. He +ordered the priests into the corner of the room in which they were +confined, and beat those who did not move quickly enough to suit +him. He threatened them with a very rigorous examination, at the same +time assuring them that at Aparri he had hung up the bishop until +blood flowed from his mouth and his ears, and that he would do the +same with them if they did not tell him where they had their money +hidden. There followed the usual rain of kicks and blows, a number +of the priests being obliged to take off their habits in order that +they might be punished more effectively. + +Fathers Calixto Prieto and Daniel Gonzales, professors in educational +institutions, he ordered beaten because they were friars. + +Fathers Corujedo and Caddedila were beaten, kicked and insulted. Both +were gray-haired old men and the latter was at the time very weak, +and suffering from a severe attack of asthma. Father Pedro Vincente +was also brutally beaten. + +The following is the description given by an eye-witness of conditions +at Tuguegarao:-- + + "Even the Indios of Cagayan complained and were the victims of + looting and robbery on the part of the soldiery. So lacking in + discipline and so demoralized was that army that according to + the confession of a prominent Filipino it was of imperative + necessity to disarm them. [278] On the other hand we saw + with real astonishment that instead of warlike soldiers + accustomed to battle they were nearly all raw recruits and + apprentices. From an army lacking in discipline, and lawless, + only outrages, looting and all sorts of savagery and injustice + were to be expected. Witnesses to their demoralization are, + aside from the natives themselves who were the first to + acknowledge it, the Chinese merchants whose losses were + incalculable; not a single store or commercial establishment + remained that was not looted repeatedly. As to the Spaniards + it goes without saying because it is publicly known, that + between soldiers and officers they despoiled them to their + heart's content, without any right except that of brute force, + of everything that struck their fancy, and it was of no avail + to complain to the officers and ask for justice, as they turned + a deaf ear to such complaints. At Tuguegarao they looted in a + manner never seen before, like Vandals, and it was not without + reason that a prominent Filipino said, in speaking to a priest: + 'Vandalism has taken possession of the place.' These acts of + robbery were generally accompanied by the most savage insults; + it was anarchy, as we heard an eye-witness affirm, who also + stated that no law was recognized except that of danger, + and the vanquished were granted nothing but the inevitable + duty of bowing with resignation to the iniquitous demands of + that soulless rabble, skilled in crime." + +Villa now set forth for Isabela. Meanwhile the jailer of the priests +proceeded to steal their clothes, including shirts, shoes and even +handkerchiefs. Isabela was taken without resistance on September +12. Dimas Guzman [279] swore to the priests on his life that he would +work without rest to the end that all friars and all Spaniards might +be respected, but he perjured himself. + +On September 12 Villa and others entered the town of Cabagan Viejo, +where Villa promptly assaulted Father Segundo Rodriguez, threatening +him with a revolver, beating him unmercifully, insulting him in every +possible way and robbing him of his last cent. After the bloody scene +was over he sacked the _convento_, even taking away the priests' +clothes. + +Villa also cruelly beat a Filipino, Quintin Agansi, who was taking +care of money for masses which the priests wished to save from the +Insurgents. + +After Father Segundo had suffered torture and abuse for two hours he +was obliged to start at once on a journey to Auitan. The suffering +priest, after being compelled to march through the street shouting +"Vivas!" for the Republic and Aguinaldo, spent the night without a +mouthful of food or a drink of water. + +Father Deogracias García, a priest of Cabagan Nuevo, was subjected to +torture because he had sent to Hongkong during May a letter of credit +for $5000 which belonged to the Church. Villa and Leyba entered his +_convento_ and after beating him ordered his hands and feet to be +tied together, then passed a pole between them and had him lifted +from the ground, after which two great jars of water were poured down +his nose and throat without interruption. [280] In order to make the +water flow through his nose better, they thrust a piece of wood into +the nasal passages until it came out in his throat. From time to time +the torture was suspended while they asked him whether he would tell +the truth as to where he had concealed his money. This unfortunate +priest was so sure he was going to die that while the torture was +in progress he received absolution from a fellow priest. After the +torture with water there followed a long and cruel beating, and the +unhappy victim was finally thrust into a filthy privy. + +Meanwhile Father Calzada was assaulted by a group of soldiers and +badly beaten, after which he was let down into the filth of a privy, +first by the feet and afterwards by the head. + +On the 14th a lieutenant with soldiers entered the _convento_ of +Tumauini and as usual demanded money of the occupants, who gave him +$80, all they had at the time. This quantity not being satisfactory, +a rope was sent for and the hands of the two priests were tied while +they were whipped, kicked and beaten. They were, however, released +when Father Bonet promised to get additional money. They had a short +respite until the arrival of Villa, who still demanded more money of +Father Blanco, and failing to get it for the reason that the father +had no more, leaped upon him and gave him a dreadful beating, his +companions joining in with whips, rattans and the butts of guns. They +at last left their victim stretched on the ground almost dead. This +priest showed the marks of his ill treatment six months afterward. Not +satisfied with this, Villa gave him the so-called "water cure." + +Meanwhile his followers had also beaten Father Bonet. Villa started to +do likewise but was too tired, having exhausted his energies on Father +Blanco. While the tortures were going on, the _convento_ was completely +sacked. Father Blanco's library was thrown out of the window. + +Villa entered Ilagan on the 15th of September at 8 o'clock at +night. Hastening to the _convento_, with a company of well-armed +soldiers, he had his men surround the three priests who awaited him +there, then summoned the local priest to a separate room and demanded +money. The priest gave him all he had. Not satisfied, Villa leaped +upon him, kicking him, beating him and pounding him with the butt of +a gun. Many of his associates joined in the disgraceful attack. The +unfortunate victim was then stripped of his habit, obliged to lie down +and received more than a hundred lashes. When he was nearly senseless +he was subjected to torture by water, being repeatedly lifted up when +filled with water, and allowed to fall on the floor. While some were +pouring water down his nose and throat, others spilled hot wax on his +face and head. The torment repeatedly rendered the priest senseless, +but he was allowed to recover from time to time so that he might +suffer when it was renewed. + +The torturing of this unhappy man lasted for three hours, and +the horrible scene was immediately succeeded by another quite as +bad. Villa called Father Domingo Campo and, after taking from him +the little money that he had, ordered him stripped. He was then given +numberless kicks and blows from the butts of rifles and 150 lashes, +after which he was unable to rise. There followed the torture with +water, on the pretext that he had money hidden away. + +Meanwhile the houses of Spaniards and the shops of the Chinese were +completely sacked, and the men who objected were knocked down or cut +down with bolos. Numerous girls and women were raped. + +On September 15 Leyba received notice of the surrender of Nueva +Vizcaya. I quote the following from the narrative above referred to:-- + + "Delfin's soldiers [281] were the most depraved ever seen: + their thieving instincts had no bounds; so they had hardly + entered Nueva Vizcaya when they started to give themselves + up furiously to robbery, looking upon all things as loot; + in the very shadow of these soldiers the province was invaded + by a mob of adventurous and ragged persons from Nueva Ecija; + between the two they picked Nueva Vizcaya clean. When they had + grown tired of completely shearing the unfortunate Vizcayan + people, leaving them poverty-stricken, they flew in small + bands to the pueblos of Isabela, going as far as Angadanan, + giving themselves up to unbridled pillage of the most unjust + and disorderly kind. Some of these highwaymen demanded money + and arms from the priest of Angadanan, but Father Marciano + informed them 'that it could not be, as Leyba already knew + what he had and would be angry.' + + "To this very day the people of Nueva Vizcaya have been + unable to recover from the stupendous losses suffered by + them as regards their wealth and industries. How many curses + did they pour forth and still continue to level against the + Katipúnan that brought them naught but tribulations!" + +Confirmation of these statements is found in the following brief but +significant passage from the Insurgent records:-- + + "At the end of December, 1898, when the military commander + of Nueva Vizcaya called upon the Governor of that province to + order the police of the towns to report to him as volunteers to + be incorporated in the army which was being prepared for the + defence of the country, the Governor protested against it and + informed the government that his attempt to obtain volunteers + was in fact only a means of disarming the towns and leaving + them without protection against the soldiers who did what + they wanted and took what they wished and committed every + outrage without being punished for it by their officers." [282] + +The effect of the surrender of Nueva Vizcaya on Leyba and Villa is +thus described by Father Malumbres:-- + + "Mad with joy and swollen with pride Leyba and company were + like men who travelled flower-strewn paths, crowned with + laurels, and were acclaimed as victors in all the towns on + their road, their intoxication of joy taking a sudden rise when + they came to believe themselves kings of the valley. It was + then that their delirium reached its brimful measure and their + treatment of those whom they had vanquished began to be daily + more cruel and inhuman. In Cagayan their fear of the forces + in Nueva Vizcaya kept them from showing such unqualifiable + excesses of cruelty and nameless barbarities, but the triumph + of the Katipúnan arms in Nueva Vizcaya completely broke + down the wall of restraint which somewhat repressed those + sanguinary executioners thirsting to fatten untrammelled on + the innocent blood of unarmed and defenceless men. From that + melancholy time there began an era of unheard of outrages and + barbarous scenes, unbelievable were they not proved by evidence + of every description. The savage acts committed in Isabela by + the inhuman Leyba and Villa cannot possibly be painted true + to life and in all their tragic details. The blackest hues, + the most heartrending accents, the most vigorous language + and the most fulminating anathemas would be a pale image of + the truth, and our pen cannot express with true ardour the + terrifying scenes and cruel torments brought about by such + fierce chieftains on such indefensive religious. It seems + impossible that a fleshly heart could hold so much wickedness, + for these petty chiefs were veritable monsters of cruelty who + surpassed a Nero; men who were entire strangers to noble and + humane sentiments and who in appearance having the figure of + a man were in reality tigers roaring in desperation, or mad + dogs who gnashed their teeth in fury." + +On September 18 Leyba continued his march, while Villa remained +behind at Ilagan to torture the prisoners who might be brought in +from Isabela. + +On arrival at Gamut, Leyba at once entered the _convento_ and as usual +immediately demanded money from the priests. Father Venancio gave +him all he had. He was nevertheless given a frightful whipping, six +persons holding him while others rained blows upon him. A determined +effort was made to force the priest to recant, and when this failed +Leyba leaped upon him, kicking and beating him. He then ordered him +thrown down face uppermost, and asked for a knife with the apparent +intention of mutilating him. He did not use the knife, however, but +instead, assisted by his followers, gave the unhappy priest another +terrific beating, even standing upon him and leaping up and down. The +priest was left unable to speak, and did not recover for months. + +Later Leyba had torture by water applied to Father Gregorio Cabrero +and lay brother Venancio Aguinaco, while Father Sabanda was savagely +beaten. + +On the 19th of September Father Miguel Garcia of Reina Mercedes was +horribly beaten in his _convento_ by a captain sent there to get what +money he had. + +In Cauayan, on September 20, Fathers Perez and Aguirrezabal were +beaten and compelled to give up money by five emissaries of Leyba, +and the latter priest was cut in the face with a sabre. The _convento_ +was sacked. On the 25th Leyba arrived and after kicking and beating +Father Garcia compelled him to give up $1700. He then informed the +priests that if it were not for Aguinaldo's orders he would kill all +the Spaniards. + +On the afternoon of the 24th three priests and a Spaniard named Soto +arrived at Ilagan. The following is the statement of an eye-witness +as to what happened:-- + + "They led the priests to the headquarters of the commanding + officer where the tyrant Villa, always eager to inflict + suffering on humanity, awaited them. The scene witnessed + by the priests obeisant to the cruel judge was horrifying + in the extreme. Four lions whose thirst for vengeance was + extreme in all, threw themselves, blind with fury, without + a word and with the look of a basilisk, upon poor Señor Soto + giving him such innumerable and furious blows on head and face + that weary as he was from his past journey, the ill-treatment + received at Angadanan and weighted down by years, he was soon + thrown down by his executioners under the lintel of the door + getting a terrible blow on the head as he fell; even this did + not satisfy nor tame down those fierce-hearted men, who on + the contrary continued with their infamous work more furious + than before, and their cruelty did not flag on seeing their + victim at their feet. They could have done no worse had they + been Silípan savages dancing in triumph around the palpitating + head cut from the body of some enemy. + + "The priests who witnessed this blood-curdling scene trembled + like the weak reed before the gale, waiting their turn to be + tortured, but God willed that cruel Villa should be content + with the butchery perpetrated upon unhappy Sr. Soto. Villa + dismissed the priests after despoiling them of their bags and + clothes telling them, to torment them: 'Go to the _convento_ + until the missing ones turn up so that I may shoot you all + together.'" + +Leyba entered Echague on September 22, promptly going to the _convento_ +as usual and demanding money of the priest, Father Mata. When the +latter had given him all he had, he received three terrific beatings +at the hands of some twelve men armed with whips and sticks, after +which Leyba himself struck him with his fist and his sabre. He was +finally knocked down by a blow with the sabre and left disabled. It +took six months for him to recover. + +Shortly after Leyba's arrival in Nueva Vizcaya on the afternoon of +the 25th, five priests were summoned to Solano and there abused in +the usual fashion in an effort to extort money from them. Only one +escaped ill treatment and one was nearly killed. + +Leyba now went to Bayombong to carry out the established programme +with the priests. There he found Governor Perez of Isabela, who had +taken with him certain government moneys and employed them to pay +salaries of soldiers and other employees. He insisted on the return +of the total amount and threatened to shoot Perez if it was not +forthcoming. The Spaniards of the vicinity subscribed $700 which they +themselves badly needed and saved him from being shot. The priests +of the place were then summoned to Leyba's quarters and were beaten +and tortured. One of them was thrown on the floor and beaten nearly +to death, Leyba standing meanwhile with his foot on the unfortunate +man's neck. Another was given six hundred lashes and countless blows +and kicks. Leyba stood on this man's neck also. When the victim's back +ceased to have any feeling, his legs were beaten. Leyba terminated +this period of diversion by kicking Father Diez in the solar plexus +and then mocking him as he lay gasping on the floor. That afternoon +one of the priests, so badly injured that he could not rise unaided, +was put on a horse and compelled to ride in the hot sun to Solano. + +Villa and Leyba had their able imitators, as is shown by the following +description of the torturing of Father Ceferino by Major Delfin at +Solano, Nueva Vizcaya, on September 27:-- + + "They wished to give brave evidence of their hate for the friar + before Leyba left, and show him that they were as brave as + he when it came to oppressing and torturing the friar. This + tragedy began by Jimenez again asking Father Ceferino for + the money. The priest answered as he had done before. Then + Jimenez started to talk in Tagalog to the commanding officer + and surely it was nothing good that he told him, for suddenly + Delfin left the bench and darting fire from his eyes, fell + in blind fury upon the defenceless priest; what harsh words + he uttered in Tagalog while he vented his fury on his victim, + striking him with his clenched fist, slapping him and kicking + him, I do not know, but the religious man fell at the feet of + his furious executioner who, being now the prey of the most + stupendous rage, could scarcely get his tongue to stutter and + continued to kick the priest, without seeing where he kicked + him. Getting deeper and deeper in the abyss and perhaps not + knowing what he was about, this petty chief made straight for + a sabre lying on a table to continue his bloody work. In the + meantime the priest had risen to his feet and awaited with + resignation new torments which certainly were even worse than + the first, for he gave him so many and such hard blows with + the sabre that the blade was broken close to the hilt. This + accident so infuriated Delfin that he again threw himself upon + the priest, kicking him furiously and striking him repeatedly + until he again threw him to the ground, and not yet satisfied, + his vengefulness led him to throw himself upon his victim with + the fury of a tiger after his prey, beating him on the head + with the hilt of the saber until the blood ran in streams + and formed pools upon the pavement. The priest, more dead + than alive, shuddered from head to foot, and appeared to be + struggling in a tremendous fight between life and death; he + had hardly enough strength to get his tongue to ask for God's + mercy. At this most critical juncture, and when it seemed as + if death were inevitable, the martyr received absolution from + Father Diez, who witnessed the blood-curdling picture with + his heart pierced with grief at the sight of the sufferings + of his innocent brother, feeling as must the condemned man + preparing for death who sees the hours fly by with vertiginous + rapidity. The blood flowing from the wounds on the priest's + head appeared to infuriate and blind the heart of Delfin who, + rising from his victim's body, sped away to the armory in the + court house, seized a rifle, and came back furious to brain + him with the butt and finish killing the priest; but God + willed to free his servant from death at the hands of those + cannibals, so that generous Lieutenant Navarro interfered, + took the rifle away from him and caught Delfin by the arm, + threatening him with some words spoken in Tagalog. Then + Navarro, to appease Delfin's anger, turned the priest over + with his face to the ground and gave him a few strokes with the + bamboo, and feigning anger and indignation, ordered him away. + + "Those who witnessed the horrible tragedy, the brutality of the + tyrant and the prostration of the friar were persuaded that + the latter would never survive his martyrdom. The religious + man himself holds it as a veritable portent that he outlived + such a terrible trial; but even this did not satisfy them as + subsequently the Secretary again called Father Ceferino to + subject him to a further scrutiny, as ridiculous as it was + malicious, though it did not go beyond words or insults." + +Señor Perez, the governor of Isabela, and Father Diez were compelled +to go to Ilagan. After they had arrived there on October 2d, Villa +proceeded to torture them. At the outset ten soldiers, undoubtedly +instructed beforehand, beat the governor down to the earth, with the +butts of their guns. Villa himself struck him three times in the chest +with the butt of a gun and Father Diez gave him absolution, thinking +he was dying. Father Diez was then knocked down repeatedly with the +butts of guns, being made to stand up promptly each time in order +that he might be knocked down again. Not satisfied with this, Villa +compelled the suffering priest to kneel before him and kicked him in +the nose, repeating the operation until he left him stretched on the +floor half-senseless with his nose broken. He next had both victims +put in stocks with their weight supported by their feet alone. While +in this position soldiers beat them and jumped onto them and one set +the governor's beard on fire with matches. Father Diez was kept in +the stocks four days. He was then sent to Tuguegarao in order that +personal enemies there might take vengeance on him, Villa bidding +him good-by with the following words: "Go now to Tuguegarao and see +if they will finish killing you there." Señor Perez was kept in the +stocks eight days and it is a wonder that he did not die. + +Upon the 25th of September Villa went to the _convento_ in Ilagan +prepared to torture the priests, but he succeeded in compelling a +number of them to sign indorsements in his favour on various letters +of credit payable by the Tabacalera Company and departed again in +fairly good humour, having done nothing worse than strike one of them. + +Later, however, on the pretext that Fathers Aguado and Labanda had +money hidden away, he determined to torture them with water. The first +to be tortured was Father Labanda. Villa had him taken to the prison +where the priest found his two faithful Filipino servants who had +been beaten cruelly and were then hanging from a beam, this having +been done in order to make them tell where his money was. + +He was tied after the usual fashion and water poured down his nose +and throat. During the brief respites necessary in order to prevent +his dying outright he was cruelly beaten. They finally dragged him +out of the prison by the feet, his head leaving a bloody trail on +the stones. After he had been taken back to his companions, one of +the men who had tortured him came to beg his pardon, saying that he +had been compelled to do it by Villa. + +Father Aguado was next tortured in one of the rooms of the +_convento_. Villa finished the day's work by announcing to the band +of priests that he would have them all shot the next day on the plaza, +and ordering them to get ready. + +On the 29th the barbarities practised by this inhuman fiend reached +their climax in the torturing to death of Lieutenant Piera. The +following description gives some faint idea of one of the most +diabolical crimes ever committed in the Philippines:-- + + "Villa's cruelty and sanguinary jeering grew without let + or hindrance from day to day; it seemed that this hyena + continually cudgelled his brains to invent new kinds of + torture and to jeer at the friars. On the night of the 29th of + September the diabolical idea occurred to him of giving the + _coup de grace_ to the prestige of the friars by making them + pass through the streets of Ilagan conducting and playing + a band of music. He carried out his nonsensical purpose by + calling upon Father Diogracias to play the big drum, and when + this priest had started playing Villa learned that Father + Primo was a musician and could therefore play the drum and + lead the band with all skill, so he called upon Father Primo + to come forward, and with one thing and another this ridiculous + function was carried on until the late hours of the night. + + * * * * * + + "While these two priests were serenading Villa and his + gang, the most dreadful shrieks were heard from the jail, + accompanied by pitiful cries that would melt the coldest + heart. The priests hearing these echoes of sorrow and pain, + and who did not know for what purpose Fathers Deogracias and + Primo had been separated from them, seemed to recognize the + voices of these two priests among the groans, believing them + to be cruelly tortured; for this reason they began to say + the rosary in order that the Most Holy Virgin might imbue + them with patience and fortitude in their martyrdom. Great + was their surprise when these priests returned saying that + they had contented themselves with merely making fun of them + by obliging them to play the big drum and lead the band. + + "Although this somewhat tempered their sorrow, a thorn remained + in their hearts, fearing that the moving lamentations and the + mortal groans came from the lips of some hapless Spaniard. This + fatidical presentiment turned out unfortunately to be a + fact. The victim sacrificed that melancholy night, still + remembered with a shudder by the priests, was Lieutenant + Salvador Piera. This brave soldier, who had made up his + mind to die in the breach rather than surrender the town + of Aparri, was persuaded to capitulate only by the prayers + and tears of certain Spanish ladies who had been instructed + to do so by a man who should have been the first one to + shoulder a rifle. After having been harassed in Aparri he + was taken to Tuguegarao at the request of Esteban Quinta + or Isidoro Maquigat, two artful filibusters thirsting to + revenge themselves on the Lieutenant, who during the time + of the Spanish government had justly laid his heavy hand + upon them. In the latter part of September they conducted + him on foot and without any consideration whatever to the + capital of Isabela. In this town he was at once placed in + solitary confinement in one of the rooms of the _convento_ + and allowed no intercourse with any one. The sin for which + they recriminated Piera was his having charged Dimas [283] + with being a filibuster, and their revengefulness reached + an incredible limit. The heartrending moans of this martyr + to his duty still resound in that _convento_ converted into + the scene of an orgy of blood. The unfortunate man was heard + to shout: 'For God's sake, for God's sake, have pity,' and + trustworthy persons tell that under the strain of torture + he would challenge them to fight in a fair field by saying: + 'I will fight alone against twenty of you;' but the cowardly + torturers, a reproach to the Filipino race, looked upon it as + an amusement to glut their spite on a defenceless man whose + hands were tied. They had him strung up all night with but + insignificant refreshment and rest, sometimes being suspended + by his arms which finally became disjointed and useless, and + at others he was hung up by his feet, the blood rushing to his + head and placing him in imminent danger of sudden death. It + was the intention of these brutes to torture him as much as + possible before killing him, just as a member of the feline + race plays with, tosses in the air and pirouettes around the + victim which falls into his claws. If to the torture of the + rope are added the blows with cudgels and the butts of rifles + which were frequently rained upon the victim it will be no + surprise that early on the morning of the 30th he was in the + throes of death in the midst of which the sufferer had just + enough strength to say that he was hungry and thirsty; then + those cannibals (the heart is filled with fury in setting forth + such cruelty) cut a piece of flesh from the calf of the dying + man's leg and conveyed it to his mouth and instead of water + they gave him to drink some of his own urine. What savagery! + + "The blood from the wound finished the killing of the fainting + Piera. The blood shed served to infuriate more the barbarous + executioners who in order to give the finishing stroke to the + martyr, as an unrivalled expression of their savage ferocity, + thrust a red-hot iron into his mouth and eyes. That same night + these treacherous and ferocious tyrants whose sin made them + hate the light, buried the body in the darkness of the night + in a patch of cogon grass adjoining the _convento_." + +Piera's torture was by no means confined to this last night of his +life, as the following account of it shows:-- + + "In the first days of this accursed month, while the padres + were bemoaning their fate in jail, a dark drama was being + enacted in the _convento_, whose hair-raising scenes would + have inspired terror to Montepiu himself. + + "Lieutenant Salvador Piera of the Guardia Civil, commanding + officer at Aparri, who, realizing that all resistance + was useless, gave way to the persistent solicitations of + Spaniards and natives and surrendered that town on honourable + terms, which the Katipúnan forces did not respect after + the capitulation had been signed, was sent for by Villa, + the military authority of Isabela. Something terrible was + going to happen as Piera himself felt confident, for it is + said that before leaving Aparri he went to confession where + he settled the important business of his conscience in a + Christian manner with a representative of God. + + "And so it turned out, for as soon as he arrived in Ilagan he + was taken to the _convento_ and placed incomunicado in one of + its apartments. Soon after, three or four vile fiends,--for + they do not deserve the name of men,--bound him with strong + cords and hanged him to a beam. Then they began to charge + him with having prosecuted a certain Mason, and inflicted + upon him the most frightful tortures. The pen refuses to set + forth so many atrocities. For three days they had him in that + position while his vile assassins made a martyr of him. Our + hair stands on end to think of such crimes. The heart-rending + cries of this unfortunate man while prey to such barbarous + torments could be heard in every part of the town and carried + panic to the homes of all the inhabitants. + + "The late hours of the night were always chosen by those + treacherous fiends to give Piera the _trato de cuerda_ (this + form of torture consists in tying the hands of the victim + behind his back and hanging him by them by a rope passed + through a pulley attached to a beam; his body is lifted as + high as it will go and then allowed to fall by its own weight + without reaching the ground); but this torture was administered + to him in a form so terrible that all the pictures of this kind + of torment found in the dreadful narratives of the calumniators + of the Holy Office, pale into insignificance in comparison + with the atrocious details of the tortures here recited; at + each violent jerk the unhappy victim feeling that his limbs + were being torn asunder would cry out 'My God! My God!' This + terrifying cry reverberating through the jail would freeze + the very blood of the poor priests therein incarcerated. + + "On the third day, when those infuriated hyenas appeared + to have spent their diabolical rage; after they had thrust + a red-hot iron into his eyes and left him with sightless + sockets; the poor martyr, the prey of delirium, cried out + that he was hungry, and one of those _sicarii_ cut a piece of + flesh from Piera's thigh and was infamous enough to carry it + to his mouth. On the night of the seventh of the month very + late a number of wretches buried in the _convento_ garden a + body still dripping warm blood from the lips of which there + escaped the feeble plaints of anguish of a dying man." + +The feeling of the Spaniards relative to this matter is well shown +by the following statement of Father Malumbres:-- + + "This horrible crime cannot be pardoned by God or man, and + is still uninvestigated, crying to Heaven for vengeance with + greater reason than the blood of the innocent Abel. So long + as the criminals remain unpunished it will be a black and + indelible stigma and an ugly stain on the race harbouring + in its midst the perpetrators of this unheard-of sin. Words + of reprobation are not enough, justice demands exemplary and + complete reparation, and if the powers of earth do not take + justice into their own hands, God will send fire from Heaven + and will cause to disappear from the face of the earth the + criminals and even their descendants. A murder so cruel and + premeditated can be punished in no other way. + + "If the courts here should wish to punish the guilty persons + it would not be a difficult task; the public points its + finger at those who dyed their hands in the blood of the + heroic soldier, and we shall set them forth here echoing + the voice of the people. The soulless instigator was Dimas + Guzman. The executioners were a certain José Guzman (alias + Pepin, a nephew of Dimas) and Cayetano Pérez." + +The matter was duly taken up in the courts, and Judge Blount himself +tried the cases. + +The judge takes a very mild and liberal view of the occurrence. He +says of it: [284]-- + + "Villa was accompanied by his aide, Lieutenant Ventura + Guzman. The latter is an old acquaintance of the author + of the present volume, who tried him afterwards, in 1901, + for playing a minor part in the murder of an officer of the + Spanish army committed under Villa's orders just prior to, + or about the time of, the Wilcox-Sargent visit. He was found + guilty, and sentenced, but later liberated under President + Roosevelt's amnesty of 1902. He was guilty, but the deceased, + so the people in the Cagayan Valley used to say, in being + tortured to death, got only the same sort of medicine he had + often administered thereabouts. At any rate, that was the + broad theory of the amnesty in wiping out all these old cases." + +He adds:-- + + "I sentenced both Dimas and Ventura to life imprisonment for + being accessory to the murder of the Spanish officer above + named, Lieutenant Piera. Villa officiated as arch-fiend on + the grewsome occasion. I am quite sure I would have hung + Villa without any compunction at that time, if I could have + gotten hold of him. I tried to get hold of him, but Governor + Taft's attorney-general, Mr. Wilfley, wrote me that Villa was + somewhere over on the mainland of Asia on British territory, + and extradition would involve application to the London Foreign + Office. The intimation was that we had trouble enough of our + own without borrowing any from feuds that had existed under + our predecessors in sovereignty. I have understood that Villa + is now practising medicine in Manila. More than one officer + of the American army that I know afterwards did things to + the Filipinos almost as cruel as Villa did to that unhappy + Spanish officer, Lieutenant Piera. On the whole, I think + President Roosevelt acted wisely and humanely in wiping the + slate. We had new problems to deal with, and were not bound + to handicap ourselves with the old ones left over from the + Spanish régime." [285] + +But it happens that this was the Filipino régime. Piera's torture +occurred at the very time when, according to Blount, Aguinaldo had +"a wonderfully complete 'going concern' throughout the Philippine +archipelago." + +Furthermore, it occurred in the Cagayan valley where Blount says +"perfect tranquillity and public order" were then being maintained +by "the authority of the Aguinaldo government" in a country which +Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent, who arrived on the scene of this barbarous +murder by torture four weeks later, found so "quiet and orderly." + +Not only was Blount perfectly familiar with every detail of this +damnable crime, but he must of necessity have known of the torturing +of friars to extort money, which preceded and followed it. + +The following statement seems to sum up his view of the whole matter:-- + + "It is true there were cruelties practised by the Filipinos + on the Spaniards. But they were ebullitions of revenge for + three centuries of tyranny. They do not prove unfitness for + self-government. I, for one, prefer to follow the example set + by the Roosevelt amnesty of 1902, and draw the veil over all + those matters." [286] + +The judge drew the veil not only over this, but, as we have seen, +over numerous other pertinent matters which occurred in this land of +"profound peace and tranquillity" just at the time Wilcox and Sargent +were making their trip. My apologies to him for withdrawing the +veil and for maintaining that such occurrences as those in question +demonstrate complete and utter unfitness for self-government on the +part of those who brought them about! + +If it be true that Blount knew more than one officer of the American +army who did things to the Filipinos almost as cruel as Villa did to +Lieutenant Piera, why did he not report them and have the criminals +brought to justice? + +Such an attack on the army, in the course of which there is not given +a name or a fact which could serve as a basis for an investigation, +is cowardly and despicable. + +I do not for a moment believe that Blount speaks the truth, but if +he does, then his failure to attempt to bring to justice the human +fiends concerned brands him! + +It has been the fashion in certain quarters to make vile allegations +of this sort against officers of the United States army, couching them +in discreetly general terms. This is a contemptible procedure, for +it frees those who make reckless charges from danger of the criminal +proceedings which would otherwise doubtless be brought against them. + +On arrival at Ilagan, the town where Piera was tortured to death, +Blount says [287] that Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent were + + "given a grand _baile_ [ball] and _fiesta_ [feast], a kind + of dinner-dance, we would call it.... From Ilagan they + proceeded to Aparri, cordially received everywhere, and + finding the country in fact, as Aguinaldo always claimed in + his proclamations of that period, seeking recognition of his + government by the Powers, in a state of profound peace and + tranquillity--free from brigandage and the like." + +Within sight of the banquet hall, within hearing of the music, lay +a lighter on which were huddled eighty-four priests of the Catholic +Church, many of them gray-haired old men, innocent of any evil conduct, +who for weeks had suffered, mentally and physically, the tortures of +the damned. + +Of the events of this evening and the following day Father Malumbres +says:-- + + "From the river the _convento_ could be seen profusely + illuminated and the strains of music could be heard, an + evident sign that they were engaged in revelry. This gave us + a bad start, as we came to fear that Villa had returned from + the expedition undertaken to come up with two Americans who + had crossed the Caraballo range and were thinking of coming + down as far as Aparri. It was late to announce to Villa our + arrival at Ilagan, so that we were obliged to pass the night + on the lighter. In the morning our boat was anchored in front + of the pueblo of Ilagan, where we were credibly informed that + Villa had returned. This accursed news made us begin to fear + some disagreeable incident. + + "Our Matias went ashore and delivered the official + communication regarding our transfer to Villa, while we + waited impatiently for his decision. Sergeant Matias at length + returned with orders for our disembarkation; we put on the best + clothes we had and the rowers placed a broad plank between + the lighter and the arsenal and we left our floating prison + two abreast. Matias called the roll and the order to march, + we were eighty-four friars in a long column climbing the + steep ascent to Ilagan. + + "When we had arrived in front of the building used for + headquarters, we faced about in front thereof, and the + first thing we saw in one of the windows were the sinister + features of Falaris, who with a thundering brow and black + look was delighting himself in the contemplation of so many + priests surrounded by bayonets and filled with misery. Any + other person but Villa would have melted on seeing such + a spectacle, which could but incite compassion. The two + American tourists were also looking on at this horrible scene + as if stupefied, but they soon withdrew in order, perhaps, + not to look upon such a painful picture. It was, indeed, + heartrending to contemplate therein old gray-haired men who + had passed their lives in apostolic work side by side with + young men who had just arrived in this ungrateful land, and + many sick who rather than men seemed to be marble statues, + who had no recourse but to stand in line, without one word + of consolation; therein figured some who wore religious garb, + others in secular dress limited to a pair of rumpled trousers + and a cast-off coat, the lack of this luxurious garment being + replaced in some instances by a native shirt. + + "For two long hours we were detained in the middle of the + street under the rays of a burning sun and to the scandal of + the immense crowd which had been gathered together to witness + the denouement of the tragedy. The priests had hardly come into + the presence of Villa when Fathers Isidro and Florentino were + called out for the purpose of having heaped upon them a flood + of insults and affronts. Father Isidro was ordered by Villa to + interview Sr. Sabas Orros, who, Villa supposed, would wreak his + revenge blindly upon him, but he was greatly mistaken, as said + gentleman treated the priest with great respect; the tyrant + remained talking to Father Florentino in the reception room + of the headquarters building, and when it appeared that such + talk would come to blows, the elder of the Americans left one + of the rooms toward the reception room, and the scene suddenly + changing, Villa arose and addressing the priest said: 'I am + pleased to introduce to you an American Brigadier-General, + Mr. N.' The latter returned a cordial greeting in Spanish to + the priest who made a courteous acknowledgment; after this + exchange of courtesies, Villa resumed his defamatory work, + pouring out a string of absurdities and infamous insults + upon the friars, going so far as to say in so many words: + 'from the bishop down you are all thieves and depraved' he + added another word which it would be shameful to write down, + and so he went on from one abyss to another without regard + to reputations or the respect due to venerated persons. + + "The American let his disgust be seen while Villa was talking, + and the latter understood these protests and ordered the + priest to withdraw, the comedy coming to an end by the + American shaking hands with the priest and offering him + assistance. Villa would not shake hands with him, as was + natural, but the priest was able to see that he was confused + when he saw the distinction and courtesy with which an + American general had treated a helpless friar. What a narrow + idea did the Americans form of the government of Aguinaldo, + represented by men as savage and inhuman as Villa! + + "The natives averred that the Americans referred to were + spies who had come to explore those provinces and were + making maps of the strategic points and principal roads, + so that a very careful watch was kept upon them and Villa + took measures to have them go down the river without landing + at any place between Echague and Ilagan. At Ilagan they were + given an entertainment and dance, Villa being a skilled hand + in this sort of thing, and a few days later he accompanied + them to Aparri [288] without allowing them to set foot on + land. The government of Aguinaldo no longer had everything + its own way, and secret orders had been given to have every + step of the explorers followed. The commanding and other + leading officers of the Valley, supporting the orders of the + government, circulated an order throughout the towns which + read as follows:-- + + "'_To All Local Officers_: + + "'You will not permit any maps to be made or notes + to be taken of strategic points by Americans or + foreigners; nor will you allow them to become + acquainted with the points of defence; you will + endeavour to report immediately to this Government any + suspicious persons; you will make your investigations + secretly, accompanying suspected persons and feigning + that their investigations are approved, and finally + when it shall seem to you that such suspected persons + have finished their work, you will advise without + loss of time, in order that their notes may be seized.' + + "Despite this order the Americans were able to + inform themselves very thoroughly of the forces in + the Valley and its state of defence, and Filipinos + were not lacking who for a few pesos would put them + abreast of all information regarding the plans and + projects of Aguinaldo's government." + +Relative to this Wilcox-Sargent trip Taylor says:-- + + "In October and November, 1898, Paymaster W. B. Wilcox, + U.S.N., and Naval Cadet L. R. Sargent, U.S.N., travelled + through Northern Luzon from which they returned with a + favourable impression of the government which had been set + up by Aguinaldo's agents. + + "It was realized by the subtle men whom they met that it + was highly expedient that they should make a favourable + report and accordingly they were well received, and although + constant obstacles were thrown in the way of their seeing + what it was not considered well for them to see yet the real + reasons for the delays in their journey were carefully kept + from them. At least some of their letters to the fleet were + taken, translated, and sent to Aguinaldo, who kept them, + and constant reports upon them and their movements were made." + +Blount refers to the fact that Mr. Sargent tells a characteristic +story of Villa, [289] whose vengeful feeling toward the Spaniards +showed on all occasions. + +It would doubtless have interested the travellers to know that the +"robbery" consisted in taking the funds out of the province to save +them from falling into Villa's hands, and in paying them to soldiers in +Nueva Vizcaya to whom money was due. It would further have interested +them to know that this unfortunate Spaniard had been twice tortured +within an inch of his life by Villa. + +But let us continue our interrupted narrative:-- + + "The presence of the Americans in Ilagan soon freed us from + certain forms of savagery and barbarous intentions on the + part of Villa. There can be no doubt that the tyrant was + constantly cudgelling his brains to invent new methods of + showing his contempt for the friars; at the unlucky time we + write of he conceived the infamous plan of ordering a circular + enclosure of cane to be made, put a pig into it--we trust + the reader will pardon the details--with a bell hung to his + neck, blindfolded the priests and compelled them to enter the + enclosure with sticks in their hands, and in this ridiculous + attitude, obliged them to strike about when the sound of the + bell appraised them of the animal's proximity; it is obvious + that the principal purpose of the fiendish Villa was to have + the priests lay about them in such a way as to deal each + other the blows instead of the pig. The tyrant also had the + idea of making us and the other priests in Ilagan parade the + streets of that town dancing and playing the band. The wish + to consummate his plan was not lacking but he was deterred by + the presence of the Americans and the arguments of Sr. Sabas + Orros to whom we also owed the signal favour that Villa did + not take us to our prisons at Tumauini and Gamut on foot and + with our clothing in a bundle at our backs." + +On October 2 a banquet was given in Villa's honour at Ilagan and the +pleasant idea occurred to him to have four of the friars dance at +it for his amusement. The people of the town put their handkerchiefs +before their faces to shut out the sight, and some wept. Father Campo, +one of the priests who was obliged to dance, had great ulcers on his +legs from the wounds caused by the cords with which he had been bound +when he was tortured with water, and was at first unable to raise his +feet from the floor; but Villa threatened him with a rattan until he +finally did so. This caused the sores on his legs to burst open so +that the bones showed. + +On the 3d of October a number of the friars were compelled to get up a +band and go out and meet Leyba with music on his arrival. The people +of the towns closed their windows in disgust at the sight. A great +crowd had gathered to receive Leyba, and the priests were compelled +to dance in the middle of the street, but this again only caused +disgust. A couple of priests were then beaten in the usual fashion +in a private house. This caused murmuring even among those of the +soldiers who were natives of the Cagayan valley. At the same time +two other priests were horribly whipped in the prison. + +This has been a long story, but the half has not been told. Those +who escaped torture had their feelings harrowed by the sight of +the sufferings of their fellows. They were constantly and grossly +insulted; were often confined in the most unsanitary quarters; given +poor and insufficient food and bad water, or none at all; robbed of +their clothing; compelled to march long distances under a tropical +sun when sick, wounded and suffering; obliged to do servants' work +publicly; forced to make a ridiculous spectacle of themselves in the +public streets; ordered to recant, and heaven knows what not! + +The torments practised on them had two principal objects: to +compel them to give up money, and to discredit them with the common +people. They failed to accomplish this latter result. There is abundant +evidence that the natives of the Cagayan valley clothed and fed +them when they could, and wept over the painful humiliations and the +dreadful sufferings which they were powerless to prevent or relieve. + +The tormentors were men from distant provinces, with no possible +personal grievances against the priests whom they martyrized. Their +action was the result, not of an "ebullition of revenge for three +centuries of tyranny" as stated by Blount, but of insensate greed +of gold and damnable viciousness. I believe the American people will +hold that such cruelities brand those who practise them as unfit to +govern their fellows, or themselves. + +Lest I be accused of basing my conclusions on _ex parte_ statements +I will now return to the Insurgent record of events in the Cagayan +valley. + +At the outset the Spanish officers of the Tabacalera Company [290] +fared comparatively well. In a letter dated September 27, 1898, and +addressed to the secretary of war of the revolutionary government, +Leyba says of the taking of Tuguegarao that the only terms of the +surrender were to respect life. He therefore felt at liberty to seize +all the money that the friars had hidden, "which was accomplished +by applying the stick." He adds that they did nothing to the agents +of the great Tabacalera Company, then the most powerful commercial +organization in the Islands, for the significant reason that they +had found that its stock was largely held by Frenchmen and feared +trouble. [291] + +On December 4, 1898, Leyba, concerning whose ideas as to public order +we are already informed, wrote a most illuminating letter setting +forth the conditions which had existed there. He does not claim that +there had been Octavian peace! + +It should be borne in mind that this letter covers the very time +during which Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent passed through the Cagayan +valley. It paints a vivid picture of conditions, and as the painter +was the ranking Insurgent officer in the valley during this entire +period, he cannot be accused of hostile prejudice. I therefore give +the letter in full'-- + + "_Aparri_, December 4, 1898. + + "_Don Baldomero Aguinaldo_, + + "_The Secretary of War_: + + "_Dear Sir and of My Greatest Esteem_: I take the liberty + of addressing this to you in order to state that owing to + the lack of discipline in the soldiers whom we have brought, + since they are all volunteers and whom I am not able to reduce + to rigorous subordination, for the revolution would find itself + without soldiers with whom to win triumph, they committed many + abuses and misdeed which, for the lack of evidence, I was + not able to punish, although I knew of these abuses but had + no proof, and as a lover of my country and of the prestige + of the Revolutionary Army, I took care not to disclose the + secret to any one, in this way avoiding the formation of an + atmosphere against the cause of our Independence to the grave + injury of us all. But it happened that, in spite of the good + advice which I have given them and the punishments which I have + given to some of the 3d Company of Cauit, they did not improve + their conduct but have gone to the extreme of committing a + scandalous robbery of 20,800 pesos which sum the German, Otto + Weber, was taking to the capital, which deed has caused me + to work without ceasing, without sleeping entire nights, for + I understood what a serious matter it was to take money from + a foreigner. After making many inquiries, it was discovered + that a very large part of the money which reached the sum of + $10,000, a little more or less, was buried under the quarters + which the said company occupied, this with the sanction of + all the officers, it appears to me, because it is impossible + that such a sum could be brought into a house where so many + soldiers are living without the knowledge of the officers. + + "Indignant at such shameful behaviour, I reprimanded the + officers and preferred charges against the ones I deemed to + blame in the matter. + + "Afterwards I found out that they had attempted to murder + me for trying to find out the originators of the crime. On + account of this, and in order to prevent a civil war which + would have broken out against the said soldiers if precautions + had not been taken, I decided to disarm them, to the great + displeasure of the Colonel who was not aware of my motives. + + "This bad conduct has been copied by the soldiers of the 4th + Company stationed in Ilagan, and I believe the Colonel, guided + by my warning, will take the same measures in regard to them. + + "As the officers are the first ones to commit abuses and + misdeeds, it is easily seen that the soldiers under their + orders, guided by them, will commit worse ones than the + chiefs, and as these seem to lack the moral strength to + control and reprimand them, I propose to you, if it meets your + approval, that all these soldiers and some of the officers + be returned to their homes by the steamer _Luzon_, if there + should be sufficient coal, or in another if you order it, + since they tell me themselves that because they are far + away from their homes they do not wish to continue in the + service in this province. This is easily arranged as there + are now men stationed in this province for instructing the + native volunteers, many of whom have been students, and will + therefore make good officers and non-commissioned officers, + and in this way a battalion could be formed, well disciplined + from the beginning and disgraceful things would be avoided + not only towards the natives of this province but also towards + foreigners, which is the most important. Having stated my case, + I place myself always at your disposal, requesting you will + attend to this affair. + + "With reference to the 4th Company stationed in the Province + of Isabela, whose captain is Don Antonio Monzon of Panamitan, + there are many complaints of thefts and assaults committed + by the soldiers, and in answer to my questions, Don Simeón + Adriano y Villa, Major and Sanitary Inspector and doctor of + this battalion, whom I have stationed there for lack of a + competent person, tells me that he has always punished and + offered advice to officers and soldiers in order to prevent + the recurrence of thefts and assaults, but he has never been + able to suppress them completely, because the soldiers are + abandoned by their officers, and because of lack of example + on the part of the latter; they do not understand that it is + a great blot when they commit these abuses, since when they + discover the goods or house of a Spaniard they believe they + have a right to appropriate everything which they encounter. + + "I have learned lately, that some foreigners, residents in that + province, among them some employees of the Tobacco Factory, + 'El Oriente' and of the firm of Baer Senior & Co., who have + Spanish employees in various pueblos of that province, have + some very serious complaints to make of assaults committed + against them prejudicial to their interests; however, I + hope that now with the arrival of General Tirona he will + regulate matters, although I believe that this gentleman + is not sufficiently energetic in proceeding against the + officers and soldiers, as I have seen when I reprimanded + and punished them for faults committed he has pardoned them, + and it appears that he censures energetic acts which we must + use in order to subject them to rigorous discipline. The same + thing happened when Major Sr. Victa wished to discipline them; + it appears that the Colonel reprimanded him when he punished + some soldiers for gambling in their quarters, since, as you + know, that gentleman believes that he who is right is the one + who comes to him first, and who is best able to flatter him. + + "The Colonel has agreed with me that his first act on arrival + at the province of Isabela should be to disarm and take all + the money he finds among the soldiers of the 4th Company + (Panamitan) in order to serve as indemnity for the property + of the foreigners in case they should make any claim. + + "I request that you send some leader or officer in order to + superintend our actions, and to lift the doubt which hangs + over the person who has worked faithfully and honourably in + the sacred cause of our Independence. + + "I am filling the position of First Chief in the Port of + Aparri temporarily on account of the absence of the Colonel + who has conferred on me all his duties and power. After the + military operations which were carried on as far as the last + town in Isabela, being tired and somewhat sick, I was put in + charge of these military headquarters, which I found to be + very much mixed up, the town, moreover, being desperate on + account of the assaults committed by my predecessor, Rafael + Perca, who was appointed by the Colonel, and who was formerly + 2d Captain of the steamer _Filipinas._ After arriving and + taking charge, having received numerous complaints against + him, I had him arrested and I found that he had been guilty + of robbery, unlawful use of insignia, illegal marriage, rape + and attempted rape. I hold him in custody only awaiting the + arrival of the Colonel in order to convene a court-martial + for his trial, in which the Colonel will act as President + and I as Judge Advocate. + + "With nothing more to communicate, I hope you will attend + to my just claim and send a special delegate to investigate + our acts and see the truth, for perhaps if a statement comes + direct from me you will not believe it. + + "I am your affectionate and faithful subordinate, who kisses + your hand, + + (Signed) "_J. N. Leyba_." [292] + +Blount states that conditions existed "just like this, all over Luzon +and the Visayan Islands." [293] Unfortunately this was only too true! + +The troops complained of by Leyba were made up of Aguinaldo's fellow +townsmen. They never obeyed any one else, and left a trail of murder +and rapine behind them. Aguinaldo never punished them, and from the +time when one of them tried to murder their commander until a guard +composed of them murdered General Antonio Luna in June, 1899, they +are mentioned only with fear and execration. + +Blount describes with enthusiasm the establishment of civil government +in Cagayan. + +Perhaps Americans will be interested in knowing who was its head and +how it worked. The "elections" were held on December 9, 1898, and Dimas +Guzman was chosen head of the province. He was the man subsequently +sentenced to life-imprisonment by Blount, for complicity in the +murder of Lieutenant Piera. In describing his method of conducting his +government he says that the people doubted the legality of attempts +to collect taxes; that the abuses of heads of towns caused rioting in +the towns, in which only Ilocanos took part; and that he not only did +not report these things but contrived to conceal them from foreigners +in the province. [294] + +His failure to report these troubles and disorders to his government +is of interest, as Blount alleges [295] that differences between the +local authorities were in a number of cases referred to the Malolos +government for settlement. + +Blount says [296] that General Otis's reports were full of inexcusable +blunders about the Tagálogs taking possession of provinces and making +the people do things, and cites the relations between Villa and Dimas +Guzman to illustrate the error of these allegations. + +He has elsewhere [297] referred to Villa as the "arch-fiend" in the +matter of torturing the unhappy Spaniards as well as the Filipinos who +incurred his ill-will. We have seen that Guzman proved an apt pupil +and did credit to his instructor in connection with the torturing +of Lieutenant Piera, but it nevertheless appears from Guzman's own +statements that his relations with the Insurgent officers and their +subordinates involved some rather grave difficulties. Of Major Canoy, +for instance, he says:-- + + "I must add that the said Major Canoy is such a remarkable + character that he saw fit to give my cook a beating for not + taking off his hat when he met him. He insulted the delegate + of rents of Cabagan Viejo for the same reason. He struck the + head man of the town of Bagabag in the face. He put some of + the members of the town council of Echague in the stocks, + and he had others whipped." [298] + +It was really incautious for Governor Guzman to complain of these +conditions because Major Canoy and his party won, and the Governor +had to resign. + +But the day of reckoning came. It was in consequence of the atrocities +committed by the Tagálog soldiers in the Cagayan valley that Captain +Batchelder was able a little later to march practically unopposed +through the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela and Cagayan with one +battalion of American negro troops, for whom he had neither food nor +extra ammunition, and that Tirona surrendered the Insurgent forces +in the valley without attempting resistance! + + + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +Insurgent Rule in the Visayas and Elsewhere + + +Referring to the conditions alleged to have been found by Sargent +and Wilcox in the Cagayan valley, Blount says:-- + + "Had another Sargent and another Wilcox made a similar trip + through the provinces of southern Luzón about this same time, + under similar friendly auspices, before we turned friendship + to hate and fear and misery, in the name of Benevolent + Assimilation, they would, we now know, have found similar + conditions." [299] + +So far as concerns the provinces of Mindoro and Palawan, and the great +island of Mindanao, he dodges the issue, alleging the unimportance +of Mindoro and Palawan, and claiming that "Mohammedan Mindanao" +presents a problem by itself. Under such generalities he hides the +truth as to what happened in these regions. + +I agree with him that there was essential identity between actual +conditions in the Cagayan valley and those which prevailed under +Insurgent rule elsewhere in Luzón and in the Visayas. I will go +further and say that conditions in the Cagayan valley did not differ +essentially from those which prevailed throughout all portions of +the archipelago which fell under Insurgent control, except that in +several provinces captured friars and other Spaniards were quickly +murdered whereas in the Cagayan valley no friar was quite killed +outright by torture. Those who ultimately died of their injuries +lived for some time. + +Let us now consider some of the actual occurrences in these other +provinces, continuing to follow the route of our tourists until it +brings us back to Manila. + +_South Ilocos_ + +The first province visited by Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent after +leaving Aparri was South Ilocos. The conditions which had prevailed +at Vigan, the capital of the province, shortly before their arrival, +are described in a letter signed "Mariano" and addressed under date +of September 25, 1898, to Señor Don Mena Crisólogo, from which I +quote extracts:-- + + "_Dear Mena_: I read with a happy heart your letter of the + 3rd instant, and in answer I have to say:-- + + "On the 22nd of August a mass meeting was held for the election + of the local presidente of this town, and I was elected to + the office; and on the 1st instant the Colonel appointed me + Provisional Provincial President of this province, so that + you can imagine the position I am in and the responsibilities + which weigh on me. + + "Your house is occupied by the Colonel, in view of the fact + that it is not rented. + + "I have here eleven friar prisoners and the damned priests + who escaped from here have not as yet been returned, but it + is known that they are prisoners in Cagayan, and as soon as + they arrive here I will treat them as they deserve. + + "It is with great regret that I have to relate the events + and misfortunes which we have been suffering here since the + arrival of the troops, as all the detachments are supported + by the towns, and here in the capital where the commissary + is established, our resources are exhausted, owing to the + unreasonable demands of the commissary, because he never asks + what is only just and necessary, but if he needs provisions for + 200 men, he always asks enough for 1000. And notwithstanding + this, the most lamentable and sad occurrences are taking + place almost daily in the different barrios, and often in + the town itself; the soldiers are guilty of many abuses and + disorderly acts, such as rapes and murders, which usually + remain unpunished by reason of the real authors thereof not + being found, and when they are found and reported to their + commanders, the latter do nothing. One night the house and + estate of Sario Tinon in Anannam was sacked by six armed men, + who threatened him and took his money, his wife's jewels and + the best horses he had. Thank God that his family was at the + time in the capital, and it appears that now the authors of + this act are being discovered. + + "I am at the present time working with Father Aglipay to have + the forces stationed here replaced by our volunteers which I + am recruiting, in order to prevent in so far as possible the + frequent acts of barbarity which the former are committing + in the province. + + "When the friars from Lepanto arrived here, they were made + to publish the following proclamation:-- + + "'_Proclamation_.--We, the friars, declare that all the acts + committed by us against the honest Filipinos when we discharged + our respective offices, were false and in contravention of the + rights of the Holy Church, because we only wished to deceive + and prejudice the honest inhabitants of the Philippines; for + which reason we now suffer what we are suffering, as you see, + according to the old adage that "he who owes must pay." And + now we inform all you honest Filipinos that we repent for + the acts above referred to, which are in contravention of + the laws and good customs, and ask your pardon.--_Vigan_, + September 13, 1898.' + + "All of which I communicate to you in order that you may + form an idea of what is taking place here, and take such + steps as may be proper for the common good, and especially + for the good of this town, hoping that with the aid of your + valuable protection the abuses and disorders suffered by the + residents will be stopped." [300] + +The province of Abra, now a subprovince of South Ilocos, was evidently +no exception to the general rule, for there is on file a letter to +Aguinaldo with twenty-six signatures, protesting bitterly against the +oppression of the poor, in the effort to compel them to contribute war +taxes, complaining against the misuse of supplies gathered ostensibly +for the soldiers, and stating that the petitioners will be obliged to +take refuge with the Igorots and Negritos, if not granted relief. [301] + +Apparently the trouble grew, for on December 27, 1898, the "Director +of Diplomacy" telegraphed to Aguinaldo concerning it, saying:-- + + "Most urgent. The discontent in the provinces of Pangasinán, + Tarlac and Yloco (Ilocos) is increasing. The town of Bangbang + rose in revolt the 25th and 26th of this month, and killed + all of the civil officials. It is impossible to describe + the abuses committed by the military and civil authorities + of the said provinces. I urge you to send a force of 100 men + and a diplomatic officer to reëstablish order. The matter is + urgent." [302] + +I find nothing important in the Insurgent records concerning conditions +in La Union at this time. Pangasinán, Tarlac, Pampanga and Bulacan, +which were now revisited by our tourists, have already been discussed. + +_The Province of Manila_ + +Conditions in Manila Province, as distinguished from Manila City, +left much to be desired. + +Admiral Dewey made a statement applicable to the territory adjacent +to the city and bay of Manila in a cablegram to Washington dated +October 14, 1898, which reads as follows:-- + + "It is important that the disposition of the Philippine + Islands should be decided as soon as possible. . . . General + anarchy prevails without the limits of the city and bay of + Manila. Natives appear unable to govern." [303] + +Of it Blount says:-- + + "In this cablegram the Admiral most unfortunately repeated + as true some wild rumours then currently accepted by the + Europeans and Americans at Manila which, of course, were + impossible of verification. I say 'unfortunately' with some + earnestness, because it does not appear on the face of his + message that they were mere rumours. And, that they were wholly + erroneous, in point of fact, has already been cleared up in + previous chapters, wherein the real state of peace, order, + and tranquillity which prevailed throughout Luzón at that + time has been, it is believed, put beyond all doubt." [304] + +Blount seems here to have overlooked the fact that the admiral +himself was in Manila Bay and in Manila City at the time he sent +this cablegram. The statements in question were not rumours, they +were deliberate expressions of opinion on the part of a man who had +first-hand information and knew what he was saying. + +They were not the Admiral's only allegations on this subject. When +testifying before the Senate committee he said:-- + + "_Admiral Dewey_. I knew that there was no government in the + whole of the Philippines. Our fleet had destroyed the only + government there was, and there was no other government; there + was a reign of terror throughout the Philippines, looting, + robbing, murdering; a reign of terror throughout the islands." + +_La Laguna_ + +Having brought our tourist friends safely back to Manila, we must +now leave them there and strike out by ourselves if we are to see +other provinces. + +La Laguna lies just east of Manila. Of it we learn that: + + "Laguna Province was so overrun by bands of robbers that + the head of the pueblo of San Pablo ordered the people to + concentrate in the town to avoid their attacks." [305] + +_Bataan_ + +The province of Bataan lies just across the bay from Manila. + + "On January 10, 1899, the secretary of the interior directed + the governor of Bataan Province to ascertain the whereabouts of + a number of men who had just deserted with their rifles from + the commands there. He was to appeal to their patriotism and + tell them that if they would but return to their companies + their complaints would be attended to and they would be + pardoned." [306] + +_Zambales_ + +Zambales joins Bataan on the west and north. On November 13, 1898, +Wenceslao Vinvegra wrote to Aguinaldo describing the state of affairs +in this province. From his letter we learn that two brothers named +Teodoro and Doroteo Pansacula, claiming to be governor and brigadier +general respectively, who are charged with abandonment of their +posts in the field, disobedience and attempts against the union +of the Insurgents, had been committing all manner of abuses. They +had organized a band of cut-throats, armed with rifles and bolos, +and were terrorizing the towns, committing robberies and murders and +ordering that money be furnished for themselves and food for their men. + +They were also encouraging the people to disobey the local authorities +and refuse to pay taxes, and were promulgating a theory, popular with +the masses, that the time had come for the rich to be poor and the +poor rich. + +They had furthermore induced regular Insurgent troops to rise up in +arms. [307] + +From this communication it would appear that the Insurgent government +had not been entirely effective in Zambales up to November 13th, 1898. + +From other communications we learn that the soldiers at Alaminos were +about to desert on November 30th, 1898; [308] that it was deemed +necessary to restrict travel between Tarlac, Pampanga, Bataan and +Zambales in order to prevent robberies; [309] and that on January 9, +1899, the governor of the province found it impossible to continue +the inspection of a number of towns, as many of their officials had +fled to escape the abuses of the military. [310] Conditions were +obviously very serious in Zambales at this time. + +_Cavite_ + +Cavite province lies immediately south of Manila province as the +latter was then constituted. On August 24, 1898, the secretary of +war wired Aguinaldo that two drunken Americans had been killed by +Insurgent soldiers. [311] On the same day General Anderson advised +the governor of Cavite that one American soldier had been killed and +three wounded by his people, and demanded his immediate withdrawal, +with his guard, from the town. [312] The governor asked Aguinaldo for +instructions. Aguinaldo replied instructing the governor to deny that +the American had been killed by Insurgent soldiers and to claim that +he had met death at the hands of his own companions. The governor was +further directed to give up his life before leaving the place. [313] + +In view of the definite statement from one of his own officers that +the soldier in question was killed by Filipino soldiers, Aguinaldo's +instructions to say that he was killed by Americans are interesting +as showing his methods. + +Not only were the Insurgents obviously unable to control their own +soldiers in Cavite town sufficiently to prevent them from committing +murder, but conditions in the province of the same name left much to +be desired. On December 29, 1898, the governor wired Aguinaldo that +the town of Marigondong had risen in arms. [314] + +It is a well-known fact that land records were destroyed in Cavite. Of +this matter Taylor says:-- + + "In Cavite, in Cavite Province, and probably in most of the + other provinces, one of the first acts of the insurgents + who gathered about Aguinaldo was to destroy all the land + titles which had been recorded and filed in the Spanish + administrative bureaus. In case the independence of the + Philippines was won, the land of the friars, the land of the + Spaniards and of those who still stood by Spain, would be in + the gift of Aguinaldo or of any strong man who could impose + his will upon the people. And the men who joined this leader + would be rich in the chief riches of the country, and those + who refused to do so would be ruined men." [315] + +_Sorsogón_ + + "The native civil officials who took charge of the government + of Sorsogón Province when the Spaniards abandoned it did + not think it worth while to hoist the insurgent flag until a + force of four companies arrived there to take station early in + November, 1898. The officer in command promptly ordered the + Chinamen in the town of Sorsogón, who are prosperous people, + to contribute to the support of his troops. They at once gave + him cloth for uniforms, provisions, and 10,000 pesos. This + was not sufficient, for on November 8 Gen. Ignacio Paua, + who seems to have been the insurgent agent in dealing with + the Chinese, complained that the troops in Sorsogón were + pillaging the Chinamen there. They had killed 13, wounded 19, + and ruined a number of others." [316] + +In January, 1899, a correspondent wrote Aguinaldo that it was very +difficult to collect taxes as every one was taking what he could lay +his hands on. [317] + +_Ambos Camarines_ + +On September 18, 1898, Elias Angeles, a corporal of the _guardia +civil_, headed an uprising against the Spaniards. The Spanish officer +in command, and all of his family, were killed by shooting up through +the floor of the room which they occupied. Angeles then assumed the +title of Politico-Military-Governor. + +When the Tagálog Vicente Lucban arrived on his way to Samar, he ordered +Angeles to meet him at Magarao, with all his troops and arms, disarmed +the troops, giving their rifles to his own followers, marched into +Nueva Caceres and took possession of the entire government. Aguinaldo +subsequently made Lucban a general, and sent him on his way to Samar. + +Lucban was succeeded by another Tagálog, "General" Guevara, a very +ignorant man, who displayed special ability in making collections, +and is reported to have kept a large part of the funds which came +into his possession. + +Colonel Peña, who called himself "General," was one of the worst of +the Tagálog invaders, for they were practically that. He threatened +all who opposed him with death, and summarily shot at least one man +in Tigaon. That town subsequently rose against him, and he was badly +cut up by the Bicols. [318] On getting out of the hospital he was +sent away. + +The daughters of prominent families suffered at the hands of these +villains. Peña abducted one, a son of Guevara another. Her brother +followed young Guevara and killed him. If girls of the best families +were so treated, how must those of the common people have fared? + +Braganza ordered the killing of all Spaniards and Chinese at +Minalabag. Some forty-eight Spaniards were murdered. + +Many Chinese were killed at Pasacao; about thirty at Libmanan by +order of Vicente Ursua a Tagálog; more than twenty at Calabanga. + +Conditions became so unbearable that Faustino Santa Ana gathered +around him all Bicols who were willing to fight the Tag£logs, but +the troubles were finally patched up. + +American troops had little difficulty in occupying Ambos Camarines +and other Bicol provinces, owing to the hatred in which the Tagálogs +were held. + +_Mindoro_ + +Conditions in the important island of Mindoro may be inferred from +the fact that it became necessary for its governor to issue a decree +on November 10, 1898, which contained the following provisions among +others:-- + + "2nd. The local presidentes of the pueblos will not permit any + one belonging to their jurisdiction to pass from one pueblo + to another nor to another province without the corresponding + pass, with a certificate upon its back that the taxes of its + holder have been paid. + + "3rd. That from this date no one will be allowed to absent + himself from his pueblo without previously informing its head + who will give him an authorization on which will be noted + the approval of the presidente of the pueblo.... + + "5th. Persons arriving from a neighboring town or province in + any pueblo of this province will immediately present themselves + before the presidente of said pueblo with their passes. He + will without charge, stamp them with his official seal." [319] + +These are peculiar regulations for a province which is at peace, +and as Major Taylor has truly remarked:-- + + "The form of liberty contemplated by the founders of the + Philippine Republic was not considered incompatible with a + very considerable absence of personal freedom." [320] + +Later, when travelling through Mindoro, I was told how an unfortunate +legless Spaniard, who had been running a small shop in one of the towns +and who was on good terms with his Filipino neighbors, was carried +out into the plaza, seated in a chair, and then cut to pieces with +bolos in the presence of his wife and children who were compelled to +witness the horrible spectacle! + +On this same trip Captain R.G. Offley, then the American Governor +of Mindoro, told me while I was at Pinamalayan that the people there +were greatly alarmed because a murderer, liberated under the amnesty, +had returned and was prowling about in that vicinity. This man had a +rather unique record. He had captured one of his enemies, and after +stripping him completely had caused the top of an immense ant-hill to +be dug off. The unfortunate victim was then tied, laid on it, and the +earth and ants which had been removed were shovelled back over his +body until only his head projected. The ants did the rest! Another +rather unusual achievement of this interesting individual was to tie +the feet of one of his enemies to a tree, fasten a rope around his +neck, hitch a carabao to the rope, and start up the carabao, thus +pulling off the head of his victim. Yet this man and others like +him were set at liberty under the amnesty proclamation, in spite of +the vigorous protests of the Philippine Commission, who thought that +murderers of this type ought to be hanged. + +And now I wish to discuss briefly an interesting and highly +characteristic statement of Judge Blount. In referring to conditions +in the Visayan Islands, he says:-- + + "Of course the Southern Islands were a little slower. But as + Luzón goes, so go the rest. The rest of the archipelago is + but the tail to the Luzón kite. Luzón contains 4,000,000 of + the 8,000,000 people out there, and Manila is to the Filipino + people what Paris is to the French and to France. Luzón is + about the size of Ohio, and the other six islands that really + matter, are in size mere little Connecticuts and Rhode Islands, + and in population mere Arizonas or New Mexicos." [321] + +This paragraph is no exception to the general rule that the statements +of this author will not bear analysis. One of the other six islands +that he says really matters is Samar. Its area is 5031 square +miles. The area of Rhode Island is 1250 square miles. The smallest of +the six islands named is Bohol, with an area of 1411 square miles. It +cannot be called a little Rhode Island. + +As regards population, Arizona has 122,931. It is hardly proper to +call either Panay with a population of 743,646, Cebu with 592,247, +Negros with 460,776, Leyte with 357,641, Bohol with 243,148 or even +Samar with only 222,690, a mere Arizona, and New Mexico with 195,310 +is also a bit behind. + +Luzón really has an area of 40,969 square miles and a population +of 3,798,507. [322] What Blount is pleased to call "the tail to the +Luzón kite," is made up as follows:-- + + + Island Area (Square Miles) Population + Samar 5,031 222,690 + Negros 4,881 460,776 + Panay 4,611 743,646 + Leyte 2,722 357,641 + Cebu 1,762 592,247 + Bohol 1,411 243,148 + Totals 20,419 2,620,148 + + +Even so, the tail is a trifle long and heavy for the kite, but if we +are going to compare Luzón with "the Southern Islands," by which Blount +can presumably only mean the rest of the archipelago, why not really do +it? The process involves nothing more complicated than the subtraction +of its area and population from those of the archipelago as a whole. + + + Area (Square Miles) Population + Philippines 115,026 7,635,426 + Luzón 40,969 3,798,507 + Difference 74,057 3,836,919 + + +Performing this operation, we discover that the tail would fly away +with the kite, as Luzón has less than half of the total population +and only a little more than a third of the total area. + +To compare the area or the population of one large island with those of +individual small ones, in determining the relative importance of the +former in the country of which it makes up a part, is like comparing +the area and population of a great state with those of the individual +counties going to make up other states. + +Blount resorts to a similar questionable procedure in trying to show +the insignificance of Mindoro and Palawan. There are an island of +Mindoro and a province of Mindoro; an island of Palawan and a province +of Palawan. In each case the province, which includes numerous small +islands, as well as the large one from which it takes its name, is +much larger and more populous than is the main island, and obviously +it is the province with which we are concerned. + +Even if Blount wished to limit discussion to the Christian natives +commonly called Filipinos, his procedure is still wholly unfair. Of +these there are 3,575,001 in Luzón and 3,412,685 in the other +islands. In other words, the Filipino population is almost equally +divided between the two regions. + +As he would not have found it convenient to discuss the conditions +which arose in Mindanao under Insurgent rule, he attempts to show +that no political importance attaches to them. In the passage above +quoted he does not so much as mention either Mindoro or Palawan +(Paragua). Elsewhere, however, he attempts to justify his action by +making the following statements:-- + + "The political or governmental problem being now reduced + from 3141 islands to eleven, the last three [323] of the nine + contained in the above table may also be eliminated as follows: + [324]-- + + "Mindoro, the large island just south of the main bulk of + Luzón, pierced by the 121st meridian of longitude east of + Greenwich, is thick with densely wooded mountains and jungle + over a large part of its area, has a reputation of being + very unhealthy (malarious), is also very sparsely settled, + and does not now, nor has it ever, cut any figure politically + as a disturbing factor." [325] + +Apart from the fact that the political problem involved in the +government of the important islands which Blount would thus leave +out of consideration, is not solved by ignoring it, certain of his +further statements cannot be allowed to go uncorrected. + +The allegation that the island has never "cut any figure politically +as a disturbing factor" is absurd. In the Spanish days its forests +furnished a safe refuge for evildoers who were from time to time +driven out of Cavite and Batangas. A large proportion of its +Filipino inhabitants were criminals who not infrequently organized +regular piratical expeditions and raided towns in Masbate, Romblon +and Palawan. The people of the Cuyos and Calamianes groups lived +in constant terror of the Mindoro pirates, and _tulisanes_, [326] +who paid them frequent visits. I myself have been at Calapan, the +capital of the province, when the Spanish officials did not dare to +go without armed escort as far as the outskirts of the town for fear +of being captured and held for ransom. During considerable periods +they did not really pretend to exercise control over the criminal +Filipinos inhabiting the west coast of the island. Conditions as +to public order were worse in Mindoro than anywhere else in the +archipelago north of Mindanao and Joló. + +No less absurd are Blount's suggestions as to the general +worthlessness of the island. There are high mountains in its +interior, and there are great stretches of the most fertile land in +the world along its coast. Its northern and eastern portions have +a very heavy and evenly distributed rainfall, and are admirably +suited to the growing of cocoanuts, hemp, cacao, rubber and similar +tropical products. In this region rice flourishes wonderfully without +irrigation. There was a time in the past when Mindoro was known as +"the granary of the Philippines." Later its population was decimated +by constant Moro attacks, and cattle disease destroyed its draft +animals, with the result that the cultivated lands were abandoned +to a considerable extent and again grew up to jungle, from which, +however, it is easy to redeem them. The west coast has strongly marked +wet and dry seasons similar to those at Manila. There is abundant +water available for irrigation, furnished by streams which never run +dry. Much of the soil is rich, and will grow the best of sugar in +large quantity. The forests, which now cover extensive areas, abound +in fine woods, and produce rubber and other valuable gums. There are +outcroppings of lignite at numerous points on the island, and in the +vicinity of Mt. Halcon is found the finest marble yet discovered in +this part of the world. Gold is also present in some quantity at +various places. In short, Mindoro is naturally one of the richest +islands in the Archipelago. If its tillable lands were under high +cultivation, it would support half the population of the Philippines. + +_Palawan_ + +In endeavouring to show that Palawan is without political importance +Blount has followed precisely the procedure which he adopted in the +case of Mindoro. First, he gives the area and the population of the +island, when he should concern himself with the province. The area of +the island is 4027 square miles; that of the province, 5238 square +miles. According to the 1903 census, the population of the island +was 10,918, while that of the province, which contains such thickly +settled and fertile islands as Cuyo and Agutaya, was 39,582. Of course, +if one wishes to emphasize the unimportance of Palawan, it is more +convenient to take the figures for the island. + +Blount says:-- + + "Paragua, [327] the long narrow island seen at the + extreme lower left of any map of the archipelago, extending + northeast-southwest at an angle of about 45°, is practically + worthless, being fit for nothing much except a penal colony, + for which purpose it is in fact now used." [328] + +I must deny the truthfulness of his statements, even if we limit +our consideration to the island of Palawan. Only 159 of its 4027 +square miles are utilized for a penal colony. Its natural wealth +is simply enormous. It is covered throughout the greater part of +its extent with virgin forest containing magnificent stands of the +best timber. Damar, a very valuable varnish gum, is abundant in its +mountains. Much of the so-called "Singapore cane," so highly prized by +makers of rattan and wicker furniture, comes from its west coast. It +is a well-watered island, and its level plains, which receive the +wash from its heavily forested mountains, have a soil of unsurpassed +fertility in which cocoanuts come to bearing in five years or even +less. Incidentally, the greater part of the island lies south of +the typhoon belt. Malampaya Sound, situated near its northwestern +extremity, is one of the world's great harbors. But should we wish to +rid ourselves of this wonderful island, I may say, without violating +any official confidences, that there was a time when Germany would +have been more than pleased to take it off our hands; and indeed our +British friends, who were sufficiently interested in it to survey it +some decades ago, might possibly be prevailed upon to accept it! + +There are good reasons why Blount thought it convenient to make it +appear that Palawan was politically unimportant. Shortly after the +outbreak of hostilities with Spain the Filipino garrison at Puerto +Princesa mutinied, and the things which they did were not nice. Among +others, they liberated the convicts, Puerto Princesa being at the time +a penal colony, and the latter, together with some of the soldiers, +started up the east coast of the island, leaving a trail of devastation +in their wake. The prosperous town of Tinitian was abandoned as they +approached it, and was so thoroughly cleaned out by them that it has +never since been reoccupied except by a few stragglers. Other towns, +including Tay-Tay, were raided. + +On November 27, 1899, Aguinaldo's representative in this province wrote +him that the inhabitants were preparing to kill all the Tagálogs and +revolt against Insurgent rule. [329] Later when some of the latter +were anxious to get the people of one of the northern settlements to +take them on a short boat journey, these Visayans consented to give +them a lift only on condition that they first allow themselves to be +bound, and then took them out to sea and threw them overboard. + +Another thing which Blount would have found it inconvenient to discuss +is the conduct of the people of Cuyo, at one time the capital of +the province. On this island, which contains but twenty-one square +miles, there were in 1903 no less than 7545 inhabitants. They hated +and feared the people of Mindoro and sent messengers to Iloilo, +after the Americans had occupied that place, to beg for a garrison of +American troops, and to say that if furnished with an American flag +they themselves would defend it. For some reason they were not given +the flag, and the sending of a garrison was long delayed. Having grown +weary of waiting, they made an American flag of their own, hoisted +it, and when the Insurgents from Mindoro came intrenched themselves +and defended it. They were actually being besieged when the American +garrison finally arrived. Here is one more fact inconsistent with +the theory that the Filipino people were a unit at Aguinaldo's back, +and of course the easiest way to get around such an occurrence is to +forget to mention it! + +_Mindanao_ + +And now we come to the great island of Mindanao, which all but equals +Luzón in size, having an area of 36,292 square miles as against the +40,969 of Luzón. Blount's first mention of it is peculiar. + +In connection with the words "the other six islands that really +matter," in the passage above cited on page 116 of his book, he has +inserted a foot-note reading as follows:-- + + "The six main Visayan Islands. Mohammedan Mindanao is + always dealt with in this book as a separate and distinct + problem." [330] + +But it was hardly possible for him to dismiss this great island, which +is a little continent by itself, quite so cavalierly and I will quote +the more important of his further and later statements regarding it:-- + + "While the great Mohammedan island of Mindanao, near Borneo, + with its 36,000 square miles of area, requires that the + Philippine archipelago be described as stretching over more + than one thousand miles from north to south, still, inasmuch + as Mindanao only contains about 500,000 people all told, half + of them semi-civilized, the governmental problem it presents + has no more to do with the main problem of whether, if ever, + we are to grant independence to the 7,000,000 Christians of + the other islands, than the questions that have to be passed + on by our Commissioner of Indian Affairs have to do with the + tariff. Mindanao's 36,000 square miles constitute nearly + a third of the total area of the Philippine archipelago, + and more than that fraction of the 97,500 square miles of + territory to a consideration of which our attention is reduced + by the process of elimination above indicated. Turning over + Mindanao to those crudely Mohammedan semi-civilized Moros + would indeed be 'like granting self-government to an Apache + reservation under some local chief,' as Mr. Roosevelt, in + the campaign of 1900, ignorantly declared it would be to + grant self-government to Luzón under Aguinaldo. Furthermore, + the Moros, so far as they can think, would prefer to owe + allegiance to, and be entitled to recognition as subjects + of, some great nation. Again, because the Filipinos have no + moral right to control the Moros, and could not if they would, + the latter being fierce fighters and bitterly opposed to the + thought of possible ultimate domination by the Filipinos, the + most uncompromising advocate of the consent of the governed + principles has not a leg to stand on with regard to Mohammedan + Mindanao. Hence I affirm that as to it, we have a distinct + separate problem, which cannot be solved in the lifetime + of anybody now living. But it is a problem which need not + in the least delay the advent of independence for the other + fourteen fifteenths of the inhabitants of the archipelago--all + Christians living on islands north of Mindanao. It is true that + there are some Christian Filipinos on Mindanao, but in policing + the Moros, our government would of course protect them from + the Moros. If they did not like our government, they could + move to such parts of the islands as we might permit to be + incorporated in an ultimate Philippine republic. Inasmuch as + the 300,000 or so Moros of the Mohammedan island of Mindanao + and the adjacent islets called Jolo (the 'Sulu archipelago,' + so called, 'reigned over' by the sultan of comic opera fame) + originally presented, as they will always present, a distinct + and separate problem, and never did have anything more to + do with the Philippine insurrection against us than their + cousins and co-religionists over in near-by Borneo, the task + which confronted Mr. Root in the fall of 1899, to wit, the + suppression of the Philippine insurrection, meant practically + the subjugation of one big island, Luzón, containing half the + population and one third of the total area of the archipelago, + and six neighbouring small ones, the Visayan Islands." [331] + +Now as a matter of fact Mindanao is by no means Mohammedan. The +Mohammedan Malays, called Moros, are found here and there along the +western coast of the Zamboanga peninsula and along the southern coast +of the island as far as Davao. They also extend far up the Cotabato +River and occupy the Lake Lanao region, but that is all. The interior +of the island is for the most part occupied by the members of a +number of non-Christian, non-Mohammedan tribes, while its northern +and eastern coasts are inhabited by Visayan Filipinos, of whom there +are many in Zamboanga itself. + +While, as Blount says, the Moros took no part in the insurrection +against the United States, the Visayans of Mindanao did, and we had +some lively tussles with them in Misamis and in Surigao. + +It is indeed unthinkable that we should turn Mindanao over to the +Moros. Abandonment of it by us would in the end result in this, +as they would take possession of the entire island in the course of +time. Neither the other wild tribes nor the Filipinos could stand +against them. I heartily agree with the conclusion that we must retain +this island for many years before we can settle the problems which it +presents. It is further true that we might retain it and still grant +independence to the remainder of the Philippine Archipelago, but if +we are to eliminate Mindanao from consideration because the Filipinos +have no right to control the Moros, of whom there are in reality +only about a hundred and fifty-four thousand [332] on the island, +and could not if they would, what about Luzón, where there are in +reality no less than four hundred and sixty thousand non-Christians, +[333] many of whom, like the Ifugaos, Bontoc Igorots, Kalingas and +wild Tingians, are fierce fighters and practically all of whom are +bitterly opposed to the thought of possible ultimate domination by +Filipinos, while most of them welcome American rule? + +Have the Filipinos any more moral right to control them than they +have to control the Moros? Could they control them if they would? And +has the most uncompromising advocate of the consent of the governed +principle "a leg to stand on" in the one case if he lacks it in +the other? + +The Filipino politicians are not ready to admit that Filipinos could +not satisfactorily govern Moros and have even alleged that they did +so govern them during the period now under discussion. Let us examine +the facts. + +Aguinaldo attempted to enter into negotiations with the Sultan of Joló, +addressing him as his "great and powerful brother," [334] but this +brother does not seem to have received his advances with enthusiasm, +and the other brothers proceeded to do things to the Filipinos at +the first opportunity. + +José Roa in writing Aguinaldo on January 26, 1899, of conditions in +the province of Misamis says: [335]-- + + "Hardly had said evacuation of Iligan taken place on the 28th + of last month, when the Moros or Mohammedans of the interior, + our mortal enemies since times immemorial on account of their + religious fanaticism which they carry to extremes, as do their + co-religionists in Europe and Asia, and on account of their + objection to leading a civilized life, began to harry the + town of Iligan which is the nearest town to the lake around + which is the densest Moro population. Due to the prestige + of the local president of that town, Señor Carloto Sariol, + and the energy that he showed, after some days of constant + firing against groups who descended upon the suburbs of the + town, he was successful in having them abandon their hostile + attitude and promise to live in peace and harmony with said + towns, this verbal agreement being participated in by the + Dattos of some settlements who did not wish to treat with + the Spanish Government. + + "Being acquainted nevertheless with these people, we know by + experience that the more friendly they appear, the more we + must watch against them, because as soon as they find a good + opportunity they do not fail to take advantage of it to enter + the towns for the purpose of sacking them and kidnapping as + many of their inhabitants as possible in order to reduce them + to slavery." + +Immediately after the abandonment of Cotabato by the Spaniards the +Filipino residents set up a government there. A few days later the Moro +datos, Piang, Ali and Djimbangan, dropped in with their followers, +cut off the head of the Filipino _presidente_, served a few other +leading officials and citizens in the same manner, and proceeded to +set up a government of their own which was the only government that +the place had prior to the arrival of the American troops. + +Dato Djimbangan promptly caused the Filipina women of the place to +be stripped and compelled to march before him on the public plaza in +a state of nudity. + +At Zamboanga the Moros could have taken the town at any time after +the Spaniards left had they desired to do so. On the arrival of the +Americans Dato Mandi offered to take it and turn it over to them, +but his proposition was declined. + +He subsequently swore to an affidavit relative to conditions under +Insurgent rule. It reads as follows:-- + + "We always had peace in Zamboanga District; except during the + revolution of the Filipinos in the year 1899, when for seven + or eight months there was in existence the so-called Filipino + Republic. During that time there was much robbing and killing; + the life of a man was worth no more than that of a chicken; + men killed one another for personal gain; enemies fought one + another with the bolo instead of settling their differences + before the law. It was a time of bloodshed and terror. There + was no justice. Because of this the Moros were opposed to + the Filipinos. There was conflict between the better class + of Filipinos and the revolutionists, who had gained control + of the local government." [336] + +Elsewhere throughout the Moro territory those Filipinos who did +not promptly make their escape were murdered or enslaved. In short, +the lion and the lamb lay down together, with the lamb inside as usual. + +Thus it will be seen that this first and last attempt of Filipinos +to govern Moros did not result in complete success. + +Baldomero Aguinaldo made a subsequent attempt to open communication +with the Sultan of Joló, authorizing him to establish in all the +_rancherias_ of Mindanao and Joló a government in accordance with a +decree duly transmitted. The Sultan was requested to report the result +of his efforts and to give the number of his forces with their arms, +and was advised that, "if in this war, which I consider to be the last, +we secure our independence and with the opposition of our brothers +in that region, with yourself at their head, we are successful in +preventing the enemy from gaining a foothold, the grateful country will +always render a tribute of homage and gratitude to your memory." [337] +Curiously, the Sultan seems to have remained unmoved by the appeal. + +_Masbate_ + +This tight little island of 1236 square miles had in 1903 a Visayan +population of 29,451. Its people are all Filipinos, and are on the +whole rather an unusually orderly and worthy set. There is no reason +why it should have been excluded in considering "the human problem +in its broader governmental aspect," whatever that may be, nor can I +understand why Blount should have desired to exclude it except that +he seems to have been endeavouring to exclude everything possible +outside of Luzón, in order to increase the apparent importance of +the Christian provinces of that island. Masbate should of course be +taken into account in connection with the Visayan Islands, of which +it is one. + +The islands ordinarily included in the group known as "The Visayas" +from the ancient tribal name of the civilized Filipino people who +inhabit them, who are called Visayans, are Samar, Panay, Negros, +Leyte, Cebú, Bohol, Masbate, Tablas, Romblon, Ticao, Burias, Siquijor +and numerous smaller islands adjacent to those named. Although their +inhabitants are all rated as one people, they speak a number of more or +less distinct dialects. Only Panay, Negros, Samar, Tablas and Sibuyan +have non-Christian inhabitants, and in the three islands last named +their number is so small as to be negligible. In the mountains of Panay +and Negros, however, Negritos are to be found in considerable numbers, +as are the representatives of a tribe sometimes called _Monteses_ [338] +and sometimes Bukidnon. The latter tribal designation I have thought +it best to reserve for certain inhabitants of northern Mindanao. + +In the Visayas, Palawan and Mindanao the government of Aguinaldo +was established at various places and different times, without +consulting or considering the will of the people. The men who went as +his delegates were supported by armed forces, hence their authority +was not at first questioned, but soon there arose murmurings which +might easily have grown into a war cry. + +The attitude of the Visayan Filipinos is clearly foreshadowed in the +following extract from a letter dated January 14, 1899, in which Mabini +discussed the advisability of putting the constitution in force:-- + + "And even if this change is made, I fear that Negros and Iloílo + will form a federal Republic and not one in conformity with the + centralized Republic provided for by the Constitution." [339] + +The action later taken by Negros shows that there was abundant reason +for this fear. + +As late as February 26, 1899, the Insurgent government was still +ignorant as to the real conditions in Negros and Mindanao. [340] + +From a letter written on March 18, 1899, to Apacible at Hongkong, we +learn that Aguinaldo and his followers were even then still uninformed +as to events in the Visayan Islands. [341] In view of these facts, +how ridiculous become the contentions of those who claim that the +Malolos government represented the archipelago as a whole. And what +shall we say of the following statement, remembering that the Treaty +of Paris was signed December 10, 1899? + + "When the Treaty of Paris was signed, General Otis was in + possession of Cavite and Manila, with less than twenty thousand + men under his command, and Aguinaldo was in possession of + practically all of the rest of the archipelago with between + 35,000 and 40,000 men under his command, armed with guns, + and the whole Filipino population were in sympathy with the + army of their country." [342] + +Ultimately, by one means or another, and chiefly by the use of armed +emissaries, the Visayan Islands, with the exception of Negros, were +brought into the Insurgent fold. + +Mabini's fear that Negros and Iloilo would form a federal republic +was not realized, but Negros set up its own government, applied to the +local commander of the United States forces for help, endeavoured with +almost complete success to keep out Tagálog invaders, and presently +settled down contentedly under American rule, facts of which Blount +makes no mention. On the contrary, without just cause, he includes +this great island, with its 4881 square miles of territory and its +560,776 inhabitants, in the area over which he claims that Aguinaldo +exercised complete control. + +At Iloilo the American troops encountered opposition when they planned +to land. Negotiations had been entered into with the local Filipino +officers, but the latter, under the influence of representatives +whom Aguinaldo had sent from Luzón, announced themselves as adherents +of his government, and when the American troops finally disembarked +fired the town ahead of them. It has been claimed that in doing this +they were inspired by pure patriotism, but the facts shown by their +own records present a very different picture. + +In writing to Aguinaldo on April 8, 1899, Mabini says: + + "We have received a communication forwarded from Iloílo, + from General Martin Delgado and Francisco Soriano, your + commissioner. Soriano states that the troops of Diocno have + done nothing except commit excesses and steal money during + the attack by the Americans upon the town of Iloílo, even + going so far as to break their guns by using them as poles + to carry the stolen money which they took to Cápiz. It is + said that these forces, besides being unwilling to fight the + Americans, refuse to give their guns to those who do wish + to fight and do not want Cápiz to aid the people of Iloílo, + who are the ones who support the entire forces, including + the troops of Diocno who went there." [343] + +This same letter contains the following brief reference to conditions +in Cebu and Leyte:-- + + "Also a native priest, Señor Pascual Reyes, has arrived + here from Cebú, and says that in Leyte General Lucban is + committing many abuses and that Colonel Mójica is only a + mere figurehead. In Cebú, he says, things are also in a + chaotic condition, because the military chief, Magsilum + [Maxilom,--TR.], and the people are not in harmony." + +Further details as to conditions in Cebu are given in a letter to +Aguinaldo from the commissioner whom he put in charge of elections +in that island, who on February 19, 1899, writes: [344]-- + + "Having arrived in this province the 8th of last month, I + left on the 11th for the northern pueblos of this Island to + hold the elections for the offices ordered by the Superior + Decree of June 18, last. + + * * * * * + + "The news spread like an electric spark, as in all the pueblos + I visited later I found that almost all of the residents were + in their homes, so that when the elections were held in the + town hall, all the principal residents attended, requesting + me to inform you that they were disposed to sacrifice even + their dearest affections whenever necessary for our sacred + cause; they only asked me to inform those who hold the reins + of government at the present time in this province, that some + steps be taken to put a stop to the arbitrary acts which had + been and still are being committed by the so-called Captains, + Majors, Colonels, Generals and Captains General, who abusing + in the most barefaced manner the positions they claimed to + hold, were depriving them of their horses and their carabaos, + or cattle. I promised them that I would do this, as I do + now, by sending a communication at once to Sres. Flores and + Maxilom, who are at the head of the provincial government, + impressing upon them the fact that if they continue to grant + ranks and titles to persons of this character, as they have + done, it would end in the utter ruin of this wealthy province." + +He adds that these men did not remedy the evils complained of. It +would be possible to cover in detail all of this and the remaining +Insurgent territory, and to show that Judge Blount was quite right in +stating that conditions similar to those encountered in Luzón arose +there, but the limitations of time and space forbid, and I must ask +my readers to accept on faith the statements of Blount and myself +that such was the case! + +Taylor thus summarizes the conditions which ultimately arose:-- + + "The Insurgent soldiers lived in their own land as they would + have lived in a conquered country. They were quartered on the + towns and the towns had to feed them whether they would or not. + + "Peace there was where Aguinaldo's soldiers had not penetrated, + but there does not seem to have been progress. Life went very + well in a long siesta in the shady villages under the palm + trees, but not only the structure of the State, its very + foundations were falling apart. When Aguinaldo's soldiers + came they brought cruelty and license with them. Proud of + their victories and confident in themselves they felt that the + labourers in the fields, the merchants in the towns, were for + the purpose of administering to their necessities and their + desires. Aguinaldo, having seen this force gather about him, + was forced to entreat it, to appeal to it; he was never strong + enough to enforce discipline, even if he cared to do it." + +Aguinaldo himself finally became disheartened over his inability to +maintain a decent state of public order in the territory which he +claimed to govern, and in December, 1898, tendered his resignation, +giving among other reasons odious favouritism on the part of some of +the military chiefs, together with a desire to enrich themselves by +improper means, such as accepting bribes, making prisoners a source +of gain, and decreasing the allowance of the soldiers. He said that +many soldiers had received sums of money as their share of booty, +and intimated that officers must have done the same. He made charges +against civil as well as military officers and ended by saying that +he retained the evidence for presentation when called on. [345] + +Aguinaldo was later persuaded to withdraw his resignation. No wonder +that he wished to tender it! + +In referring to the report of Wilcox and Sargent, Blount has said:-- + + "This report was submitted by them to Admiral Dewey under + date of November 23, 1898, and by him forwarded to the Navy + Department for its information, with the comment that it 'in + my opinion contains the most complete and reliable information + obtainable in regard to the present state of the northern part + of Luzon Island.' The Admiral's indorsement was not sent to + the Senate along with the report." [346] + +He thus gives it to be understood that the admiral believed that the +report truthfully set forth the conditions which actually existed in +these provinces, and that his indorsement was suppressed. Not only was +it true that this report when rendered contained the most complete +and reliable information then available in regard to the existing +state of the northern part of Luzon Island, but it contained the only +first-hand information available. The facts ultimately leaked out and +led the admiral radically to change his opinion as to the conditions +which arose under Insurgent rule. Of them he later said:-- + + "There was a sort of a reign of terror; there was no + government. These people had got power for the first time + in their lives and they were riding roughshod over the + community. The acts of cruelty which were brought to my notice + were hardly credible. I sent word to Aguinaldo that he must + treat his prisoners kindly, and he said he would." + +I believe that I have fully demonstrated the truth of these +statements. Blount was thoroughly familiar with Dewey's testimony +before the Senate Committee, in which they occur, but he did not +mention them. + +I cannot close this discussion of Insurgent rule without quoting +extracts from a remarkable document written by Isabelo Artacho +in October, [347] 1899. It was entitled "Declaration Letter and +Proclamation" and was addressed to the Filipino people. While it is +probable that Artacho was impelled to tell the truth by his hatred for +Aguinaldo, tell the truth he did, and his rank and standing entitle +his statements to consideration:-- + + "Study the work of the insurrection; see if it is, as is said, + the faithful interpretation of your wishes and desires. + + "Go through your towns, fields, and mountains. Wherever you + see an insurgent gun or bolo you will find girls and faithful + wives violated, parents and brothers crying for the murder of + a son or of a brother; honest families robbed and in misery; + villages burned and plundered for the benefit of a chief or + a General; you will see fresh and living signs yet of those + horrible crimes perpetrated with the greatest cynicism by + those who call themselves your liberators! Liberators because + they wear red pants, or a red shirt, or carry on their hats + a piece of red cloth or a triangular figure! + + "Here, a president stabs a man, perhaps the most honest of + the village, simply for having implored mercy for a creature + arbitrarily inflicted with the _cepo_ [an oblong square + piece of heavy wood divided into two parts, with a lock at + each end and six or more holes in the middle to confine the + feet of prisoners]; there, a dying man, suspended by the feet + in a _cepo_, raised from the level of the ground, by another + president who has charged him with an unproved crime; there a + poor woman falsely charged and driven by petty officers with + their bayonets for having objected to their invasion into + her house, or shop, they being supposed to be, each, Justice + itself, '_Justicia_,' and to be obeyed as images of the Gods; + there, generals who murder without fear, for an insignificant + motive, creatures whose members are being mutilated, or + their flesh cut in slices and afterwards roasted and given + them to eat; there, officers braining a girl who has refused + to accede to their sensual wishes, the lifeless body of the + victim, pierced with shots, after having been made use of, is + thrown into the river. It is not unusual to witness officers + burying people alive in a tomb prepared by the victim, by order + of the murderer; it is not unusual to see a _Puisne_-Judge + pointing a revolver at a man who is about to give evidence, + and threatening to brain him for having dared to ask: 'Why and + to whom am I to declare?' And finally, on his tottering throne, + you will see the Magistrate of the Philippines, so called by + his worshippers, with his mephistophelian smile, disposing + and directing the execution of a murder, of a plunder, of + a robbery, or the execution of some other crimes against + those who are indifferent or do not care to worship him, + such indifference being considered a crime. + + "Putting aside the many other murders, I may mention that + one recently committed on the person of the renowned and by + many called the worthy General, Antonio Luna, which took place + just at the entrance of the palace of the Republic Presidency, + and also the assassination at Kavite of the ever remembered + martyr, Andrés Bonifacio, the founder of the 'Katipúnan' + Society, and the one who initiated the Revolution of 1896; + against the memory of whom it has been committed, in the + proclamation of that falsely called Republic, the criminal + and unjust omission to render the smallest manifestation of + Filipinos' feelings towards him, to prevent that same might + dislike his murderers! + + "Study the ordinances and constitution of this so-called + democratic Government of the Republic, that grand work of the + wise Filipinos; admire with me that beautiful monument erected + on a sheet of paper and consecrated to the conquest of reason + and labour, especially in connection with human rights and + property, the basis for the well-being of social life; but, + lament and deplore with me its palpable nullity when brought + to practice and you will again see that the laws were made + for the people and not the people for the laws! + + "Under this republic called democratic it is a crime to + think, to wish, to say, anything which does not agree with + what the said Gods think, wish and say. Nobody and nothing + is attended to, whilst those who have your lives in their + hands must be respected. + + "Under this Goverment there cannot be the slightest notice + taken of family, property, morality and justice, but confusion + and disorder appear everywhere like a dreadful shadow, produced + by the ignorance of the subordinate officers, and of the powers + that be in the villages and provinces, who are supported by + a special committee, or special commissioners empowered to + impoverish and to ruin all and with the right of disposing, + at their own accord, life, family and individual property + without responsibility whatsoever on their part. + + * * * * * + + "Let the peaceful annexation of the whole of the Southern + Islands of Joló, Mindanao, Iloílo, Negros, Cebú and others + where now the American flag is hoisted and under whose shadow + tranquillity and well-being are experienced, speak for itself. + + "Let it speak for itself, the proceeding observed by the + whole people of Imus, who were asking protection when the + American troops took possession of the town of Bacoor, whilst + the insurgent troops there located were hostile. + + "Let them speak for themselves, the protests against the + war made by the numerous persons of S. Francisco de Malabón, + Sta. Cruz de Malabón, Perez Dasmariñias and other towns, before + the Worthy Chief Mariano Trías, who ultimately refused, with + dignity, the high position of Secretary of War, for which rank + he was promoted for reasons which are not worth publishing + here. In fine, let it speak for itself, the non-resistance + shown by the people of Old Kavite [Kawit], Noveleta, and + Rozario of the heroic province of Kavite, notwithstanding the + many intrenchments and troops there located, as well as the + identical behaviour observed by other towns of Luzon provinces + who are ready to follow when the American troops are in them. + + * * * * * + + "In fact no one would believe it, and the Philippine people + are tired of waiting for the day when Haring Gavino will + shake a napkin to produce suddenly horses vomiting fire and + lightning and troops of dangerous insects; that day in which + they will witness the realization of that famous telegraphed + dream to the effect that two hours after the commencement + of the war the insurgents will take their breakfast in the + Palace of 'Malacañang,' their tiffin in the Senate House, and + their dinner on board the _Olympia_ or in Kavite; that day in + which the celebrated _Pequenines_ army, with their invisible + Chief-leader, will exterminate the American troops by means + of handfuls of dust and sand thrown at them, which process, + it is said, has caused the smallpox to the Americans; that day + in which the _Colorum_ army will capture the American fleet + with the cords their troops are provided with, in combination + with a grand intrenchment of Tayabas made of husks of paddy, + by a Nazarene, who will then, by merely touching, convert each + husk into a Bee with a deadly sting; that day in which the + insurgents, like their leaders, provided with hosts of flour, + or of paper, pieces of candles of the holy-week matins, holy + water, pieces of consecrated stones; of vestments belonging + to a miraculous Saint or with some other Anting-Anting or + talisman or _amuletos_, will make themselves invulnerable + to bullets; also have power to convert into any of the four + elements, like those personages of the Philippine legends and + comedies,--Ygmidio, Teñoso, Florante, Barnardo, Carpio, etc. + + "Yes, the people of the Philippines are quite tired of waiting + for the predicted European conflict, which it is said would + give them their independence; if not, perhaps, divide the + Islands as they are now amongst cousins, brothers, nephews, + uncles and godfathers. + + "In the near future, when we have acquired the necessary + political and social education and the habit of behaving justly + towards ourselves and towards our fellow-brothers; when free + from all superstition, healthy, strong and vigorous, we find + ourselves capable of governing ourselves, without there being + the possibility of the preponderance of our passions in the + consideration, direction, and administration of the interests + of our country, then, and only then, we will be free! we will + be independent! [348] + + "_Hongkong_, 1st October, 1899." + +Most of the men who perpetrated the outrages I have detailed are alive +to-day, and are powers in their respective communities. Simeon Villa +was recently elected a member of the municipal board from the south +district of Manila, but fortunately an American governor-general +prevented him from taking his seat. Just prior to my departure from +Manila he was appointed, by Speaker Osmeña, a member of a committee +on reception for Governor-General Harrison. + +The kind of independent "government" these men established is the +kind that they would again establish if they had the chance, [349] +but among the persons to be tortured and murdered would now be those +Americans who failed to escape seasonably. I do not mean to say +that such a state of affairs would come about immediately, but it +would certainly arise within a comparatively short time. Sooner yet +"the united Filipino people" would split up on old tribal lines, +and fly at each other's throats. + + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +Did We Destroy a Republic? + + +The claim has frequently been made that the United States government +destroyed a republic in the Philippine Islands, [350] but some of +the critics seem to entertain peculiar ideas as to what a republic +is. Blount states [351] that Aguinaldo declined to hear our declaration +of independence read "because we would not recognize his right to +assert the same truths," and then apparently forgetting the Insurgent +chief's alleged adherence to the principles of this document, he +lets the cat out of the bag by saying that "the war satisfied us all +that Aguinaldo would have been a small edition of Porfirio Diaz," +and would himself have been "The Republic." [352] + +He would doubtless have set up just this sort of a government, if +not assassinated too soon, but it would hardly have accorded with the +principles of the declaration of independence, nor would it have been +exactly "a government of the people, by the people, for the people." + +Blount truly says [353] that the educated Filipinos, admittedly +very few in number, absolutely control the masses. He adds [354] +that _presidentes_ of pueblos are as absolute bosses as is Murphy +in Tammany Hall, and that the towns taken collectively constitute +the provinces. The first statement is true, and the second, which +is tantamount to a declaration that the _presidentes_ control every +square foot of the provinces and every man in them, is not so far +from the truth as it might be. I have been old-fashioned enough to +retain the idea that a republic is "a state in which the sovereign +power resides in the whole body of the people, and is exercised by +representatives elected by them." + +Blount labored under no delusion as to the fitness of the common +people to govern. [355] + +Not only did the Filipinos themselves understand perfectly well that +they had no republic, but there were many of them who were fully +aware of the fact that they could establish none. Fernando Acevedo, +in writing to General Pío del Pilar on August 8, 1898, said: [356]-- + + "There could be no republic here, even though the Americans + should consent, because, according to the treaties, the + Filipinos are not in condition for a republic. Besides this, + all Europe will oppose it, and if it should be that they divide + our country as though it were a round cake, what would become + of us and what would belong to us?" + +I will now trace the evolution of the government which Aguinaldo did +set up. In doing so I follow Taylor's argument very closely, drawing +on his unpublished Ms., not only for ideas, but in some instances for +the words in which they are clothed. I change his words in many cases, +and do not mean to unload on him any responsibility for my statements, +but do wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to him and at the same +time to avoid the necessity for the continual use of quotation marks. + +Aguinaldo's methods in establishing his republic are shown by his order +[357] that "any person who fights for his country has absolute power +to kill any one not friendly to our cause" and the further order +[358] prescribing that twelve lashes should be given to a soldier +who lost even a single cartridge, while if he continued to waste +ammunition he should be severely punished. In March, 1899, workmen +who had abandoned their work in the arsenal at Malolos were arrested, +returned, given twenty-five lashes each and then ordered to work. [359] + +The news that an American expedition was about to sail for the +Philippines made him realize that he had not much more than a month +in which to place himself in a position in which he would have to be +consulted and assisted, and this he tried to do. The arms he received +from Hongkong on May 23 enabled him to begin an insurrection, not +as an ally of the United States, but on his own account. From May 21 +to May 24 he issued orders for the uprising against Spain. On May 24 +he declared himself Dictator of the Philippines in a proclamation in +which he promised to resign his power into the hands of a president +and cabinet, to be appointed when a constitutional assembly was +convened, which would be as soon as the islands had passed into +his control. He further announced that the North American nation +had given its disinterested protection in order that the liberty of +the Philippines should be gained. [360] On May 25, 1898, the first +American troops sailed from San Francisco for the Philippines. + +Aguinaldo still had a month in which to seize enough Spanish territory +to erect thereon what would appear to the Americans on their arrival to +be a government of Luzón, of which he was the head. The Hongkong junta +and Aguinaldo himself intended to ask for the recognition of their +government, but they had first to create it. To obtain recognition +it was necessary that the American commander on land should be able +to report that wherever he or his troops had gone the country was +ruled by Aguinaldo according to laws which showed that the people +were capable of governing themselves. + +As the United States is a republic it was natural that the directing +group of insurgent leaders should decide upon a republican form of +government. That form would appeal to the people of the United States; +the first "Christian Asiatic Republic" was a description which would +inevitably awaken sympathy in that mother of republics. The idea was a +wise and subtle one; but Aguinaldo's republic was merely an elaborate +stage-setting, arranged for the contemplation of the people of the +United States. + +By June 5, 1898, the success of the insurgent arms had been such that +Aguinaldo felt that he could throw down the mask. He would still +be glad of American assistance, but he felt himself strong enough +to do without it. He saw that "there can now be proclaimed before +the Filipino people and the civilized nations its only aspiration, +namely, the independence of this country, which proclamation should +not be delayed for any ulterior object of this government" [361] and +ordered that the independence of the Philippines should be proclaimed +at his birthplace, Cavite Viejo, on June 12, 1898. On that date he +formally proclaimed it. The provinces of Cavite, Bataan, Pampanga, +Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna and Morong were about to fall into his hands, +the Spanish troops in them being besieged, and about to surrender. + +From the same place on June 18, 1898, Aguinaldo promulgated his decree +for the creation and administration of municipalities. [362] In brief, +this provided that as soon as the territory of the archipelago, or any +portion thereof, had passed from the possession of Spanish forces, the +people in the towns who were most conspicuous for their intelligence, +social position and upright conduct were to meet and elect a town +government. The heads of the towns in every province were to elect +a head for the province and his three counsellors. The provincial +council, composed of these four officials, with the presidente of the +capital of the province, were to see to the execution in that province +of the decrees of the central government and to advise and suggest. + +This provincial council was to elect representatives for the +revolutionary congress, which was to be charged with submitting +suggestions to the central government upon interior and exterior +affairs, and was to be heard by the government upon serious matters +which admitted of delay and discussion. + +Before any person elected to office was permitted to discharge +his functions, his election was to be approved by the central +government. The military commanders, except in time of war, were +to have no jurisdiction over the civil authorities. They could, +however, demand such supplies as they might need, and these could +not be refused. The government was to appoint commissioners to carry +these regulations into effect. + +On June 20 Aguinaldo issued his regulations for the government of +provinces and municipalities [363] as supplemental to the decree +of two days before. It went into the details of government, under +the following heads: police, justice, taxation and registration +of property. + +On June 23 he proclaimed the establishment of a revolutionary +government, with himself as "president." In this capacity he had all +the powers of the Spanish governor-general, unhampered by any orders +from Spain. It is true that the scheme provided for the eventual +formation of a republic, but it is doubtful if the people who drew it +up really knew what that word meant. What was provided for in practice +was a strong and highly centralized military dictatorship, in which, +under the form of election, provision was made for the filling of +all offices by men devoted to the group which had seized control. + +According to this decree the dictatorial government was in future to +be entitled the revolutionary government. Its duty was to struggle +for the independence of the Philippines in order to establish a +true republic. The dictator was to be known as the president of the +revolutionary government. There were to be four secretaries--one of +foreign affairs, commerce and marine; one of war and public works; +one of police and interior order, justice, education and hygiene; +one of the treasury, agriculture and manufactures. The government +could increase the number of secretaries if necessary. They were to +assist the president in the despatch of business coming under their +departments. + +In addition to the president and his secretaries, there was to be a +revolutionary congress composed of representatives from the provinces +of the Philippine Archipelago, elected as provided by the decree of +June 18. In case a province was not able to elect representatives, +the government would appoint them for such province. The congress +was to discuss and advise, to approve treaties and loans, and to +examine and approve the accounts of the secretary of the treasury. If +important matters admitted of delay, the congress would be heard +concerning them; but if they did not admit of delay, the president of +the government was to act at once. Projects of law could be presented +by any representative, and by the secretaries of the government. + +A permanent committee of congress presided over by the vice-president +was to be chosen by that body. This was to serve as a court of appeal +in criminal cases and as a court of final jurisdiction in cases +arising between the secretaries of the government and provincial +officials. The acts of congress were not to go into effect until the +president of the government ordered their execution. He was also to +have the right of veto. + +This was a well-devised plan to secure control for the central +group about Aguinaldo. His commissioners, under a form of election +in which the electors were carefully selected men, established +municipal governments devoted to the cause of the revolution. These +were to choose provincial officials and members of the congress. All +elections were subject to Aguinaldo's approval, and every province +was under the command of a military representative of his, who could +and did call upon the civil authorities for such supplies as he deemed +fit. All real power was vested in the central group, and the central +group was composed of Emilio Aguinaldo and his public and private +advisers. By this time he had gathered about him men who were trained +in the law, some of whom had served the Spanish government in various +capacities. They were accustomed to the methods that had previously +prevailed under the Spanish régime, and were now ready to draw up +constitutions and regulations for the new government. Mabini wrote +the three organic decrees. Copies of them were sent to the foreign +consuls in Manila, and on July 15, 1898 to Admiral Dewey. + +Although the title of "president" was assumed by Aguinaldo, as +more likely to be favourably considered in the United States than +"dictator," the tendency of his followers who had not been educated +in Europe was to speak of and to regard him not as a president, +but as an overlord holding all power in his hands. The people did +not feel themselves citizens of a republic, copartners in an estate; +they considered themselves subject to a ruler who sometimes called +himself president, and sometimes dictator. Indeed, there is much to +show that if Aguinaldo and his followers had succeeded in their plans, +even the name "republic" would not have been long continued as the +title of his government. [364] + +Aguinaldo's claim as to the effectiveness of his government on August +6, 1898, was as follows: [365] "The government of the revolution +actually rules in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas, Mindoro, +Tayabas, Laguna, Morong, Bulacan, Bataan, Pampanga, Infanta and +besieges the capital, Manila. The most perfect order and tranquillity +reign in these provinces, governed by authorities elected by the +inhabitants in conformity with the organic decrees dated June 18 and +23 last. Moreover, the revolution has about nine thousand prisoners of +war who are treated humanely and according to the rules of civilized +warfare. We can muster more than thirty thousand men organized as a +regular army." + +It may have been that in the majority of these provinces municipal +governments, formed in accordance with the provisions of the decree of +June 18, had been established; but provincial governments had not been +established in all of them, and tranquillity did not reign in any of +them, as they were the scene of operations against the Spaniards. There +could not well have been nine thousand prisoners in his hands at this +time, as that was claimed later when a large additional number of +Spaniards had surrendered. As for the thirty thousand men organized as +a regular army, there may be a certain difference of opinion as to what +constitutes a regular army; the men who saw Aguinaldo's force then, +and who have read the papers of its leaders, must be of the opinion +that that force was not a regular army. Probably only Manila Province +had a provincial government on August 6. Its local presidentes met at +Cavite Viejo on August 3 and elected three members of congress from +the province, and also the members of the provincial government. The +election took place under the supervision of Colonel Teodoro Gonzales, +whom Aguinaldo had appointed governor of Manila Province on August +1. He remained governor after the election was held. Not until August +17 did the local presidentes of Bulacan assemble under the presidency +of the secretary of the interior and proceed to elect two members to +congress and the members of the provincial government. Not until August +20 was there an election for the members of the provincial government +of Cavite Province. This was held in the town of Cavite. Isaac Fernando +Rios, who was afterwards a member of the Filipino junta in Madrid, +was chosen a representative of the province; but as he wrote that he +was in favour of coming to some agreement with Spain which would permit +the development of the Philippines, without abandoning the sovereignty +of that country, Aguinaldo promptly disapproved his election [366] +and ordered a new one held for the office thus left vacant. On October +2, 1899, Aguinaldo approved the result of a new election held there +because four of the five high officials of the province had absented +themselves, while one of them had died. Of the men who had so absented +themselves one had gone abroad, while the other three had remained +in Manila or Cavite under the government of the United States. [367] + +The people of the provinces obeyed the men who had arms in their +hands. It is not probable that many of them had any conviction +concerning the form of government which would be best for the +Philippines. There were no signs of a spontaneous desire for a +republic. Orders came from the group about Aguinaldo, and the people +accepted a dictator and a republic as they accepted a president and +a republic, without knowing, and probably without caring very much, +what it all meant, except that they hoped that taxes would cease with +the departure of the friars. A determined and well-organized minority +had succeeded in imposing its will upon an unorganized, heterogeneous, +and leaderless majority. + +As soon as a province was occupied by the Insurgents it was divided +into territorial zones within which command was exerted by military +officers. On July 20, 1898, Cavite had been divided into four zones, +and next day Brigadier-General Artemio Ricarte was placed in command +of the province and the first zone. + +By July 7 Bulacan Province had been divided into six zones, and Nueva +Ecija into four zones, with a separate commander for each zone. These +men established the government prescribed by Aguinaldo's decrees of +the middle of June. Probably by the end of July Aguinaldo's municipal +governments had been established in the greater part of the towns +of Luzón. These governments were not established by the mass of the +people. The mass of the people were not consulted, but they were not +in the habit of being consulted in such matters and probably saw no +necessity for it in this case. As an evidence of this we have the fact +that from the beginning the acts of election were almost always drawn +up in Spanish, although by far the greater portion of the people of +the archipelago spoke only the native dialects. + +The method of establishing these municipal governments employed in +Cavite in June, 1898, was continued to the end of Aguinaldo's rule. It +was the same in different places and at different times. Data obtained +from reports and documents written in towns far removed from each +other follow. They must be considered together in order to obtain an +idea of what this method really was. + +When the Insurgent movement had progressed sufficiently far, the +leaders collected their adherents and obtained recognition as the +heads of their provinces or districts. For example, representatives +of the towns of Pampanga assembled at San Fernando on June 26, +1898, and under the presidency of General Maximo Hizon agreed to +yield him "complete obedience as military governor of the province +and representative of the illustrious dictator of these Philippine +Islands." [368] The town of Macabebe refused to send any delegates +to this gathering. Commissioners, in almost every case officers of +Aguinaldo's army, were empowered by him to establish the so-called +republican government. They appointed delegates who proceeded to +the smaller towns and held elections; but whenever possible the +commissioner of Aguinaldo presided. In many cases these delegates were +lieutenants of the army. The commissioners selected the electors, +for they had all to be "marked out by their good conduct, their +wealth, and their social position," and they had all to be in favour +of independence. They then presided at the elections, which were +_viva voce_. They apparently selected the people to be elected, and +forwarded a record of the proceedings to the central government. The +election had to be approved by the dictator or president before the +successful candidates could assume the duties of their offices. Later +on, the military commanders remote from the seat of government were +authorized to approve elections and install the successful candidates, +but the records of election had even then to be forwarded to the +capital for approval, the action of the commissioner not being final. + +The commissioners do not seem to have been able to find many men +who had the necessary requisites for electors. In the town of Lipa, +Batangas Province, with a population of forty thousand seven hundred +forty-three, at the election held July 3, 1898, a presidente was chosen +for whom twenty-five votes were cast. On November 23, 1898, an election +was held at Vigan, Ilocos Sur, for a presidente to succeed one who had +been elected representative in congress. One hundred and sixteen votes +were cast. The population of Vigan is nineteen thousand. On October 5, +1898, at Echague, Isabela Province, a presidente was elected for whom +fifty-four votes were cast. The population of Echague is fifty-four +thousand. On October 2, 1898, at Cabagan Nuevo, Isabela, one hundred +and eleven men voted out of a population of sixty-two hundred and +forty. On January 29, 1899, the town of Hernani, in Samar, elected its +municipal officials under the supervision of V. Lukban. Fifty-four men +voted. The town has a population of twenty-five hundred and fifty-five. + +The elections, so-called, were not always held without protest. For +example, the town of San José, Batangas, protested unavailingly +to Aguinaldo against the result of an election held at 10 P.M., +in a storm of rain. Men who had been on friendly terms with the +Spaniards were usually excluded from all participation. If in spite +of the precautions taken men were elected who were disliked by the +commissioner or his supporters, the election could be set aside on the +ground that the person elected was not an adherent of the revolution. + +The elections were often held in a singular manner, as in the following +case: [369]-- + + "On August 20, 1898, four men of Tondo appeared + before Aguinaldo on Bacoor and announced that they were + representatives of the people of the district, who loved + liberty. Then in accordance with the directions of the + president of the republic under the supervision of the + secretary of the interior, they drew lots from a hat to + decide how the offices of the head of the district, delegate + of police, delegate of the treasury and delegate of justice + were to be distributed. The decision having been made in this + simple fashion, Aguinaldo gravely approved the election as + expressing the will of the people. Perhaps it did, for they + seem to have continued, at least for a time, to obey them. On + November 14, 1898, Aguinaldo again approved an election for + local officials in Tondo which since August 13 had been within + the American lines." + +On August 23 San Carlos, in Pangasinán Province, a town of twenty-three +thousand people, elected its officials under the new form of +government. The presidente chosen was a well-known member of the +Katipúnan, and before the election was held announced his intention +of killing any one who was chosen for the position for which he was a +candidate. [370] He was accordingly elected. In spite of this grave +informality, an informality which formed one ground for a protest +on the part of some of the people of the town, Aguinaldo approved +the election. + +On October 21, 1898, an election was held under the supervision of +the military commander in Camarines for the municipal officials of the +town of Yriga. [371] The voting was oral, and a secretary wrote down +the votes for the two candidates under direction of the commissioner, +who finally announced that the candidate whose friend he was had been +elected, but without stating how many votes he had received. This +newly elected head of the town had the town crier on the following +night publish through the streets an address to the people, in which +he thanked those who had voted for him and warned those who had not +that it would be well for them to beware. The Spanish law known as +the Maura Law, which regulated the elections in the municipalities +under the Spanish government, provided for a limited electoral body, +composed largely of ex-officials of the municipalities. The choosing of +an electoral body by the military commander of a district probably did +not seem strange to the people. The provincial and municipal officials +were established in office by armed men, and they were obeyed because +they had been installed by armed men; but it was a form of election +to which people, as a rule, saw no reason to object. There were, +however, in many cases bitter complaints of the abuses committed by +the officers thus "elected." + +This form of government spread with the advance of Aguinaldo's +arms. Municipal elections were held in Tarlac in July, in Ilocos +Norte and Tayabas in August, in Benguet and the Batanes Islands in +September, 1898, in Panay in December, 1898, and in Leyte and Samar +in January, 1899. + +On December 27 Antonio Luna wrote that all the provinces of Luzón, +Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate, and Ticao, Romblón, part of Panay, +the Batanes, and Babuyanes Islands were under the jurisdiction of +the insurgent government. [372] + +By October 7, 1898, 14 of the 36 provinces and districts into +which Luzón had been divided by the Spanish government had civil +governors. [373] These 14 were Tagálog provinces or provinces which +the Tagálogs controlled. The other provinces were still under military +rule, and, indeed, even the provinces under civilians were dominated +by their military commanders. With the manner of holding elections +which prevailed, the governors must have been men who were in favour +of the military party in force, for otherwise they would not have +been elected. [374] + +It is not probable that the number of provinces under civil +governors much increased. If in Pangasinán Province, where there +are many Tagálogs, organizations opposed to the rule of Aguinaldo +could cause serious disorders, as was the case, it must have been +considered expedient for the success of the attempt of the Tagálogs, +who form only a fifth of the population, to dominate the archipelago, +that all provinces in which an effective majority of the people were +not of that tribe, should be kept under military rule. The municipal +governments which had been established in Luzón were in the hands of +Aguinaldo's adherents, or of men who it was hoped would prove loyal +to him. They were men of the Spanish-speaking group, which has always +dominated the people of the islands. They were probably not as a rule +men of means. Many of them, perhaps most of them, had been clerks +and employees under the Spanish government, and they saw no reason +for changing the methods of town administration which had then been +followed. The municipal taxes, the estimates for expenditures, and +the regulations for town government, were but little modified from +those they found in force. In many ways such changes as were made +were for the worse. + +Once installed in power, Aguinaldo's officials were required to +exercise over the mass of the people about the same control that +had always been exercised over them. The governing group considered +that they were perfectly capable of providing for the welfare of +the islands, and that it was the duty of the people to obey them +without question. + +When the insurgent force was increased in preparation for war with +the Americans a large number of municipal officials resigned, or +attempted to do so. It was not easy for a municipal official under +Aguinaldo's government to resign. A resignation, to be accepted, had +to be accompanied by the certificate of a physician that the person +concerned was unfit to perform the duties of his office. Judging by +the record, [375] an epidemic seems to have attacked the municipal +officials in January, 1899. It is probable that they saw that war +was inevitable and that they did not wish to remain in charge of +the towns and be responsible for providing for the necessities of +"the liberating army." In Pangasinán in that month men could not +leave their barrios without obtaining the permission of the headman, +and in one town men who had attempted to sell their property for the +purpose of going to Manila were, on January 17, ordered to be arrested +and their conduct investigated. [376] + +Aguinaldo, having established himself at Malolos, ordered the congress +provided for in his decree of June 23, 1898, to assemble at the +capital on September 15,1898, and appointed a number of provisional +representatives for provinces and islands not under his control. [377] +It has often been claimed that Aguinaldo's government controlled at +this time the whole archipelago, except the bay and city of Manila +and the town of Cavite. [378] + +Blount quotes the following statement from the report of the First +Philippine Commission:-- + + "While the Spanish troops now remained quietly in Manila, + the Filipino forces made themselves masters of the entire + island except that city." [379] + +I signed that statement, and signed it in good faith; nevertheless, +it is untrue. The Filipino forces never controlled the territory +now known as Ifugao, Bontoc, Kalinga or Apayao, much less that +occupied by the Negritos on the east coast of Luzón, but this is +not all. There exists among the Insurgent records a very important +document, prepared by Mabini, showing that when the call for the +first session of the Filipino congress was issued, there were no less +than sixty-one provinces and _commandancias_, which the Insurgents, +when talking among themselves, did not even claim to control, and +twenty-one of these were in or immediately adjacent to Luzón. [380] + +The men who composed this congress were among the ablest natives of +the archipelago; but representative institutions mean nothing unless +they represent the people; if they do not, they are a conscious lie +devised either to deceive the people of the country or foreign nations, +and it is not possible for any system founded upon a lie to endure. A +real republic must be founded not upon a few brilliant men to compose +the governing group but upon a people trained in self-restraint and +accustomed to govern by compromise and concession, not by force. To +endure it must be based upon a solid foundation of self-control, of +self-respect and of respect for the rights of others upon the part of +the great majority of the common people. If it is not, the government +which follows a period of tumult, confusion and civil war will be a +government of the sword. The record the Philippine republic has left +behind it contains nothing to confirm the belief that it would have +endured, even in name, if the destinies of the islands had been left +in the hands of the men who set it up. + +The national assembly met on the appointed day in the parish church +of Barasoain, Malolos, which had been set aside for the meetings +of congress. This body probably had then more elected members than +at its subsequent meetings, but even so it contained a large number +of men who were appointed by Aguinaldo after consultation with his +council to represent provinces which they had never even seen. + +From a "list of representatives of the provinces and districts, +selected by election and appointment by the government up to July +7, 1899, with incomplete list of October 6, 1899" [381] I find +that there were 193 members, of whom forty-two were elected and one +hundred fifty-one were appointed. This congress was therefore not an +elective body. Was it in any sense representative? The following table, +showing the distribution of delegates between the several peoples, +will enable us to answer this question. + +In considering this table it must be remembered that the relationship +given between the number of delegates assigned to a given people +and the number of individuals composing it is only approximate, as +no one of these peoples is strictly limited to the provinces where +it predominates. + +I have classified the provinces as Tagálog, Visayan, etc., according +to census returns showing the people who form a majority of their +inhabitants in each case. [382] + + +People Number Elected Delegates Appointed Delegates +Visayans 3,219,030 0 68 +Tagálogs 1,460,695 18 19 +Ilocanos 803,942 7 11 +Bicols 566,365 4 7 +Pangasináns 343,686 2 2 +Pampangans 280,984 2 2 +Cagayans 159,648 4 6 +Zambalans 48,823 1 2 +Non-Christians 647,740 4 34 + 42 151 + + +It will be noted that the Tagálog provinces had eighteen out of a +total of forty-two elected delegates. The Visayans, by far the most +numerous people in the islands, did not have one. The non-Christian +provinces had a very disproportionately large total of delegates, of +whom four are put down as elected, but on examination we find that one +of these is from Lepanto, the capital of which was an Ilocano town; one +is from Nueva Vizcaya, where there is a considerable Cagayan-Ilocano +population; one is from Benguet, the capital of which was an Ilocano +town, and one from Tiagan, which was an Iloeano settlement. These +delegates should therefore really be credited to the Ilocanos. + +If the individual relationships of the several members are considered, +the result is even more striking. Of the thirty-eight delegates +assigned to the non-Christian provinces, one only, good old Lino +Abaya of Tiagan, was a non-Christian. Many of the non-Christian +_comandancias_ were given a number of delegates wholly disproportionate +to their population, and in this way the congress was stuffed full +of Tagálogs. + +Think of Filipe Buencamino, of Aguinaldo's cabinet, representing the +Moros of Zamboanga; of the mild, scholarly botanist Leon Guerrero +representing the Moros, Bagobos, Mandayas and Manobos of Davao; of +José M. Lerma, the unscrupulous politician of the province of Bataan, +just across the bay from Manila, representing the wild Moros of +Cotabato; of Juan Tuason, a timid Chinese _mestizo_ Manila business +man, representing the Yacan and Samal Moros of Basilan; of my good +friend Benito Legarda, since a member of the Philippine Commission, +and a resident delegate from the Philippines to the congress of the +United States, representing the bloody Moros of Jolo! Yet they appear +as representatives of these several regions. + +Few, indeed, of the delegates from non-Christian territory had ever +set foot in the provinces or _comandancias_ from which they were +appointed, or would have been able to so much as name the wild tribe +or tribes inhabiting them. + +I have been furnished a list, made up with all possible care by +competent persons, from which it appears that there were eighty-five +delegates actually present at the opening of congress, of whom +fifty-nine were Tagálogs, five Bicols, three Pampangans, two Visayans, +and one a Zambalan. For the others there are no data available. Yet +it has been claimed that this was a representative body! It was a +Tagálog body, without enough representatives of any other one of the +numerous Philippine peoples to be worth mentioning. + +With a congress thus organized, Aguinaldo should have had no difficulty +in obtaining any legislation he desired. + +The committee of congress appointed to draw up a constitution set +to work promptly, and by October 16,1898, had proceeded so far +with their work that Buencamino was able to write to Aguinaldo that +while he had been of the opinion that it would have been best for +him to continue as a dictator aided by a committee of able men, +yet it would now be a blow to the prestige of congress to suspend +its sessions. Aguinaldo noted upon this letter the fact that he did +not approve of a constitution. [383] + +Apparently early in December the committee submitted their project. In +presenting it to congress they said [384] that-- + + "The work whose results the commission has the honour to + present for the consideration of congress has been largely a + matter of selection; in executing it not only has the French + constitution been used, but also those of Belgium, Mexico, + Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala, as we have + considered those nations as most resembling the Filipino + people." + +The most important difference between this project and the actual +constitution adopted was that, although the project provided that +the Dominican, Recollect, Franciscan and Augustinian friars should +be expelled from the country and that their estates should become +the property of the state, yet it recognized the Catholic religion +as that of the state and forbade state contribution to the support +of any other, although it permitted the practice in private of any +religion not opposed to morality, which did not threaten the safety of +the country. The government was authorized to negotiate a concordat +with the Pope for the regulation of the relations between church and +state. A strong party was in favour of this recognition, but it finally +failed of adoption, and the constitution as promulgated provided +for the freedom and equality of religion and for free and compulsory +education which had not been provided for in the original project. The +constitution as approved forbade the granting of titles of nobility, +decorations or honorary titles by the state to any Filipino. This +paragraph did not exist in the original project, which merely forbade +any Filipino to accept them without the consent of the government. + +Mabini, the ablest of all Aguinaldo's advisers, did not approve of the +constitution. He himself had drawn up a project for a constitution +during June, 1898, but it was not accepted by the committee, the +greater part of whom were Catholics and for that reason opposed to +Mabini, who was a bitter antagonist of that church. And yet when +separation of church and state was finally provided for it did not +please Mabini, who, although he was opposed to church control, wrote +to Aguinaldo [385] that the constitution as passed by congress was not +acceptable and should not be promulgated because the constitutional +guarantees of individual liberty could not be maintained, as the +army had to be in control for the time being, and furthermore it was +not expedient to separate church and state, as this separation would +alienate many of their adherents. Indeed, there was not much in the +constitution which he thought ought to take immediate effect, [386] +and he wrote that congress was ill-disposed toward him because he had +refused to agree to its promulgation. Existing conditions were such +that he believed that all powers should be vested in one person. He +warned Aguinaldo that if the constitution were put in force, he would +be at the mercy of his secretaries. On January 1, 1899, Aguinaldo, +probably at the suggestion of Mabini, proposed certain changes in +it. [387] + +Evidently the provisions of the constitution did not worry Aguinaldo +much, as is shown by his reply to the request by some of his officers +for information as to what reward those who were first in the attack +on Manila should receive. He promised them such titles as marquis, +duke, etc. [388] + +On January 2, 1899, Aguinaldo announced the formation of a new cabinet +made up as follows: Apolinario Mabini president and secretary of +foreign affairs; Teodoro Sandico, secretary of the interior; Mariano +Trias, secretary of the treasury; Baldomero Aguinaldo, secretary +of war and navy, and Gracio Gonzaga, secretary of _fomento_. [389] +On January 4 Mabini took the oath of office as the president of the +council of government. This body met twice a week at Malolos on set +days, and at the close of its deliberations forwarded to Aguinaldo +a statement of the subjects discussed and the conclusions reached +for his decision. The president of the republic did not preside at, +or take part in, its deliberations. + +On January 4, 1899, General Otis issued a proclamation in which +he announced that the United States had obtained possession of the +Philippines and that its government would be extended over the islands +of the archipelago. Aguinaldo replied next day with one which, if +not intended to be a declaration of war, was at least a warning that +hostilities were imminent. This proclamation was carried into Manila +by his emissaries and posted up over the one issued by the American +commander. It was a challenge to a trial of strength, and Aguinaldo +and his advisers hastened their preparations for the coming combat. + +The secretary of the interior on the same day sent an order to the +heads of all provinces directing the organization of territorial +militia to resist the American invasion, and ordering the heads of the +towns to hold meetings of the people to protest against the aggression +of the United States. They were held in accordance with these orders, +and records of the proceedings were sent to Malolos and published in +the official organ of the government as evidence of the feeling of the +people. It was, however, not considered necessary in publishing them +to mention the fact that they had been held in compliance with orders. + +On January 14, 1899, Mabini wrote to Aguinaldo [390] recommending +changes in the proposed constitution, which he still liked as little +as ever. He was afraid that Negros and Panay would refuse to accept +the form of government it prescribed. The worst thing about it was +that the Americans would be less disposed to recognize Aguinaldo's +government; for when they saw the constitution they would know, as it +made no mention of them, that the Filipinos wanted independence. Mabini +thought that it was possible that the wording of the constitution +might have been deliberately planned by members of the congress in +favour of annexation to the United States, so that that country would +be warned, would become more mistrustful, and would refuse to recognize +Aguinaldo's government. Whatever the president of the council may have +thought about the theoretical advisability of a congress to represent +the people, he found one much in the way when he had obtained it. + +Buencamino advised that the constitution should be approved and +promulgated; one argument was that the congress had been consulted in +the matter of a national loan, and if it was dissolved, there could +be no loan. This was apparently the only matter upon which it had +been consulted. [391] + +The constitution of the Philippine Republic was ratified at a session +of the congress on January 20, 1899. + +On January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo sanctioned it and ordered that it should +be "kept, complied with and executed in all its parts because it is +the sovereign will of the Philippine people." [392] The constitution +provided for a government of three coördinate powers, executive, +legislative and judicial. Whether it provided for a form of government +which would have succeeded in the Philippines was not determined by +actual experience. It was never really put in force for war with the +United States began in two weeks and the constitution must stand as the +expression of the ideas of a certain group of educated natives rather +than as the working formula for the actual conduct of the political +life of a nation. One proof of this is the fact that not until June 8, +1899, were Aguinaldo's decrees upon the registration of marriages and +upon civil marriage, dated June 20,1898, revoked, and the provisions +of the constitution concerning marriage put in effect. [393] + +Aguinaldo had approved the constitution; he had informed the foreign +consuls and General Otis that it had been promulgated and become the +law of the land. It was not promulgated. It had not become the law of +the land. It served one important purpose. It passed into the hands +of the Americans and showed them the ability and the aspirations of +certain individuals of the archipelago, but Mabini and his followers +did not believe in its form or in its provisions, and Mabini at least +was emphatic in his declarations that the time had not yet come for it +to be put into effect. On January 24, 1899, he wrote to Aguinaldo that +if it should be promulgated it would be absolutely necessary to give +the president the veto power, and replace the elected representatives +by others appointed by the government. If this were not done the +president would be at the mercy of congress, and the people, seeing +that disagreement between the executive government and the congress +was the cause of its misfortunes, would start another revolutionary +movement to destroy both of them. [394] + +As long as Mabini remained in power the constitution was mere +paper. Its adoption was not indicative of the capacity of the people to +maintain self-government. It expressed only the academic aspirations +of the men who drafted it. There is not the slightest evidence from +any previous or subsequent experience of the people that it would have +worked in practice. It was enacted for the misleading of Americans +rather than for the benefit of the Filipinos. + +While the government of Aguinaldo was called a republic, it was in +fact a Tagálog military oligarchy in which the great mass of the +people had no share. Their duty was only to give soldiers for the +army and labourers for the fields, and to obey without question the +orders they received from the military heads of their provinces. + +There is no cause for vain regrets. We did not destroy a republic in +the Philippines. There never was anything there to destroy which even +remotely resembled a republic. + + + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +The Conduct of the War + + +It is not my intention to attempt to write a history of the war which +began on February 4, 1899, nor to discuss any one of its several +campaigns. I propose to limit myself to a statement of the conditions +under which it was conducted, and a description of the two periods +into which it may be divided. + +From the outset the Insurgent soldiers were treated with marked +severity by their leaders. On June 17, 1898, Aguinaldo issued an order +to the military chiefs of certain towns in Cavite providing that a +soldier wasting ammunition should be punished with twelve lashes for +a first offence, twenty-four for a second, and court-martialled and +"severely punished" for a third. [395] + +On November 16, 1900, General Lacuna ordered that any officer allowing +his soldiers to load their rifles when not before the enemy should be +liable to capital punishment, [396] which in practice was frequently +inflicted on soldiers for very minor offences. + +Men of means were drafted into the ranks and then excused from service +on the payment of cash. + +The soldiery, quartered on the towns, committed endless +abuses. Conditions were bad enough before the outbreak of hostilities, +as I have shown in the chapters dealing with Insurgent rule. They +grew rapidly worse thereafter, and human life became cheap indeed. + +"The documents of this period show that the insurgent troops driven +from the front of Manila fell upon the people of the neighbouring +towns and burnt, robbed, and murdered. Either their officers lost +all control over them, or else they directed these outrages. It was +not for some days that control was regained." [397] + +Endless orders were issued by Aguinaldo and other high Insurgent +officers, prohibiting rape, brigandage and robbery, and there was +grave need of them. Unfortunately they could not be enforced. Indeed +it was often impossible to distinguish between Insurgent soldiers, who +removed their uniforms or had none, and brigands pure and simple. [398] + +Many men were soldiers at one time and brigands at +another. Unquestionably soldiers and brigands sometimes +coöperated. Garrisons were withdrawn from towns which did not promptly +and fully comply with the demands of Insurgent commanders, [399] +and armed bandits appeared and plundered them. + +There were some Insurgent leaders, like Cailles, who suppressed +brigandage with a heavy hand, [400] but many of them were indifferent, +even if not in alliance with the evil doers. + + +The Visayas + +Feeling between Tagálog soldiers and Visayan people grew constantly +more bitter, and before many months had passed they fell to killing +each other. The highest officers of the "Regional Revolutionary +Government of the Visayas" protested vigorously to Aguinaldo, [401] +but without result. The situation was entirely beyond his control. + +On April 20, 1899, General Delgado issued an order which tells a +significant story of conditions, and of his own weakness in dealing +with them. [402] + +In Luzón General Trias of Cavite accused the soldiers and citizens +of his province of committing "robberies, assaults, kidnappings and +crimes which are committed only by barbarous and savage tribes." [403] + +That very serious conditions promptly became general is conclusively +shown by the record of Aguinaldo's government for February 24, 1899, +when it decided-- + + "that the president of the council shall study such measures + as will put an end to the continual discord and friction + between the civil and military authorities of every province, + in order that fatal consequences may be avoided." + +With such conditions prevailing among the Filipinos themselves, it was +to be expected that the laws of civilized warfare would be violated and +that American soldiers taken prisoners would sometimes be treated with +barbarity. Flags of truce were deliberately violated. [404] American +soldiers were trapped, poisoned [405] and murdered in other ways. [406] + +It was promptly charged in the United States that American soldiers +were committing barbarities, and Blount has revived these old tales. + +I know personally that during the early days of the war Insurgent +prisoners and wounded were treated with the greatest humanity and +kindness. + +A part of the Insurgent plan of campaign was the circulation of the +most shocking statements concerning the abuses committed by American +soldiers. I have elsewhere described [407] the fate that overtook +Colonel Arguelles, in part because he told the truth as to the humane +treatment by the Americans of prisoners and wounded. + +Not only did some of those who did this forfeit their lives, but +newspaper articles, military orders, and proclamations issued by civil +officers informed the people that the American soldiers stole, burned, +robbed, raped and murdered. Especial stress was laid on their alleged +wholesale violations of women, partly to turn the powerful influence of +the women as a whole against them, and partly to show that they were +no better than the Insurgents themselves, who frequently committed +rape. [408] + +These horrible tales were at first believed even by some of the +responsible Insurgent officers in remote regions, [409] but all such +men soon learned the truth, which was known to most of them from +the start. + +In official correspondence between them, not intended for the public, +orders were given to use women as bearers of despatches for the +reason that Americans did not search them. [410] More significant +yet, when conditions became bad in the provinces, Insurgent officers +sent their women and children to seek American protection in Manila +or elsewhere. Cartload after cartload of them came in at Angeles, +shortly after General Jacob H. Smith took that place. Aguinaldo himself +followed this procedure, as is shown by the following extracts from +Villa's famous diary: [411]-- + + "_December 22._--It was 7 A.M. when we arrived in + Ambayuan. Here we found the women worn out from the painful + journey they had suffered. They were seated on the ground. In + their faces were observed indications of the ravages of + hunger; but they are always smiling, saying they would prefer + suffering in these mountains to being under the dominion of + the Americans, and that such sacrifices are the duties of + every patriot who loves his country. + + "We secured some camotes in this settlement, cooked them + immediately, and everybody had breakfast. Our appetites + were satisfied. + + "The honorable president had already decided some days before + to send all the women to Manila, including his family, and + this was his motive in hurrying his family forward with him. + + + + "_December 24._--We find ourselves still in Talubin. About 8 + o'clock this morning a report came saying the Americans had + arrived at Bontoc, the provincial capital, the nearest town + to Talubin, and distant from it two hours by the road. An + immediate decision was made. The honourable president told + his family and the other women that they should remain in the + settlement and allow themselves to be caught by the Americans, + and he named Señors Sytiar and Paez to remain also, with the + obligation of conducting the women to Manila. As soon as the + arrangement was effected, the honourable president prepared + himself for the march. The parting was a very sad one for + himself and for his family. + + "The honourable president left Talubin at 11 o'clock in the + morning, his family and the other women remaining behind with + two gentlemen charged with conducting them to Manila." [412] + +In this, as in all other similar cases, the women were kindly treated +and safely conducted to their destination. Aguinaldo and his fellows +knew the happy fate of the members of his own family, as is shown by +a later entry:-- + + "_February 6._--We have been informed that the mother and son + of the honourable president are at Manila, living in the house + of Don Benito Legarda, and that they reached that capital long + before the wife and sister of the honourable president. We have + also learned that Señor Buencamino, and Tirona, and Concepcion + are prisoners of the American authorities in Manila. With + reference to the wife and sister of the honourable president + and the two Leyba sisters, it is said that they went to Vigan + and from there went by steamer to Manila." [413] + +The mother and son, accompanied by Buencamino, had allowed themselves +to be captured at an earlier date. What shall we say of a leader who +would turn his mother, wife, sister and son over to American soldiers +for safekeeping, and then continue to denounce the latter as murderers, +and violaters of women? Aguinaldo did just this. That the Insurgent +leaders were early and fully aware of the treatment accorded their +wounded is shown by the following extract from a letter to General +Moxica of Leyte, dated March 2, 1900, giving instructions as to what +should be done with wounded men:-- + + "If by chance any of our men are wounded on the field or + elsewhere, efforts must be made to take away the rifles and + ammunition at once and carry them away as far as possible, + so that they may not be captured by the enemy; and if the + wounded cannot be immediately removed elsewhere or retreat + from the place, let them be left there, because it is better + to save the arms than the men, as there are many Filipinos + to fill up the ranks, but rifles are scarce and difficult to + secure for battle; and besides the Americans, coming upon + any wounded, take good care of them, while the rifles are + destroyed; therefore, I repeat, they must endeavour to save + the arms rather than the men." [414] + +There were some rare individual instances in which uninjured Filipinos +were treated with severity, and even with cruelty, by American +soldiers. They occurred for the most part late in the war when the +"water cure" in mild form was sometimes employed in order to compel +persons who had guilty knowledge of the whereabouts of firearms to +tell what they knew, to the end that the perpetration of horrible +barbarities on the common people, and the assassination of those who +had sought American protection, might the more promptly cease. Usually +the sufferers were themselves bloody murderers, who had only to tell +the truth to escape punishment. The men who performed these cruel +acts knew what treatment was being commonly accorded to Filipinos, +and in some instances to their own comrades. I mention these facts to +explain, not to excuse, their conduct. Cruel acts cannot be excused, +but those referred to seldom resulted in any permanent injury to the +men who suffered them, and were the rare and inevitable exceptions +to the general rule that the war was waged, so far as the Americans +were concerned, with a degree of humanity hitherto unprecedented under +similar conditions. The Insurgents violated every rule of civilized +warfare, yet oathbreakers, spies and men fighting in citizens' clothes +not only were not shot by the Americans, as they might very properly +have been, but were often turned loose with a mere warning not to +offend again. + +The false news circulated to aid the Insurgent cause was by no means +limited to such matters. Every time their troops made a stand they were +promptly defeated and driven back, but their faltering courage was +bolstered up by glorious tidings of wonderful, but wholly imaginary, +victories won elsewhere. It was often reported that many times more +Americans had fallen in some insignificant skirmish than were actually +killed in the whole war, while generals perished by the dozen and +colonels by the thousand. Our losses on March 27, 1899, in fighting +north of Manila, were said to be twenty-eight thousand. In reality +only fifty-six Americans were killed in all northern Luzón during +the entire month. + +On April 26, 1899, the governor of Iloilo published the following +remarkable news items among others:-- + + "_Pavia_, April 6th, 1899. + + "The Liberating Army of the Visayan Islands to the Local + Presidents of the towns shown on the margin: + + "_Towns:_ Santa Barbara, Pavia, Leganes, Zárraga, Dumangas, + Batac Viejo, Tuilao, Batac Nuevo, Banate. + + * * * * * + + "Santa Ana taken by Americans burning town our troops advancing + to Rosario and Escolta Americans request parley account death + General and officers and many soldiers. + + * * * * * + + "At 3 P.M. of the 14th battle at Santolan 500 American + prisoners who are to be taken to Malolos. + + "At 9.45 P.M. Commissioner Laguna details 6000 more Americans + dead and 600 prisoners. + + "Otis requests parley, and our representatives being present, + he tells them to request peace and conditions, to which they + replied that he, and not they, should see to that, so the + parley accomplished nothing. + + "To-day, Wednesday, a decisive battle will be fought. + + "Among the 5000 prisoners there are two generals. Tomorrow + 7.15 Pasig in our power. Americans little by little leaving + for Manila. + + "General Malbar to Provincial Chief Batangas. + + "According to reports by telegraph hostilities have commenced + and all at Santa Mesa have fallen into our hands, also Pasay + and Maytubig. + + "American boat surrendered at Laguna de Bay many prisoners + taken. + + "General Ricarte to Provincial Chief of Batangas: Battle + stopped by truce Japan and Germany intervene to learn who + provoked war. + + "Foreigners favor parley one American general and chiefs and + officers dead." [415] + +Santa Ana is a suburb of Manila. The Rosario and Escolta are the main +business streets of the city. + +Apparently the Insurgents must have thought that colonels were as +numerous in our army as in theirs, for they reported two thousand of +them killed on February 6, 1899, and threw in one general for good +measure. [416] + + * * * * * + +We learn from the _Filipino Herald_ for February 23, 1899, that on that +day the Filipino army captured and occupied the suburbs of Manila, +while American troops were besieged in the outskirts of the city, +at La Loma, and in the neighbouring town of Caloocan. [417] + +But why continue. No tale concerning American losses in the Philippines +was too fantastic to be told by the leaders and believed by the +soldiery and the populace. The American soldiers were even said to +be refusing to fight, and great prisons were being constructed in +order properly to punish them. + +General MacArthur and his entire staff were captured before March 2, +1900, according to a letter sent to General Moxica of Leyte on that +date. [418] + +And what of conditions in the United States during this troubled +period? We learn from the Insurgent records that prior to January 15, +1900, "the Union Army" had met with a new disaster, as a result of +which President McKinley tendered his resignation, being succeeded +by Mr. Bryan. Philippine independence was to be proclaimed on +February 4, 1899. On January 20, "General Otis's successor, John +Waterly, of the democratic party," arrived at Manila with papers and +instructions relative to proclaiming the Philippine Republic. [419] +Things now went from bad to worse. The trouble between democrats +and republicans resulted in an insurrection. Before August, 1901, +President McKinley had brought about strained relations between +Germany and the United States by bribing an anarchist to assassinate +the German Emperor. [420] Before September 15, 1901, he had been +killed by a member of the Democratic party, and the Filipinos could +acclaim their independence. [421] + +The first period of the war, which we may term the period of organized +armed resistance, drew rapidly to its close, and there followed the +second period, characterized by guerrilla tactics on the part of +the Insurgents. + +On September 14, 1899, Aguinaldo accepted the advice of General Pío +del Pilar, ex-bandit, if indeed he had ever ceased to rob and murder, +and authorized this man, whom he had been again and again asked to +remove, to begin guerrilla warfare in Bulacan. Guerrilla tactics +were duly authorized for, and had been adopted by, Insurgent forces +everywhere before the end of November. + +Of this style of fighting Taylor has truly said:-- + + "If war in certain of its aspects is a temporary reversion + to barbarism, guerrilla warfare is a temporary reversion to + savagery. The man who orders it assumes a grave responsibility + before the people whose fate is in his hands, for serious + as is the material destruction which this method of warfare + entails, the destruction to the orderly habits of mind and + thought which, at bottom, are civilization, is even more + serious. Robbery and brigandage, murder and arson follow in + its wake. + + Guerrilla warfare means a policy of destruction, a policy of + terror, and never yet, however great may have been the injury + caused by it, however much it may have prolonged the war + in which it has been employed, has it secured a termination + favorable to the people who have chosen it." [422] + +The case under discussion furnished no exception to the general rule. + +Such semblance of discipline as had previously existed among the +Insurgent soldiers rapidly disappeared. Conditions had been very +bad under the "Republic" and worse during the first period of the +war. During the second period they rapidly became unendurable in +many regions, and the common people were driven into the arms of +the Americans, in spite of threats of death, barbarously carried out +by Insurgent officers, soldiers and agents in thousands of cases. I +have described at some length the conditions which now arose in the +chapter on Murder as a Governmental Agency, to which the reader is +referred for details. [423] + +In the effort to protect the towns which showed themselves friendly, +the American forces were divided, subdivided and subdivided again. On +March 1, 1901, they were occupying no less than five hundred two +stations. By December of the same year the number had increased +to six hundred thirty-nine, with an average of less than sixty men +to a post. As a result of the protection thus afforded and of the +humane conduct of our troops, the people turned to us in constantly +increasing numbers. + +It remained to stamp out the dying embers of insurrection, while +continuing to seek to protect those who put their trust in us. Further +subdivision of the troops in order to garrison more points was hardly +possible, but field operations were actively pushed. One after another +the Insurgent leaders were captured or voluntarily surrendered. Most +officers of importance issued explanatory statements to the people +shortly after giving up active field operations, whether they +surrendered voluntarily or were taken prisoners. Aguinaldo himself +was captured on March 23, 1901, at Palanan, the northernmost point +on the east coast of Luzon inhabited by civilized people. No place +in the islands, inhabited by Filipinos, is more completely isolated, +and he had long been almost entirely cut off from his followers, +many of whom believed him to be dead. On April 19, 1901, he issued +an address to the Filipino people, in which he clearly recognized +the fact that they wanted peace. He said:-- + + "_Manila_, April 19, 1901. + + "To the Filipino People:-- + + "I believe that I am not in error in presuming that the + unhappy fate to which my adverse fortune has led me is not + a surprise to those who have been familiar day by day with + the progress of the war. The lessons thus taught, the full + meaning of which has recently come to my knowledge, suggested + to me with irresistible force that the complete termination + of hostilities and a lasting peace are not only desirable + but absolutely essential to the welfare of the Philippines. + + "The Filipinos have never been dismayed by their weakness, + nor have they faltered in following the path pointed out by + their fortitude and courage. The time has come, however, in + which they find their advance along the path impeded by an + irresistible force--a force which, while it restrains them, + yet enlightens the mind and opens another course by presenting + to them the cause of peace. This cause has been joyfully + embraced by a majority of our fellow-countrymen, who have + already united around the glorious and sovereign banner of the + United States. In this banner they repose their trust in the + belief that under its protection our people will attain all the + promised liberties which they are even now beginning to enjoy. + + "The country has declared unmistakably in favor of peace; so + be it. Enough of blood; enough of tears and desolation. This + wish cannot be ignored by the men still in arms if they are + animated by no other desire than to serve this noble people + which has thus clearly manifested its will. + + "So also do I respect this will now that it is known to me, + and after mature deliberation resolutely proclaim to the world + that I cannot refuse to heed the voice of a people longing for + peace, nor the lamentations of thousands of families yearning + to see their dear ones in the enjoyment of the liberty promised + by the generosity of the great American nation. + + "By acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United + States throughout the entire Archipelago, as I now do without + any reservation whatsoever, I believe that I am serving thee, + my beloved country. May happiness be theirs. + + "_Emilio Aguinaldo_. [424] + + "_Manila_, April 19, 1901." + +This announcement of Aguinaldo, published in Spanish, Tagálog and +English, undoubtedly hastened the end of the war, but it did not lead +to immediate general surrender, for as Taylor has very truly said:-- + + "A force like Aguinaldo's could not be surrendered. It had been + torn by internal dissensions and the bonds of discipline had + always been very lax. It had originally been held together + by a lively expectation of the advantages to be obtained + from the pillage of Manila. That hope had disappeared, and + the leaders had become the lords of life and property each + in his own province. It was a force which could disintegrate, + but which could not surrender. Only armies can do that. Forces + over which their leaders have lost all except nominal control + when beaten do not surrender. They disintegrate by passing + through the stages of guerrilla warfare, of armed bands of + highwaymen, of prowling groups of thieves, of sturdy beggars + who at opportune moments resort to petty larceny." [425] + +Aguinaldo's forces now passed through these several stages. Some of +his more important subordinates had previously been captured or had +surrendered. Others, still remaining in the field, now acted on his +advice, more or less promptly. A few remained obdurate for a time, +but as a rule not for long, and soon there remained in the field only +a very limited number of real military leaders, like General Malvar in +Batangas and General Lukban in Samar, and a very considerable number +of bandit chiefs, some of whom had posed as Insurgents. The forces +of the latter were now materially and rapidly augmented by men who +had been Insurgent officers or soldiers and while serving in this +capacity had become so enamoured of a lawless life that they were now +unwilling to settle down and work for their daily bread, preferring +to continue to live off their long-suffering fellow-countrymen, +whom they robbed and murdered more mercilessly than ever. + +The war was practically over. The insurrection had failed. In my +opinion no Filipino who held out to the end for independence compared +in intellectual power with Mabini, and I deem his views as to why +it failed worthy of special attention. At the time of his death, +he left behind a memoir from which I quote the following:-- + + "The revolution failed because it was poorly led, because + its head conquered his place, not by meritorious, but by + reprehensible actions, because in place of supporting the men + most useful to the people, he rendered them useless because he + was jealous of them. Believing that the aggrandizement of the + people was nothing more than his own personal aggrandizement, + he did not judge the merits of men by their capacity, + character, or patriotism, but by the degree of friendship + and relationship which bound them to him; and wishing to have + his favorites always ready to sacrifice themselves for him, + he showed himself complaisant to their faults. Having thus + secured the people, the people deserted him. And the people + having deserted him, he had to fall like a wax idol melted + by the heat of adversity. God forbid that we should forget + so terrible a lesson learned at the cost of unspeakable + sufferings." [426] + +These are by no means the only reasons why the revolution failed, +but they foredoomed it to failure. + +The surrender or capture of the more respectable military element +left the unsurrendered firearms in the hands of men most of whom +were ignorant, many of whom were criminal, and nearly all of whom +were irresponsible and unscrupulous. + +Strict enforcement of the rules of civilized warfare against them +was threatened, but not actually resorted to. + +The situation was particularly bad in Batangas. General J. F. Bell +was put in charge there, and he found a humane and satisfactory +solution of the existing difficulties in reconcentration--not the +kind of reconcentration which made the Spaniards hated in Cuba, but +a measure of a wholly different sort. This measure and its results +have been concisely described by Taylor, as follows:-- + + "General Bell said he was as anxious as any one could be + to avoid making war against those who really wanted the + termination of hostilities, and it was his duty to protect + them against the vengeance of others. Over and above all + these considerations in importance, however, was the absolute + necessity of making it impossible for insurgents to procure + food by levying contributions. Therefore, in order to give + those who were pacifically inclined an opportunity to escape + hardship, as far as possible, and preserve their food supply + for themselves and their families, it was determined to + establish zones of protection with limits sufficiently near + all towns to enable the small garrisons thereof to give the + people living within these zones efficient protection against + ruinous exactions by insurgents. He accordingly, 'in order to + put an end to enforced contributions now levied by insurgents + upon the inhabitants of sparsely settled and outlying barrios + and districts by means of intimidation and assassination,' + ordered the commanding officers of all towns in the provinces + of Batangas and Laguna to 'immediately specify and establish + plainly marked limits surrounding each town bounding a zone + within which it may be practicable, with an average-sized + garrison, to exercise sufficient supervision over and furnish + protection to inhabitants (who desire to be peaceful) against + the depredation of armed insurgents. The limits may include + the barrios which exist sufficiently near the town to be given + protection and supervision by the garrison, and should include + some ground on which live stock could graze, but so situated + that it can be patrolled and watched. All ungarrisoned towns + will be garrisoned as soon as troops become available. + + "'Commanding officers will also see that orders are at once + given and distributed to all the inhabitants within the + jurisdiction of towns over which they exercise supervision, + informing them of the danger of remaining outside of these + limits, and that unless they move by December 25 from outlying + barrios and districts, with all their movable food supplies, + including rice, _palay_, [427] chickens, live stock, etc., + to within the limits of the zone established at their own + or nearest town, their property (found outside of said + zone at said date) will become liable to confiscation or + destruction. The people will be permitted to move houses + from outlying districts should they desire to do so, or to + construct temporary shelter for themselves on any vacant + land without compensation to the owner, and no owner will be + permitted to deprive them of the privilege of doing so. In the + discretion of commanding officers the prices of necessities of + existence may also be regulated in the interest of those thus + seeking protection. As soon as peaceful conditions have been + reëstablished in the brigade these persons will be encouraged + to return to their homes, and such assistance be rendered + them as may be found practicable.' + + "It was deemed best not to compel the people to enter these + zones; but they were warned that unless they accepted that + protection their property, which consisted almost entirely + of food supplies, would become liable to confiscation or + destruction, because it might be impossible to determine + whether it belonged to hostile or peaceful people. To put + an end to vengeance by assassination, it was determined to + make use of the right of retaliation conferred by General + Order 100 issued by President Lincoln in 1863. A circular + telegram was published announcing an intention to retaliate + by the execution of prisoners of war in case any more were + assassinated by insurgents for political reasons. It was not + found necessary to do this. Assassinations stopped at once. + + "As the campaign progressed it became more and more apparent + that a large number of poor people had contributed through + fear, for the power of the insurgents to collect came to + an end after they had lost their power of intimidation. The + efficiency of the protection afforded in such zones was the + determining factor in forming the decision and attitude of + many of the natives. The protection afforded was efficient, + and from time to time many additional families entered the + zones. The sentiment for peace grew stronger steadily and + natives volunteered assistance to Americans at every hand and + in every town. When these volunteers were trustworthy they were + armed and sent out into the mountains from which they brought + back guns, and insurgents, and hundreds of half-famished + men, women, and children who, released from the intimidating + influence of the insurgents, entered the zones of protection. + + "The most serious discomfort experienced by any one within + these areas was caused to the _mestizo_ ruling group, whose + members bitterly resented the blow to their prestige in being + treated like every one else. They had been accustomed to have + others work for them and obey them blindly. To a man who could + speak Spanish and who had always been the lord of his _barrio_, + [428] the possibility of having to cultivate a field with his + own hands was an unthinkable and scandalous thing. These men + suffered and suffered acutely; but it was not their bodies + which suffered--it was their pride. + + "Malvar surrendered on April 16, 1902. Most of the people + had turned against their once highly respected chief, and + toward the end several thousand natives of Batangas joined + the Americans in their determined hunt for the fugitive + leader. Realization of the fact that the people were against + him materially aided in forcing his surrender. + + "General Bell had captured or forced to surrender some 8000 to + 10,000 persons actively engaged, in one capacity or another, + in the insurrection. These prisoners were rapidly released + when they had taken the oath of allegiance. By the first week + of July no political prisoners were held in this region. They + had returned to their homes. + + "The policy of concentrating the people in protected zones + and destroying the food which was used for the maintenance of + guerrilla bands was not new. There had been precedents even + in the United States. One of these is the order issued on + August 25, 1863, by Brigadier-General Ewing, commanding the + district of the border, with headquarters at Kansas City, Mo., + in which he ordered the inhabitants of a large part of three + counties of that State to remove from their residences within + fifteen days to the protection of the military stations which + he had established. All grain and hay in that district was + ordered to be taken to those military stations. If it was not + convenient to so dispose of it, it would be burned (Rebellion + Records, Series I, Vol. XXII, Part II, p. 473). The American + commanders in the Philippines had adopted no new method of + procedure in dealing with war traitors; they had, however, + effectively employed an old one. + + "The insurrection had originated among the Tagálogs and had + spread like a conflagration from the territory occupied by + them. The fire had been quenched everywhere else. General + Bell had now stamped out the embers in the Tagálog provinces. + + "On July 2 the Secretary of War telegraphed that the + insurrection against the sovereign authority of the United + States in the Philippines having come to an end, and provincial + civil governments having been established throughout the + entire territory of the archipelago not inhabited by Moro + tribes, the office of military governor in the archipelago was + terminated. On July 4, 1902, the President of the United States + issued a proclamation of amnesty proclaiming, with certain + reservations, a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all + persons in the Philippine Archipelago who had participated + in the insurrection." + +General Bell's motives and methods in reconcentrating the inhabitants +of this troubled region have been grossly misrepresented, and he +himself has been sadly maligned. He is the most humane of men, and +the plan which he adopted resulted in the reëstablishment of law and +order at a minimum cost of human suffering. + +Many of the occupants of his reconcentration camps received there +their first lessons in hygienic living. Many of them were reluctant +to leave the camps and return to their homes when normal conditions +again prevailed. + +The number of Filipinos killed during the Batangas campaign was +very small. [429] Blount has sought to make it appear that partly as +an indirect consequence of war there was dreadful mortality there, +citing by way of proof the fact that the Coast and Geodetic Atlas, +published as a part of the report of the first Philippine Commission, +gave the population of Batangas as 312,192, while the census of 1903 +gave it as 257,715. [430] + +The report of the United States Philippine Commission for 1903 +gives the population of Manila as 221,000, while in 1900 it had been +260,000. Does this mean that there had been a holocaust in Manila? Not +at all. It means only that the thousands of Filipinos who had sought +the protection of the American forces there during the period when +they feared their own soldiers in the provinces had mostly returned +to their homes. During the disturbed period in Batangas great numbers +of people took refuge in other and more peaceful regions. Some of +them returned later; others did not. + +Blount further quotes a statement in the 1901 report of the Provincial +Secretary of Batangas to the effect that: + + "The mortality, caused no longer by the war, but by disease, + such as malaria and dysentery, has reduced to a little over + 200,000 the more than 300,000 inhabitants which in former + years the province had." [431] + +Apart from the fact that these figures, showing a mortality of a +hundred thousand from disease alone, are hardly consistent with those +quoted by Blount as showing a decrease in population during a longer +period of only fifty-four thousand four hundred and forty-seven, it is +not apparent why Americans should be charged with deaths due to malaria +or dysentery, since no systematic effort to rid Batangas of these ills +had ever previously been made, and the very thing which then prevented +the adoption of the measures subsequently so successfully put forth +to this end was the disorderly conduct of the people themselves. As a +simple matter of fact, however, there was no such dreadful mortality +from these diseases at this time. Malaria has never been especially bad +in this province, and even cholera, which swept it during the period +in question and is far more readily communicated than is dysentery, +caused only twenty-three hundred and ninety-nine known deaths. + +In the end peace was established and prosperity followed in its wake. + +This result was brought about in part by the efficient activity of +the armed forces of the United States and in part by the efforts of +the first and second Philippine Commissions. [432] + + + + + + +CHAPTER X + +Mr. Bryan and Independence + + +In order to bring home to some of my Democratic and Anti-Imperialist +friends the unreliable character of the testimony of even the very +high officers of the so-called Philippine Republic, I here quote +certain extracts from the Insurgent records, showing the important +part played, doubtless unwittingly, by Mr. William Jennings Bryan in +Philippine politics during the war. The first of these might properly +have been considered in the chapter entitled "Was Independence +Promised?" Others are instructive in that they show the use made +of false news in bolstering up the Insurgent cause, and might with +propriety have been included in the chapter on "The Conduct of the +War." I have thought it best to keep them by themselves. Further +comment on them would seem to be superfluous. + + "On May 1, 1900 (P.I.R., 516.6), I. de los Santos wrote a + long letter in Tagálog and cipher to Aguinaldo, in which he + reported upon the progress of what he would have probably + called the diplomatic campaign. If this letter is to be + believed, the agents in the United States of the junta had + been able to form relations which might be of great value to + them. Santos said in part:-- + + "'Commissioners... Señores Kant (G. Apacible) and Raff + (Sixto López) duly carried out your last instructions given + at Tárlac. Señor Del Pan, sailing by way of Japan, about the + middle of October, and Señor Caney (G. Apacible), sailing by + way of Europe about the 1st of November, met in Toronto about + the middle of February following. But before the arrival of + Kant, Raff had already come from Hayti (United States) and was + able to pry in upon our political friends and enemies. When + they met each other they continued the voyage incognito, as + Raft had done previously, making themselves known to a very + few people; but later on, and according to the instructions + carried by Caney, they made themselves known to a greater + number of people, and have succeeded in interviewing Bryan + who happened to be in New York. Señor Raff said that Bryan + feared being present at a conference, lest he might be called + a traitor by members of his own party, and also by those + of the opposite or "imperialist" party, who are quite proud + over the victories they have gained against our people over + there. Nevertheless, Raff was able to be present and talk at + some of the anti-imperialist meetings, our political friends + introducing him as a friend from the committee (at Hongkong) + and as an advocate of the cessation of the war over there + in order that our sacred rights may be given consideration + by them. And as Bryan could not personally take part in the + conference, he sent a most trusted person, his right-hand man, + Dr. Gardner. The results of the conference between Señor Raff + and Dr. Gardner, the latter acting in the name of Mr. Bryan, + are as follows:-- + + "'1st. That we may fight on, and Bryan will never cease to + defend our sacred rights. 2nd. That we must never mention + Bryan's name in our manifestos and proclamations, lest the + opposite party might say he is a traitor. 3rd. That we are in + the right; and hence he promised in the name of Bryan that if + this Señor Bryan is victorious in the presidential campaign, + he will recognize our independence without delay. Your honored + self can easily conclude from all the foregoing that Señor Del + Pan, after the receipt of these promises, concurred with him; + and he returned to inform Señor Apacible about the results + of the conference. So these two studied over the plan of + the policy to be adopted and carried out. I write you what + their opinions are, viz.: 1st, that they will reside there, + pending the outcome of the presidential contest, aiding the + propaganda and enlivening it until November, the date set for + the desired thing. Owing to what Dr. Gardner said and promised + in the name of Bryan, some one ought to stay there in order + that Bryan may be approached, if he is elected, so he can + sign the recognition of our independence; and this should + be done at once, lest in his excitement over the victory + he should forget his promise. 3rd. For carrying out the two + propositions just mentioned, they request 2000 pounds sterling, + that is $20,000 in silver, to be used for the propaganda, + for paying newspapers and for bribing senators--this last + clause is somewhat dangerous and impossible. And 4th, that + the money must be sent immediately, and that you should be + informed not to mention the name of Bryan in the manifestos + and proclamations. + + "'In order to answer quickly and decisively that proposition, + and as I did not have the desired money here, I answered as + follows: "Plan approved; for the sake of economy we have + decided that one of the two retire, but before doing so + make arrangements, establish communications with leaders of + Bryan's party, and he who remains should thus cultivate the + relations; he who is to retire will locate himself in Paris + near Señor Katipalad (Agoncillo) with whom he will secretly + discuss political problems that may arise. So he will watch + for the opportune moment of Bryan's election, in order to go + immediately to Hayti and formally arrange the contract with + Bryan." [433] + + * * * * * + + "'By the end of 1899, by the time guerrilla warfare was well + under way, by the time that any Filipino government, unless + an expression of the unfettered will of the nearest bandit + who can muster a dozen rifles may be called a government, + had ceased to exist, a strong opposition to the policy of the + administration had arisen in the United States and a demand for + the recognition of the independence of the Philippines. The + junta in Hongkong were assured that the Democratic party + would come into power in the next elections and that this + would mean the success of the patriotic efforts of Aguinaldo + and his followers. The news was good and was forthwith spread + abroad in "Extracts from our correspondence with America," + "News from our foreign agents," "News from America," and + "Translations from the foreign press"--circulars and handbills + printed on thin paper which were smuggled into the Philippines + and passed into the hands of the guerrilla leaders who could + read Spanish. They gathered their followers about them and + told them that a powerful party had arisen in America which + was going to give them all they had ever asked for. They had + only to fight on, for success was certain. In America the + "Anti-imperialists" were hanging the "Imperialists," and + they should continue to harry the American adherents among + the natives of the Philippines. + + "'There are a number of these publications among the papers + captured from the insurgents, and the adoption of this method + of propaganda seems to have been nearly coincident with + Aguinaldo's orders declaring guerrilla warfare. It does not + seem likely that the matter contained in them was supplied by + a Filipino, for if it was he assumed a general acquaintance + among the people with American politics and American methods + which they were far from possessing. + + "'In these publications the Filipinos were assured that + the Imperialists were kept in power only by the lavish + contributions of the "truts," whatever they may have been; + but the people of the United States were growing weary of their + domination and were about to return to the true principles of + Washington and Jefferson. The illustrious Americans "Crosvy + Stickney, and Vartridge" were all laboring for the cause + of Philippine independence. Long lists of American cities + were given in which the illustrious orators Mr. Croshy + and Mr. Schurts had addressed applauding crowds upon the + necessity of throttling the "truts" because they opposed + recognition of the rights of the Filipinos. In August, 1900, + "News from our agents in America" informed its readers that-- + + "'"W. J. Bryan has stated in a speech that his first + act upon being elected President will be to declare + the independence of the Philippines." + + "'On June 16, 1900, Gen. Riego de Dios, acting head of + the Hongkong junta, wrote to Gen. I. Torres (P.I.R., 530), + the guerrilla commander in Bulacán Province, and assured + him that a little more endurance, a little more constancy, + was all that was needed to secure the attainment of their + ends. According to their advices the Democratic party would + win in the approaching elections in the United States, and--"it + is certain that Bryan is the incarnation of our independence." + + "'The number of men opposed to the policy of the administration + was said to be continually increasing. + + "'The attitude of those who protect us cannot be more manly + and resolute: "Continue the struggle until you conquer or + die." Mr. Beecher of the League in Cincinnati writes us: + "I shall always be the champion of the cause of justice and + of truth," says Mr. Winslow of the Boston League. "Not even + threats of imprisonment will make me cease in my undertaking," + Doctor Denziger assures us. "I shall accept every risk and + responsibility," says Doctor Leverson. "If it is necessary, I + shall go so far as to provoke a revolution in my own country," + repeats Mr. Udell. "It is necessary to save the Republic and + democracy from the abyss of imperialism and save the worthy + Filipinos from oppression and extermination" is cried by + all, and the sound of this cry is ever rising louder and + louder.'" [434] + +Extract from a letter of Papa Isio [435] dated March 4, 1901:-- + + "I have received from Luzón an order to proceed more rapidly + with my operations this month, as Bryan ordered Emilío to keep + the war going vigorously until April, and he also said that + if independence was not given the Philippines by that time, + he, Bryan, and his followers would rise in arms against the + oppressors." [436] + + "_Tarlac_, Oct. 26, 1899. + + "To the Military Governor of This City, and To the Secretary + of the Interior. + + "As a meeting shall be held on the morning of Sunday next + in the Presidential Palace of this Republic in return for + that held in the United States by Mr. Bryan, who drank to + the name of our Honourable President as one of the heroes of + the world, and for the purpose of celebrating it with more + pomp and contributing to it the greater splendor with your + personnel, I will be obliged to you if you will please call + at this office to confer with me on the matter. + + "God preserve you, etc. + + (Signed) "_F. Buencamino_." [437] + +In a letter written by A. Flores, acting secretary of war, to the +military governor of Tarlac on October 27, 1899, there occurs the +following:-- + + "In the United States meetings and banquets have been held in + honor of our Honourable President, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, who + was pronounced one of the heroes of the world by Mr. Bryan, + future president of the United States. The Masonic Society, + therefore, interpreting the unanimous desires of the people, + and with the approval of the government, will on Sunday the + 29th instant, organize a meeting or popular assembly in the + interest of national independence and in honor of Mr. Bryan + of the anti-imperialist party, the defenders of our cause in + the United States. The meeting will consist of two functions; + first--at nine A.M. of the 29th the assembly will convene in a + suitable place, a national hymn will inaugurate the exercises, + after which appropriate addresses will be delivered; and + second--at four P.M. a popular demonstration will take place + throughout the town, with bands of music parading the streets; + residents will decorate and illuminate their houses. + + "Which I have the pleasure of transmitting to you for your + information and guidance and for that of the troops under + your command." [438] + + + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +The First Philippine Commission + + +I have elsewhere mentioned the appointment of the First Philippine +Commission. + +On January 18, 1899, its civilian members met at Washington and +received the President's instructions. + +We were to aid in "the most humane, pacific and effective extension +of authority throughout these islands, and to secure, with the least +possible delay, the benefits of a wise and generous protection of +life and property to the inhabitants." + +We were directed to meet at the earliest possible day in the city +of Manila and to announce by a public proclamation our presence +and the mission intrusted to us, carefully setting forth that while +the established military government would be continued as long as +necessity might require, efforts would be made to alleviate the burden +of taxation, to establish industrial and commercial prosperity and +to provide for the safety of persons and property by such means as +might be found conducive to those ends. + +We were to endeavour, without interfering with the military +authorities, to ascertain what amelioration in the condition of the +inhabitants and what improvements in public order were practicable, +and for this purpose were to study attentively the existing social and +political state of the several populations, particularly as regarded +the forms of local government, the administration of justice, the +collection of customs and other taxes, the means of transportation and +the need of public improvements, reporting through the Department of +State the results of our observations and reflections, and recommending +such executive action as might, from time to time, seem to us wise +and useful. + +We were authorized to recommend suitable persons for appointment +to offices, made necessary by personal changes in the existing +civil administration, from among the inhabitants who had previously +acknowledged their allegiance to the American government. + +We were to "ever use due respect for all the ideals, customs and +institutions of the tribes which compose the population, emphasizing +upon all occasions the just and beneficent intentions of the United +States," and were commissioned on account of our "knowledge, skill, and +integrity as bearers of the good-will, the protection and the richest +blessings of a liberating rather than a conquering nation." [439] + +Nothing could be more false than Blount's insinuation that we were +sent out to help Otis run the war. [440] There was no war when +we started, and we were expressly enjoined from interfering with +the military government or its officers. We were sent to deliver a +message of good-will, to investigate, and to recommend, and there +our powers ended. + +Mr. Schurman and I, with a small clerical force, sailed from Vancouver, +January 31, 1899. On our arrival at Yokohama we learned with keen +regret of the outbreak of hostilities at Manila. + +Blount has incorrectly stated that President McKinley had sent the +commission out when the dogs of war were already let loose. [441] The +dogs of war had not been loosed when we started, and one of the main +purposes in sending us was to keep them in their kennels if possible. + +Aguinaldo has made the following statements in his "Reseña Verídica":-- + + "... We, the Filipinos, would have received said commission, + as honourable agents of the great America, with demonstrations + of true kindness and entire adhesion. The commissioners would + have toured over all our provinces, seeing and observing + at close range order and tranquillity, in the whole of + our territory. They would have seen the fields tilled + and planted. They would have examined our Constitution and + public administration, in perfect peace, and they would have + experienced and enjoyed that ineffable charm of our Oriental + manner, a mixture of abandon and solicitude, of warmth and of + frigidity, of confidence and of suspiciousness, which makes + our relations with foreigners change into a thousand colours, + agreeable to the utmost. + + "Ah! but this landscape suited neither General Otis nor the + Imperialists! For their criminal intention it was better that + the American commissioners should find war and desolation + in the Philippines, perceiving from the day of their arrival + the fetid stench emitted by the mingled corpses of Americans + and Filipinos. For their purposes it was better that that + gentleman, Mr. Schurman, President of the Commission, could not + leave Manila, limiting himself to listen to the few Filipinos, + who, having yielded to the reasonings of gold, were partisans + of the Imperialists. It was better that the commission should + contemplate the Philippine problem through conflagrations, + to the whiz of bullets, on the transverse light of all the + unchained passions, in order that it might not form any exact + or complete opinion of the natural and proper limits of said + problem. Ah! it was better, in short, that the commission + should leave defeated in not having secured peace, and would + blame me and the other Filipinos, when I and the whole Filipino + people anxiously desired that peace should have been secured + before rather than now, but an honourable and worthy peace + for the United States and for the Philippine Republic." [442] + +These statements, made to deceive the public, make interesting reading +in the light of our present knowledge as to the purposes and plans +of Aguinaldo and his associates. + +On our arrival at Yokohama we were promptly informed by a secretary +from the United States Legation that no less a personage than Marquis +Ito had been in frequent communication with the Filipinos since 1894, +that they had been looking to him for advice and support, and that +he had interested himself in the present situation sufficiently to +come to the American minister and offer to go to the Philippines, +not in any sense as an agent of the United States, but as a private +individual, and to use his influence in our behalf. His contention +was that the then existing conditions resulted from misunderstandings. + +He said that Americans did not understand Asiatics, but he was an +Asiatic himself and did understand the Filipinos, and thought that he +could settle the whole affair. The minister had cabled to Washington +for instructions. Naturally the offer was not accepted. + +I was reminded, by this extraordinary incident, of a previous +occurrence. I spent the month of March, 1893, in Tokio when returning +from my second visit to the Philippines, and was kindly invited to +inspect the zoölogical work at the Imperial University. When I visited +the institution for that purpose, I was questioned very closely on +the islands, their people and their resources. The gentlemen who +interrogated me may have been connected with the university, but I +doubt it. + +We reached Hongkong on February 22. Here I had an interview with +Dr. Apacible of the junta, while Mr. Schurman visited Canton. Apacible +told me that the Filipinos wanted an independent republic under an +American protectorate. Pressed for the details of their desires, he +said that "the function of a protector is to protect." Further than +that he could not go. I tried to convince him of the hopelessness +of the course the Filipinos were then pursuing and of the kindly +intentions of my government, but felt that I made no impression on him. + +We arrived at Manila on March 4, 1899, too late to land. Firebugs were +abroad. We watched a number of houses burn, and heard the occasional +crackle of rifle fire along the line of the defences around the +city. The next morning there was artillery fire for a time at San +Pedro Macáti. Everywhere were abundant evidences that the war was on. + +This left little for us to do at the moment except to inform ourselves +as to conditions, especially as Colonel Denby had not yet arrived, +and General Otis was overwhelmed with work and anxiety. + +I renewed my acquaintance with many old Filipino and Spanish friends +and improved the opportunity, not likely to recur in my experience, +to see as much as possible of the fighting in the field. + +One day when I was at San Pedro Macáti, Captain Dyer, who commanded +a battery of 3.2-inch guns there, suggested that if I wished to +investigate the effect of shrapnel fire I could do so by visiting +a place on a neighbouring hillside which he indicated. Acting upon +his suggestion, I set out, accompanied by my private secretary, who, +like myself, was clad in white duck. The Insurgent sharpshooters on +the other side of the river devoted some attention to us, but we knew +that so long as they aimed at us we were quite safe. Few of their +bullets came within hearing distance. + +We were hunting about on the hillside for the place indicated by +Captain Dyer, when suddenly we heard ourselves cursed loudly and +fluently in extremely plain American, and there emerged from a +neighbouring thicket a very angry infantry officer. On venturing to +inquire the cause of his most uncomplimentary remarks, I found that he +was in command of skirmishers who were going through the brush to see +whether there was anything left there which needed shooting up. As +many of the Insurgent soldiers dressed in white, and as American +civilians were not commonly to be met in Insurgent territory, these +men had been just about to fire on us when they discovered their +mistake. We went back to Manila and bought some khaki clothes. + +At first my interest in military matters was not appreciated by my army +friends, who could not see what business I had to be wandering around +without a gun in places where guns were in use. I had, however, long +since discovered that reliable first-hand information on any subject +is likely to be useful sooner or later, and so it proved in this case. + +For several weeks after we reached Manila there was no active military +movement; then came the inauguration of the short, sharp campaign +which ended for the moment with the taking of Malolos. For long, +tedious weeks our soldiers had sweltered in muddy trenches, shot at +by an always invisible foe whom they were not allowed to attack. It +was anticipated that when the forward movement began, it would be +active. Close secrecy was maintained with regard to it. Captain +Hedworth Lambton, of the British cruiser _Powerful_, then lying +in Manila Bay, exacted a promise from me that I would tell him if +I found out when the advance was to begin, so that we might go to +Caloocan together and watch the fighting from the church tower, +which commanded a magnificent view of the field of operations. + +I finally heard a fairly definite statement that our troops would +move the following morning. I rushed to General Otis's office and +after some parleying had it confirmed by him. It was then too late to +advise Lambton, and in fact I could not properly have done so, as the +information had been given me under pledge of secrecy. Accompanied +by my private secretary, Dr. P. L. Sherman, I hastened to Caloocan, +where we arrived just at dusk, having had to run the gantlet of +numerous inquisitive sentries _en route_. + +We spent the night in the church, where General Wheaton and his staff +had their headquarters, and long before daylight were perched in +a convenient opening in its galvanized iron roof, made on a former +occasion by a shell from Dewey's fleet. + +From this vantage point we could see the entire length of the line +of battle. The attack began shortly after daylight. Near Caloocan +the Insurgent works were close in, but further off toward La Loma +they were in some places distant a mile or more from the trenches of +the Americans. + +The general plan of attack was that the whole American line should +rotate to the north and west on Caloocan as a pivot, driving the +Insurgents in toward Malabon if possible. The latter began to fire +as soon as the American troops showed themselves, regardless of the +fact that their enemies were quite out of range. As most of them were +using black-powder cartridges, their four or five miles of trenches +were instantly outlined. The ground was very dry so that the bullets +threw up puffs of dust where they struck, and it was possible to +judge the accuracy of the fire of each of the opposing forces. + +Rather heavy resistance was encountered on the extreme right, and +the turning movement did not materialize as rapidly as had been +hoped. General Wheaton, who was in command of the forces about +the church, finally moved to the front, and as we were directly in +the rear of his line and the Insurgents, as usual, overshot badly, +we found ourselves in an uncomfortably hot corner. Bullets rattled +on the church roof like hail, and presently one passed through the +opening through which Major Bourns, Colonel Potter, of the engineer +corps, and I were sticking our heads. Immediately thereafter we +were observed by Dr. Sherman making record time on all fours along +one of the framing timbers of the church toward its tower. There we +took up our station, and thereafter observed the fighting by peeping +through windows partially closed with blocks of volcanic tuff. We +had a beautiful opportunity to see the artillery fire. The guns were +directly in front of and below us and we could watch the laying of +the several pieces and then turn our field-glasses on the particular +portions of the Insurgent trenches where the projectiles were likely to +strike. Again and again we caught bursting shells in the fields of our +glasses and could thus see their effect as accurately as if we had been +standing close by, without any danger of being perforated by shrapnel. + +After the Insurgent position had been carried we walked forward +to their line of trenches and followed it east to a point beyond +the La Loma Church, counting the dead and wounded, as I had heard +wild stories of tremendous slaughter and wanted to see just how +much damage the fire of our troops had really done. On our way we +passed the Caloocan railroad station which had been converted into +a temporary field hospital. Here I saw good Father McKinnon, the +champlain of the First California Volunteers, assisting a surgeon +and soaked with the blood of wounded men. He was one chaplain in a +thousand. It was always easy to find him. One had only to look where +trouble threatened and help was needed. He was sure to be there. + +On my way from the railway station to the trenches I met a very much +excited officer returning from the front. He had evidently had a long +and recent interview with Cyrus Noble, [443] and was determined to +tell me all about the fighting. I escaped from him after some delay, +and with much difficulty. Later he remembered having met me, but +made a grievous mistake as to the scene of our encounter, insisting +that we had been together in "Wheaton's Hole," an uncommonly hot +position where numerous people got hurt. He persisted in giving a +graphic account of our experiences, and in paying high tribute to +my coolness and courage under heavy fire. My efforts to persuade him +that I had not been with him there proved futile, and I finally gave +up the attempt. I wonder how many other military reputations rest +upon so slender a foundation! This experience was unique. I never +saw another officer under the influence of liquor when in the field. + +At the time that we visited the Insurgent trenches, not all of our +own killed and wounded had been removed, yet every wounded Insurgent +whom we found had a United States army canteen of water at his side, +obviously left by some kindly American soldier. Not a few of the +injured had been furnished hardtack as well. All were ultimately +taken to Manila and there given the best of care by army surgeons. + +Sometime later a most extraordinary account of this fight, written by a +soldier, was published in the _Springfield Republican_. It was charged +that our men had murdered prisoners in cold blood, and had committed +all manner of barbarities, the writer saying among other things:-- + + "We first bombarded a town called Malabon and then entered + it and killed every man, woman and child in the place." + +The facts were briefly as follows: There was an Insurgent regiment in +and near a mangrove swamp to the right of this town. When it became +obstreperous it was shelled for a short time until it quieted down +again. None of the shells entered the town. Indeed, most of them +struck in the water. Our troops did not enter Malabon that day, +but passed to the northward, leaving behind a small guard to keep +the Insurgents from coming out of Malabon in their rear. Had they +then entered the town, they would not have found any women, children +or non-combatant men to kill for the reason that all such persons +had been sent away some time before. The town was burned, in part, +but by the Insurgents themselves. They fired the church and a great +orphan asylum, and did much other wanton damage. + +Being able to speak from personal observation as to the occurrences of +that day, I sent a long cablegram direct to the _Chicago Times-Herald_ +stating the facts. After my return to the United States, President +McKinley was kind enough to say to me that if there had been no +other result from the visit of the first Philippine Commission to the +islands than the sending of that cablegram, he should have considered +the expense involved more than justified. He added that the country +was being flooded at the time with false and slanderous rumours, +and people at home did not know what to believe. The statements of +army officers were discounted in advance, and other testimony from +some unprejudiced source was badly needed. + +On April 2, 1899, Colonel Denby arrived, and our serious work +began. The fighting continued and there was little that we could +do save earnestly to strive to promote friendly relations with the +conservative element among the Filipinos, and to gather the information +we had been instructed to obtain. + +On April 4, 1899, we issued a proclamation setting forth in clear and +simple language the purposes of the American government. [444] It was +translated into Tagálog and other dialects and widely circulated. The +Insurgent leaders were alert to keep the common people and the soldiers +from learning of the kindly purposes of the United States. They were +forbidden to read the document and we were reliably informed that +the imposition of the death penalty was threatened if this order was +violated. In Manila crowds of Filipinos gathered about copies of the +proclamation which were posted in public places. Many of them were +soon effaced by Insurgent agents or sympathizers. + +This document unquestionably served a very useful purpose. [445] +For one thing, it promptly brought us into much closer touch with +the more conservative Filipinos. + +We soon established relations of friendliness and confidence with men +like Arellano, Torres, Legarda and Tavera, who had left the Malolos +government when it demonstrated its futility, and were ready to turn +to the United States for help. Insurgent sympathizers also conferred +freely with us. We were invited to a beautiful function given in our +honour at the home of a wealthy family, and were impressed, as no one +can fail to be, with the dignified bearing of our Filipino hosts, +a thing which is always in evidence on such occasions. We gave a +return function which was largely attended and greatly aided in the +establishment of relations of confidence and friendship with leading +Filipino residents of Manila. + +The Filipinos were much impressed with Colonel Denby. He was a handsome +man, of imposing presence, with one of the kindest hearts that ever +beat. They felt instinctively that they could have confidence in him, +and showed it on all occasions. + +Meanwhile we lost no opportunity to inform ourselves as to +conditions and events, conferring with Filipinos from various parts +of the archipelago and with Chinese, Germans, Frenchmen, Belgians, +Austrians, Englishmen, Spaniards and Americans. Among the witnesses +who came before us were farmers, bankers, brokers, merchants, +lawyers, physicians, railroad men, shipowners, educators and public +officials. Certainly all classes of opinion were represented, and +when we were called upon by the President, a little later, for a +statement of the situation we felt fully prepared to make it. + +Blount has charged that the commission attempted to interfere with the +conduct of the war, and cites a cablegram from General Otis stating +that conferences with Insurgents cost soldiers' lives in support of +this contention. No conference with Insurgent leaders was ever held +without the previous knowledge and approval of the general, who was +himself a member of the commission. + +Late in April General Luna sent Colonel Arguelles of his staff to ask +for a fifteen days' suspension of hostilities under the pretext of +enabling the Insurgent congress to meet at San Fernando, Pampanga, +on May 1, to discuss the situation and decide what it wanted to +do. He called on the commission and urged us to ask Otis to grant +this request, but we declined to intervene, and General Otis refused +to grant it. + +Mabini continued Luna's effort, sending Arguelles back with letters to +Otis and to the commission. In the latter he asked for "an armistice +and a suspension of hostilities as an indispensable means of arriving +at peace," stating explicitly that the Philippine government "does not +solicit the armistice to gain a space of time in which to reënforce +itself." + +The commission again referred Arguelles to General Otis on the matter +of armistice and suspension of hostilities. We suspected that the +statement that these things were not asked for in order to gain time +was false, and this has since been definitely established. + +Taylor says:-- + + "On April 11 Mabini wrote to General Luna (Exhibit 719) that + Aguinaldo's council was of the opinion that no negotiations + for the release of the Spanish prisoners should be considered + unless the American Commission agreed to a suspension of + hostilities for the purpose of treating, not only in regard + to the prisoners, but for the purpose of opening negotiations + between Aguinaldo's government and the American authorities. + + "'In arriving at this decision we have been actuated by the + desire to gain time for our arsenals to produce sufficient + cartridges, if, as would seem to be probable, they persist in + not even recognizing our belligerency, as means for furthering + the recognition of our independence.'" [446] + +Arguelles, on his return, was instructed to ask Otis for a-- + + "general armistice and suspension of hostilities in all the + archipelago for the short space of three months, in order to + enable it to consult the opinion of the people concerning + the government which would be the most advantageous, + and the intervention in it which should be given to the + North American Government, and to appoint an extraordinary + commission with full powers, to act in the name of the + Philippine people." [447] + +General Otis naturally again declined to grant the request for a +suspension of hostilities. + +Little came of the conference between Arguelles and the commission, +except that we really succeeded in convincing him of the good +intentions of our government, and this promptly got him into very +serious trouble, as we shall soon see. I took him to a tent hospital +on the First Reserve Hospital grounds where wounded Insurgents were +receiving the best of treatment at the hands of American surgeons, +and he was amazed. He had been taught to believe that the Americans +murdered prisoners, raped women, and committed similar barbarities +whenever they got a chance. As we have seen, stories of this sort +were industriously spread by many of the Insurgent leaders among +their soldiers, and among the common people as well. They served +to arouse the passions of the former, and stirred them up to acts +of devilish brutality which they might perhaps not otherwise have +perpetrated. Arguelles told the truth upon his return, and this, +together with his suggestion that it might be well to consider the +acceptance of the form of government offered by the United States, +nearly cost him his life. Relative to this matter Taylor says:-- + + "When Arguelles returned to the insurgent lines, it must have + been considered that he had said too much in Manila. While he + had been sent there to persuade the Americans to agree to a + suspension of hostilities to be consumed in endless discussion + under cover of which Luna's army could be reorganized, he had + not only failed to secure the desired armistice, but had come + back with the opinion that it might after all be advisable + to accept the government proposed by the United States. On + May 22 General Luna ordered his arrest and trial for being in + favour of the autonomy of the United States in the Philippine + Islands. He was tried promptly, the prosecuting witness + being another officer of Luna's staff who had accompanied + him to Manila and acted as a spy upon his movements (P.I.R., + 285. 2). The court sentenced him to dismissal and confinement + at hard labor for twelve years. This did not satisfy Luna's + thirst for vengeance, and he was imprisoned in Bautista on the + first floor of a building whose second story was occupied by + that officer. One night Luna came alone into the room where + he was confined and told him that although he was a traitor, + yet he had done good service to the cause; and it was not + proper that a man who had been a colonel in the army should + be seen working on the roads under a guard. He told him that + the proper thing for him to do was to blow his brains out, + and that if he did not do it within a reasonable time the + sentinel at his door would shoot him. He gave him a pistol + and left the room. Arguelles decided not to kill himself, + but fully expected that the guard would kill him. Shortly + afterwards Luna was summoned to meet Aguinaldo, and never + returned. On September 29, 1899, his sentence was declared + null and void and he was reinstated in his former rank (P.I.R., + 285. 3, and 2030. 2)." [448] + +Colonel Arguelles has told me exactly the same story. For a time it +seemed as if the views expressed by him might prevail. + + "According to Felipe Buencamino and some others, the + majority of the members of congress had been in favour of + absolute independence until they saw the demoralization of + the officers and soldiers which resulted in the American + occupation of Malolos. In the middle of April, 1899, they + remembered Arellano's advice, and all of the intelligent + men in Aguinaldo's government, except Antonio Luna and the + officers who had no desire to lay down their military rank, + decided to accept the sovereignty of the United States. At + about the same time copies of the proclamation issued by the + American Commission in Manila reached them and still further + influenced them toward the adoption of this purpose. By the + time congress met in San Isidro on May 1, 1899, all of the + members had accepted it except a few partisans of Mabini, + then president of the council of government. At its first + meeting the congress resolved to change the policy of war with + the United States to one of peace, and this change of policy + in congress led to the fall of Mabini and his succession by + Paterno. The first act of the new council was the appointment + of a commission headed by Felipe Buencamino which was to go + to Manila and there negotiate with the American authorities + for an honourable surrender." [449] + + "Although Mabini had fallen from power, Luna and his powerful + faction had still to be reckoned with. He was less moderate + than Mabini, and had armed adherents, which Mabini did not, and + when Paterno declared his policy of moderation and diplomacy + he answered it on the day the new council of government was + proclaimed by an order that all foreigners living in the + Philippines except Chinese and Spaniards, should leave for + Manila within forty-eight hours." [450] + +Unfortunately Luna intercepted the Buencamino commission. Its head +he kicked, cuffed and threatened with a revolver. One of its members +was General Gregorio del Pilar. He was allowed to proceed, as he +commanded a brigade of troops which might have deserted had he been +badly treated, but Luna named three other men to go with him in place +of those who had been originally appointed. [451] They were Gracio +Gonzaga, Captain Zialcita, and Alberto Baretto. They reached Manila +on May 19, 1899, and during their stay there had two long interviews +with the commission. + +They said that they had come, with larger powers than had been +conferred on Arguelles, to discuss the possibility of peace, the +form of ultimate government which might be proposed in future, and +the attitude of the United States government toward needed reforms. + +Meanwhile, on May 4, we had laid before the President a plan of +government informally discussed with Arguelles, and had received the +following reply, authorizing, in substance, what we had suggested:-- + + "Washington, May 5, 1899, 10.20 P.M. + + "Schurman, Manila: + + "Yours 4th received. You are authorized to propose that + under the military power of the President, pending action of + Congress, government of the Philippine Islands shall consist + of a governor-general, appointed by the President; cabinet, + appointed by the governor-general; a general advisory council + elected by the people; the qualifications of electors to be + carefully considered and determined; the governor-general + to have absolute veto. Judiciary strong and independent; + principal judges appointed by the President. The cabinet + and judges to be chosen from natives or Americans, or both, + having regard to fitness. The President earnestly desires the + cessation of bloodshed, and that the people of the Philippine + Islands at an early date shall have the largest measure of + local self-government consistent with peace and good order. + + "_Hay_." [452] + +Our proclamation of April 4, 1899, was also taken up at their request +and was gone over minutely, sentence by sentence. We were asked to +explain certain expressions which they did not fully understand. + +They told us that it would be hard for their army to lay down its +arms when it had accomplished nothing, and asked if it could be taken +into the service of the United States. We answered that some of the +regiments might be taken over and employment on public works be found +for the soldiers of others. + +We endeavoured to arrange for an interview with Aguinaldo, either +going to meet him or assuring him safe conduct should he desire to +confer with us at Manila. + +They left, promising to return in three weeks when they had had time +to consider the matters under discussion, but they never came back. + +Shortly thereafter there was an odd occurrence. Soon after our +arrival we had learned that Mr. Schurman was a man of very variable +opinions. He was rather readily convinced by plausible arguments, +but sometimes very suddenly reversed his views on an important subject. + +At the outset Archbishop Nozaleda made a great impression upon +him. The Archbishop was a thoroughgoing Spaniard of the old school, +and entertained somewhat radical opinions as to what should be done +to end the distressing situation which existed. After talking with +him Mr. Schurman seemed to be convinced that we ought to adopt a +stern and bloody policy, a conclusion to which Colonel Denby and I +decidedly objected. + +A little later he made a trip up the Pasig River with Admiral Dewey +and others and had a chance to see something of the aftermath of +war. It was not at all pretty. It never is. I was waiting for him +with a carriage at the river landing on his return and had hard work +to keep him away from the cable office. His feelings had undergone a +complete revulsion. He insisted that if the American people knew what +we were doing they would demand that the war be terminated immediately +at any cost and by whatsoever means, and he wanted to tell them all +about it at once. By the next morning, however, things fortunately +looked rather differently to him. + +Mr. Schurman acquired a working knowledge of the Spanish language +with extraordinary promptness. Shortly thereafter Colonel Denby and +I discovered that when Filipinos came to see the commission in order +to impart information or to seek it, he was conferring with them +privately and sending them away without our seeing them at all. + +Soon after we had made our formal statement of the situation to the +President, Mr. Schurman had an interview with an Englishman who had +been living in Insurgent territory north of Manila, from which he had +just been ejected, in accordance with Luna's order. This man told +him all about the mistakes of the Americans and evidently greatly +impressed him, for shortly thereafter he read to us at a commission +meeting a draft of a proposed cablegram which he said he hoped we would +approve. It would have stultified us, had we signed it, as it involved +in effect the abandonment of the position we had so recently taken +and a radical change in the policy we had recommended. Mr. Schurman +told us that if we did not care to sign it, he would send it as an +expression of his personal opinion. Colonel Denby asked him if his +personal opinion differed from his official opinion, and received an +affirmative reply. We declined to approve the proposed cablegram, +whereupon he informed us that if his policy were adopted, he and +General Aguinaldo would settle things without assistance from us, +and that otherwise he would resign. He inquired whether we, too, +would send a cable, and we told him certainly not, unless further +information from us was requested. He sent his proposed message, +in somewhat modified form, and received a prompt reply instructing +him to submit it to the full commission and cable their views. + +He did submit it to Colonel Denby and myself at a regularly called +commission meeting, argued that in doing this he had obeyed the +President's instructions, and vowed that he would not show it to +General Otis. I showed it to the General myself, allowing him to +believe that I did so with Mr. Schurman's approval, and thus avoided +serious trouble, as he had been personally advised from Washington +of the instructions to Mr. Schurman. The General then joined with +Colonel Denby and myself in a cablegram setting forth our views, +and so this incident ended. + +Mr. Schurman did not resign, but thereafter we saw very little of +him. He made a hasty trip to the Visayas and the Southern Islands +and sailed for the United States shortly after his return to Manila, +being anxious to get back in time for the opening of the college year +at Cornell. + +Colonel Denby and I were instructed to remain at Manila, where we +rendered such assistance as we could give, and continued to gather +information relative to the situation, the country and the people. In +this latter work we were given invaluable help by Jesuit priests, +who prepared for us a comprehensive monograph embodying a very large +amount of valuable information, and furnished us a series of new maps +as well. The latter were subsequently published by the United States +Coast and Geodetic Survey in the form of an Atlas of the Philippines. + +Early in September we had a most interesting interview with Sr. José de +Luzuriaga, a distinguished and patriotic Filipino from western Negros, +where American sovereignty had been accepted without resistance. Up +to that time it had been possible for the people of Negros to keep +out Tagálog invaders. Sr. Luzuriaga assured us that so long as this +condition continued, there would be no trouble, and he was quite right. + +Aguinaldo's agents eventually gained a foothold there for a short time, +and did some mischief, but it did not result very seriously. + +We felt an especial interest in this island, as General Otis had +asked us carefully to study and to criticise a scheme for its +government which had been drafted by General James F. Smith, who +afterward became justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, +secretary of public instruction and governor-general of the islands, +and was then in command of the troops in Negros. + +General Lawton arrived in the Philippines during our stay. His +coming had been eagerly looked forward to by the army. He had sailed +with the understanding that he was to be put in charge of field +operations. While he was at sea, influences were brought to bear +which changed this plan. + +It is my firm conviction that if Lawton had been put in command, the +war would have ended promptly. He was a wonderful man in the field. He +possessed the faculty of instilling his own tremendous energy into +his officers and men, whose privations and dangers he shared, thereby +arousing an unfaltering loyalty which stood him in good stead in time +of need. If there was fighting to be done, he promptly and thoroughly +whipped everything in sight. He punished looting and disorder with +a heavy hand, treated prisoners and noncombatants with the utmost +kindness, and won the good-will of all Filipinos with whom he came +in contact. + +General MacArthur was always declaring that the Filipinos were a unit +against us and that he could never get information from them. General +Lawton never lacked for such information as he needed, and constantly +and successfully used the Filipinos themselves as messengers and for +other purposes. I came to know him intimately, and learned to admire +and love him as did all those who had that great privilege. + +For some time I had charge of his spies. Never have men taken longer +chances than did the faithful few who at this time furnished us with +information as to events in Insurgent territory. Discovery meant prompt +and cruel death. For a long time Major F. S. Bourns had performed the +uncongenial task of directing the spies. He was then the chief health +officer of Manila, and as all sorts of people were compelled to consult +him on sanitary matters, visits to his office aroused no suspicion. He +spoke Spanish, and this was imperatively necessary. Our spies simply +would not communicate results through interpreters. The facts revealed +by the Insurgent records show how right they were in refusing to do so. + +Major Bourns eventually returned to the United States. His work was +taken over by an army officer, with the result that two of our best +men died very suddenly in that gentleman's back yard. As I spoke +Spanish, and as all sorts of people came to see the commission, +I was the logical candidate for this job, which I thereupon inherited. + +Each morning, if there was news, I myself laboriously thumped out +my notes on the typewriter, making an original and one copy. The +copy I took at once to General Lawton. The original I took, later, +to General Otis. + +General Lawton was firmly convinced that most army officers were +unfitted by their training to perform civil functions. He organized +municipal governments with all possible promptness in the towns +occupied by his troops, and in this work he requested my assistance, +which I was of course glad to give. Sr. Felipe Calderon drafted a +simple provisional scheme of municipal government which I submitted +for criticism to that most distinguished and able of Filipinos, +Sr. Cayetano Arellano. [453] When the final changes in it had been +made, I accompanied General Lawton on a trip to try putting it into +effect. We held elections and established municipal governments in a +number of the towns just south of Manila, and in some of those along +the Pasig River. + +General Otis watched our operations and their results narrowly, and +was sufficiently well pleased with the latter to order General Kobbé +to follow a similar course in various towns on or near the railroad +north of Manila. Kobbé did not profess to know much about municipal +government, and asked me to go with him and help until he got the +hang of the thing, which I did. + +Thus it happened that the first Philippine Commission had a sort of +left-handed interest in the first municipal governments established +in the islands under American rule. + +In his endeavour to show that the Commission interfered with military +operations, Blount has ascribed certain statements to Major Starr. He +says: " ... at San Isidro on or about November 8, Major Starr said: +'We took this town last spring,' stating how much our loss had been in +so doing, 'but partly as a result of the Schurman commission parleying +with the Insurgents, General Otis had us fall back. We have just had +to take it again.'" [454] + +If Major Starr ever made such a statement he was sadly +misinformed. General Lawton was the best friend I ever had in the +United States Army. I saw him almost daily when he was in Manila, +and he showed me the whole telegraphic correspondence which passed +between him and General Otis on the subject of the withdrawal from +San Isidro and Nueva Ecija, which was certainly one of the most +ill advised moves that any military commander was ever compelled to +make. General Lawton's unremitting attacks had absolutely demoralized +the Insurgent force, and my information is that when he finally +turned back, Aguinaldo and several members of his cabinet were +waiting, ten miles away, to surrender to him when he next advanced, +believing that they could never escape from him. I have not the +telegraphic correspondence before me, but I remember its salient +features. Otis ordered Lawton to withdraw, and Lawton, convinced of +the inadvisability of the measure, objected. Otis replied that, with +the rainy season coming on, he could neither provision him nor furnish +him ammunition. Lawton answered that he had provisions enough to last +three weeks and ammunition enough to finish the war, whereupon Otis +peremptorily ordered him to withdraw. The Philippine Commission had +no more to do with this matter than they had to do with the similar +order against advancing which Otis sent Lawton on the day the latter +won the Zapote River fight, when the Insurgents were running all over +the Province of Cavite. Lawton wanted to push forward and clean the +whole place up. The reply to his request to be allowed to do so ran, +if memory serves me well, as follows:-- + + "Do nothing. You have accomplished all that was expected + of you." + +Later on, Lawton and his devoted officers and men had to duplicate the +fierce campaign which had resulted in the taking of San Isidro. This +made possible the movement that Lawton had had in mind in the +first instance, which was made with the result that organized armed +resistance to the authority of the United States promptly ceased in +northern Luzón. + +While on this subject I wish to record the fact that shortly after +his return from the San Isidro campaign General Lawton asked me to +accompany him on a visit to General Otis and act as a witness. I +did so. In my presence Lawton said to Otis that if the latter would +give him two regiments, would allow him to arm, equip and provision +them to suit himself, and would turn him loose, he would stake his +reputation as a soldier, and his position in the United States Army, +on the claim that within sixty days he would end the insurrection +and would deliver to General Otis one Emilio Aguinaldo, dead or +alive. The general laughed at his offer. General Lawton asked me +some day to make these facts public. As life is an uncertain thing, +I deem it proper to do so now. Personally I am convinced that if his +offer had been accepted he would have kept his promise. + +On September 15, 1899, Colonel Denby and I sailed for the United +States, having been recalled to Washington. Shortly after our arrival +there the commission issued a brief preliminary report. The winter +was spent in the preparation of our final report, which constituted +a full and authoritative treatise on the islands, the people and +their resources. Father José Algué, the distinguished head of the +Philippine Weather Bureau, was called to Washington to help us, +and gave us invaluable assistance. + +Our preliminary report, dated November 2, 1899, and the first volume +of our final report, published on January 31, 1900, contained our +observations and recommendations relative to political matters. + +Mr. Schurman has been credited with saying in an address made on +January 11, 1902: "Any decent kind of government of Filipinos by +Filipinos is better than the best possible government of Filipinos +by Americans." [455] + +On November 2, 1900, he signed the following statement: [456]-- + + "Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the + commission believe that the government of the Philippines + would speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it + did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the + eventual division of the islands among them. Only through + American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, + self-governing, and united Philippine commonwealth at all + conceivable. And the indispensable need from the Filipino + point of view of maintaining American sovereignty over the + archipelago is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even + by those insurgents who desire an American protectorate. The + latter, it is true, would take the revenues and leave us the + responsibilities. Nevertheless, they recognize the indubitable + fact that the Filipinos cannot stand alone. Thus the welfare + of the Filipinos coincides with the dictates of national + honour in forbidding our abandonment of the archipelago. We + cannot from any point of view escape the responsibilities of + government which our sovereignty entails; and the commission + is strongly persuaded that the performance of our national + duty will prove the greatest blessing to the peoples of the + Philippine Islands." + +More than fourteen years' experience in governmental work in the +Philippines has profoundly impressed me with the fundamental soundness +of these conclusions of the first Philippine Commission. Every +statement then made still holds true. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +The Establishment of Civil Government + + +The first Philippine Commission did not complete its work until March, +1900. By this time conditions had so far improved in the archipelago +that President McKinley was prepared to initiate a movement looking +toward the establishment of civil government there. With this end in +view he appointed the following commission of five civilians; William +H. Taft of Ohio, Dean C. Worcester of Michigan, Luke E. Wright of +Tennessee, Henry C. Ide of Vermont and Bernard Moses of California. Our +appointments were dated March 16, 1900. Our instructions which were +full, are given in the appendix. [457] I was the only member of the +first commission to be reappointed. Neither General Otis nor Admiral +Dewey cared to serve, and indeed the professional duties of each +of them rendered his appointment to the new commission difficult, +if not impossible. Mr. Schurman had at one time expressed himself +as vigorously opposed to the idea of a new commission, maintaining +that the best results could be obtained by the appointment of a civil +governor with wide powers. It was therefore taken for granted that he +would not desire reappointment. Colonel Denby was keenly interested +in the work and would have been glad to continue it, but he was past +seventy and with his good wife had then spent some fifteen years +in the Far East. He doubted whether his strength would be adequate +to bear the strain of the arduous task which obviously lay before +the new commission, and Mrs. Denby desired to remain in the United +States where she could be near her children from whom she had been +long separated, so her husband felt constrained to say that he did +not wish to return to the Philippines. + +I separated from him with the keenest regret. He was an amiable, +tactful man of commanding ability and unimpeachable integrity, actuated +by the best of motives and loyal to the highest ideals. He constantly +sought to avoid not only evil but the appearance of evil. I count it +one of the great privileges of my life to have been associated with +him. The one thing in the book written by James H. Blount which aroused +my ire was his characterization of Colonel Denby as a hypocrite. No +falser, meaner, more utterly contemptible statement was ever made, +and when I read it the temptation rose hot within me to make public +Blount's personal Philippine record, but after the first heat of +anger had passed I remembered what the good old Colonel would have +wished me to do in such a case, and forbore. + +The second Philippine commission, hereinafter referred to as "the +commission," received its instructions on April 7, 1900. + +They covered a most delicate and complicated subject, namely, the +gradual transfer of control from military to civil authority in a +country extensive regions of which were still in open rebellion. + +In the opinion of President McKinley there was no reason why steps +should not be taken, from time to time, to inaugurate governments +essentially popular in their form as fast as territory came under +the permanent control of our troops, and indeed, as we have seen, +this had already been done by the army. It was provided that we +should continue and perfect the work of organizing and establishing +civil governments already commenced by the military authorities. In +doing this we were to act as a board of which Mr. Taft was designated +president. It was contemplated that the transfer of authority from +military commanders to civil officers would be gradual, and full and +complete coöperation between these authorities was enjoined. Having +familiarized ourselves with the conditions then prevailing in the +islands, we were to devote our attention first to the establishment +of municipal governments, in which the natives should be given the +opportunity to manage their local affairs to the fullest extent and +with the least supervision and control found to be practicable. We were +then to consider the organization of larger administrative divisions, +and when of the opinion that the condition of affairs in the islands +was such that the central administration could safely be transferred +from military to civil control were to report this conclusion to the +secretary of war with our recommendations as to the form of central +government which should be established. + +Beginning with September 1, 1900, we were authorized to exercise, +subject to the approval of the President and the secretary of war, the +legislative power, which was then to be transferred from the military +governor to us until the establishment of civil central government, +or until Congress should otherwise provide. We were authorized during +a like period to appoint to office such officers under the judicial, +educational, and civil service systems, and in the municipal and +departmental governments, as were duly provided for. Until the +complete transfer of control the military governor was to remain the +chief executive head of the government and to exercise the executive +authority previously possessed by him and not expressly assigned to +the commission by the president in his instructions. In establishing +municipal governments we were to take as the basis of our work those +established by the military governor, under the order of August 8, +1899, which I had helped to set up, as well as those established +under the report of a board constituted by the military governor by +his order of January 29, 1900, of which Señor Cayetano Arellano was +the president. + +In the establishment of departmental or provincial governments we +were to give special attention to the then-existing government of the +island of Negros, established with the approval of the people of that +island under the order of the military governor of July 22, 1899. + +We were instructed to investigate troubles growing out of large land +holdings, including those of the religious orders, and to promote, +extend and improve the system of education already inaugurated by +the military authorities, giving first importance to the extension +of a system of primary education free to all, which would tend to fit +the people for the duties of citizenship and the ordinary avocations +of a civilized community. Instruction was to be given at first in +the native dialects, but full opportunity for all of the people to +acquire English was to be provided as soon as possible. If necessity +demanded, we were authorized to make changes in the existing system +of taxation and in the body of the laws under which the people were +governed, although such changes were to be relegated to the civil +government which we were to establish later, so far as might be. Our +instructions contained the following important passages:-- + + "In all the forms of government and administrative provisions + which they are authorized to prescribe, the commission should + bear in mind that the government which they are establishing + is designed not for our satisfaction, or for the expression + of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace and + prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands, and the + measures adopted should be made to conform to their customs, + their habits, and even their prejudices, to the fullest + extent consistent with the accomplishment of the indispensable + requisites of just and effective government. + + "At the same time the commission should bear in mind, and the + people of the islands should be made plainly to understand, + that there are certain great principles of government which + have been made the basis of our governmental system which + we deem essential to the rule of law and the maintenance of + individual freedom, and of which they have, unfortunately, + been denied the experience possessed by us; that there are + also certain practical rules of government which we have + found to be essential to the preservation of these great + principles of liberty and law, and that these principles and + these rules of government must be established and maintained + in their islands for the sake of their liberty and happiness, + however much they may conflict with the customs or laws of + procedure with which they are familiar. + + "It is evident that the most enlightened thought of the + Philippine Islands fully appreciates the importance of + these principles and rules, and they will inevitably within + a short time command universal assent. Upon every division + and branch of the government of the Philippines, therefore, + must be imposed these inviolable rules:-- + + "That no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or + property without due process of law; that private property + shall not be taken for public use without just compensation; + that in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the + right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the + nature and cause of the accusation, to be confronted with + the witnesses against him, to have compulsory process for + obtaining witnesses in his favour, and to have the assistance + of counsel for his defence; that excessive bail shall not be + required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual + punishment inflicted; that no person shall be put twice in + jeopardy for the same offence, or be compelled in any criminal + case to be a witness against himself; that the right to be + secure against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not + be violated; that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude + shall exist except as a punishment for crime; that no bill + of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall be passed; that no + law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech or of the + press, or the rights of the people to peaceably assemble and + petition the Government for a redress of grievances; that no + law shall be made respecting the establishment of religion, + or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, and that the free + exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship + without discrimination or preference shall forever be allowed." + +It has been the fashion in some quarters to sneer at the last of these +paragraphs, and to insinuate, if not to charge, that President McKinley +in his policy toward the Philippine Islands was actuated by unworthy +motives. Nothing could be further from the truth. From the beginning +to the end the real good of the several peoples of the archipelago +came first with him, and no one who had the privilege of knowing him +well doubts it. Thoroughly imbued with the lofty sentiments expressed +by him in our instructions, we set forth on our long pilgrimage to a +country where we were to undertake a heavy task essentially different +from that which had ever before fallen to the lot of any five citizens +of the United States. + +On April 17, 1900, we sailed from San Francisco on the United +States army transport _Hancock_. We were forty-five strong. Of +this goodly company only four remain in the Philippines to-day, +[458]--Mr. and Mrs. Branagan, Mrs. Worcester and myself. Singularly +enough, with two exceptions, all of the others are still alive +and at work. Arthur W. Ferguson, prince of interpreters, who was +later appointed Executive Secretary, died in the service after more +than six years of extraordinarily faithful and efficient work. James +A. LeRoy, my faithful, able and efficient private secretary, contracted +tuberculosis, and fell a victim to it after a long and gallant fight. + +At Honolulu we met with a severe disappointment. It was of course +our duty to call on Governor Dole. We were advised that silk hats +and frock coats must be donned for this visit, and it was perishing +hot. We reached the palace in a reeking perspiration and had a long +wait in a suffocating room. When Mr. Dole appeared, he was closely +followed by an attendant bearing a large and most attractive-looking +bottle carefully wrapped in a napkin, and our spirits rose. But, +alas! It contained Poland water. + +At Tokio we had an audience with the Emperor and were received by the +Empress as well. In the high official who had charge of the palace +where these events took place, I discovered an old University of +Michigan graduate who made the occasion especially pleasant for me. + +We finally reached Manila on the morning of June 3. Although the +thermometer was in the nineties, a certain frigidity pervaded the +atmosphere on our arrival, which General MacArthur, the military +governor, seemed to regard in the light of an intrusion. + +He had been directed to provide suitable office quarters for us. To +our amazement and amusement we found desks for five commissioners +and five private secretaries placed in one little room in the +Ayuntamiento. [459] While it was possible to get through the room +without scrambling over them, it would have been equally possible +to circle it, walking on them, without stepping on the floor. In +the course of our first long official interview with the General, +he informed us that we were "an injection into an otherwise normal +situation." + +He added that we had already mediatized the volume of work that flowed +over his desk. At the moment none of us were quite sure what he meant, +but we found the word in the dictionary. How often in the weary +years that were to follow I wished that some one would materially +mediatize the task which fell to my lot! It was General MacArthur's +honestly held and frankly expressed opinion that what the Filipinos +needed was "military government pinned to their backs for ten years +with bayonets." He later changed that view very radically, and when +civil provincial governments were finally established it was with +his approval, and, in many instances, upon his specific recommendation. + +At the outset some effort was made to keep the public away from +us. Word was passed that we had no authority, which was true enough, +as our legislative activities were not to begin until September +1. The ninety days which intervened were very advantageously spent in +gaining familiarity with the situation, which we had no difficulty +in doing. Plenty of people were already weary of military rule and +flocked to us. None of my companions had ever before set foot in the +Philippines, and although I had spent more than four years there, +I still had plenty to learn. + +In this connection I am reminded of an event which occurred somewhat +later. While the commission was en route from Iloilo to Catbalogan +when we were establishing civil provincial governments, General Hughes +and Mr. Taft became involved in a somewhat animated discussion. The +General displayed an accurate knowledge of facts which were of such +a nature that one would hardly have expected an army officer to be +familiar with them. Mr. Taft said: "General, how do you do it? You +have always been a busy man, devoted to your profession. How have you +managed to accumulate such a remarkable fund of information?" The +General smiled his rare smile and replied: "Governor, I will tell +you. I always try to go to bed at night knowing a little more than +I did when I got up in the morning." It is a wise plan to follow. + +On September 1 we assumed the legislative power, our first official +act being to appropriate $2,000,000 Mexican for the construction and +repair of highways and bridges. + +We were impressed with the fundamental necessity of promptly opening up +lines of land communication in a country which almost completely lacked +them, and there were many poor people in dire need of employment who +would be relieved by the opportunity to earn an honest living which +the inauguration of road construction would afford them. + +Our second act appropriated $5000 Mexican for the purpose of making +a survey to ascertain the most advantageous route for a railroad into +the mountains of Benguet, where we wished to establish a much-needed +health resort for the people of the archipelago. + +Seven days later we passed an act for the establishment and +maintenance of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine +Islands. This measure was of basic importance. We had stipulated before +leaving Washington that no political appointees should be forced upon +us under any circumstances. The members of the second commission, like +their predecessors of the first, were firm in the belief that national +politics should, if possible, be kept out of the administration of +Philippine affairs, and we endeavoured to insure this result. + +Our tenth act appropriated $1500 Mexican to be paid to the widow +of Salvador Reyes, vice-president of Santa Cruz in Laguna Province, +assassinated because of his loyalty to the established government. + +Our fifteenth act increased the monthly salaries of Filipino public +school teachers in Manila. + +Our sixteenth and seventeenth acts reorganized the Forestry Bureau +and the Mining Bureau. + +On October 15 we appropriated $1,000,000 United States currency, +for improving the port of Manila, where there was urgent need of +protection for shipping during the typhoon season. + +On December 12 we passed an act authorizing the establishment of local +police in cities and towns in the Philippine Islands and appropriating +$150,000 United States currency for their maintenance. + +Two days later we passed a much-needed act regulating the sale of +intoxicating liquors within the city of Manila and its attached +barrios. + +On December 21, we appropriated $75,000 United States currency for +the construction of the Benguet Road, little dreaming how much time +would elapse and how many more dollars would be appropriated, before +a vehicle passed over it. + +It will be sufficiently evident that I cannot here give an account +of the several acts which we passed when I say that they number four +hundred forty-nine during the first year. We created the administrative +bureaus of a well-organized government, established civil rule in +numerous municipalities and provinces, provided for the necessary +expenses of government, organized courts and reformed the judiciary. So +important were the results following the establishment of the Civil +Service Act and the act providing for the organization of courts for +the Philippine Islands that I have devoted a chapter to each. + +Although there were no limits on our power to enact legislation other +than those imposed by our instructions hereinbefore referred to, +nothing was further from our desire than to exercise too arbitrarily +the authority conferred upon us. + +Taylor has correctly described our method of procedure in the +following words:-- + + "On September 1, 1900, the Commission began its legislative + and executive duties. In performing them it adopted the policy + of passing no laws, except in cases of emergency, without + publishing them in the daily press, nor until after they + had passed a second reading and the public had been given + an opportunity to come before the Commission and suggest + objections or amendments to the bills. Before enacting + them they were submitted to the military governor for his + consideration and comment." [460] + +The other especially important events of our first legislative +year were the establishment of civil rule in the municipalities +as well as in thirty-eight provinces and the substitution of the +military central government by the gradual creation of bureaus and +the ultimate appointment of a civil governor and of five heads of +executive departments. + +On November 23, 1900, we passed an act providing for the establishment +of a civil government in the province of Benguet, and thus it happened +that a province practically all of whose inhabitants were members of +a non-Christian tribe was the first to enjoy the benefits of civil +rule. This action grew out of investigations by General Wright and +myself made when visiting Baguio during the latter part of July, which +led us to the conclusion that civil government could be established in +Benguet at any time and should be established as soon as possible. In +view of the rather primitive state of civilization of the people for +whom we were legislating, a special act adapted to local conditions +was passed providing for a provincial government and fixing a form +of government for the several settlements. + +On January 31, 1901, we passed an act for the organization of municipal +governments in the Philippine Islands which, with various amendments, +is still in effect and has been made applicable to all municipal +corporations of the Philippines inhabited chiefly by Filipinos, except +the city of Manila, the city of Baguio and a few small settlements +in the so-called special government provinces. [461] + +On February 6, 1901, we passed a general act for the organization of +provincial governments in the Philippine Islands. A special act was +required to make it applicable to any given province. + +Having thus prepared for the serious work of establishing civil +government throughout the archipelago so fast and so far as conditions +might seem to justify, we determined to visit the several provinces +and to familiarize ourselves with conditions on the ground in each +case before taking action. We invariably sought the opinion of +the military authorities as to the fitness of the provinces under +consideration for civil rule, and never established it except with +their approval. Indeed, in several cases we yielded to their judgment +and organized provinces which we ourselves thought might better wait +for a time. + +Our first trip was to the northward along the line of the +Manila-Dagupan railway, and in the course of it we organized the +provinces of Bulaean, Pampanga, Tarlac and Pangasinán. + +On the 2d of March we crossed Manila Bay to Bataan and established +a civil provincial government there. + +The first provincial officers were necessarily appointed, not +elected. I well remember the consternation which Mr. Taft created +on this trip, when in announcing the appointment of a man of strong +character who was much disliked by some of the people present, he +said that if the appointee did not behave well his official head +would be promptly removed. Surprise showed on almost every face in +the audience. They had become sufficiently accustomed to the idea of +being beheaded or otherwise sent out of the world by their own people, +but had been led to believe that the Americans were a humane nation, +and it took Mr. Taft at least five minutes to explain his joke. + +During the second week in March the commission transferred its officers +bodily to the United States Army Transport _Sumner_ and started on +a long journey in the course of which it visited and established +provincial governments in eighteen provinces, [462] returning to +Manila on the 3d of May. + +This trip was most interesting but dreadfully wearing. Everywhere +we were overwhelmed by the hospitality of our Filipino friends. We +arrived at some new place nearly every morning, and the programme in +each was much the same. After an early breakfast we hurried ashore, +drove or walked about for a short time to see what the town was like, +and then attended a popular meeting in its largest building, where +we held long and frank converse with the people on local conditions, +giving them every opportunity to air their views, with the result that +the local orators, of whom there were usually more than a sufficiency, +had an opportunity to bring their heavy guns into action. Then followed +a recess in the course of which we partook of a very elaborate lunch, +and when possible conferred privately with influential men, often +learning things which they did not care to tell us in public. Then came +another open meeting at which the actual organization of the province +was effected and the officials were appointed and sworn in. After +this there was a long formal dinner, with the endless courses which +characterize such functions in the Philippines, and then came a ball +which lasted till the wee small hours. When at last we got on board, +tired out, our steamer sailed, and often brought us to some new place +by sunrise. + +In several instances we did not pass the act organizing a given +province at the time of our visit, but for one reason or another +postponed action until a later date. We visited a number of places +like Joló, Basilan, Zamboanga, Cotabato, Davao and Samar, where we +had no intention of establishing civil government, in order to observe +local conditions. + +We touched at Marinduque on our trip south, and found that nothing +could then be done there, but the better element were anxious for a +change, and we promised them that if they would bring about certain +specified results before our return we would give them a provincial +government. They undertook to do so, and kept their word. Needless +to say we also kept ours. + +We had grave doubts as to the advisability of establishing civil +governments in Cebú, Bohol and Batangas. In the first of these +places the people were sullen and ugly. In the second there was +a marked disinclination on the part of leading citizens to accept +public office. There had been a little scattering rifle fire on the +outskirts of the capital of the third very shortly before our arrival +there, but the organization of all these provinces was recommended by +the military authorities, and we decided to try an experiment which +could do little harm, as we could return any one of them to military +control in short order should such a course seem necessary. + +An effort has been made to make it appear that in organizing Cebú, +Bohol and Batangas, we acted prematurely and upon our own initiative, +thus complicating the situation for the military authorities. I will +let Blount voice this complaint. He says in part:-- + + "In his report for 1901 Governor Taft says that the four + principal provinces, including Batangas, which gave trouble + shortly after the civil government was set up in that year, + and had to be returned to military control, were organized + under civil rule 'on the recommendation' of the then commanding + general (MacArthur). It certainly seems unlikely that the haste + to change from military rule to civil rule came on the motion + of the military. If the Commission ever got, _in writing,_ + from General MacArthur, a 'recommendation' that any provinces + be placed under civil rule while still in insurrection, the + text of the writing will show a mere soldierly acquiescence in + the will of Mr. McKinley, the commander-in-chief. Parol [463] + contemporaneous evidence will show that General MacArthur + told them, substantially, that they were 'riding for a + fall.' In fact, whenever an insurrection would break out in + a province after Governor Taft's inauguration as governor, + the whole attitude of the army in the Philippines, from the + commanding general down was 'I told you so.' They did not + say this where Governor Taft could hear it, but it was common + knowledge that they were much addicted to damning 'politics' + as the cause of all the trouble." [464] + +Prophecy is always dangerous and when unnecessary seems rather +inexcusable. I submit the essential portions of the record to +show exactly what we did get from General MacArthur, and add the +suggestion that it was really hardly essential that he should make +his recommendations in writing, as he did, for the reason that he +was a gentleman and would not have repudiated a verbal recommendation +once made. + +On February 5, 1901, Governor Taft wrote General MacArthur a letter +closing with the following paragraph:-- + + "As already communicated to you the purpose of the Commission + is to make a Southern trip on the 23rd of February, or as + soon thereafter as practicable, with the idea of arranging + for provincial governments there, and I am directed by the + Commission to request your opinion as to the provinces in + which provincial governments may be safely established. It is + understood that Panay, Romblon, Tayabas, and possibly one or + two of the Camarines are ready for this. What has been said + with reference to the Northern provinces applies to these, + but we shall communicate with you further as to the Southern + provinces when we have been advised as to the possibility of + securing a steamer." + +On February 9, General MacArthur gave the following instructions to +the Commanding General, Department of the Visayas:-- + + "The Military Governor desires that you report to this + office at the earliest date practicable the provinces in your + department that may be considered ready for the establishment + of civil governments therein and in this connection directs + me to say that it should not be considered as necessary that + complete pacification has been brought about in a province + before reporting it as ready for such government; that the + provincial civil governments to be established will doubtless + prove useful agents in the further work of pacification." + +On February 27, that officer reported that in his opinion Iloilo, +Capiz, Oriental Negros and Occidental Negros were ready; that Antique +might be in a few days, and that Cebú, Bohol and Leyte were not. These +facts were reported to Governor Taft by General MacArthur on March 4, +and on the same day Lieutenant-Colonel Crowder wrote to the commanding +general of the Visayas:-- + + "The Military Governor directs me to say that he regards + the initiation of provincial civil government as an aid in + the work of pacification, in which view it is not necessary + that a province should be completely pacified as a condition + to the initiation of such government. He has expressed to the + Commission the opinion that you may be able, upon their arrival + at Iloilo, to submit a supplementary list of provinces in which + it would be advisable to establish at once these governments." + +Meanwhile General MacArthur wrote on February 13, to Governor Taft:-- + + "In partial reply to your letter of the 5th instant I have the + honor to inform you that the Commanding General, Department of + Southern Luzon, reports but one province, Tayabas, as ready at + the present time for civil government. I add the provinces of + Laguna, Batangas and Cavite, believing that the institution of + civil government in all these provinces will be in assistance + of the military authorities in the work of pacification." + +General MacArthur's communications seem to me to show something more +than "a mere soldierly acquiescence in the will of Mr. McKinley," +especially as the President had no knowledge of these provinces, and +never made any recommendation whatsoever relative to the establishment +of civil government there. + +Similarly, in establishing civil government in Cebu and Bohol, the +commission acted on the specific recommendation of the military, and +rather against its own judgment. There seemed no very good reason for +refusing to try civil government, if the commanding general wanted +it tried, and when it failed, as it promptly did, in Cebu, Bohol and +Batangas, these provinces were immediately returned to the full control +of the military, and left there until conditions became satisfactory. + +Having escaped the perils of the deep, and the much graver perils of +the dinner table, during our southern trip, we returned to Manila, +wearier, wiser and sadder men than when we started, for we had learned +much of the superstitions, the ignorance and the obsessions which +prevailed among the Filipinos, and we knew that many of the men who +from love of country had accepted office under us had done so at the +peril of their lives. We had all had an excellent opportunity to come +to know the Filipinos. Their dignity of bearing, their courtesy, +their friendly hospitality, their love of imposing functions, and +of _fiestas_ and display, their childishness and irresponsibility +in many matters, their passion for gambling, for litigation and for +political intrigue, even the loves and the hatreds of some of them, +had been spread before us like an open book. It is a fact that except +for the inhabitants of Cebu, Bohol and Batangas, the people wanted +what we had to give them and were grateful for it. Never before had +they had their day in court, and they appreciated it. + +The establishment of civil government throughout so large a proportion +of the provinces in the islands would have been impossible at this +time had it not been for the helpful activities of the Federal +Party organized on December 23, 1900, by many of the best and most +influential Filipinos in the archipelago for the purpose of aiding +in the establishment of peace and order. Its members were tireless in +their activities. They succeeded in persuading many Insurgent leaders +to lay down their arms, so that a normal condition could be restored in +territory which the latter had previously harried. They convinced many +of the common people of the true purposes of the American government, +and in numerous other ways rendered invaluable services. + +The officers and many of the members and agents of this party were +promptly sentenced to death by Aguinaldo, and many of them were +assassinated; [465] but the party persisted in its efforts until +success was attained. + +During June of 1901 Professor Moses and I made a horseback trip through +Pangasinán, La Union, Benguet, Lepanto and Ilocos Sur, accompanied by +our private secretaries. Professor Moses was in wretched health as the +result of overwork and confinement, and needed out-of-door exercise. + +I had been intrusted with the drafting of legislation for the +government of the non-Christian tribes, and wanted to learn as much +about them as possible, so that I could act intelligently. + +We started from Dagupan mounted on horses kindly furnished us by the +army, and escorted by four mounted infantrymen. None of us had ridden +for years, and army officers were offering wagers that we would not +get as far as Baguio. At Mangaldan a cavalry outfit replaced our +mounted infantrymen, and while the members of our new escort were +resting under the shade of a tree in the cemetery, I heard them +voicing joyful anticipations of the easy time they were to have +travelling with tenderfeet. I made up ray mind to give them some +healthful exercise on the trip. + +Having first visited the work at the lower end of the Benguet Road and +then travelled across country in a driving storm over wretched trails, +we reached Bauang, our point of departure for the interior. Here I +called the sergeant in charge and asked him where were the extra shoes +for our horses. In some confusion he confessed that he had brought +none, whereupon I read him a homily on the duties of a cavalryman, +and sent the whole outfit to San Fernando to get the horses reshod +and provided with extra shoes for the trip. + +We arrived at Baguio in a howling typhoon. When we emerged from the +hills into the open, and our horses got the full sweep of the storm, +they at first refused to face it. We forced them into it, however, +and a few moments later had found refuge in the house of Mr. Otto +Scheerer, a hospitable German. The cavalrymen and the horses got in +under the building. It gave me great joy to hear through the floor +the voice of the sergeant remarking, with much emphasis of the sort +best represented in print by dashes, that if he had known the sort +of a trip he was starting on he would have been on sick report the +morning of his departure. + +We waited in vain three days for the storm to end and then rode +on. Mr. Scheerer, who accompanied us, had sent ahead to arrange for +lunch at the house of a rich Igorot named Acop, but when we arrived at +this man's place, soaked, cold, and hungry, we found it shut up. He +had not received the message and was away from home. Investigation +showed that our only resource in the commissary line were some +wads of sticky, unsalted, boiled rice which our Igorot carriers had +inside their hats, in contact with their frowsy hair. We bolted as +much of this as the Igorots could spare, killing its rather high +flavour with cayenne peppers picked beside the trail, and continued +our journey. In descending a steep hill my horse stumbled and while +attempting to recover himself drove a sharp stone into his hoof and +turned a complete somersault, throwing me over his head on to the +rocks. When I got him up he was dead lame, and I walked the rest of +the way to Ambuklao, where we arrived just at sunset. + +This once prosperous little Igorot hamlet had been burned by the +Spaniards, for no apparent reason, during their flight from the +province in 1906, and we found only two houses standing. They were +naturally crowded. I was so dead with fatigue that I threw my saddle on +the ground, and using it as a pillow, lay down in a couple of inches +of water and fell sound asleep. Later the Igorots vacated one of the +houses, and placed it at our disposal. I spent the greater part of the +night in a contest with an old Igorot woman, who for the commendable +purpose of keeping us warm tended a smoky pitch-pine fire, and shut +the door, which afforded our only means of ventilation, every time I +dropped asleep. Awakened by the stifling smoke I would open it again, +but as soon as I dozed she would shut it. I finally solved the problem +by lying down with my head sticking out of the door. + +The next day was bright and clear. We rested until noon, drying +out our belongings meanwhile, and then continued our journey, +visiting the Igorot settlements on the Agno River and those in +southern Lepanto and finally reaching Cervantes, the capital of that +sub-province. The Igorots of Benguet and Lepanto received us with +the utmost friendliness, and when not in danger of breaking our necks +by falling over the edges of the wretched trails, we greatly enjoyed +our trip. + +At Cervantes we were met by a delegation of Bontoc Igorots, who begged +us to visit their country, and we were just preparing to do so when +we received a telegram recalling us to Manila to be present at the +inauguration of Mr. Taft as civil governor. During our absence the +commission had established provincial governments in Rizal, Cavite and +Nueva Ecija. Mr. Taft was inaugurated on July 4, 1901. Thenceforth +he exercised control over the provinces where civil government had +been established, while the military governor continued in charge +of each of the remaining provinces until it was duly organized and +transferred to civil control. + +In August, 1901, the commission sailed on a tour of the remaining +northern provinces, visiting La Union, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Ilocos Norte, +Cagayan, Isabela and Zambales in the order named, and establishing +a government in each. On the trip to Abra those members of the +commission not previously accustomed to roughing it in the islands +were given a novel experience, for we went up the Abra River on +bamboo rafts. However, a veritable ship of state had been prepared +for Governor Taft, and no one suffered any great discomfort. + +At Vigan, the capital of Ilocos, we narrowly escaped drowning in the +surf when returning to our steamer. For a time our good _viray_ [466] +with some twenty oarsmen was unable to make headway through the rolling +waves. It broached to, nearly filled with water, and struck the bottom +heavily several times. Some of the men quit rowing and began to pray, +whereupon General J. F. Bell, who was sitting in the stern, rose to his +feet, and shouted at them until they became more afraid of him than of +the sea, and pulled for dear life until we were out of danger. Upon +arrival at the ship we watched with interest the progress of other +boats through the surf, and were alarmed to see the men in one madly +divesting themselves of their clothing. When it finally came alongside +its occupants made flying leaps for the gangway, and we discovered +that a great hole had been knocked in its bottom, and that raincoats, +ordinary coats, and trousers had been jammed into this opening in +order to keep the rapidly sinking craft afloat for a few moments. + +In the Cagayan valley we had a taste of real tropical heat. Never +have I seen a man suffer more than did Mr. Taft at Ilagan on the day +when we established a provincial government for Isabela, and the night +that followed still lingers in my memory. The air was suffocating. My +bed was in a corner. I dragged it out between a window and a door +and threw both wide open. Still I could not sleep. Slipping off +my pajamas, I seated myself on the broad window sill. The heat was +intolerable. I poured water over myself and resumed my seat in the +window. The water would not evaporate. I sat there until morning, +as I could not endure the heat lying down. + +Such conditions are unknown throughout the greater part of the +archipelago, where cool sea breezes temper the heat at all times. In +the Cagayan valley an immense plain is bordered by ranges of high +mountains to the east and the west. They seem to shut off both +monsoons to a considerable extent, and there very trying heat is by +no means unusual. + +On September 1, 1901, the first day of the second year of actual +service of the commission, a complete central civil government was +established. Commissioner Wright was appointed secretary of commerce +and police; Commissioner Ide, secretary of finance and justice; +Commissioner Moses, secretary of public instruction, and I myself +secretary of the interior. The commission was strengthened by the +addition of three Filipino members: Señor Benito Legarda, Señor José +R. de Luzuriaga, and Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, all of whom were men +of exceptional ability and had rendered distinguished service in the +establishment of peace and order. + +Except for the addition of one more Filipino on July 6, 1908, the +organization of the commission has remained unchanged up to the present +time, although there have been numerous changes in its personnel. The +task which lay before it was to enact a code of laws adapted to the +peculiar conditions existing in the Philippines, and this was indeed +a herculean undertaking. Its members laboured unremittingly. Governor +Taft and General Wright were towers of strength in the early days. The +rest of us did what we could, and I, for one, am very proud of the +result. Certainly no one can ever claim that the commission was not +industrious. Before it finally ceased to be the legislative body of +the islands it had passed some eighteen hundred acts. Obviously, +as it is not my purpose to write an encyclopedia of law, I cannot +discuss them in detail, and must content myself with here barely +mentioning a few of the more important results obtained, leaving the +more detailed discussion of some of them for later chapters. + +In general, it may be said that the additional bureaus necessary +for the work of the Insular government were created, and given +proper powers. Civil government was gradually extended to the entire +archipelago. [467] The criminal code was amended and supplemented +by the passage of new laws. The administration of justice was +reorganized and reformed. [468] An efficient native insular police +force was organized, and an admirable state of public order brought +about. [469] The health service was extended to the provinces, and +health conditions were greatly improved throughout the islands. [470] +Baguio was made accessible and became both the summer capital and +a health resort for the people of the islands. [471] The scientific +work of the government was cordinated, and efficiency and economy in +its performance were insured. [472] + +Primary and secondary schools were established throughout the islands, +supplemented by trade schools, and a normal school at Manila. [473] +Legislation was enacted, and submitted to the President and to +Congress, covering the disposition of public lands. [474] The purchase +of extensive estates belonging to certain religious orders, and the +sale of their holdings therein to tenants, was provided for. [475] +Fairly adequate legislation for the protection and development +of the forest resources of the islands was enacted. [476] Means +of communication by land and sea were greatly improved, and the +development of commerce was thus stimulated. [477] + +It is a noteworthy fact that all of these things were done with a +per capita taxation of about $2.24! + +Another fundamentally important aid to the commercial development of +the islands was afforded by a radical reformation of the currency. + +The islands under the sovereignty of Spain had their own distinct +silver coinage in peso, media peso, peseta and media peseta pieces. + +In 1878 the Spanish government, hoping to check the heavy exportation +of gold currency from the Philippines, passed a law prohibiting the +importation of Mexican dollars, but allowed the Mexican dollars then +in the islands to continue to circulate as legal tender. + +When the American troops arrived, there were in circulation the +Spanish-Philippine peso and subsidiary silver coins; Spanish pesos +of different mintings; Mexican pesos of different mintings; Hongkong +dollars, fractional silver coins from different Chinese countries, +and copper coins from nearly every country in the Orient. Although a +law had been passed prohibiting the introduction of Mexican dollars +into the islands, they were being constantly smuggled in. Fluctuations +in the price of silver affected the value of the silver coins, and the +money in common use was in reality a commodity, worth on any given day +what one could get for it. These conditions affected most disastrously +the business interests of the islands. Merchants were forced to allow +very wide margins in commercial transactions, because they did not +know what their goods would actually cost them in local currency upon +arrival. The most important business of the local banks was in reality +that of exchange brokers and note shavers. They hammered the exchange +rate down and bought silver, then boosted the rate skyward and sold. + +The American army brought in a large amount of gold, but this did +not remain in circulation long, as it was exported by the different +business concerns, or hoarded. + +United States silver money had a limited circulation during the +early days of American occupation, but it passed at less than its +true value. An effort was made under the military administration to +keep the ratio of exchange at two to one by the purchase from the +public of all United States currency offered at that rate to the banks. + +For a long time the banks refused to carry private accounts in United +States currency, but when it was offered for deposit it was changed +into Mexicans with a heavy charge for the transaction, and an account +opened in Mexican currency to the credit of the depositor. If the +depositor afterward desired to get United States currency, he gave a +check for it at the then existing rate of exchange. Such conditions +were intolerable, and the commission passed an act making it an offence +to refuse to accept for deposit the currency of the sovereign power, +but this did not remedy the fundamental difficulty. There came a +heavy slump in the price of silver. The Insular government lost a +very large sum because of the decrease in value of its silver coin. + +Mr. Charles A. Conant had been brought from the United States to make +a report on the feasibility of providing an American coinage for the +islands. He recommended that the unit of value should be a peso, +equivalent to fifty cents United States currency. Congress, by an +act passed July 1, 1902, vested general authority over the coinage +in the Philippine government, but the commission decided not to take +action until more specific authority could be obtained from Congress, +as the proposed reform was radical, and it was very important that the +new currency should at the outset command the confidence so essential +to its success. + +After long discussion, Congress authorized, by an act passed March +2, 1903, a new currency system based on a theoretical peso of 12.9 +grains of gold 900 fine, equivalent to one-half of a United States +gold dollar. The circulating medium was to be the Philippine silver +peso, which was to be legal tender for all debts, public and private, +and its value was to be maintained on a parity with the theoretical +gold peso. For this purpose the creation of a gold standard, or gold +reserve fund, was provided for, and this fund was to be maintained +and could be used for no other purpose. + +Considerable difficulty was experienced in introducing the new currency +into the islands. The banks at first failed to give any assistance to +the government. The business men of Manila, and especially the Chinese, +discounted the new Philippine peso, because it did not contain as +much silver as did the Mexican dollar. They were quickly brought to +time, and given to understand where they stood if they discredited +the currency of the country. + +The Spanish Philippine coins and the Mexican coins in circulation were +collected by the treasury and exported to the San Francisco mint, +where they were reminted into new coins of the weight and fineness +prescribed by law. + +The establishment of a gold standard fund to maintain the parity +between the gold and silver dollar was quickly effected by the sale of +exchange on the United States in accordance with the established law, +at a cost estimated to be the same as the transportation of the gold +coin itself. + +The army, by direction of the secretary of war, ceased to pay +in United States money, and its paymasters were given credit at +the Insular Treasury, where they obtained the necessary funds in +Philippine currency. + +The government also authorized, in addition to the coinage of silver, +the issuance of paper money in two, five, and ten peso notes. All of +the coins and bills were readily interchangeable with the United States +coins in common use, the dollar being worth two pesos, the half dollar +one peso, the twenty-five cent piece a half peso, the ten-cent piece +a peseta, the five-cent piece a media peseta and the cent two centavos. + +Unfortunately the silver value of the new peso was such that when the +price of silver again rose, its bullion value was greater than its +money value, and in consequence coins of this denomination were hoarded +and exported. It proved necessary to prohibit their exportation, +and to issue new coins of less bullion value, but this was the only +really serious difficulty attending a fundamental reform which put +the currency on a sound basis. The original pesos were recoined and +a handsome profit made on the transaction. + +No one who has not lived in a country where the circulating medium +is constantly fluctuating in value can fully appreciate the enormous +benefit conferred on the Philippine Islands by this important reform. + +Another reform of far-reaching importance was the readjustment of the +burden of taxation so that it should bear lightly on the necessities +of life, and heavily on its luxuries. This was a complete reversal +of the scheme which we found in force, under which wheat flour and +kerosene oil paid very heavy import duties while cigars and champagne +were lightly taxed. + +We imposed export taxes on certain products of the country. Such taxes +are objected to by many political economists, but were approved of by +the Filipinos, who strongly opposed the imposition of a logical and +very necessary personal tax to provide funds for the construction +and maintenance of highways and bridges. It is usually wise, when +practicable, to obtain funds for necessary governmental purposes by +the imposition of taxes which are willingly paid. + +Mr. Taft resigned the governorship of the Philippines to become +secretary of war, his resignation taking effect January 31, 1904. He +had performed a monumental work for the Filipinos, and for humanity at +large, during his years of service in the islands, and carried with +him the good will of most of the people whom he had so faithfully, +efficiently and self-sacrificingly served. He had at one time very +gravely impaired his health by hard work, and when the opportunity +came to satisfy a lifelong ambition by accepting appointment as a +Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, he had passed +it by, in order to perform his duty to the people of the Philippine +Islands. As secretary of war, and as President of the United States, +he availed himself of every opportunity which these high offices +afforded to help the Filipinos, and to increase the prosperity of +their country. They have had no better friend, and no other friend +whom they have ever had has been so useful to them. One more proof +of his real greatness is afforded by the fact that to-day, after +being reviled by many Filipino politicians whom he befriended, who +have succeeded to a large degree in making the common people of the +Philippines consider him their enemy, his interest in the people of +the Islands is as keen, and his eagerness to help them is as great, +as in the early days when they acclaimed him their deliverer. + +General Luke E. Wright, a democrat of Memphis, Tennessee, was +appointed by President Roosevelt civil governor in Mr. Taft's +place. He rendered his country and the Filipinos most distinguished +service. It is one thing to build up a great government, with numerous +political appointments at one's disposal, and another to stand by and +keep it running smoothly and efficiently, when a lot of disappointed +politicians, who have seen their last hope of political preferment go +a-glimmering, are throwing sand into the bearings of the machine. This +latter class had begun to plot against Governor Taft before his +resignation took effect, but their machinations were rendered fruitless +by the wave of regret raised by his coming departure. + +They now devoted themselves, with a good deal of success, to injuring +Governor Wright, who declined to be dictated to, in the matter of +appointments, by the Federal Party, and aroused the ire of many +politicians by occasionally telling the Filipinos unpalatable but +wholesome and necessary truths relative to their fitness for immediate +independence. + +General Wright, whose title had been changed from governor to +governor-general on February 6, 1905, went on leave during the latter +part of that year, fully expecting to return and resume his work +in the Philippines, but the islands were not to see him again. He +resigned, effective April 1, 1906, to become United States Ambassador +to Japan. In my opinion, the acceptance of his resignation at this time +was one of the gravest mistakes ever made in the Philippine policy of +the United States. The islands were deprived of the services of a very +able and distinguished man, thoroughly conversant with their needs, +who had the courage of his convictions, and whose convictions were +thoroughly sound. + +Certain Filipino politicians openly boasted that they had secured his +removal, and they and their ilk were encouraged to put forth new and +pernicious efforts. Had General Wright returned to the islands much of +the political unrest from which they have since suffered would have +been avoided. He was beloved by his associates, who felt a sense of +personal loss when they learned that the places which had known him +in The Philippines would know him no more. + +He was succeeded for the brief period of five and a half months by +Judge Henry C. Ide, vice-governor and secretary of finance and justice, +who had performed his duties while he was on leave. Judge Ide was a +republican, from Vermont. He resigned on September 19, 1906. + +He was succeeded by General James F. Smith, a democrat from California, +who had come to the islands as a colonel of volunteers, and had won +promotion because of his valuable services in the Visayas, and more +especially in the island of Negros, where he had earned the good +will of the Filipinos by his tact and kindness. Later he had served, +unwillingly, as head of the Manila custom house. + +He was subsequently made a justice of the supreme court of the +Philippines. A lawyer by profession, he had resigned this position +with regret to accept appointment, on January 1, 1903, as secretary +of public instruction. He did not desire the governor-generalship and +made a strong but unsuccessful effort to avoid accepting the position, +which he finally took from a sense of duty. He was a good lawyer, +with a big heart, and a keen insight into human nature. He thoroughly +understood the Filipinos, and he made an excellent governor-general. It +was during his term of office that the Philippine Legislature, +composed of an upper appointive house, the Philippine Commission, +and a lower elective house, the Philippine Assembly, met for the +first time on October 16, 1907. + +I devote a separate chapter [478] to the Philippine Legislature and +its work, so need not discuss it here. Suffice it to say that such +success as attended the work of this body during its inaugural, first +and special sessions, was very largely due to the tactful influence +of Governor-General Smith, who gave the speaker of the assembly +much valuable, friendly counsel, and kept the two houses working in +comparative harmony. Having struggled through one session of the +legislature, Governor-General Smith felt at liberty to resign. He +greatly desired to leave the Philippine government service and return +to the practice of his profession. His resignation was reluctantly +accepted, about a year after he had tendered it, and he left the +service on November 10, 1909. + +He was succeeded by Vice-Governor W. Cameron Forbes, a republican +from Massachusetts, who had accepted appointment as secretary of +commerce and police on June 15, 1904. A man of independent means, +Mr. Forbes entered the public service only because of the opportunity +for greater usefulness which was thus afforded him. He brought to +bear on the problems which confronted him as secretary of commerce +and police intelligence and ability of a very high order. Wide +practical experience in the management of large business interests +had admirably fitted him to improve the organization and increase the +efficiency of the insular police force, and to mature and carry out +plans for bettering means of communication and otherwise facilitating +and stimulating the normal, healthful commercial development of the +islands. I have devoted several chapters to the discussion of the +results accomplished along these lines, [479] and will not attempt +here to enumerate them. + +Like all of his predecessors, he brought to the office of +governor-general mature experience gained on the ground, having been +in the service more than five years at the time of his promotion. + +As governor-general, he not only retained his keen interest in the +large problems which had previously engaged his attention, and laboured +unceasingly and most successfully in the performance of the duties of +his new office, but took an especial interest in the development of +the summer capital, and in the work for the non-Christian peoples of +the islands, devoting a much greater amount of time and attention to +familiarizing himself with the needs of this portion of the population +than had ever previously been given to it by any governor-general. He +visited the Moros and the Bukidnons in the south, and the Negritos, +the Benguet Igorots, the Lepanto Igorots, the Bontoc Igorots, +the Ilongots, the Ifugaos, the Kalingas, and both the wild and the +civilized Tingians, in the north, repeatedly inspecting the several +sub-provinces of the Mountain Province. + +Through his generosity in making proper grounds available, public +interest in outdoor sports was greatly stimulated at Manila and +at Baguio, while his own participation in polo, baseball and golf +was a good example to Americans and Filipinos alike, in a country +where vigorous outdoor exercise is very necessary to the physical +development of the young and the preservation of the health of the +mature. He was a true friend of the Filipinos, whom he genuinely liked +and was always ready to assist. His personal influence was a powerful +factor in the success of the very important work carried on at the +Philippine Normal School and the Philippine Training School for Nurses. + +During his term of office the prosperity of the islands increased +by leaps and bounds, public order became better than ever before +in their history, and the efficiency of the civil service reached +its maximum. No other governor-general ever drew so heavily on his +private means in promoting the public good, and it was the irony +of fate that he should have been accused, by certain irresponsible +anti-imperialists, of using his public office to promote his private +interests. Near the end of his administration grossly and absurdly +false charges were made against him on the floor of the House by +Representative William A. Jones. As their falsity has been conclusively +and finally shown, [480] I will not here lend importance to them +by repeating them. No official has ever given any country a cleaner +administration than Governor-General Forbes gave the Philippines. + +It was his fortune to be in office at the time of the change in the +national administration of the United States. After continuing to serve +for months with no sign from Washington as to whether his resignation +was desired, he was advised by the Chief of the bureau of insular +affairs that the appointment of Mr. Francis Burton Harrison, who is a +Tammany Hall democrat, as his successor had been sent to the Senate, +[481] and three days after its confirmation received a curt request +for his resignation to be effected in a week and a day. He was also +requested to employ servants for Mr. Harrison. Spaniards who read +on the public streets newspapers which printed this message were +seen to tear them up and stamp on the pieces! Our Spanish friends +are accustomed to expect courtesy in connection with the removal of +faithful and efficient public servants. + +All other governors-general had taken the oath of office at +Manila. Mr. Harrison took it at Washington on September 2, 1913. He +is the first American governor of the islands who has entered upon his +high duties without previous experience in the country which he is to +govern, and he has as yet displayed little inclination to profit by +the experience of either Filipino or American administrative insular +officials of high rank. It is too soon to discuss any feature of his +administration other than his attitude toward the civil service, +which I take up elsewhere, [482] and I can only express the hope +that when he has gained that knowledge which can come only through +personal observation on the ground, he will grow to be a wise, strong, +conservative official. + +The establishment of civil government in the Philippine Islands under +American rule was a gradual evolution up to the time of the assumption +of control by Governor-General Harrison. + +I will not attempt to follow in detail all of its successive stages, +but in closing this chapter will endeavour briefly to summarize the +results obtained up to that time. + +The Philippines now have two delegates to the Congress of the United +States appointed by the legislature in accordance with the provision of +Section 8 of the Act of Congress of July 1, 1902. Both are Filipinos. + +The ranking executive officials of the insular government are a +governor-general, a secretary of the interior, a secretary of finance +and justice, a secretary of commerce and police and a secretary +of public instruction. All of these officers are appointed by the +President, subject to confirmation by the Senate. The secretary of +finance and justice is a Filipino; the other secretaries of departments +are Americans. + +There is a legislature composed of two houses known respectively as +the Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly. The Philippine +Commission is composed of nine members; five are the governor-general +and the four secretaries of department _ex officio_, and four are +appointed by the President subject to confirmation by the Senate. Four +of the members are Filipinos and five are Americans. [483] + +The Philippine Assembly is composed of eighty-one elected members, +all of whom are Filipinos. They represent thirty-four of the +thirty-nine provinces into which the archipelago is divided. The two +houses of the legislature have equal powers. Neither has any special +privilege in the matter of initiating legislation, and affirmative +action by both is required in order to pass it. The Moro Province, +the Mountain Province and the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya and Agusan +are not represented in the assembly, nor are they subject to the +jurisdiction of the Philippine Legislature. The Philippine Commission +alone has legislative jurisdiction over them, their population being +largely composed of Moros, or members of other non-Christian tribes. + +The provinces may be divided into regularly organized provinces +governed under the provincial government act, and specially organized +provinces, which include the Moro Province, the Mountain Province +and the provinces of Mindoro, Palawan, Agusan and Nueva Vizcaya, of +which the first is governed under a special law and the remaining four +are governed under a different one known as "The Special Provincial +Government Act." + +Regularly organized provinces have a governor and a treasurer. The +governor is elected, and the treasurer is appointed by the +governor-general with the approval of the commission. These two +officials, with another known as the third member, constitute +a provincial board. The third member is elected. As the Filipinos +usually elect to office men from among their own people, practically +all of the elective provincial officers are Filipinos, as are ten +of the appointive officers, it having been the policy to appoint +Filipinos whenever possible. + +Regularly organized provinces are divided into municipalities +which elect their own officers and control their own affairs for +the most part. Provincial treasurers have intervention in municipal +expenditures, which are approved in advance for each fiscal year, +and municipal officers may be removed for misconduct by the +governor-general. + +All officers of the six special government provinces are appointed +by the governor-general with the approval of the commission. + +There are four regularly organized municipalities in these provinces, +but the remainder of their territory is divided into townships, +which elect their own officers, except their secretary-treasurers, +who are appointed by the provincial governor; and into _rancherias_ or +settlements, with all of their officials appointed by the provincial +governor. This latter form of local government is confined to the +more primitive wild people. + +The judiciary is independent. The details of its organization will +be found in Chapter XV. + +Three of the seven justices of the supreme court, including the chief +justice, are Filipinos, as are approximately half of the judges of +the courts of first instance and practically all justices of the peace. + +At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 71 per cent +of the employees in the classified civil service of the islands were +Filipinos painstakingly trained for the positions to which they had +been appointed. + +Prior to the American occupation, the Filipinos had practically no +intervention in the government of their country. + +The changes introduced in the twelve years since the establishment +of civil government began are of a sweeping and radical nature. For +reasons hereinafter fully set forth, I believe they have been somewhat +too sweeping, and too radical. At all events, it is now certainly the +part of wisdom carefully to analyze their results before going further. + +I deem the subject of the establishment of civil governmental control +over the non-Christian tribes of the Philippines worthy of special +consideration. [484] + + + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +The Philippine Civil Service + + +Before the Philippine Commission left Washington, a clear understanding +was reached with the President and secretary of war to the effect that +no political appointee whatsoever should under any circumstances be +forced upon us. After arrival at Manila early attention was given to +the drafting of a civil service act by Mr. Taft, who was fortunate in +having the assistance of Mr. Frank M. Kiggins, chief of the examining +division of the United States Civil Service Commission. The passage +of this act and its strict enforcement led to very favourable comment +in the United States. In his first annual message President Roosevelt +said:-- + + "It is important to have this system obtain at home, but + it is even more important to have it rigidly applied in our + insular possessions.... + + "The merit system is simply one method of securing honest and + efficient administration of the government, and in the long + run the sole justification of any type of government lies in + its proving itself both honest and efficient." + +Secretary Root also gave us his fullest support, calling attention to +the fact that the law which we had passed was of a very advanced type, +and that under such circumstances as confronted us, the securing of +the best men available should outweigh, and indeed practically exclude, +all other considerations. + +Our action met with the unqualified approval of organizations +which especially interest themselves in the maintenance of clean +and efficient public service, such as the Cambridge (Massachusetts) +Civil Service Reform Association [485] and the National Civil Service +Reform League, whose committee on civil service in dependencies spoke +in very high terms of existing conditions in the Philippines. [486] + +In its first annual report the Civil Service Board called attention +to some of the more important provisions of the Act in the following +words:-- + + "Competitive examinations must, whenever practicable, be + held for original entrance to the service, and promotions of + employees must also be based upon competitive examinations, + in which the previous experience and efficiency of employees + shall be given due consideration. The examinations for entrance + to the service must be held in the United States and in the + Philippine Islands, and applicants are required to be tested + in both English and Spanish. + + "Disloyalty to the United States of America as the supreme + authority in the Islands is made a complete disqualification + for holding office, and every applicant for admission to the + service must, before being admitted to examination, take the + oath of loyalty. By an amendment to the Civil Service Act on + January 26, 1901, it is further declared that all persons + in arms against the authority of the United States in the + Philippine Islands, and all persons aiding or abetting them, + on the first day of April, 1901, shall be ineligible to + hold office. + + "A minimum age limit of eighteen years and a maximum age + limit of forty years are fixed for those who enter the + lowest grades in the service. This avoids the difficulty + and embarrassment that would result from the admission of + men advanced in years to positions where the duties can be + better performed by younger and more energetic persons. + + "The Board is given authority to investigate matters + relative to the enforcement of the act and the rules, and is + empowered to administer oaths, to summon witnesses, and to + require the production of office books and records in making + such investigations. Without such a provision it would be + very difficult, if not impossible, to conduct satisfactory + investigations, but with the authority conferred by the act, + the Board can make a rigid inquiry into the facts of every + case arising under the act and the rules. + + "The act provides for the ultimate classification of all + positions in the service, from laborers to heads of bureaus and + offices, and the Board may, in its discretion, determine the + efficiency of those now in the service as well as those who may + enter hereafter through its examinations. This authority will + enable the Board to ascertain the fitness of all employees so + that only the most competent will be retained in the service. + + "As a check upon the illegal payment of salaries the act + provides that whenever the Board finds that a person has been + appointed in violation of its provisions or of the rules of + the Board, and so certifies to the disbursing and auditing + officers, such payments shall be illegal, and if payment is + continued the disbursing officer shall not receive credit + for the same and the auditing officer who authorizes the + payment shall be liable on his official bond for the loss to + the government." + +In its third annual report the Civil Service Board mentioned the +following among its distinctive duties:-- + + "All appointments to classified positions are required to + be made on a form prescribed by the Board, and the Board's + attestation is required in each case before the Civil Governor + or Secretary of Department will approve the appointment and + before the disbursing officer will pay any salary. + + "The papers in all cases of reduction, removal and enforced + resignation are required to be submitted to the Board for + recommendation before transmission to the Civil Governor or + Secretary of Department for final action. + + "The Board is required to keep a record of all unclassified as + well as classified employees in the Philippine civil service, + showing among other things date of appointment, original + position and salary, place of employment, all changes in + status and grade, and all accrued and sick leave granted. + + "From its service records the Board is required to compile + annually, for publication on January 1, a roster of the + officers and employees under the Philippine Government. + + "Applications from employees, classified and unclassified, + for accrued and sick leave for more than two days must be + made on a form prescribed by the Board and forwarded to it + for verification of service record and previous leave granted + and for recommendation before final action is taken by the + Civil Governor or Secretary of Department." + +These extracts from official reports clearly show that the act was +indeed of a very advanced type, and if honestly enforced would of +necessity lead to the establishment and maintenance of "an efficient +and honest civil service," for which purpose it was enacted. + +In 1905 the insular government dispensed with boards as administrative +agencies, and in accordance with this general policy, a bureau of +civil service with a director at its head was substituted for the +Civil Service Board, thus securing greater administrative efficiency +and increased economy. + +At first the Civil Service Act applied to comparatively few positions, +as only a few bureaus and offices had been created, but as the +government was organized and grew, the different bureaus and offices +were placed in the classified service, the acts organizing them leaving +in the unclassified service positions to which in the judgment of +the commission the examination requirements of the act should not +apply. Ultimately these requirements were made applicable to the +treasurers of all municipalities and to all positions, including +teachers, in the executive and judicial branches of the central +government, the provincial governments, and the governments of the +cities of Manila and Baguio, except a few specifically excepted by +law, which for the most part are unclassified or exempt in almost +all governments, national, state and municipal, having civil service +laws. None of the states of the Union has such a widely extended +classification of its civil service. + +With the exception of the positions specifically placed in +the unclassified service by law and of appointments made by the +Philippine Commission, all positions in the Philippine civil service +are classified and must be filled by appointees who have passed civil +service examinations. Neither the governor-general nor the Bureau of +Civil Service can, by the promulgation of civil service rules, or in +any other manner whatever, transfer any position from the classified +to the unclassified service or except from examination any position +in the classified service. Under most of the civil service laws of +the United States the President or the governor of the state has +authority to transfer positions from the non-classified or exempted +class to the competitive classified civil service or _vice versa_, +these powers sometimes leading to manipulation of the civil service +rules for political purposes. + +In the Philippines, where emergencies, such as cholera epidemics, +sometimes lead to the employment of large bodies of temporary +employees without examination, when the emergency has passed the +temporary employees have always been discharged; and no employee +has ever received classification without examination on account of +temporary service. This is in marked contrast to the practice in the +United States, where large bodies of employees taken on for temporary +service due to emergencies, such as the war with Spain, are not +infrequently blanketed into the classified service without examination. + +In its last annual report the board recommended that a number of +official positions in the unclassified service be placed in the +classified service, and gave as a reason therefor that such action +would "add to the attractiveness of the classified service by +increasing the opportunities therein for promotion to responsible +positions." This recommendation was adopted by providing that all +vacancies in the positions of heads and assistant heads of bureaus or +offices and of superintendents shall be filled by promotion, with or +without examination, in the discretion of the civil governor or proper +head of a department, of persons in the classified civil service, +if competent persons are found therein. + +This provision is an important and distinguishing feature of the +Philippine Civil Service Act. The federal civil service has none +comparable with it. It is of special value in that it induces young +men of exceptional ability and training to enter the lower grades, +for they have the certainty that faithful and efficient work will in +the end earn for them the highest positions. + +On February 25, 1909, the director of civil service made the following +statement with respect to the observance of the law:-- + + "A careful study of Act 5 and all acts amendatory thereof + will show that there has been no change in the policy adopted + by the Commission at the outset to extend the classified + service as widely as possible and to fill by promotion all + the higher positions so far as practicable. The provision + requiring the higher positions to be filled by promotion so + far as practicable has always been regarded by the Philippine + Commission, by this Bureau, and by others interested in + obtaining the best possible government service in the + Philippines as one of the most important provisions of the + Civil Service Act. It has been faithfully observed by all + Governors-General....With the exception of the positions + of Governor-General and Secretaries of Departments, the + Philippine Civil Service Act requires the highest positions + in the executive civil service, namely, chiefs and assistant + chiefs of Bureaus and Offices, to be filled by promotion from + the entire service in all cases except when in the opinion of + the appointing power there is no person competent and available + who possesses the qualifications required, and this provision + has been faithfully observed heretofore." + +The enforcement of the law by the commission has received the +following commendation from the executive committee of the National +Civil Service Reform League:-- + + "We have further to note with satisfaction the course of + the Philippine Commission, by which, if it be persevered in, + the merit system will be established in the Islands of that + archipelago at least as thoroughly and consistently as in any + department of government, Federal, State, or Municipal, in + the Union. This must be, in any case, regarded as a gratifying + recognition of sound principles of administration on the part + of the Commission, and justifies the hope that, within the + limits of their jurisdiction at least, no repetition of the + scandals of post-bellum days will be tolerated." + +Up to the time of the appointment of Governor-General Harrison the +provisions of the Civil Service Act and rules were firmly supported +by all of the governors-general and secretaries of departments, +and the annual reports of the governor-general uniformly expressed +satisfaction with their practical operation. Mr. Taft was always an +enthusiastic supporter of the merit system. + +Governor-General Forbes in his inaugural address made the following +statements:-- + + "It is necessary that the civil service should be rigidly + maintained and its rules carefully observed. One very + distinguished Filipino has recently been appointed to + administrative control of one of the most important departments + of the Government, equal in rank to any executive position in + the Islands with the exception of the Executive head. In the + executive branch of the Government, the Filipinization of the + service must steadily continue. As vacancies occur Filipinos + will be gradually substituted for Americans as rapidly as + can be done without positive detriment to the service. At the + same time, care will be taken to provide a suitable career for + honest and capable Americans who have come out here in good + faith. They should know that during good behavior and efficient + performance of their duty they are secure in their positions, + and that when they desire to return to the United States an + effort will be made to place them in the civil service at home. + + "I want no better men than the present officers and employees + of the Government, Americans and Filipinos. They compare + favorably with any set of men I have ever seen both as regards + ability and fidelity to duty." + +Under the operation of the Civil Service Act the proportion of +Filipinos employed has increased from 49 per cent, in 1903, to 71 +per cent in 1913, as is shown by the following table:-- + + + Comparison of Percentages of Americans and + Filipinos in the Service + + ============================================= + | NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES + YEAR |----------------------------- + | Americans | Filipinos + --------------------------------------------- + 1903 ......... | 51% | 49% + 1904 ......... | 49 | 51 + 1905 ......... | 45 | 55 + 1906 [487] ... | - | - + 1907 ......... | 40 | 60 + 1908 ......... | 38 | 62 + 1909 ......... | 38 | 62 + 1910 ......... | 36 | 64 + 1911 ......... | 35 | 65 + 1912 ......... | 31 | 69 + 1913 ......... | 29 | 71 + ============================================= + + +For the first few years after the establishment of the government +large numbers of Americans were appointed, as there were +comparatively few Filipino candidates with the necessary educational +qualifications. During the last two years, 89 per cent of the persons +appointed in the islands have been Filipinos. + +There has been a great increase in the number of Filipinos entering +the civil service examinations in English. Ten years ago 97 per cent +of those examined took their examinations in Spanish, while during +last year 89 per cent of those examined took examinations in English, +the total number so examined being 7755. Almost all appointees +for ordinary clerical work are now Filipinos, but the supply of +bookkeepers, stenographers, civil engineers, physicians, veterinarians, +surveyors, chemists, bacteriologists, agriculturists, horticulturists, +constabulary officers, nurses, electricians, mechanical engineers, +and other scientific employees is still insufficient to meet the +demands of the service. Only one Filipino has passed the stenographer +examination in English since the organization of the government, and it +is necessary each year to bring many American stenographers from the +United States. A few Filipinos pass each year the junior stenographer +examination [488] and are able to fill some of the positions which +would formerly have required the appointment of Americans. + +The salaries paid to executive officials, chiefs of bureaus and +offices, chief clerks, and chiefs of divisions equal in many instances +those paid to officials occupying similar positions in the service +of the United States government. + +In the legislative branch the speaker receives $8000 per annum. Members +of the Philippine Commission without portfolios receive $7500 per +annum. Members of the Philippine Assembly receive $15 a day for each +day in which the assembly is in session. + +In the executive branch secretaries of departments receive $15,500 +per annum each, including $5000 received by them as members of the +Philippine Commission. The executive secretary receives $9000 per +annum. The salaries of other bureau chiefs range from $2500 per annum +to $7500. + +The justices of the Philippine Supreme Court receive $10,000 per +annum. Judges of courts of first instance receive from $4500 to $5500. + +The following extracts from an article by the chairman of the +Philippine Civil Service Board give information with respect to +salaries in the Philippine Islands, as compared with salaries paid +in surrounding British and Dutch colonies:-- + + "The salaries paid officials in all branches of the service + of the Straits Settlements are generally lower than those paid + in the Philippine civil service. In this connection, however, + it is only just to state that the population and extent of the + territory under British control, and the expenses of living, + are less than in the Philippines, while the difficulty of + the problems to be solved is not so great. The salaries paid + to natives who fill the lower grade positions in the civil + service of the Philippine Islands are three and four times + as great as the salaries paid to natives in similar classes + of work in the civil service of the British Malay colonies. + + "A study of the colonial civil service of the Dutch in + the islands of Java and Madura gives us somewhat different + results.... + + "The matter of salaries is peculiarly interesting. The + comparison made above of the compensations received by the high + officials in the civil service of the English colonies and by + those in the Philippines does not hold good when applied to + the Dutch in Java. In fact, the salary of the Governor-General + of Java is somewhat remarkable in contrast with that of the + Civil Governor of the Philippines. As is well known, the latter + receives $20,000, while the salary of the Governor-General of + Java amounts to 132,000 gulden or something over $53,000. The + American official is given, in addition, free transportation + on all official investigations and free use of the governor's + palace, but not the cost of maintenance. On the other hand, + the Dutch governor is granted 51,000 gulden (about $21,500) + as personal and household expenses and travel pay. + + "The general secretary of the government receives 24,000 + gulden ($9648), as compared with the executive secretary + of the Philippine government, whose salary is $7500. [489] + The seven heads of departments in the Javanese service each + receive a like compensation of 24000 gulden. The Raad, + or Council, of the Dutch colonial government is composed + of a vice-president and four members--the former receiving + about $14,500, the latter slightly over $11,500 each. In the + Philippine government the executive functions of heads of + departments are exercised by four members of the legislative + body, each of whom receives $10,500 for his executive services + and $5000 for his legislative duties. Without going further + into detail, the conclusion is evident that all officials of + high rank are much better paid in the Dutch service. When a + comparison is made between the chief clerks and other office + employees of middle grades--not natives--the salaries are + seen to be about the same in the two countries. + + "All natives in positions of lower grades, however, + in the Philippine Islands fare better than their Malay + brethren, either in the Straits Settlements or in the East + Indies."--(Second Annual Report of the Philippine Civil + Service Board, pp. 60, 61.) + + "Difference in salaries for subordinate positions in the + British and Dutch colonial services and the Philippine service + are distinctly in favour of subordinate employees in the + Philippine service; only the higher officials, after long + experience, in the British colonial service receive larger + salaries than corresponding officials in the Philippine + service; the leave of absence and other privileges for the + Philippine service are not less liberal than for other colonial + services."--(Report of the Philippine Commission for 1905, + p. 74.) + +The entrance salaries of Americans brought to the islands are +considerably in excess of the entrance salaries received on appointment +to the civil service in the United States. + +The following table shows the minimum entrance salaries given to +Americans appointed in the United States to the United States civil +service, as shown by the manual of examinations of the United States +Civil Service Commission for the fall of 1913, and to Americans +appointed in the United States to the Philippine Civil Service:-- + + +==================================================================== + | Philippines | United States +-------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | +Aid (Surveyor) | $1400 | $ 900 +Civil Engineer | 1400 | 1200 +Forester, assistant | 1400 | 1200 +Scientific Assistant, | | +(Agricultural Inspector) | 1400 | 600 +Physician | 1600 | 1320 +Printer | 2000 | .50 per hour +Stenographer | 1200 | 700 +Trained Nurse | 600 Board, | 600 and laundry + | quarters and laundry | +Teacher | 1000 | 540 +Veterinarian | 1600 | 1200 + | | +==================================================================== + + +The following cases taken from the official rosters show some +promotions to the higher positions in the service of employees who +entered the lower ranks of the classified service:-- + +A clerk who entered the service in 1899 at $1800 per annum was +appointed in 1903 an assistant chief of bureau at $3000 per annum and +in 1908 executive secretary at $9000 per annum. A teacher appointed in +1899 at $720 per annum was appointed a chief of an office at $4000 per +annum and in 1912 a judge at $4500 per annum. A teacher who entered +the service in 1901 at $1200 per annum was in 1909 appointed a chief +of a bureau at $6000 per annum. A teacher who entered the service in +1904 at $1000 per annum was appointed in 1911 an assistant chief of +a bureau at $6000 per annum. A clerk who entered the service in 1901 +at $1200 per annum was appointed in 1909 an assistant chief of the +executive bureau at $3750 per annum and in 1912 a chief of a bureau +at $6000 per annum. A stenographer who entered the service in 1902 +at $1400 per annum was in 1908 appointed an assistant chief of a +bureau at $5000 per annum. A transitman who entered the service in +1905 at $1400 per annum was in 1913 appointed an assistant chief of a +bureau at $4500 per annum. An accountant who entered the service in +1901 at $1800 per annum was in 1907 appointed an assistant chief of +a bureau at $3750 per annum and in 1909 a chief of a bureau at $6000 +per annum. A law clerk who entered the service in 1904 at $1800 per +annum was in 1913 appointed judge at $4500 per annum. In no service +anywhere has promotion depended more directly on demonstrated ability, +and in many instances it has been rapid. + +Young men living two in a room may obtain room and board in boarding +houses in Manila at a rate as low as $35 per month each. In the Young +Men's Christian Association building, a large reënforced concrete +structure with reading room, gymnasium, and a good restaurant, the +charge for two in a room is $10.25 each. Board costs $27.50, a total of +$37.75. The expenses for clothing in Manila are less than in the United +States, as white clothing is worn the whole year and white duck suits +may be obtained for about $3 each. The expenses for laundry amount +to about $5 a month. The necessity of employing a _muchacho_ [490] is +_nil_, in the case of an unmarried employee who boards. Servants are +far cheaper and better in the Philippines than in the United States. + +In a discussion of the salaries paid in the Philippine civil service +the question of the leave allowed should be considered. Classified +employees who receive an annual salary of $1000 or more per annum may +be granted twenty-eight days' leave per annum to cover absences from +duty due to illness or other causes. If not taken during the calendar +year in which it is earned or in January or February of the succeeding +year, it is forfeited. Employees taking vacation leave during the +months of December, January, February and March may take fifty-six +days, corresponding to two years of service, at one time, and may thus +get time to visit Australia, Japan, China, and neighbouring countries. + +In addition to vacation leave an employee whose salary is $1000 or +more but less than $1800 per annum is entitled to thirty days' accrued +leave per annum, and an employee whose salary is $1800 per annum or +more is entitled to thirty-five days' accrued leave per annum. Accrued +leave may accumulate for not more than five years of service. + +All classified employees are entitled to visit the United States or +foreign countries once in every three years, receiving in addition to +their accrued leave, one year's vacation leave, allowance of actual +travel time at half pay not to exceed sixty days, and return travel +expenses from place of residence in the United States, or from port +of embarkation in a foreign country to Manila, on the completion of +two years of service after date of return. An employee entitled to +thirty-five days' accrued leave per annum who visits the United States +after having rendered three years of service receives a total of two +hundred thirteen days' accrued leave, vacation leave, and half-pay +travel time. If he postpones his visit till he has completed five +years of service, he receives a total of two hundred ninety-one days' +accrued leave, vacation leave and travel time. An employee entitled to +thirty days' accrued leave per annum who visits the United States after +three years of service receives a total of one hundred ninety-four +days' leave and half-pay travel time, and if he postpones his visit +until he has rendered five years of service, he receives a total of +two hundred fifty-nine days' leave and travel time. + +It will be seen that these are very liberal allowances. An employee +receiving $1200 at the end of two years of service may spend eight +weeks of vacation leave visiting Japan or other surrounding countries, +and at the end of an additional year's service he may visit his home +in the United States with six and a third months' absence on full and +half pay and with his expenses from his home to Manila payable two +years after his return, and during every three years of his service +he may have the same privileges. + +The law also provides that if an employee is wounded or injured in +the performance of duty, he may have a total of six months' leave on +full pay in addition to any accrued leave to his credit. + +Employees who have rendered satisfactory service and resign after +three or more years receive in a lump sum all accrued leave due and +thirty days' half salary. For example, an employee who has received +$1800 per annum and has served five years without taking any leave +in excess of the four weeks' vacation leave allowable annually would +draw $1025 were he to resign. + +The school sessions amount to forty weeks per annum and the school +vacations to twelve weeks per annum. [491] Teachers receive an annual +salary and draw full pay during vacations as well as during school +sessions. Every third year they are allowed to visit the United States +or foreign countries with an allowance of sixty days' half-pay travel +time in addition to the ten weeks' long vacation, and on completing +two years of service after return to the islands they are entitled to +their travelling expenses from place of residence in the United States +to Manila or from port of embarkation in a foreign country to Manila. + +It is interesting to compare these provisions with the regulations +governing leave of absence in the British colonial service:-- + + (1) There is no distinction between sick leave and ordinary + leave, the leave of absence on account of sickness being + charged against the ordinary leave allowable. + + (2) There are two classes of leave: vacation leave on full + pay and half-pay leave. + + (3) The vacation leave amounts to three months every two + years, and must be taken during the two years, as it does + not accumulate. + + (4) The half-pay leave amounts to two months for each year + of service, but cannot be taken until after a period of six + years' resident service in the Colony, except in cases of + serious indisposition supported by medical certificate, or of + "urgent private affairs," the nature of which must be stated + to the governor. In either case, the governor and council + must be satisfied that the indulgence is indispensable. + + Half pay in African and Asiatic colonies may accumulate for + twelve years' service--_i.e._ twenty-four months' half-pay + leave. + + (5) After the exhaustion of all vacation leave and half-pay + leave, an advance of six months' half-pay leave may be made on + special grounds ("urgent private affairs" or illness supported + by a medical certificate), the advance being charged against + leave accruing subsequently. + + (6) For the purpose of visiting home, an officer may be + granted the vacation leave due him (which is never more than + three months) on full pay, and his accumulated half-pay leave, + to commence at the expiration of his vacation leave. + + (7) Judicial and education officers do not receive the + vacation leave described in paragraph 3 above, the vacation + of courts and schools being considered equal to this, but + they do receive the half-pay leave described in paragraph 4, + and may, when visiting home on half-pay leave, receive full + pay during any ordinary vacation of the court or school. + +It will be noted that although officers in the British colonial service +are allowed much longer periods of absence, the greater part of their +absence is on half pay and the total money value of the leave allowable +in the British colonial service and in the Philippine civil service +is about the same. As officers naturally prefer to be on full pay +instead of half pay while on leave, the provision of the Philippine +law is in their interest; it is also in the interest of the service, +as the periods of the absence from duty are not so prolonged. + +The Philippine Civil Service Law is now about to be put to its +first really severe test as a result of the change in the national +administration. Heretofore those whose duty and privilege it has been +to enforce it have been in the most full and hearty sympathy with its +purposes. President McKinley was from the outset definitely committed +to the widest application of the merit system to appointments in the +Philippines. Mr. Roosevelt and Mr. Taft firmly supported that system, +as has each succeeding governor-general up to, but not including, +Mr. Harrison, who is as yet an unknown quantity. + +It is interesting, however, to note that on the day following his +arrival there was a demand for the instant resignation of Mr. Thomas +Cary Welch, a faithful and efficient employee of the government, +who had been for nearly ten years in the service, whose position +was desired for, and immediately given to, Mr. Stephen Bonsal. That +gentleman had been appointed at Washington a member of the Municipal +Board of Manila immediately after Mr. Harrison's confirmation as +governor-general. It is not recorded that Mr. Bonsal rendered any +valuable service to the city on the voyage, or during the twenty-four +hours of his occupancy of his municipal post subsequent to his +arrival! Nor does it appear that he passed any examination before +his early promotion. + +Following closely upon the removal of Mr. Welch came a demand for +the resignation of Captain Charles H. Sleeper, Director of Lands, +who was unquestionably one of the ablest and most efficient of the +bureau chiefs. + +He had earned the ill-will of the _politicos_ by insisting that persons +authorized to make public land surveys, or other surveys on which +claims of title as against the government were to be based, should +know enough about surveying to make one correct survey when given +an opportunity practically to demonstrate their abilities under very +favourable conditions. He had also incurred the dislike of influential +_caciques_ by defending the occupants of small holdings on friar +estates from the rapacity of their rich neighbours, and by protecting +free-patent applicants and homesteaders when large landowners opposed +their applications in order to prevent their securing land, so that +they might the more easily be held as peon labourers. + +He had started in his bureau a practical school for Filipino surveyors +which was training really well-qualified candidates for positions +desired by the politicians for themselves or their incompetent friends. + +Last, but not least, he had helped to upset the plans of the men +primarily responsible for the so-called "friar lands investigation" +conducted by the House Committee on Insular Affairs, which cost +the United States government a very large sum, and resulted in +demonstrating his uprightness and the efficiency of his administration. + +Mr. John R. Wilson, the assistant director of lands, was absent at the +moment, but his resignation was demanded on the day of his return. He +too was an active, efficient, upright man. + +Both of these removals were political acts, pure and simple. Sr. Manuel +Tinio was appointed Director of Lands. He is a bright young Ilocano +of good character, who had become a "general" in the Insurgent army +at twenty-one years of age. He is unfit to hold the place, because, +as he has himself frankly said, he knows nothing about the work. He +is charged with the duty of administering $7,000,000 worth of friar +lands, and the whole public domain of the Philippine Islands, and with +such minor duties as the checkmating of the machinations of numerous +wealthy Filipinos who seek fraudulently to acquire great tracts through +fraudulent claims to unperfected titles and by other improper means. + +While in Honolulu, _en route_ to Manila, Mr. Harrison gave out an +interview, which I am credibly informed he has since confirmed in +substance. It contained the following statement:-- + + "For years I have been of the minority in Congress and have + seen the Democrats kicked about, trampled upon, and otherwise + manhandled by Republicans, so that I must confess it now gives + me a saturnine pleasure to see the Democrats in a position + to do the same thing to the Republicans." + +His early official acts after arrival at Manila confirmed the belief +that this was indeed the spirit in which he was facing the grave +responsibilities which there confronted him. + +It is beyond doubt or cavil that high ideals heretofore have prevailed +in the Philippine Civil Service. Are they now to be substituted by +the methods of the ward politician? + +In its report for 1901 the Philippine Commission said:-- + + "The civil service law has been in operation since our last + report, and we see no reason to change our conclusion as + to the absolute necessity for its existence, and strict + enforcement. Without this law American government in these + Islands is, in our opinion, foredoomed to humiliating failure." + +I signed that report. I have not since seen any reason to change +my mind. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +The Philippine Constabulary and Public Order + + +During the last thirty years of Spanish rule in the Philippines +evil-doers were pursued and apprehended and public order was maintained +chiefly by the _guardia civil_. At the time of its organization in +1868 this body had a single division. By 1880 the number had been +increased to three, two for Luzón and one for the Visayan Islands. + +The _guardia civil_ was organized upon a military basis, its officers +and soldiers being drawn from the regular army of Spain by selection +or upon recommendation. Detachments were distributed throughout the +provinces and were commanded according to their size by commissioned +or non-commissioned officers. Central offices were located in district +capitals; company headquarters were stationed in provincial capitals, +and detachments were sent to places where they were deemed to be +necessary. + +Under ordinary conditions they rendered service as patrols of two men +each, but for the purpose of attacking large bands of outlaws one or +several companies were employed as occasion required. + +The _guardia civil_ had jurisdiction over all sorts of violations of +laws and municipal ordinances. They made reports upon which were based +the appointments of municipal officers, the granting of licenses to +carry firearms, and the determination of the loyalty or the disloyalty +of individuals. + +They were vested with extraordinary powers. Offences against them +were tried by courts-martial, and were construed as offences against +sentinels on duty. Penalties were therefore extremely severe. + +Officers of the _guardia civil_ on leave could by their own initiative +assume a status of duty with the full powers and responsibilities +that go with command. This is contrary to American practice, under +which only dire emergency justifies an officer in assuming an official +status unless he is duly assigned thereto by competent authority. + +The _guardia civil_ could arrest on suspicion, and while the Spanish +Government did not directly authorize or sanction the use of force to +extort confessions, it was not scrupulous in the matter of accepting +confessions so obtained as evidence of crime, nor was it quick to +punish members of the _guardia civil_ charged with mistreatment +of prisoners. + +Reports made by the _guardia civil_ were not questioned, but were +accepted without support even in cases of the killing of prisoners +alleged to have attempted to escape, or of men evading arrest. + +This method of eliminating without trial citizens deemed to be +undesirable was applied with especial frequency in the suppression +of active brigandage, and latterly during the revolution against +Spain. Prisoners in charge of the _guardia civil_ were always tied +elbow to elbow. They knew full well that resistance or flight was +an invitation to their guards to kill them, and that this invitation +was likely to be promptly accepted. + +In the investigation of crime the members of this organization arrested +persons on suspicion and compelled them to make revelations, true or +false. Eye-witnesses to the commission of crime were not needed in +the Spanish courts of that day. The confession of an accused person +secured his conviction, even though not made in the presence of a +judge. Indirect and hearsay evidence were accepted, and such things +as writs of habeas corpus and the plea of double jeopardy were unknown +in Spanish procedure. + +The _guardia civil_ could rearrest individuals and again charge them +with crimes of which they had already been acquitted. I have been +assured by reliable Filipino witnesses that it was common during the +latter days of Spanish sovereignty for persons who had made themselves +obnoxious to the government to be invited by non-commissioned +officers to take a walk, which was followed either by their complete +disappearance or by the subsequent discovery of their dead bodies. + +It naturally resulted that the members of the _guardia civil_ were +regarded with detestation and terror by the people, but their power +was so absolute that protest rarely became public. The one notable +exception was furnished by Dr. Rizal's book entitled "Noli Me Tangere," +which voiced the complaints of the Filipinos against them. There is +not a vestige of doubt that hatred of them was one of the principal +causes of the insurrection against Spain. + +In 1901 the American government organized a rural police force in +the Philippines. It was called the Philippine constabulary. The +insurrection was then drawing to a close, but there were left in the +field many guerilla bands armed and uniformed. Their members sought to +excuse their lawless acts under the plea of patriotism and opposition +to the forces of the United States. In many provinces they combined +with professional bandits or with religious fanatics. Various "popes" +arose, like Papa Isio in Negros. The Filipinos had become accustomed +to a state of war which had continued for nearly six years. Habits +of peace had been abandoned. The once prosperous haciendas were in +ruins. War and pestilence had destroyed many of the work animals, +and those which remained continued to perish from disease. Asiatic +cholera was sweeping through the archipelago, and consternation and +disorder followed in its wake. + +Under such circumstances the organization of a rural police force was +imperatively necessary. Unfortunately the most critical situation which +it was to be called upon to meet had to be faced at the very outset, +when both officers and men were inexperienced and before adequate +discipline could be established. + +The law providing for its establishment was drawn by the Honourable +Luke E. Wright, at that time secretary of commerce and police and +later destined to become governor-general of the Philippines and +secretary of war of the United States. + +It was intended that the constabulary should accomplish its ends by +force when necessary but by sympathetic supervision when possible, +suppressing brigandage and turning the people towards habits of +peace. The fact was clearly borne in mind that the abuses of the +_guardia civil_ had not been forgotten and the new force was designed +to meet existing conditions, to allay as rapidly as possible the +existing just rancour against the similar organization established +under the Spanish régime, and to avoid the evils which had contributed +so much toward causing the downfall of Spanish sovereignty. The law +was admirably framed to achieve these ends. + +The officers of the constabulary were selected chiefly from American +volunteers recently mustered out and from honourably discharged +soldiers of the United States army. Some few Filipinos, whose loyalty +was above suspicion, were appointed to the lower grades. This number +has since been materially augumented, and some of the original Filipino +appointees have risen to the rank of captain. + +It was inevitable that at the outset there should be abuses. The +organization was necessarily born at work; there was no time to +instruct, to formulate regulations, to wait until a satisfactory +state of discipline had been brought about. There were not barracks +for housing the soldiers; there were neither uniforms, nor arms, +nor ammunition. There was no system for rationing the men. All of +these things had to be provided, and they were provided through a +natural evolution of practical processes, crystallizing into form, +tested by the duties of the day. The organization which grew up was a +true survival of the fittest, both in personnel and in methods. The +wonder is not that some abuses occurred, but that they were so few; +not that there were occasional evidences of lack of efficiency, +but that efficiency was on the whole so high from the beginning. + +The several provinces were made administrative units, the commanding +officer in each being designated as "senior inspector." The men who +were to serve in a given province were by preference recruited there, +and a departure was thus made from the usual foreign colonial practice. + +In 1905 the total force was fixed at one hundred companies with a +nominal strength of two officers and fifty men each. Under special +conditions this rule may be departed from, and the size of the +companies or the number of officers increased. + +Each province is divided by the senior inspector into sections, and the +responsibility for patrol work and general policing rests on the senior +company officer in each station. The provinces are grouped into five +districts, each commanded by an assistant chief who exercises therein +the authority, and performs the duties appropriate to the chief for +the entire Philippines. The higher administrative positions have always +been filled by detailing regular officers of the United States army. + +The constabulary soldiers are now neatly uniformed, armed with Krag +carbines and well disciplined. They show the effect of good and regular +food and of systematic exercise, their physical condition being vastly +superior to that of the average Filipino. They are given regular +instruction in their military duties. It is conducted in English. + +The Philippine constabulary may be defined as a body of armed men +with a military organization, recruited from among the people of the +islands, officered in part by Americans and in part by Filipinos, and +employed primarily for police duty in connection with the establishment +and maintenance of public order. + +Blount's chapters on the administrations of Taft, Wright and Smith +embody one prolonged plaint to the effect that the organization of +the constabulary was premature, and that after the war proper ended, +the last smouldering embers of armed and organized insurrection should +have been stamped out, and the brigandage which had existed in the +Philippines for centuries should have been dealt with, by the United +States army rather than by the constabulary. + +Even if it were true that the army could have rendered more effective +service to this end than could have been expected at the outset from +a newly organized body of Filipino soldiers, the argument against the +organization and use of the constabulary would in my opinion have +been by no means conclusive. It is our declared policy to prepare +the Filipinos to establish and maintain a stable government of their +own. The proper exercise of police powers is obviously necessary to +such an end. + +From the outset we have sacrificed efficiency in order that our wards +might gain practical experience, and might demonstrate their ability, +or lack of ability, to perform necessary governmental functions. Does +any one cognizant of the situation doubt for a moment that provincial +and municipal affairs in the Philippine Islands would to-day be more +efficiently administered if provincial and municipal officers were +appointed instead of being elected? Is any one so foolish as to imagine +that the sanitary regeneration of the islands would not have progressed +much more rapidly had highly trained American health officers been used +in place of many of the badly educated and comparatively inexperienced +Filipino physicians whose services have been utilized? + +Nevertheless, in the concrete case under discussion I dissent from +the claim that more satisfactory results could have been obtained by +the use of American troops. + +The army had long been supreme in the Philippines. Every function of +government had been performed by its officers and men, if performed at +all. Our troops had been combating an elusive and cruel enemy. If they +were human it is to be presumed that they still harbored animosities, +born of these conditions, toward the people with whom they had +so recently been fighting. Had the work of pacification been then +turned over to them it would have meant that often in the localities +in which they had been fighting, and in dealing with the men to whom +they had very recently been actively opposed in armed conflict, they +would have been called upon to perform tasks and to entertain feelings +radically different from those of the preceding two or three years. + +A detachment, marching through Leyte, found an American who had +disappeared a short time before crucified, head down. His abdominal +wall had been carefully opened so that his intestines might hang down +in his face. + +Another American prisoner, found on the same trip, had been buried in +the ground with only his head projecting. His mouth had been propped +open with a stick, a trail of sugar laid to it through the forest, +and a handful thrown into it. + +Millions of ants had done the rest. + +Officers and men who saw such things were thereby fitted for war, +rather than for ordinary police duty. + +The truth is that they had seen so many of them that they continued to +see them in imagination when they no longer existed. I well remember +when a general officer, directed by his superior to attend a banquet +at Manila in which Americans and Filipinos joined, came to it wearing +a big revolver! + +Long after Manila was quiet I was obliged to get out of my carriage +in the rain and darkness half a dozen times while driving the length +of Calle Real, and "approach to be recognized" by raw "rookies," +each of whom pointed a loaded rifle at me while I did it. I know +that this did not tend to make me feel peaceable or happy. In my +opinion it was wholly unnecessary, and yet I did not blame the army +for thinking otherwise. + +After the war was over, when my private secretary, Mr. James H. LeRoy, +was one day approaching Malolos, he was sternly commanded by a sentry +to halt, the command being emphasized as usual by presenting to his +attention a most unattractive view down the muzzle of a Krag. He was +next ordered to "salute the flag," which he finally discovered with +difficulty in the distance, after being told where to look. The army +way is right and necessary in war, but it makes a lot of bother in +time of peace! + +This was not the only reason for failing to make more extensive use +of American soldiers in police duty. A veteran colonel of United +States cavalry who had just read Judge Blount's book was asked what +he thought of the claim therein made that the army should have done +the police and pacification work of the Philippines. His reply was:-- + + "How long would it take a regiment of Filipinos to catch an + American outlaw in the United States? Impossible!" + +Another army officer said:-- + + "Catching Filipino outlaws with the Army is like catching a + flea in a twenty-acre field with a traction engine." + +There is perhaps nothing so demoralizing to regular troops as +employment on police duty which requires them to work singly or in +small squads. Discipline speedily goes to the dogs and instruction +becomes impossible. + +Successful prosecution of the work of chasing _ladrones_ in the +Philippines requires a thorough knowledge of local topography and +of local native dialects. Spanish is of use, but only in dealing +with educated Filipinos. A knowledge of the Filipino himself; of his +habits of thought; of his attitude toward the white man; and toward +the _illustrado_, or educated man, of his own race; ability to enter a +town and speedily to determine the relative importance of its leading +citizens, finally centring on the one man, always to be found, who +runs it, whether he holds political office or not, and also to enlist +the sympathy and coöperation of its people; all of these things are +essential to the successful handling of brigandage in the Philippines, +whether such brigandage has, or lacks, political significance. + +The following parallel will make clear some of the reasons why it was +determined to use constabulary instead of American soldiers in policing +the Philippines from the time the insurrection officially ended:-- + + +United States Army Philippine Constabulary + +Soldier costs per annum $1400. Soldier costs per annum $363.50. +(Authority: Adjutant General +Heistand in 1910.) + +American soldiers come from Constabulary soldiers are +America. enlisted in the province + where they are to serve. + +Few American soldiers speak All constabulary soldiers +the local dialects. speak local dialects. + +Few American soldiers speak All educated constabulary +any Spanish. soldiers speak Spanish. + +American soldiers usually have Constabulary soldiers, native to +but a slight knowledge of local the country, know the geography +geography and topography. and topography of their respective + provinces. + +Few American soldiers have had The Filipino soldier certainly +enough contact with Filipinos knows his own kind better than +to understand them. the American does. + +The American soldier uses a The constabulary soldier is +ration of certain fixed components rationed in cash and buys the +imported over sea. (A ration is food of the country where he +the day's allowance of food for happens to be. +one soldier.) + +The American ration costs The constabulary cash ration is +24.3 cents United States currency 10.5 cents United States currency. +(exclusive of cost of (No freight or handling charges.) +transportation and handling). The constabulary soldier knows not +Fresh meat requiring ice to keep ice. His food grows in the islands. +it is a principal part of the He buys it on the ground and needs +American ration. To supply it no transportation to bring it to him. +requires a regular system of +transport from the United States +to Manila and from thence to local +ports, and wagon transportation +from ports to inland stations. + +The American soldier is at no The idea of enlisting the sympathy +pains to enlist the sympathy and and coöperation of the local +coöperation of the people; and population is the strongest tenet +his methods of discipline habits in the constabulary creed. +of life, etc., make it practically +impossible for him to gain them. + + +Before preparing the foregoing statement relative to the reasons for +using Philippine constabulary soldiers instead of soldiers of the +United States army for police work during the period in question, I +asked Colonel J. G. Harbord, assistant director of the constabulary, +who has served with that body nine years, has been its acting director +and is an officer of the United States army, to give me a memorandum +on the subject. It is only fair to him to say that I have not only +followed very closely the line of argument embodied in the memorandum +which he was good enough to prepare for me, but have in many instances +used his very words. The parallel columns are his. + +The constabulary soldier, thoroughly familiar with the topography +of the country in which he operates; speaking the local dialect and +acquainted with the persons most likely to be able and willing to +furnish accurate information; familiar with the characteristics of +his own people; able to live off the country and keep well, is under +all ordinary circumstances a more efficient and vastly less expensive +police officer than the American soldier, no matter how brave and +energetic the latter may be. Furthermore, his activities are much +less likely to arouse animosity. + +Incidentally, the army is pretty consistently unwilling to take the +field unless the constitutional guarantees are temporarily suspended, +and it particularly objects to writs of habeas corpus. The suspension +of such guarantees is obviously undesirable unless really very +necessary. + +Let us now consider some of the specific instances of alleged +inefficiency of the constabulary in suppressing public disorder, +cited by Blount. + +On page 403 of his book he says, speaking of Governor Taft and disorder +in the province of Albay which arose in 1902-1903:-- + + "He did not want to order out the military again if he could + help it, and this relegated him to his native municipal police + and constabulary, experimental outfits of doubtful loyalty, + and, at best, wholly inadequate, as it afterwards turned out, + for the maintenance of public order and for affording to + the peaceably inclined people that sort of security for life + and property, and that protection against semi-political as + well as unmitigated brigandage, which would comport with the + dignity of this nation." + +The facts as to these disorders are briefly as follows:-- + +In 1902 an outlaw in Tayabas Province who made his living by +organizing political conspiracies and collecting contributions in +the name of patriotism, who was known as José Roldan when operating +in adjoining provinces, but had an alias in Tayabas, found his life +made so uncomfortable by the constabulary of that province that he +transferred his operations to Albay. There he affiliated himself +with a few ex-Insurgent officers who had turned outlaws instead +of surrendering, and with oath violators, and began the same kind +of political operations which he had carried out in Tayabas, the +principal feature of his work being the collection of "contributions." + +The troubles in Albay were encouraged by wealthy Filipinos who saw in +them a probable opportunity to acquire valuable hemp lands at bottom +prices, for people dependent on their hemp fields, if prevented from +working them, might in the end be forced to sell them. Roldan soon +lost standing with his new organization because it was found that he +was using for his personal benefit the money which he collected. + +About this time one Simeon Ola joined his organization. Ola was +a native of Albay, where he had been an Insurgent major under the +command of the Tagálog general, Belarmino. His temporary rank had +gone to his head, and he is reported to have shown considerable +severity and hauteur in his treatment of his former neighbours +in Guinobatan, to which place he had returned at the close of the +insurrection. Meanwhile, a wealthy Chinese _mestizo_ named Don Circilio +Jaucian, on whom Ola, during his brief career as an Insurgent officer, +had laid a heavy hand, had become _presidente_ of the town. + +Smarting under the indignities which he had suffered, Jaucian made it +very uncomfortable for the former major, and in ways well understood +in Malay countries brought it home to the latter that their positions +had been reversed. Ola's house was mysteriously burned, and his life +in Guinobatan was made so unbearable that he took to the hills. + +Ola had held higher military rank than had any of his outlaw +associates, and he became their dominating spirit. He had no grievance +against the Americans, but took every opportunity to avenge himself +on the _caciques_ of Guinobatan, his native town. + +Three assistant chiefs of constabulary, Garwood, Baker and Bandholtz, +were successively sent to Albay to deal with this situation. Baker +and Bandholtz were regular army officers. The latter ended the +disturbances, employing first and last some twelve companies of +Philippine scouts, armed, officered, paid, equipped and disciplined +as are the regular soldiers of the United States army, and a similar +number of constabulary soldiers. Eleven stations in the restricted +field of operations of this outlaw were occupied by scouts. There were +few armed conflicts in force between Ola's men and these troops. In +fact, it was only with the greatest difficulty that this band, which +from time to time dissolved into the population only to reappear +again, could be located even by the native soldiers. It would have +been impracticable successfully to use American troops for such work. + +Referring to the statement made by Blount [492] that Vice-Governor +Wright made a visit to Albay in 1903 in the interest "of the +peace-at-any-price policy that the Manila Government was bent on," +and the implication that he went there to conduct peace negotiations, +General Bandholtz, who suppressed outlawry in Albay, has said that +Vice-Governor Wright and Commissioner Pardo de Tavera came there +at his request to look into conditions with reference to certain +allegations which had been made. + +Colonel Bandholtz and the then chief of constabulary, General Allen, +were supported by the civil governor and the commission in their +recommendations that no terms should be made with the outlaws. The +following statement occurs in a letter from General Bandholtz dated +September 21, 1903:-- + + "No one is more anxious to terminate this business than I am, + nevertheless I think it would be a mistake to offer any such + inducements, and that more lasting benefits would result by + hammering away as we have been doing." + +And General Allen said in an indorsement to the Philippine +Commission:-- + + "... in my opinion the judgment of Colonel Bandholtz in + matters connected with the pacification of Albay should + receive favourable consideration. Halfway measures are always + misinterpreted and used to the detriment of the Government + among the ignorant followers of the outlaws." + +These views prevailed. + +Blount has claimed that the death rate in the Albay jail at this +time was very excessive, and cites it as an instance of the result +of American maladministration. + +Assuming that his tabulation [493] of the dead who died in the Albay +jail between May 30 and September, 1903, amounting to 120, is correct, +the following statements should be made:-- + +Only recently has it been demonstrated that beri-beri is due to the +use of polished rice, which was up to the time of this discovery +regarded as far superior to unpolished rice as an article of food, +and is still much better liked by the Filipinos than is the unpolished +article. Many of these deaths were from beri-beri, and were due to +a misguided effort to give the prisoners the best possible food. + +Cholera was raging in the province of Albay throughout the period +in question, and the people outside of the jail suffered no less +than did those within it. The same is true of malarial infection. In +other words, conditions inside the jail were quite similar to those +then prevailing outside, except that the prisoners got polished rice +which was given them with the best intentions in the world, and was +by them considered a superior article of food. + +With the present knowledge of the methods of dissemination of +Asiatic cholera gained as a result of the American occupation of +the Philippines, we should probably be able to exclude it from a +jail under such circumstances, as the part played by "germ carriers" +who show no outward manifestations of infection is now understood, +but it was not then dreamed of. One of the greatest reforms effected +by Americans in the Philippines is the sanitation of the jails and +penitentiaries, and we cannot be fairly blamed for not knowing in +1903 what nobody then knew. + +The troubles in Albay ended with the surrender of Ola on September +25, 1903. Blount gives the impression that he had a knowledge of them +which was gained by personal observation. He arrived in the province +in the middle of November, seven weeks after normal conditions had +been reëstablished. + +On October 5, 1903, General Bandholtz telegraphed with reference to +the final surrender of Ola's band:-- + + "The towns are splitting themselves wide open celebrating + pacification and Ramon Santos (later elected governor) is + going to give a record-breaking fiesta at Ligao. Everybody + invited. Scouts and Constabulary have done superb work." + +Blount makes much of disorders in Samar and Leyte. Let us consider +the facts. + +In all countries feuds between highlanders and lowlanders have been +common. Although the inhabitants of the hills and those of the lowlands +in the two islands under discussion are probably of identical blood +and origin, they long since became separated in thought and feeling, +and grew to be mutually antagonistic. The ignorant people of the +interior have always been oppressed by their supposedly more highly +civilized brethren living on or near the coast. + +The killing of Otoy by the constabulary in 1911 marked the passing +of the last of a series of mountain chiefs who had exercised a very +powerful influence over the hill people and had claimed for themselves +supernatural powers. + +Manila hemp is the principal product upon which these mountaineers +depend in bartering for cloth and other supplies. The cleaning of +hemp involves very severe exertion, and when it is cleaned it must +usually, in Samar, be carried to the seashore on the backs of the +men who raise it. Under the most favourable circumstances, it may be +transported thither in small _bancas_ [494] down the streams. + +The lowland people of Samar and Leyte had long been holding up the +hill people when they brought in their hemp for sale in precisely the +way that Filipinos in other islands are accustomed to hold up members +of the non-Christian tribes. They played the part of middlemen, +purchasing the hemp of the ignorant hill people at low prices and +often reselling it, without giving it even a day's storage, at a very +much higher figure. This system was carried so far that conditions +became unbearable and finally resulted in so-called _pulájanism_ +which began in the year 1904. + +The term _pulájan_ is derived from a native word meaning "red" and +was given to the mountain people because in their attacks upon the +lowlanders they wore, as a distinguishing mark, red trousers or a +dash of red colour elsewhere about their sparse clothing. They raided +coast towns and did immense damage before they were finally brought +under control. It should be remembered that these conditions were +allowed to arise by a Filipino provincial governor, and by Filipino +municipal officials. It is altogether probable that a good American +governor would have prevented them, but as it was, neither their cause +nor their importance were understood at the outset. The _pulájan_ +movement was directed primarily against Filipinos. + +The first outbreak occurred on July 10, 1904, in the Gandara River +valley where a settlement of the lowlanders was burned and some of its +inhabitants were killed. Eventually disorder spread to many places on +the coast, and one scout garrison of a single company was surprised +and overwhelmed by superior numbers. Officers and men were massacred +and their rifles taken. + +In point of area Samar is the third island in the Philippines. In +its interior are many rugged peaks and heavily forested mountains. It +was here that a detachment of United States marines under the command +of Major Waller, while attempting to cross the island, were lost for +nearly two weeks, going without food for days and enduring terrible +hardships. + +At the time in question there were not five miles of road on the +island passable for a vehicle, nor were there trails through the +mountains over which horses could be ridden. The only interior lines +of communication were a few footpaths over which the natives were +accustomed to make their way from the mountains to the coast. + +Troops have perhaps never attempted a campaign in a country more +difficult than the interior of Samar. The traditional needle in the +haystack would be easy to find compared with an outlaw, or band of +outlaws, in such a rugged wilderness. + +Upon the outbreak of trouble troops were hurried to Samar, and by +December, 1904, according to Blount himself, there were some 1800 +native soldiers on the island who were left free for active operations +in the field by the garrisoning of various coast towns with sixteen +companies of United States infantry. + +If the nature of the feuds between the Samar lowlanders and highlanders +had then been better understood, the ensuing troubles, which were +more or less continuous for nearly two years, might perhaps have +been avoided. As soon as it became evident that the situation was +such as to demand the use of the army it was employed to supplement +the operations of the constabulary. + +About the time that trouble ended in Samar it began in Leyte. There +was no real connection between the disorders in the two islands. No +leader on either island is known to have communicated with any leader +on the other; no fanatical follower ever left Samar for Leyte or +Leyte for Samar so far as we are informed. + +For convenience of administration the two islands were grouped in a +single command after the army was requested to take over the handling +of the disturbances there, in coöperation with the constabulary. The +trouble ended in 1907 and both islands have remained quiet ever +since. The same causes would again produce the same results now or +at any time in the future, and they would be then, as in the past, +the outcome of the oppression of the weak by the strong and without +other political significance. Under a good government they should +never recur. + +Many circumstances which did not exist in 1902 and 1904 made it +feasible to use the army in Samar and Leyte during 1905 and 1906. The +high officers who had exercised such sweeping powers during the +insurrection had meanwhile given way to other commanders. Indeed, +a practically new Philippine army had come into existence. The +policy of the insular government as to the treatment of individual +Filipinos had been recognized and indorsed by Americans generally, +but many of the objections to the use of the troops, including the +heavy expense involved, still existed and I affirm without fear of +successful contradiction that had it been possible to place in Samar +and Leyte a number of constabulary soldiers equal to that of the +scouts and American troops actually employed, disorder would have +been terminated much more quickly and at very greatly less cost. + +With the final breaking up of organized brigandage in 1905 law and +order may be said to have been established throughout the islands. It +has since been the business of the constabulary to maintain it. The +value of the coöperation of the law-abiding portion of the population +has been fully recognized. The newly appointed constabulary officer +has impressed upon him the necessity of manifesting an interest in the +people with whom he comes in contact; of cultivating the acquaintance +of Filipinos of all social grades, and of assisting to settle their +disagreements and harmonize their differences whenever possible. He +is taught a native dialect. + +The constabulary have to a high degree merited and secured +the confidence and good-will of the people, whose rights they +respect. There is a complete absence of the old arbitrary procedure +followed by the _guardia civil_ and as a result there are frequent +requests from Filipino officials for additional detachments, while +the removal of a company from a given community is almost invariably +followed by vigorous protests. The power of human sympathy is very +great, and as the attitude of constabulary officers and men is usually +one of sympathy, conciliation and affection, that body has earned +and deserved popularity. + +The success of the constabulary in apprehending criminals has been +both praiseworthy and noteworthy. The courage and efficiency which +have often been displayed by its officers and men in hard-fought +engagements with Moro outlaws or with organized bands of thieves +and brigands have been beyond praise. Many of its officers have +rendered invaluable service in bringing the people of the more +unruly non-Christian tribes under governmental control, not only +bravely and efficiently performing their duty as police officers, +but assisting in trail construction or discharging, in effect, the +duties of lieutenant-governors in very remote places which could be +visited by the actual lieutenant-governors only infrequently. I later +take occasion to mention the valuable work done by Lieutenant Case +in the early days of Ifugao, and to dwell at length on the splendid +service rendered there by Lieutenant Jeff D. Gallman, who was for +many years lieutenant-governor of the subprovince while continuing +to serve as a constabulary officer. Lieutenant Maimban at Quiangan, +and Lieutenant Dosser at Mayoyao, have been and are most useful, +though they do not hold official positions under the Mountain Province +or receive any additional compensation for the special services which +they render. Captain Guy O. Fort served most acceptably as governor of +the province of Agusan during the interim between the resignation of +Governor Lewis and the appointment of Governor Bryant and Lieutenants +Atkins and Zapanta have also rendered valuable service as assistants to +the provincial governor. Lieutenant Turnbull is now assistant to the +governor of Nueva Vizcaya for work among the Ilongots on the Pacific +coast of northern Luzón. Other constabulary officers, who have not +been called upon for special service of this kind, have performed +their ordinary duties in such a way as to demonstrate that they were +actuated by the spirit of coöperation and have been of great help. + +But the work of the constabulary has not been confined to police +duty. They have been of the greatest assistance to the Director of +Health in effectively maintaining quarantine, and making possible the +isolation of victims of dangerous communicable diseases like cholera +and smallpox, when inefficient municipal policemen have utterly failed +to do their duty. They have given similar assistance to the Director +of Agriculture in the maintenance of quarantine in connection with +efforts to combat diseases of domestic animals. In great emergencies +such as those presented by the recent eruption of Taal volcano, and +the devastation caused by great typhoons, they have been quick to +respond to the call of duty and have rendered efficient and heroic +service. They assist internal revenue officers. Except in a few of +the largest cities they are the firemen of the islands and by their +effective work have repeatedly checked conflagrations, which are of +frequent occurrence and tend to be very destructive in this country, +where most of the houses are built of bamboo and nipa palm, and +where roofs become dry as tinder during the long period when there +is little or no rain. They have aided in combating pests of locusts, +and, in short, have been ready to meet almost any kind of an emergency +which has arisen. + +The importance of having such a body of alert, industrious, +disciplined, efficient men inspired by a high sense of duty, and +physically so well developed that they can continue to perform +that duty in the face of long-continued privations and hardships, +is beyond dispute. The results which have been obtained by the +Philippine constabulary have abundantly justified the policy which +led to its organization. + +Its task has been no sinecure. Eleven officers and one hundred +ninety-seven enlisted men have been killed in action. Forty-eight +officers and nine hundred ninety-one men have died of +disease. Forty-six officers have been wounded in action. Seven hundred +sixty-eight men have been discharged for disability. Seven thousand +four hundred twenty-four firearms and 45,018 rounds of ammunition have +been captured by, or surrendered to, the constabulary. Four thousand +eight hundred sixty-two outlaws have been killed and 11,977 taken +prisoners. Twelve thousand two hundred sixty-two stolen animals have +been recovered. + +There are many things which are not brought home to the reader +by such statistics. The weary days and nights on tropical trails; +the weakness and pain of dysentery; the freezing and the burning of +pernicious malaria; the heavy weight of responsibility when one must +act, in matters of life and death, with no superior to consult; the +disappointment when carefully laid plans go wrong; the discouragement +caused by indifference; the danger of infection with loathsome +diseases; ingratitude; deadly peril; aching wounds; sudden death, +and, worse yet, death after suffering long drawn out, when one meets +one's end knowing that it is coming and that one's family will be +left without means or resources,--these are some of the things that +the officers and men of this gallant corps have faced unflinchingly. + +The work of the constabulary and of the Philippine scouts has +conclusively demonstrated the courage and efficiency of the Filipino +as a soldier when well disciplined and well led. + +The establishment and maintenance of order in the Philippines have +afforded opportunity for some of the bravest deeds in the annals of +any race, and the opportunity has been nobly met. The head-hunters +of the Mountain Province, the Mohammedan Moros of Mindanao, Joló +and Palawan, the bloody _pulájanes_ of Samar and Leyte, the wily +_tulisanes_ of Luzón, all unrestrained by any regard for the rules +of civilized warfare, have for twelve years matched their fanatical +bravery against the gallantry of the khaki-clad Filipino soldiers. Time +and again a single officer and a handful of men have taken chances +that in almost any other land would have won them the Victoria cross, +the legion of honor, or some similar decoration. Here their only +reward has been the sense of duty well done. + +The force known as the Philippine constabulary was organized for the +purpose of establishing and maintaining order. It has established +and is maintaining a condition of order never before equalled or +approached in the history of the islands. The policy which led to +its organization has been a thousand times justified. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +The Administration of Justice + + +In no branch of the public administration have there been more +numerous or more beneficial reforms than in the administration of +justice. They have resulted in simplifying organization, in decreasing +the possibility of corruption and partiality, and in diminishing the +cost of litigation and the time which it requires. + +For the benefit of those especially interested I give in the appendix +the past and present organization of the courts. [495] The subject +is too technical to interest the average layman. + +The slender salaries paid to judges, the fact that in the majority +of cases their appointment and promotion were due to influence and +suggestion, their liability to be transferred from one court to another +or from the Philippines to the Antilles, as frequently happened, and +the further fact that the subordinate personnel of the courts was not +a salaried one, caused the administration of justice in the Philippine +Islands to be looked upon askance. There was a general belief, well +founded in many instances, that lawsuits were won through influence +or bribery. Clerks and the subordinate personnel of the courts were +readily bribed. Indeed, they frequently demanded bribes from litigants, +or from defendants in criminal cases, under promise to expedite the +trials if paid to do so, or under threat to commit some injustice +if payment was not forthcoming. For many years after the American +occupation justices of the peace received no salaries and had to look +to fees for their compensation. This system worked wretchedly. The +positions were only too often filled by very incompetent and unworthy +men, who stimulated litigation in order to make more money. Now all +justices of the peace receive reasonable salaries. + +The paying of regular salaries and the furnishing of necessary +offices and supplies have done much to improve the work of justice +of the peace courts, which are now presided over by men who average +far better than even their immediate predecessors. + +Until they were put on a salary basis the work of the Filipino +justices of the peace left much more to be desired than is lacking +at present. In many instances they allowed gross brutalities, +perpetrated by the rich on the poor, or by the strong on the weak, +to go unpunished. The following case furnished me by an American +teacher is typical of what has occurred only too often:-- + + "On another occasion, I met the brother of my house _muchacha_, + [496] a boy about eight. He had a sort of protuberance on + one side caused by broken ribs which had not been set. I + questioned my _muchacha_. She said her step-father had kicked + the child across the room some weeks before and broken his + ribs. The next day, I took the child together with Señora + Bayot, the wife of the Governor's secretary, before the local + Justice of the Peace. Señora Bayot translated and the child + told the same story as had his sister. The Justice of the + Peace issued an order for the step-father to report to him + on the next day. That night my _muchacha_ told me that her + step-father had threatened to kill the child if he did not + tell the Justice that he got the hurt by falling out of an + orange tree. The child did as ordered, and the step-father was + dismissed. When I questioned the Justice of the Peace as to + why he credited the second tale, he said the child was under + oath then, and was not under oath in the first statements." + +It was not deemed wise at the outset to appoint a Filipino judge for +the city of Manila, as it was feared that there would be a lack of +confidence in a Filipino who had occasion to decide cases involving +large sums of money in which Americans or foreigners on the one hand +and Filipinos on the other were interested; but a few years after +the establishment of the new judicial system Filipino judges had won +such a reputation for justice and fairness as to gain the confidence +of Americans and foreigners and the appointment of a Filipino judge +for the court of the city of Manila did not arouse any opposition. + +Filipino judges of courts of first instance seem usually to have +been actuated by a desire to do full justice. The instances in which +complaints have been made against them because of partiality to party +or to race are few. Some of them have been justly criticised for +tardiness in cleaning up their dockets, and it is undoubtedly true +that their capacity for turning out work is on the average below that +of their Americans associates. + +The fact must not be forgotten that Americans are in the majority +in the Supreme Court, which reviews the decisions of courts of first +instance, and this undoubtedly exercises a restraining influence. It +is not possible accurately to judge what would be the actions of a +body of men now subject to such control if it did not exist. It is +furthermore true that the Filipinos are more inclined to be suspicious +of their own countrymen than of Americans, and there have been from +time to time specific requests from them that judges in certain +provinces be Americans. + +Under the Spanish régime the fees paid by litigants were excessive +and the use of stamped paper was compulsory. Its value ranged from +twenty-five centavos to two pesos for a folio of two sheets according +to the amount involved in the suit. Now there are fixed fees of $8 +in civil suits, except in probate matters, where the fee is $12. + +It was in the power of an unscrupulous litigant to make a lawsuit +almost eternal. In matters involving an amount exceeding $250 it was +lawful to institute proceedings in the action whereby the decision of +the main issue was suspended pending decision of the proceedings, and +as a decision was appealable to the _audiencia_, this was often done +by attorneys who had an interest in delaying the suit. By instituting +one proceeding after another a suit could be indefinitely prolonged. + +Another method of securing delay was to object to the judge. In +case the judge denied the ground of the objection, a proceeding was +instituted against him and the trial of the main issue was turned over +to another judge; although the proceeding arising out of the objection +did not suspend the trial of the main issue, when the time came to +decide the latter the decision was withheld until the proceeding +arising out of the objection was settled, and as this latter was one +in connection with which other proceedings could be instituted which +might delay the decision and consequently the decision of the main +issue, there was no end to the matter. + +To-day all this has been stopped by the procedure in court. The +challenging of judges is not allowed, although they must refrain +from the trial of any matter when they are disqualified in any way +as regards it. Proceedings which suspend the trial of the main issue +cannot be instituted. The procedure itself is more expeditious, +the time allowances and formalities have been reduced, and all the +long Spanish civil procedure regarding the presentation of evidence +has been shortened. Suits are settled with a speediness previously +unknown. In order to avoid delay on the part of judges in rendering +decisions, an act has been passed prohibiting the payment of their +salaries without a certificate that they have no matter which has +been awaiting decision for more than three months. + +Owing to the inquisitorial procedure which obtained under Spanish +rule, the disposition of criminal cases was even slower than that +of civil cases. The cause would be commenced, either _de officio_, +by the judge who had a knowledge of the crime, or by the prosecuting +attorney, or by virtue of private accusation on the part of the person +aggrieved. The case once started, the investigations made during the +period known as the _sumario_ were conducted in the absence of the +accused. The latter had no hand in the case, as it was thought that +the reserve and secrecy of the procedure ought not to be violated +to the end that the accused might not frustrate the evidence of +the prosecution by preparing his defence. Owing many times to the +inactivity of the judge or of the prosecuting attorney, to the great +amount of work which weighed down the courts--for actions were begun +when there was knowledge of the commission of the crime, although the +perpetrators were not known--and by the manipulations at other times +of the private accuser to whose interest it was to harm the accused +by delaying the _sumario_, this period was often made to extend over +years and years. Meanwhile the defendant was confined in prison, +as no bail was allowed in any case in which the penalty was that of +_presidio correccional_ (from six months and one day to six years' +imprisonment) or greater. In addition to this the circumstance that all +criminal causes in the islands had to be sent for review to the proper +_audiencia_, caused a large accumulation of old cases in these higher +courts, and this alone made their disposition a matter of some years. + +To-day the procedure is rapid. Information having been brought against +the defendant, the trial is had in the same term or at most during +the next term of court. Sometimes the trial is suspended owing to the +non-appearance of witnesses, but it can be said that cases are rare +where causes are pending in the docket of the court for a longer period +than two terms. Causes appealed to the Supreme Court are disposed of +promptly, and as a general rule it does not take over six months to +get a decision. + +Defendants in criminal cases have now been granted by the Philippine +Bill certain fundamentally important rights which they did not formerly +enjoy; namely, to appear and defend in person or by counsel at every +stage of the proceedings; to be informed of the nature and cause of the +accusation; to testify as witnesses in their own behalf; to be exempt +from testifying against themselves; to be confronted at the trial by, +and to cross-examine, the witnesses against them; to have compulsory +process issue for obtaining witnesses in their own favour; to have +speedy and public trials; to be admitted to bail with sufficient +sureties in all cases, except for capital offences. None of these +rights were enjoyed under the procedure in effect during the Spanish +régime. A man was prosecuted without being notified of the charges +against him, and he was only made aware of the case against him after +the _sumario_. When all of the evidence of the prosecution had been +taken the accused was heard in his own defence. He was compelled +to testify, and was subjected to a very inquisitorial examination, +including questions which incriminated him. Although he had the right +to compel witnesses for the prosecution to ratify over their signatures +the evidence against him given during the _sumario_, as the defence of +the majority of the accused was in the hands of attorneys _de officio_ +they nearly always renounced this privilege of the defendant, and, +as has already been said, bail was not admitted in any grave offence +during the trial. + +No sentence of acquittal in a criminal case can now be appealed from +by the government. Under the Spanish system sentences of acquittal of +courts of first instance had to be referred for review to the proper +_audiencia_ and the fiscal of the latter could appeal from a sentence +of acquittal by it. + +The Philippine Bill grants to the inhabitants of the islands other +important individual rights which they did not formerly possess. + +The Spanish constitution was not in force here, and although the +Penal Code contained provisions for punishing, in a way, officials who +violated certain rights granted by the Spanish constitution, citizens +had no expeditious method of securing their punishment. Now the Code of +Civil Procedure grants them certain special remedies by which their +rights can be made good. To illustrate: Under the Spanish régime +the only remedy for a man illegally detained was to bring a criminal +action against the person illegally detaining him. He did not have +the remedy of the writ of habeas corpus nor the writ of prohibition +against an official who attempted to make him the victim of some +unlawful act. His only remedy was to bring a criminal action against +such official, or to sue him for damages. He could not compel public +officials to perform their ministerial duties by mandamus proceedings. + +The individual rights conferred by the Philippine Bill, and the +special remedies granted by the Code of Civil Procedure, assure to the +inhabitants of the islands liberties and privileges entirely unknown +to them during the days of Spanish sovereignty, and these liberties +and privileges are adequately safeguarded. + +Two things still greatly complicate the administration of justice in +the Philippines. + +The first is the dense ignorance of the people of the working class +who for the most part have failed to learn of their new rights, +and even if they know them are afraid to attempt to assert them in +opposition to the will of the _caciques_, whose power for evil they +know only too well. + +The other is the unreliability of many witnesses and their +shocking readiness to perjure themselves. It is always possible to +manufacture testimony at small expense. While the criminal libel +suit brought against certain members of the staff of the newspaper +_El Renacimiento_, which libelled me, was in progress the judge +showed me the opinion of the two Filipino assessors [497] in one +of the cases and told me that it was written by an attorney for the +defence. I could not believe this, but a few days later an assessor +in another of the cases called at my house, bringing a draft of the +opinion of himself and his associate which he sought to submit to +me for criticism or modification, saying that I knew much more about +the case than they did! He was nonplussed at my refusal to read the +document, and left saying "_acqui tiene V. nuevo servidor_." [498] +Had I redrafted the opinion, as I might have done, my "new servant" +would have called later for a _quid pro quo_. + +Some of the Filipino judges of first instance have proved weak in +matters affecting the integrity of public domain and the protection +of the public forests, but on the whole these officers have done +rather surprisingly well. It must be remembered that the best men +in the islands have now been appointed, and that another generation +must come on before there will be available any considerable number +of new candidates who are up to the standard of the present appointees. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +Health Conditions + + +I had abundant opportunity to observe health conditions in the +Philippines during the Spanish régime and they were shocking in the +extreme. There were no provisions for the sanitary disposal of human +waste even in Manila. If one had occasion to be out on foot at night, +it was wise to keep in the middle of the street and still wiser to +carry a raised umbrella. + +Immediately after the American occupation some five hundred barrels +of caked excrement were taken from a single tower in one of the old +Manila monasteries. The moat around the city wall, and the _esteros_, +or tidal creeks, reeked with filth, and the smells which assailed +one's nostrils, especially, at night, were disgusting. + +Distilled water was not to be had for drinking purposes. The +city water supply came from the Mariquina River, and some fifteen +thousand Filipinos lived on or near the banks of that stream above the +intake. The water was often so thick with sediment that one could not +see through a glass of it, and it was out of the question to attempt +to get it boiled unless one had facilities of one's own. + +Conditions in the provinces were proportionately worse. As a rule, +there was no evidence of any effort to put provincial towns into +decent sanitary conditions. I must, however, note one striking +exception. Brigadier General Juan Arolas, long the governor of Joló, +had a thorough knowledge of modern sanitary methods and a keen +appreciation of the benefits derivable from their application. When +he was sent to Joló, practically in banishment, the town was a plague +spot to which were assigned Spaniards whose early demise would have +been looked upon with favour by those in power. He converted it into +a healthy place the death rate of which compared favourably with that +of European cities, thereby demonstrating conclusively what could +be done even under very unfavourable conditions. No troops in the +islands were kept in anything like such physical condition as were +the regiments assigned to him, and he bore a lasting grudge against +any one inconsiderate enough to die in Joló. + +Everywhere I saw people dying of curable ailments. Malaria was +prevalent in many regions in which it was impossible to secure good +quinine. The stuff on sale usually consisted largely of cornstarch, +or plaster of Paris. Fortunately we had brought with us from the +United States a great quantity of quinine and we made friends with +the Filipinos in many a town by giving this drug gratis to their sick. + +Smallpox was generally regarded as a necessary ailment of childhood. It +was a common thing to see children covered with the eruption of +this disease watching, or joining in, the play of groups of healthy +little ones. + +The clothing of people who had died of smallpox was handed on to other +members of the family, sometimes without even being washed. The victims +of the disease often immersed themselves in cold water when their fever +was high, and paid the penalty for their ignorance with their lives. + +The average Spaniard was a firm believer in the noxiousness of night +air, which he said produced _paludismo_. [499] Most Filipinos were +afraid of an imaginary spirit, devil or mythical creature known as +_asuáng_, and closed their windows and doors after dark as a protection +against it. Thus it came about that in a country where fresh air is +especially necessary at night no one got it. + +Tuberculosis was dreadfully common, and its victims were conveying +it to others without let or hindrance. + +A distressingly large percentage of native-born infants died before +reaching one year of age on account of infection at birth, insufficient +clothing, or improper food. I have many times seen a native mother +thrust boiled rice into the mouth of a child only a few days old, +and I have seen babies taught to smoke tobacco before they could walk. + +Before our party left the islands in 1888, cholera had broken out +at a remote and isolated place. A little later it spread over a +considerable part of the archipelago. On my return in 1890 I heard +the most shocking stories of what had occurred. Victims of this +disease were regarded with such fear and horror by their friends +that they were not infrequently carried out while in a state of +coma, and buried alive. It became necessary to issue orders to have +shelters prepared in cemeteries under which bodies were required to +be deposited and left for a certain number of hours before burial, +in order to prevent this result. + +In Siquijor an unfortunate, carried to the cemetery after he had +lost consciousness, came to himself, crawled out from under a mass +of corpses which had been piled on top of him, got up and walked +home. When he entered his house, his assembled friends and relatives +vacated it through the windows, believing him to be his own ghost. They +did not return until morning, when they found him dead on the floor. + +I heard a well-authenticated story of a case in which all the members +of a family died except a creeping infant who subsisted for some time +by sucking a breeding sow which was being kept in the kitchen. + +During the great cholera epidemic in 1882 it is said that the +approaches to the Manila cemeteries were blocked with vehicles of +every description loaded with corpses, and that the stench from +unburied bodies in the San Lazaro district was so dreadful that one +could hardly go through it. + +Beri-beri was common among the occupants of jails, lighthouses and +other government institutions, as well as in certain garrisoned towns +like Balabac. + +In 1892 I found the wife of a very dear Spanish friend dying from +an ailment which in the United States could have been promptly and +certainly remedied by a surgical operation. I begged him to take her +to Manila, telling him of the ease with which any fairly good surgeon +would relieve her, and promising to interest myself in her case on +my arrival there. To my utter amazement I found that there was not a +surgeon in the Philippine Islands who would venture to open the human +abdomen. The one man who had sometimes done this in Spain stated that +it would be impossible for him to undertake it in Manila, on account +of the lack of a suitable operating room, of instruments and of the +necessary anaesthetist and other professional assistants. In fact, at +the time of the American occupation there was not a modern operating +room, much less a modern hospital, in the Philippines. Thousands upon +thousands of people were perishing needlessly every year for the lack +of surgical intervention. A common procedure in dealing with wounds +was to cover them with poultices of chewed tobacco, ashes, and leaves. + +In many provinces the people were without medical assistance of +any sort, and fell into the hands of native quacks who were little, +if at all, better than witch doctors. + +The most fantastic views were entertained relative to the causation +of disease. In some towns it was vigorously asserted that after a +peculiar looking black dog ran down the street cholera appeared. In +other places cholera was generally ascribed to the poisoning of wells +by Spaniards or foreigners. + +Cemeteries were not infrequently situated in the very midst of towns, +or near the local supplies of drinking water. Conditions within +their walls were often shocking from an aesthetic view point. As the +area available for burials was limited, and the graves were usually +unmarked, parts of decomposed bodies were constantly being dug up. It +was the custom to throw such remains about the foot of the cross at +the centre of the cemetery. + +Military sanitation was also very bad. I was at Zamboanga when +the wreck of General Weyler's expedition to Lake Lanoa began to +return. There had been no adequate provision for the medical care of +the force in the field, and the condition of many of the soldiers was +pitiable in the extreme. Disabled men were brought in by the shipload, +and the hospitals at Zamboanga, Isabela de Basilan and Joló were soon +filled to overflowing. + +The lack of adequate sanitary measures was equally in evidence in +dealing with cattle disease. Rinderpest, a highly contagious and +very destructive disease of horned cattle, was introduced in 1888 and +spread like fire in prairie grass. No real effort was made to check +it prior to the American occupation, and it caused enormous losses, +both directly by killing large numbers of beef cattle and indirectly +by depriving farmers of draft animals. + +When I first visited the islands every member of our party fell +ill within a few weeks. All of us suffered intensely from tropical +ulcers. Two had malaria; one had dysentery; one, acute inflammation +of the liver, possibly of amoebic origin; and so on to the end of +the chapter. I myself got so loaded up with malaria in Mindoro that +it took me fifteen years to get rid of it. + +Fortunately the American army of occupation brought with it numerous +competent physicians and surgeons, and abundant hospital equipment +and supplies, for the soldiers promptly contracted about all the +different ailments to be acquired in the islands. + +When I arrived in Manila on the 5th of March, 1899, I found that a +great army hospital, called the "First Reserve," had been established +in the old rice market. There was another sizable one on the Bagumbayan +drive. A third occupied a large building belonging to French sisters +of charity which was ordinarily used for school purposes. + +In immediate connection with the First Reserve Hospital was a tent +hospital where sick and wounded Insurgents were being given the best +of care. + +Field hospitals were promptly established as the troops moved out +from Manila, and in connection with many of these Filipinos were given +much needed medical and surgical help. The recipients of such kindly +treatment were, however, prohibited by Insurgent officers from telling +others of their experiences lest the hatred of Americans diminish as +a result. + +Smallpox had broken out among the Spanish soldiers in the walled +city and was spreading badly when my friend, Major Frank S. Bourns +of the army medical corps, was given the task of eradicating it, +which he promptly accomplished. A little later the use of the Santa +Ana church as a smallpox hospital was authorized, and sick Filipinos +were carefully tended there. + +The army promptly set about cleaning up Manila and waging war +upon the more serious ailments which threatened the health of the +soldiers and that of the public. The work was at the outset put under +the direction of Major Edie, a very capable and efficient medical +officer. Subsequently it was turned over to Major Bourns, who, on +account of his intimate knowledge of Spanish, and his wide acquaintance +with the Filipinos, was able to carry out many much-needed reforms, +and in doing so aroused a minimum of public antagonism. + +Upon the establishment of civil government Governor Taft was very +desirous of retaining Major Bourns's services, but this did not prove +practicable, as he desired to give up government work and engage in +private business. + +There was promptly created an efficient board of health made up of men +of recognized ability and large practical experience. Its chairman was +Major Louis M. Maus, commissioner of public health. The other members +were Mr. H. D. Osgood, sanitary engineer; Dr. Franklin H. Meacham, +chief sanitary inspector; Dr. Paul C. Freer, superintendent of +government laboratories; and Dr. Manuel Gomez, secretary. + +This board was promptly put upon its mettle. It had inherited from +the army an incipient epidemic of bubonic plague in Manila, and +the disease soon spread to Cavite and also to Cebú, then the second +port of the Philippines in commercial importance. It also appeared in +several provincial towns near Cavite. An effective campaign against it, +inaugurated at this time, was never abandoned until it was completely +eradicated in 1906,--a noteworthy result to achieve in a country like +the Philippines. + +On March 21, 1902, I was advised that two patients at San Juan de +Dios hospital were developing symptoms of Asiatic cholera, and on the +following day a positive laboratory diagnosis was made. Other cases +followed in quick succession, and we soon found ourselves facing a +virulent epidemic of this highly dangerous disease. At the outset +the mortality was practically 100 per cent. Unfortunately, there was +no one connected with the medical service of the islands who had had +practical experience in dealing with cholera, and we had to get this +as we went along. + +At the time of the outbreak, Governor Taft was in the United States, +Acting Governor Wright was in Leyte, the secretary of finance and +justice was in Japan, and there were present in Manila only the +secretary of public instruction and the secretary of the interior. As +the executive head of the government was absent, and there was no +quorum of the legislative body, I of necessity arrogated to myself +powers which I did not lawfully possess, appointing employees and +incurring expenses without the usual formalities. + +On the morning of March 22 I informed General Chaffee that four cases +of cholera had occurred in Manila, and requested that an adequate +military force be despatched to the valley of the Mariquina River to +protect the city water supply from possible contamination. + +This request was promptly acceded to, and the guard thereafter +maintained proved adequate to prevent infection of the city water, +although there are three towns on the river above the intake, and it +was the custom of their people to bathe and wash their clothing in +this stream. Many of the filthy surface wells of the city were filled +as rapidly as possible, and those that could not be filled were closed. + +The people, entirely unaccustomed as they were to any sanitary +restrictions, believing that the disease was not cholera, and firm in +their conviction that they had a right to do whatever they liked so +long as they kept on their own premises, bitterly resented the burning +or disinfection of their houses and effects, and the restriction of +their liberty to go and come as they pleased, and in spite of the +fact that the number of cases was kept down in a manner never before +dreamed of at Manila, there arose an increasingly bitter feeling of +hostility toward the work of the board of health. In fact, the very +success of the campaign proved an obstacle, and we were assured that +the disease could not be cholera, as, if it were, there would be a +thousand deaths a day! + +An educational campaign was immediately begun, and simple +directions for avoiding infection were published and scattered +broadcast. Distilled water was furnished gratis to all who would drink +it, stations for its distribution being established through the city +and supplemented by large water wagons driven through the streets. The +sale of foods likely to convey the disease was prohibited. Large +numbers of emergency sanitary inspectors were immediately appointed, +and every effort was made to detect all cases as soon as possible. A +land quarantine was established around the city, to protect the +provinces. + +In anticipation of a possible extensive outbreak of contagious disease +a detention camp capable of accommodating some twenty-five hundred +people had been established previously on the San Lazaro grounds, and +to this place were taken the cholera "contacts." A cholera hospital +was opened near this camp, and the stricken were removed to it from +their homes as speedily as possible, the buildings which they had +occupied being thoroughly disinfected, or burned if disinfection +was impracticable. + +The bodies of the dead were at the outset either buried in hermetically +sealed coffins or cremated. When the detention camp and hospital at +San Lazaro threatened to become crowded, a second camp and hospital +were established at Santa Mesa. At this latter place both "contacts" +and the sick were obliged to live in tents. + +The Spanish residents were allowed to establish a private cholera +hospital in a large and well-ventilated _convento_ on Calle Herran. As +the number of sick Spaniards was nothing like sufficient to fill this +building, they were asked to turn over the unoccupied space in it to +the board of health, which they most generously did. + +In response to popular clamour a hospital under strictly Filipino +management was opened in a nipa building in Tondo. Interest in it +soon flagged, and the government found itself with this institution +on its hands. + +The epidemic came soon after the close of a long-continued war, +and there were at that time in Manila not a few evil-intentioned +persons, both foreign and native, who welcomed every opportunity +to make trouble. The difficulties arising from the claim advanced +by a number of reputable but ignorant medical men that the disease +was not cholera at all were sufficiently great. They were enormously +increased by false and malicious stories to the effect that "contacts" +were killed at the detention camp; that patients on arrival at the +cholera hospital were given a drink of poisoned _vino_ [500] and +instantly dropped dead; that the distilled water distributed free of +charge was poisoned, and that the Americans were poisoning the wells. + +The necessary use of strychnine as a heart stimulant at the cholera +hospital was made the basis for a story that the sick were being +poisoned with this drug. + +These silly tales were widely circulated and quite generally believed, +and as a result of the fear thus engendered, and of the desire on +the part of relatives and neighbours of stricken persons to escape +disinfection and quarantine, strong efforts were often made to conceal +the sick and the dead, and when this was not possible the "contacts" +usually ran away. There were not wanting instances of the driving of +cholera victims into the streets. + +In spite of the generally hostile attitude of the public and some +grave mistakes in policy, the measures adopted sufficed at the outset +to hold the disease in check to an extent which surprised even the +health officers themselves. + +On May 15 there began a rapid and quite steady decline in the number +of cases. + +In June, however, it increased. During July it grew steadily larger, +and on the 25th of that month there were ninety-one cases, the +largest number which has ever occurred in Manila on any day since +the American occupation. + +Throughout the early months of the epidemic Major Maus had laboured +unceasingly to check it, displaying an energy and an indifference to +fatigue and personal discomfort which were highly commendable. The +long-continued strain ultimately began to tell on him severely. On +May 17 orders were received from the Adjutant-General's Office +providing for his relief on or about July 30, and stating that Major +E. C. Carter, of the United States Army Medical Corps, would be +available for detail as commissioner of public health on that date, +if his services were desired. Arrangements were accordingly made to +have Major Carter proceed to the Philippines. Major Maus's resignation +was accepted, effective July 31. Dr. Frank S. Bourns was urged to +take temporary charge of the situation, and consented to do so. + +On the 8th of August Major Carter arrived and announced his readiness +to assume his duties, but it was suggested to him that he ought first +to have some time to familiarize himself with them, and Dr. Bourns +was left free to carry out the special work for which he had been +appointed. + +This he did with promptness and despatch, the number of cases for +August being but seven hundred twenty as against thirteen hundred +sixty-eight for the previous month. On the 8th of September, having +brought the disease under control at Manila, he insisted on resigning +in order to attend to his private affairs, which were suffering from +neglect, and his resignation was reluctantly accepted. + +Dr. Bourns's remarkable success in dealing with a very difficult +situation was largely due to his ability to devise measures which, +while thoroughly effective, were less irritating to the public than +were those which had been previously employed. + +The policy which he had inaugurated was followed by his successor +with the result that the cases fell to two hundred seventy-five +in September and eighty-eight in October. In November there was +a slight recrudescence, but the disease did not again threaten to +escape control and in February practically disappeared, there being +but two cases during the entire month. + +The return of hot, damp weather again produced a slight recrudescence, +and scattering cases continued to occur until March, when the epidemic +of 1902-1904 ended in Manila. + +In view of the conditions which then prevailed and of the extreme +risk of a general infection of the city water supply, which, had it +occurred, would doubtless have resulted in the death of a third of +the population, this is a record of which the Bureau of Health may +well be proud. + +The effort to prevent the spread of infection by maintaining a land +quarantine around Manila proved entirely ineffective. The disease +promptly appeared in the provinces where the campaign against it +was from the outset in charge of newly appointed Filipino presidents +of provincial boards of health, aided, when practicable, by medical +inspectors from Manila. + +Before it was finally checked in Manila there were 5581 cases with +4386 deaths; while in the provinces, in many of which it necessarily +long ran its course practically unhindered, there were 160,671 cases, +with 105,075 deaths. + +On the 27th of April, 1904, the Board of Health passed the following +resolutions:-- + + "Whereas cases of Asiatic cholera have occurred in but three + provincial towns of the Philippine Islands since February 8, + 1904; and + + "Whereas only one case of Asiatic cholera has been reported as + occurring any place in the Philippine Islands since March 8, + 1904; and + + "Whereas the city of Manila was declared on March 23 to be + free from the infection of Asiatic cholera; On motion + + "_Resolved_, That the islands composing the Philippine + Archipelago are, and are hereby declared to be, free from + the infection of Asiatic cholera; and + + "_Be it further resolved_, That the Commissioner of Public + Health be directed to send a copy of these resolutions to the + honourable the Secretary of the Interior, the Municipal Board, + the United States Marine-Hospital Service, and the Collector + of Customs." + +As a matter of fact, however, it later proved that cholera was endemic +in certain swampy regions near Manila, and in 1905 we found ourselves +with a new epidemic on our hands. + +At the end of the second week, beginning August 23, there had been one +hundred thirty-seven cases, as compared with one hundred twenty-five +for the same period during the epidemic of 1902-1904. + +However, the conditions for combating cholera were now far more +favourable than in 1902. Major E. C. Carter had at his own request been +relieved from duty as commissioner of public health, and Dr. Victor +G. Heiser, passed assistant surgeon of the United States public +health and marine hospital service, had been appointed to succeed +him on April 5, 1905. Dr. Heiser was a highly trained officer of one +of the most efficient services which has ever been organized for the +combating of contagious and infectious diseases. + +He had under him in the city of Manila a small but thoroughly trained +body of twenty-four medical inspectors, of whom nineteen were Americans +and five Filipinos. Profiting by his previous experience and that of +his predecessors in the Philippine service, he inaugurated a campaign +which practically terminated the epidemic in Manila on February 21, +1906, [501] with a total of two hundred eighty-three cases and two +hundred forty-three deaths. + +This brief and decisive campaign reflects the greatest credit on all +concerned with it. + +The board of health had one great advantage in the fact that the San +Lazaro contagious disease hospital had been completed. This building, +with its cool wards and attractive surroundings, made it possible to +give cholera victims the best of care. + +There was at the outset little or no fear of this hospital, but +apparently this condition of things was not satisfactory to that +small but dangerous element of the Manila public which from the time +of the American occupation has never let pass any opportunity to make +trouble. As usual, the medium of attack was the local press. _Soberanía +Nacional_ published a most extraordinary article painting in vivid +colours the alleged horrors of the San Lazaro Hospital, and stating +among other things that the naked bodies of the dead, tagged and with +their feet tied together, lay about the entrance of that institution. A +more false statement was never published. + +Within twenty-four hours after its appearance terror reigned among +the lower classes, and living and dead cholera victims were being +smuggled out of the city to neighbouring towns. + +Feeling that the vicious attitude of a certain section of the press +had cost lives enough, I sent the editor of this paper a courteous +invitation to call at my office. He made no response. I then wrote +him, demanding a retraction, and sending him a correct statement to +publish. [502] + +He was at first disposed to argue the matter, but finding that I +meant business published the article which I sent to him and made +the following retraction:-- + + "We are exceedingly glad to affirm in the honour of truth and + justice, that the news given by us on the seventh instant under + the title 'Painful Scenes,' and 'Naked Dead,' is absolutely + absurd, false and unreasonable. + + "We have investigated the truth of the said notice, and can + affirm to our readers that it is entirely inaccurate, as in + the courtyard of the said hospital the naked dead that we + have spoken of are not now exposed, nor have they ever been + so exposed. + + "The truth is above all things, and to rectify a baseless + piece of news should not be a doubtful action on the part + of the person who gave the news, but rather something in his + favour that the public should appreciate it at its full value. + + "To conclude, we must record our gratitude to the Secretary + of the Interior, the Hon. Dean C. Worcester, for the + investigations made in the premises with the purpose of + ascertaining the truth of the alleged facts, and for the + courteous way in which he received us this morning when + interviewed by one of our reporters." + +In the provinces the results of the campaign against cholera were +far less satisfactory than in Manila as was to be anticipated, owing +to lack of adequate personnel, but the cases, which numbered 34,238 +and deaths which numbered 22,938, were far fewer than during the +previous epidemic. + +I shall not attempt here to trace the course of the subsequent +epidemics which have occurred from time to time, but shall content +myself with giving the deaths by years. In 1908, they numbered 18,811; +in 1909, 7306; in 1910, 6940; in 1911, 203. In 1912, there were none, +and thus far in 1913 there have been none. [503] + +The superstitious practices which were formerly employed by the +Filipinos to combat this scourge have given way to simple and +inexpensive hygienic measures, and we can safely count on sufficient +coöperation from the people to make an effective campaign possible +when it next appears. + +Never shall I forget the strain of the early days of the first +epidemic. Two of my best men, Dr. Meacham and Mr. Mudge, literally +worked themselves to death, remaining on duty when they knew that +they were in imminent danger, and in the end laying down their lives +willingly for an alien and hostile people. Such things make one proud +of being an American. + +At times the situation was not devoid of amusing features. I had +occasion to visit one of the northern provinces, where the epidemic was +especially severe, in an effort to calm the panic-stricken populace. I +stayed with the governor, a very intelligent Filipino. For obvious +reasons I investigated his domestic arrangements, finding that he +was boiling drinking water, thoroughly cooking all food, and taking +all usual and necessary precautions to prevent infection. + +On returning to his house the first evening, after a short absence, I +found the grounds decorated with lighted Japanese lanterns. Supposing +that the proverbial Filipino hospitality had risen above even such +untoward circumstances as those which then existed, I asked the +governor what the entertainment was to be. In evident perplexity he +replied that he had not planned to have any entertainment, and on +my inquiring what the lanterns were for, said he had heard that they +were good to keep away cholera germs! + +I have referred to the fact that the civil government inherited a +fairly well developed epidemic of bubonic plague. In 1901 this disease +caused four hundred twenty-seven deaths, in 1902 it caused ten only, +but the demands made on the sanitary force by the cholera epidemic +which began in that year rendered it impossible to give to plague +the attention which it otherwise would have had, with the result +that in 1903 we had one hundred seventy-four deaths. In 1904 there +were seventy-eight; in 1905, forty-three; in 1906, seven; in 1907, +none; and from 1907 until 1912, none. In the latter year the disease +was reintroduced. + +Rats become infected with it, and fleas transmit it from them to human +beings. It was probably brought in by pestiferous rodents hidden +inside packages of vegetables, as it appeared in a district where +crates of vegetables are opened in large numbers, and did not appear +in the vicinity of the piers, although shore rats are abundant there, +and if diseased rodents had landed from shipping, would promptly have +become infected,--a thing which did not occur. + +At about the same time plague also appeared at Iloilo, where it was +eradicated with a total of nine deaths. At Manila there have been +up to the present time [504] fifty-nine deaths, and scattering cases +continue to occur at considerable intervals. + +Had plague not been promptly and effectively combated, it would +unquestionably have spread rapidly, causing untold misery and heavy +property losses. + +As I have previously stated, at the time of the American occupation +smallpox was by many people regarded as an almost inevitable ailment +of childhood. It proved necessary to secure the passage of legislation +forbidding the inoculation of human beings with it to prevent misguided +Filipinos from deliberately communicating it to their children, not +because they did not dearly love them, but because they regarded +infection with it as a calamity sure to come sooner or later, and +desired to have it over with once for all. + +We have performed more than ten million vaccinations, with the result +that the annual deaths from this disease have decreased from forty +thousand at the outset to seven hundred for the year just ended. There +is now less smallpox in Manila than in Washington. + +In the six provinces nearest Manila it was killing, on the average, +six thousand persons annually. For a year after we finished vaccinating +the inhabitants of these provinces it did not cause a death among them; +nor has it since caused such a death except among new-born children +or newly arrived unvaccinated persons. + +These extraordinary results have been achieved without the loss of +a life or a limb so far as we know. The vaccine used was prepared by +our own Bureau of Science with extraordinary care, and has proved to +be remarkably pure and active. + +We at first endeavoured to have vaccinations performed by local +Filipino health officers, but, after spending large sums without +obtaining satisfactory results, gave up this plan and substituted +therefor a method of procedure by which the work was carried on under +the very immediate supervision of the director of health. We then made +substantial progress. However, under the law as it at present stands, +succeeding annual vaccination, intended to insure the immunization +of children soon after they are born and of unvaccinated persons who +may come into a given territory, are intrusted to the local Filipino +authorities, with the result that in very many cases they are not +attended to. We get elaborate returns showing the number of persons +vaccinated. Then comes an outbreak of smallpox, and on investigation +we learn that the vaccinations so fully reported were made on paper +only! In other words, the continuance of this work, of such vital +importance to the Filipino people, is still directly dependent upon +continued control by American health officers. + +Another great problem now in a fair way to final solution is the +eradication of leprosy. At the outset we were told by the church +authorities that there were thirty thousand lepers in the islands. In +1905 we began to isolate and care for all supposed victims of this +disease, only to find that many outcasts believed to be suffering +from it were really afflicted with curable ailments. We were able to +restore a very large number of them to society, to their great joy +and that of their friends. + +A few hundreds of true lepers were being humanely cared for in +Manila and elsewhere. Many others had been driven out of the towns +into forests or waste places on the larger islands, where they were +perishing miserably from fever and other diseases. Still others had +been isolated on sand quays, where they were in danger of dying from +thirst during the dry season. Not a few wandered through the towns +at will, spreading the disease broadcast. + +All known lepers are now cared for at Culion, a healthful, sanitary +town with good streets, excellent water and sewer systems, many modern +concrete buildings and a first-class hospital. + +They are not confined to the limits of the town, but wander at will, +except that they are excluded from the immediate vicinity of the +houses of the officers and employees of the colony. + +They may have their little farms, and raise pigs, chickens, vegetables, +etc., if they wish. They may, and do, float about over the waters of +the neighbouring bay in boats or on rafts, and fish to their hearts' +content. They are well fed and well cared for, and their physical +condition improves to a marked degree promptly after their arrival at +the colony. The only hardship which they suffer is that necessarily +involved in separation from their relatives and friends, and this is +mitigated by occasional visits which the latter may make them. + +Since we began to isolate lepers, their number has decreased to +approximately three thousand, and with a continuance of the present +policy the disease should soon disappear from the Philippines. + +During the period immediately subsequent to the American occupation, +amoebic dysentery wrought sad havoc both among our soldiers and among +civil government officers and employees. Four of my own family of five +had it, and one had it twice, in spite of the fact that we took all +known precautions; and the experience of my family was by no means +exceptional. This disease then annually cost the lives of a large +number of American men and women, and a considerable additional +number went home invalids for life as a result of infection with +it. We seemed to hear almost daily of some new case. + +Careful scientific investigation carried on at the bureau of science +taught us the best methods of combating this type of dysentery, +and the proper disposal of human feces, the regulation of methods +used in fertilizing vegetables, improvement in supplies of drinking +water, and other simple, hygienic measures have reduced the deaths +from it among Americans to an almost negligible minimum. Such cases +as occur are almost without exception detected early, and readily +yield to treatment. + +The belief that Filipinos do not suffer from this disease has proved +to be without foundation. It kills thousands of them every year. Those +who are willing to adopt the simple precautions which experience has +shown to be necessary may enjoy the large degree of immunity from it +which Americans now have. + +The chief cause of amoebic dysentery in the Philippines has undoubtedly +been infected drinking water. From time immemorial the people have +been obtaining their water for drinking purposes from flowing streams, +open springs or shallow surface wells. + +The wells were especially dangerous, as it was the common custom +to wash clothing around them so that water containing disease germs +frequently seeped into wells used by whole villages. The results of +such conditions during a cholera epidemic can readily be imagined. + +The drinking supplies of many provincial towns have now been radically +improved by the sinking of 853 successful artesian wells. + +In many places there has been a resulting reduction of more than +fifty per cent in the annual death rate. Large sums are spent yearly +by the government in drilling additional wells,--a policy which is +warmly approved by the common people. The recent appropriations for +this purpose have been $255,000 for the fiscal year 1912, $60,000 +for 1913 and $200,000 for 1914. + +When we came to the islands, malaria was killing as many persons +as was smallpox. The mortality caused by it is now being greatly +reduced by giving away annually millions of doses of quinine, and by +draining or spraying with petroleum places where mosquitoes breed, +as well as by teaching the people the importance of sleeping under +mosquito nets and the necessity of keeping patients suffering from +active attacks of malaria where mosquitoes cannot get at them. Only +quinine of established quality is allowed in the market. + +The results obtained in combating malaria are often very +striking. Calapan, the capital of Mindoro, was in Spanish days known as +"the white man's grave" on account of the prevalence of "pernicious +fever" there. To-day it is an exceptionally healthy provincial town. + +At Iwahig, in Palawan, the Spaniards attempted to conduct a +penal colony. They were compelled to abandon it on account of +pernicious malaria, which caused continued serious mortality when +the American government attempted to establish a similar institution +there. Application of the usual sanitary measures has made it a +healthful place. + +Old jails throughout the islands have been rendered sanitary, +or replaced by new ones. The loathsome skin diseases from which +prisoners formerly suffered have in consequence disappeared. The +practical results obtained in Bilibid, the insular penitentiary, are +worthy of special note. The annual death rate at this institution was +78.25 per thousand for the calendar year 1904. It increased steadily +each month from January, 1904, to September, 1905, when it reached +its maximum, deaths occurring at the rate of 241.15 per thousand per +year. At this time the director of health was given charge of the +sanitation of this prison. + +By remedying overcrowding, improving drainage, installing sewers and +regulating diet along scientific lines, the rate was reduced in six +months to 70 per 1000, and there it stuck. + +A systematic examination of the stools of prisoners was then +made. Eighty-four per cent were found to be afflicted with at least +one intestinal parasite. Fifty per cent had two or more, and twenty +per cent had three or more. Fifty-two per cent of the total had +hookworm. Active treatment for the elimination of these parasites was +begun in one barrack, and after the work was completed it was noted +that there was much less disease there than in the remainder. All +of the thirty-five hundred prisoners were ultimately examined, +and intestinal parasites eradicated if present. The death rate then +dropped to thirteen to the thousand, and has remained at or near this +figure up to the present time. + +I have already referred to the discovery of the cause of beri-beri, +and to the effect of the governor-general's order forbidding the +use of polished rice in government institutions or by government +organizations. + +I subsequently made a strong effort to secure legislation imposing +a heavy internal revenue tax on polished rice, thus penalizing its +use. I failed, but such effort will be renewed by some one, let us +hope with ultimate success. + +In Spanish days cholera, leprosy, smallpox and other dangerous +communicable diseases were constantly reintroduced from without. This +is no longer the case. The United States public health and marine +hospital service has stretched an effective defensive line around the +archipelago and has sent its outposts to Hongkong, Shanghai and Amoy, +to prevent, so far as possible, the embarkation for Manila of persons +suffering from such ailments. We now have the most effective quarantine +system in the tropics, and one of the best in the world. At Mariveles +there is a very large and complete disinfecting plant, and vessels +may also be satisfactorily disinfected at Cebú and Iloilo. + +This quarantine service kept the Philippines free from bubonic plague +for seven years, and has repeatedly prevented the entry of pneumonic +plague, that most deadly of all known diseases. + +A peculiar and shockingly disfiguring disease known as yaws occurs +somewhat infrequently in the Philippine lowlands and is very prevalent +in a number of places in the highlands. In many ways it resembles +syphilis, and indeed at one time was considered to be syphilitic +in its origin. Doctor Richard P. Strong, of the Bureau of Science, +made the very important discovery that salvarsan is an absolute +specific for it. The effect of an injection of this remedy closely +approaches a miracle in medicine. In five or six days the condition +of the patient begins to improve rapidly. By the end of the second +week his horrible sores have healed. + +It was with this remedy that we began our health work among some of +the wilder head-hunters of northern Luzón. Think of the advantage of +being absolutely certain of curing such an ailment in every case, and +think of the gratitude of poor wretches, undergoing untold suffering, +when they were almost immediately relieved! + +Soon after this use for salvarsan was discovered, I caused a liberal +supply of it to be sent to the Bontoc Hospital. For some time we +were unable to persuade any victims of yaws to undergo treatment, +but finally we found one at Barlig who was guilty of a minor criminal +offence, arrested him, and took him to Bontoc. Instead of putting +him in jail there, we sent him to the hospital for treatment. + +At first he complained bitterly that we were putting no medicine +on his sores. Then the remedy began to work and he decided it was +"strong medicine." By the tenth day he was running around town +joyfully exhibiting his rapidly healing body to every one who would +look at it. On the fourteenth day he suddenly disappeared, to the +deep regret of the medical men, who had hoped that they might keep +him as an example of what could be done, and thus persuade others +to undergo treatment. A few days later, however, he reappeared with +thirteen victims of yaws from his home town, having meanwhile twice +covered on foot the great distance which separates Barlig from Bontoc, +and assembled and brought in his fellow-sufferers. + +As we have seen, the people of Manila were formerly supplied with +impure drinking water from the Mariquina River, and were therefore in +constant danger of infection with cholera and other deadly diseases. At +a cost of some $1,500,000 we have given the city a modern water system, +the intake of which is far up in the hills above the last village. The +annual deaths from ordinary water-borne diseases exclusive of cholera +have fallen from 3558--the average number at the time the new system +was introduced--to 1195. Recently a leak in the dam, which necessitated +temporary resumption of the use of the Mariquina River water, was +immediately followed by a marked increase in the number of deaths +from such diseases, thus conclusively demonstrating the fact that we +were right in ascribing the previous reduction in deaths to a better +water supply. + +This annual saving of lives is an important result, but more important +yet is the fact that when Asiatic cholera reappears in the Mariquina +valley, as it inevitably will sooner or later, we shall not live in +constant fear of a general infection of the Manila water supply, +which, judging from the experience of other cities where modern +sanitary methods have been introduced, might result in the death of +a third of the population. In every country a very considerable part +of the population always fails to boil its drinking water, no matter +how great the resulting danger may be. + +Manila lacked any facilities for the proper disposal of human waste, +and the conditions which resulted were unspeakable, especially in +the little _barrios_, or groups of houses, placed close together, +helter-skelter, on wet, swampy ground and reached by means of runways +not worthy even of the name of alleys, as one often had to crouch to +pass along them. + +A modern sewer system costing $2,000,000, supplemented by a pail +system, has very effectively solved this problem, while thousands of +homes closely crowded on disease-infected, mosquito-breeding ground +have been removed to high, dry, sanitary sites. The regions thus +vacated have in many instances been drained, filled, provided with +city water and good streets, and made fit for human occupancy. + +The old moat around the city walls was a veritable incubator of +disease. It has been converted into an athletic field where crowds +of people take healthful exercise. The _esteros_, or tidal creeks, +reeked with filth. More than twenty miles of such creeks have been +cleaned out, although much still remains to be done to put them in +really satisfactory condition. + +There were no regulations covering the construction of buildings, and +it was not unusual to find six or eight persons sleeping in a closed +and unventilated room 10 × 8 × 8 feet. Manila now has an excellent +sanitary code, and such conditions have been made unlawful. + +The previous woeful lack of hospital facilities has been effectively +remedied. At a cost of approximately a million and quarter pesos we +have built and equipped the great Philippine General Hospital, one of +the most modern institutions of its kind in the world, and by far the +best in the Far East. In it we have very satisfactorily solved the +question of getting sufficient light and air in the tropics without +getting excessive heat. Its buildings are certainly among the very +coolest in the city of Manila, and "the hospital smell" is everywhere +conspicuously absent. + +It is called a three-hundred-bed institution, but as a matter of fact +the ventilation is so admirable that nearly two hundred additional +beds can safely be put in as an emergency measure. + +Two hundred and twenty of its beds are free. In them a very large +number of persons are annually given the best of medical and surgical +care. At its free clinic some eighty thousand patients find relief +in the course of a year. + +The increase in private hospital facilities has also been +noteworthy. Among the new institutions doing admirable work should be +mentioned the University Hospital, an Episcopal institution; the Mary +J. Johnston Hospital, a Methodist institution; and St. Paul's Hospital, +a Catholic institution. Patients are admitted to all of them without +regard to their religious belief, a policy the liberality of which +must commend itself to all broadminded persons. + +In enumerating the hospitals of Manila, the old Spanish institution, +San Juan de Dios, should not be forgotten, for it has been improved +and modernized until it offers good facilities for the treatment of +the sick and the injured. + +All of the above mentioned institutions are in effect acute-case +hospitals designed for the treatment of curable ailments. Cases +of dangerous communicable disease are excluded from them, but are +adequately provided for at San Lazaro where the insular government +has established modern and adequate hospitals for plague, smallpox, +cholera, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, etc., as well as a +detention hospital for lepers, pending their departure for Culion. + +An insane hospital capable of comfortably accommodating 300 inmates +has also been provided. A few years since the insane were commonly +chained to floors, or tied to stakes under houses or in yards, +and were not infrequently burned alive during conflagrations. Such +conditions no longer exist, but the government is not yet able to +provide for nearly all of the insane who need institutional care. + +The several institutions above mentioned have a very important +function apart from the relief of human suffering, in that they afford +unexcelled opportunities for giving practical instruction in nursing +and in the practice of medicine and surgery. + +A few years ago there was not such a thing as a Filipina trained +nurse in the islands. I was firmly convinced that the Filipinas of +this country could learn to be good nurses, and made earnest efforts +to have included among the first students sent at government expense +to the United States several young women of good family who should +attend nurses' training schools and then return to assist in our +hospital work. + +I failed to secure the adoption of this plan, but later the training +of nurses was inaugurated in connection with hospital work at the +old Civil Hospital, St. Paul's, the University Hospital, the Mary +J. Johnston Hospital and the Philippine General Hospital. At the latter +institution there is now conducted an admirable school where more than +two hundred young men and women are being trained. Three classes have +already graduated from it, and Filipina nurses have long since proved +themselves to be exceptionally efficient, capable and faithful. It +will be some time before we can educate as many as are needed in the +government hospitals, and after that has been accomplished a vast +field opens before others in the provincial towns, where the need of +trained assistants in caring for the sick is very great. + +We found exceedingly few competent Filipino physicians or surgeons +in the islands. This condition was due not to natural incompetence +on the part of the Filipinos but to the previous lack of adequate +educational facilities. The government has established a thoroughly +modern college of medicine and surgery, well housed, and provided +with all necessary laboratory facilities. It furnishes the best of +theoretical instruction, while its students have every opportunity +for practical work at the bedsides of patients in the government +hospitals, all patients in free beds being admitted subject to the +condition that they will allow their cases to be studied. + +While there is still an evident tendency on the part of graduates of +this school to feel that they know enough, and to desire to get to +making money without delay, we are nevertheless managing to attract an +increasingly large number of the more competent to the intern service +of the Philippine General Hospital, where as the result of additional +years of practical experience they become exceptionally proficient. + +This institution, with its great free clinic, offers very exceptional +facilities for practical instruction, and we have already trained +some extremely competent Filipino physicians and surgeons. + +As funds permit, hospital work is being extended to the provinces. At +Cebú a thoroughly up-to-date sixty-bed institution is now open. A +smaller one was established years ago at Baguio, where surgical work +may be performed with great advantage on account of the rapidity with +which convalescence occurs in the cool, pure mountain air, which also +expedites the recovery of persons recuperating from wasting diseases. + +A little more than a year ago a hospital was opened at Bontoc, the +demand for accommodations being so great from the start that we did +not even await the arrival of beds. Sick Igorots were only too glad +to lie on the floor if their needs could be ministered to. + +It had previously been the custom of the wild men to kill chickens, +pigs or carabaos in case of illness, in order to propitiate evil +spirits, the kind and number of animals killed being of course +determined by the wealth of the patients. They have now satisfied +themselves that quinine for malaria, salvarsan for yaws, and other +effective remedies for common ailments are more useful and more +readily obtained than was the helpful intervention of the _anítos,_ +or spirits of the dead, while the methods and results of modern +surgery are a source of unending amazement and satisfaction to them. + +The first surgeon to anesthetize a Kalinga became promptly and widely +known as "the man who kills people and brings them to life again," +and the individual on whom he operated successfully, who chanced to +be the most influential chief of the tribe, became his friend for +life. Indeed, the results of medical and surgical work for the wild +men have been an important factor in bringing about and maintaining +friendly relations with them. + +Their gratitude is at times very touching. At Atok, in Benguet, there +lives an Igorot chief named Palasi. When he was already old a son was +born to him. This boy, who was the delight of his declining years, +became deathly ill with confluent smallpox, and the Igorots considered +him as good as dead. At this time Sanitary Inspector Baron appeared +on the scene. He promptly turned every one else out of the house and +himself nursed the boy, saving his life. Palasi wished to pay him +for his services, but was informed by Mr. Baron that the government +paid him, and he could not accept additional compensation. Palasi +promptly made the long journey to Baguio to ascertain whether Baron +had told him the truth, and was informed by Governor Pack that this +was the case. The old man retired to Atok, quite disgusted with the +strange ways of Americans. + +Six months later he again appeared at Baguio to ask the governor about +a _fiesta_ which he had just heard it was customary to celebrate +on the 25th of December. He had been told that Americans were in +the habit of giving presents to each other at this time, and asked +if this was the ease. Governor Pack said yes. Palasi then inquired +if the feast was a _good_ feast, and the custom a _good_ custom, +and was assured that both of these things were true. He next asked +if it would be a good feast for Igorots as well as for Americans, +and receiving an affirmative reply from the unsuspecting governor, +triumphantly declared that he was going to give Baron his best +horse. Under the circumstances the governor allowed him to do so. + +In connection with the Bontoc Hospital we use two men, one of whom +travels from settlement to settlement, relieving minor ailments on +the spot and sending to the hospital only those patients who need +to go there, while the other stays at home and receives them. From +time to time these two doctors "change works." Pages from their daily +journals, written in the field, often read like romance. + +Were I a young man, and possessed of adequate knowledge of medicine +and surgery, I would ask nothing better than to minister to the wants +of these people. One might not, and indeed would not, acquire great +wealth, but he would be rich in friends. Here lies a great field for +practical missionary work. + +In connection with the health work there have been many occurrences +which were both amusing and sad. At one time there was great excitement +over a sacred spring which had appeared in Manila Bay off the district +of Tondo. It was duly blessed by Aglipay, the head of the so-called +Aglipayano church. Coincidently with its discovery there was a sharp +little outbreak of Asiatic cholera. Investigation revealed the fact +that the "spring" had its origin in a broken sewer pipe. We were +obliged to prevent the faithful from further partaking of its waters, +and thus insuring themselves a speedy trip to the better world. + +At one time cases of cholera appeared scattered generally throughout +the Mariquina valley and without apparent connection. For some days we +were unable to make a guess as to their origin. Then we heard that a +"Queen" had arisen at the town of Taytay near the Laguna de Bay. An +investigation of the Queen and her activities resulted in rather +astonishing revelations. She was a very ordinary looking Tagálog girl +who had secured the body of an old bull-cart, stopped the cracks with +clay, partially filled it with water and decaying vegetable matter, +and at rather frequent intervals had bathed in the fermenting mass +thus concocted. In due time she announced herself a healer of all +the ills to which flesh is heir, and the sick flocked to her. Cholera +was then prevalent in some of the towns near Taytay, and there were +persons suffering from it among those seeking relief. Some of them +were directed to wash their hands in the extemporized tank, while +others bathed their bodies in it. As a result it soon contained a +cholera culture of unprecedented richness. This was given to patients +applying for treatment, and was bottled and sent to those who were +too ill to come in person. Hence numerous scattering cases of cholera +which did not bear any relationship to other known cases. + +It proved quite an undertaking to put the Queen of Taytay out of +business. We first asked the local authorities to have her sent to +Manila, but the presidente and the police declined to act. We then +applied for a warrant to the Filipino judge of the court of first +instance having jurisdiction over Taytay, but that worthy official +found it convenient to be suddenly called out of the province. At +last we prevailed upon soldiers of the Philippine constabulary to +arrest the queen and bring her to Manila. + +We had anticipated that she might prove insane, but she showed herself +to be a very keen-witted young woman. We employed her at the San Lazaro +Hospital to look after cholera patients. The people of Taytay were +not satisfied, and a few days later a large delegation of them came +to Manila and demanded the Queen. I was at my wits' end to know what +to do, but old Spanish law can usually be relied upon in emergencies, +and the attorney-general discovered a provision couched in very general +terms, which provided against disobedience to the authorities. It was +only necessary for an "authority" to have read to an ordinary person a +statement setting forth what that person must not do; then if the order +was violated, such person could be made to suffer pains and penalties. + +I accordingly prepared a most impressive order prohibiting the Queen +of Taytay from further engaging in the practice of medicine, had her +followers drawn up in battalion formation, placed myself at the front +and centre, caused the Queen to be brought before me, and read her my +communication, at the same time charging the good people of Taytay +not to tempt her again to try her hand at healing, for the reason +that if they did she would surely get into serious trouble. They +marched away with the Queen and I have not heard of her since. + +Hardly a year goes by that some similar miraculous healer does not +set up in business, and the supply of dupes seems to be unending. + +While it is comparatively easy to combat disease in a place like +Manila, what of the provinces, where in many cases there is not one +physician to two hundred thousand inhabitants? + +To meet this difficulty we have an organization of district and +municipal health officers. A district may include a single province +or several provinces. A district health officer is invariably a +physician who has had reasonably thorough practical training in the +work of public sanitation, usually at Manila. + +He is supposed to spend his time in sanitary work rather than in +treating sick individuals, but it is, of course, impossible for him +always to refuse to treat such persons, and we encourage gratuitous +work for the poor when it can be carried on without interfering too +seriously with more important duties. + +Presidents of municipal boards of health may exercise jurisdiction over +a single municipality or over several. They are supposed to maintain +good sanitary conditions in their respective towns, under the general +supervision of district health officers, and to instruct their people +in sanitary methods and their results, as well as to devote a certain +amount of their time to the relief of the suffering poor. + +On the whole it must be admitted that while this system has +accomplished much, it has fallen far short of accomplishing what +it should. + +Men like Dr. Arlington Pond of Cebú have wrought marvels, and have +conclusively demonstrated the fact that it is not the system that +is at fault. Of our thirteen district health officers, ten are +Filipinos. They are, with few exceptions, letter-perfect. They know +what they ought to do, but as a rule lack the initiative and the +courage to do it. + +Recently after discovering exceptionally bad sanitary conditions in +several towns of the province of Misamis, I demanded an explanation +of the district health officer, an exceptionally well-educated and +intelligent Filipino physician. I found, as I had anticipated, that +the sanitary regulations of his towns left little to be desired, +but that they were absolutely ignored. + +I asked him what sense there was in paying his salary if he failed +to remedy such conditions as I had discovered. He replied that if he +were really going to compel people to clean up, it would be necessary +to begin with the provincial governor, whose premises were in a bad +state. When I suggested that in my opinion the provincial governor +would be the best possible man to begin with, the doctor evidently +thought me crazy! + +It is as yet impossible for the average intelligent Filipino to +understand that the rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, +should be treated alike. + +It often happens that a province asks for an American health officer, +or a Filipino demands the services of an American physician. My +invariable procedure in such cases has been to request that the +application be made in writing. For some mysterious reason the +petitioners are seldom willing to go on record. + +A short time since we had a strong demand from Iloilo for an American +district health officer. I made the usual suggestion and got a written +request that there be sent to Iloilo a district health officer "after +the style of the district health officer of Cebú." If Dr. Pond's +nationality may be considered a part of his style, then this was a +request for an American, otherwise not! + +With rather shocking frequency, Filipinos who must be examined for +leprosy or some other dangerous communicable disease strongly insist +that the examination be made by an American bacteriologist rather +than by one of their own countrymen. + +In connection with recent election troubles two men were wrongfully +denounced as lepers. In several instances perfectly sound people +have been thrust among lepers who were being taken on board steamer +for transfer to Culion. This grievous wrong was committed by their +enemies under cover of darkness, and in the confusion which attends +the embarking of a number of people in a heavy sea. The reason why +the services of Americans are often specially requested for diagnostic +work is not far to seek! + +It is a significant fact that our greatest success in establishing +satisfactory provincial sanitary conditions has been achieved in +certain of the "special government provinces," where the people are +under the very direct control of American officials. + +There is not a regularly organized province in the Philippines in +which the towns are as clean as are those of Mindoro, where, until +recently, we have never had a resident district health officer. + +I believe that nowhere in the tropics can there be found native +towns which are cleaner or more healthful than are those of Bukidnon, +inhabited in some instances by people who have literally been brought +down out of the tree-tops within the last two or three years. We have +never had a resident health officer in this subprovince. + +I mention these facts not as an argument against health officers, but +as a proof of what can be done without them by intelligent Americans +vested with proper authority. + +It has given me especial pleasure to see the fundamental change which +has come about in public sentiment relative to medical, surgical +and sanitary work. At the outset sanitary inspectors and vaccinators +carried on their work at serious risk of personal violence. Indeed, +several of them were killed. Incredible tales were believed by the +populace, with the result that cholera victims sometimes had to be +taken to the hospital by force. In later years it has been by no +means unusual for them to come in voluntarily and request treatment. + +General hospitals were in the old days regarded as places where people +so unfortunate as to have no homes to die in might go to end their +days. It was almost impossible to get any other class of persons +into them. + +Now we constantly turn away deserving patients from the Philippine +General Hospital because of lack of room. The common people are +flocking to it in rapidly increasing numbers. We even have "repeaters," +and persons who drop in just to get a comfortable bed and a bath while +waiting for an examination which will inevitably show that there is +nothing wrong with them. + +Our difficulties were increased at the outset by the fact that many +foreign medical men working in the Far East good-naturedly ridiculed +our efforts to better conditions, claiming that in tropical colonies it +was customary to take only such steps as would safeguard the health of +European residents, and that it was really best to let the masses live +as they would, since orientals were incapable of sanitary reform, and +the attempt to bring it about involved a waste of effort that might +be more profitably directed elsewhere. Furthermore these men were, +in their several countries, practising what they preached. + +It has been very interesting to note the reaction of American methods +upon those previously in vogue in neighbouring colonies. At first +our efforts to make Asiatics clean up, and to eliminate diseases +like leprosy, cholera and plague, were viewed with mild amusement, +not unmixed with contempt; but the results which we obtained soon +aroused lively interest. + +Foreign governments began to send representatives to the annual +meetings of the "Philippine Island Medical Association," [505] in +order to learn more of our methods. From these small beginnings sprang +"The Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine," the biennial +meetings of which bring together the most experienced, skilful and +widely known physicians and sanitarians in the East for an interchange +of views and experiences which is invaluable, and greatly facilitates +concerted action between the various governments concerned in dealing +with what may be termed "international health problems." + +The first meeting of this Association was held at Manila, the second +at Hongkong. The third will take place at Saigon. + +The results of a rigid enforcement of the "Pure Food and Drugs Act" +are worthy of more than passing notice. Such enforcement has been +comparatively easy as the officials concerned are not hampered +by politics. The Philippines were at one time a dumping-ground for +products that could not be sold elsewhere, but it is now possible for +Filipinos to obtain wholesome preserved foods and unadulterated drugs, +except in very remote places where none of any sort are available. + +The cost of our medical and sanitary work has been comparatively +small. The per capita rate of taxation here is lower than in any +other civilized country. What we have done has been accomplished +without spending vast sums of money or resorting to military measures. + +The results obtained are very largely due to the faithfulness +and efficiency of Dr. Victor G. Heiser, who was chief quarantine +officer of the Philippines when he succeeded Major E. C. Carter as +commissioner of public health on April 5, 1905, and was later made +director of health when the original board of health was abolished +as an administrative entity. He has continued to hold the office of +chief quarantine officer, and thus has been in complete executive +control of the health situation for eight years. + +Through good report and ill, mostly ill, he has given unsparingly of +his time, his skill and his wisdom, always treating the government +money as if it were his own. + +His tenure of office has been long enough to enable him to inaugurate +and carry out policies, and thus get results. + +Seldom, if ever, have health officials been more viciously and +persistently attacked than have Dr. Heiser and myself. The assaults +on us have been the direct result of a firm stand for a new sanitary +order of things, established in the interest of the whole body of +inhabitants of these islands, civilized and uncivilized. We both +welcome the profound change in public sentiment, which has slowly +but surely come about as a result of practical accomplishment. + +Many very grave health problems still confront the insular +administration. Of these the most serious are the eradication of +tuberculosis and the reduction of the very high infant mortality rate. + +It is believed that about one Filipino in five suffers from +tuberculosis in some form during his life and the work we have thus +far accomplished in many fields must be considered as in a way a +clearing of the decks for action against this, the greatest enemy of +all. However, the Philippines do not differ essentially from other +civilized countries, in all of which tuberculosis is a very serious +factor in the death rate. + +As regards infant mortality the situation is different. More than +fifty per cent of the babes die before completing their first year of +life. The causes which lead to this appalling result have been made +the subject of careful investigation which still continues. Popular +interest has been aroused, but it is undoubtedly true that many +years of patient work will be necessary before anything approaching +satisfactory results can be brought about. + +The physical condition of the average Filipino is undoubtedly +bad. Of one hundred seventy-eight university students recently +examined sixty-nine were found to be suffering from serious +organic troubles. Unquestionably the great mass of the people are +underfed. This is largely due to the poor quality of the rice which +they consume, and to the fact that rice forms too large a part of +their diet. I am firmly convinced that much of the so-called laziness +of the Filipinos is the direct result of physical weakness due to +improper and insufficient food. + +Since the American occupation a large amount of time has been +successfully devoted to the working out of a good all-around diet made +up of local products the cost of which comes within the means of the +poor. The next thing will be to get them to adopt it, and there comes +the rub. Incalculable good would result, if we could only persuade the +people of these islands to sleep with their windows open. Thousands +upon thousands of infant lives would be saved annually, if mothers +could be persuaded not to give solid food to their little ones during +the early months of their existence. + +In the educational campaign which we have thus far conducted with some +considerable degree of success, two agencies have proved invaluable, +namely the Catholic Church and the public schools. Again and again I +have begged Apostolic Delegate Monsignor Agius and Archbishop Harty to +bring to bear the influence of the Church in favour of simple sanitary +regulations, the general adoption of which was imperatively necessary +in combating some epidemic of disease. They have invariably given me +invaluable assistance. + +Through the public schools we reach more than half a million children, +and they take the information which we convey to them home to +their parents. Simple rules for the prevention of cholera have been +universally taught in the schools. When the use of English has become +generalized the difficulty now encountered in reaching the common +people will largely disappear. The truth is that they are singularly +tractable and docile when their reason can be effectively appealed +to. The readiness with which they have submitted to the rigorous +measures necessary for the elimination of leprosy is a lasting honour +to them. + +Would the sanitary campaign so vitally important to the people of +the Philippines be effectively continued if American authority were +withdrawn at this time? With regret I must answer this question +emphatically in the negative. We have succeeded in training a few +good physicians and surgeons. We have thus far failed to train +really efficient sanitary officers. What is lacking is not so much +knowledge as to what should be done as initiative and courage to do +it. Until this condition changes radically for the better, Filipinos +cannot safely be intrusted with the sanitary regeneration of their +country. Under American control the population of the islands is +steadily and rapidly increasing. It is my firm conviction that if +Filipinos were at this time placed in control of the health work, +the population would steadily and rapidly decrease. + +The present attitude of the Filipino press toward sanitary work is +both interesting and important. I quote the following editorial from +the March 27, 1913, issue of _El Ideal_, a paper generally believed +to be controlled by Speaker Osmeña:-- + + "Some persons, who, because of being ignorant of many + things, do not sympathize with the Filipino people, who are + in the habit of frequently throwing up to them the violent + opposition of our masses to strict sanitary measures in cases + of epidemics, and the lively protests which are provoked + here on some occasions by other provisions tending to end + some public calamity, thinking they see in this disposition + of mind an indication of our incapacity to govern ourselves.... + + "To be more expressive, we shall say that the sanitary agents + and veterinarians of the government, swollen with power and + overly zealous of their prestige, quickly become, when an + occasion like those cited by us presents itself, cunning czars, + whose sphere of influence is in direct ratio to the peaceful + character and ignorance of the people intrusted to their + care, and whose excesses and abuses recognize no limits but + the natural ones established by the greater or lesser honour + of those public servants, their greater or lesser cynicism, + and their greater or lesser degree of temerity. + + "This, and nothing else, is the logical and natural explanation + of the hostility of our people toward those measures of good + government which are sincerely esteemed for what they are + worth, but for which they have veritable terror because of + the nameless abuses to which they give rise. + + "These comments are of palpitating current interest at this + moment, when reports are made almost daily to the press and + the proper authorities of misbehaviour and excesses befitting + soulless people who live without the law committed by persons + who should be examples of prudence, honesty and good manners, + for it is in this concept that the people are compelled to + furnish them their daily bread." + +It is deeply to be regretted that the public press of the islands +has not yet become sufficiently enlightened to join in the great +sanitary campaign which has already relieved an enormous amount of +human suffering and has greatly increased the expectancy of life of +the people of the Philippines. + +The Philippine Assembly has repeatedly passed acts providing for the +creation of a sort of sanitary council of numerous members authorized +to pass on public health measures proposed by the director of health +and instructed to disapprove them if not in accordance with the +beliefs and customs of the Filipinos. + +In protecting the public health in the Philippine Islands emergencies +constantly arise which must be instantly and effectively met. It would +be as logical to place a commanding general directing a battle under +the control of an advisory board as it would thus to tie the hands of +the director of health, and it is difficult to see how any competent +and self-respecting sanitarian could be willing to continue to hold +this position if so hampered. + +The Philippine Commission has heretofore invariably tabled the +acts designed to accomplish this end, but that body has now been +"Filipinized" and its future attitude on this very important +question is therefore in doubt. Hardly had the legislative session +opened in October, 1913, when the assembly again passed the same +old bill. Should it become a law, there will be occasion to watch, +with especial interest, the death rate of Manila and that of the +archipelago as a whole. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +Baguio and the Benguet Road + + +In June, 1892, when sitting in a native house on a hill overlooking +Naujan Lake in Mindoro, and anxiously awaiting the boats which were +to make it possible for my party to return to the coast, I saw a +small flotilla approaching. + +To my surprise and regret I found that it was not coming for us, but +brought a number of Spanish officers who had heard that we had some +mysterious procedure for killing the tamarau, an extraordinarily wild +and vicious little buffalo peculiar to this island. They had come to +get us to tell them how we did it, if possible, and if not to watch +us and find out for themselves. + +We described to them our method, which was easily understood. It +consisted in picking up a likely trail along some water course, +following it until the tamarau was overtaken, and then shooting +him. This looked suspiciously simple to our Spanish friends before they +had tried it, and they shook their heads. After trying it they became +convinced that more than a few days of experience would be necessary +before satisfactory results could be obtained. They profited little +by the best information we could give them, and by the services of +the expert tracker whom we loaned to them. Meanwhile I obtained from +one of them, Señor Domingo Sanchez, information destined to become +of great importance in the development of the Philippines. + +Señor Sanchez, who was an employee of the Spanish forestry bureau, +told me that in the highlands of Northern Luzón at an elevation +of about five thousand feet, there was a region of pines and oaks +blessed with a perpetually temperate climate and even with occasional +frosts. I confess that I did not believe all of his statements. I +was then experienced in climbing Philippine mountains, and at five +thousand feet had invariably found a hopeless tangle of the rankest +tropical vegetation, with humidity so high that trees were draped with +ferns, orchids, and thick moss, and dripping with moisture. However, +I knew that the mere presence of pine and oak trees would mean the +occurrence of special bird species feeding upon their seeds, and so +determined to investigate. + +A severe attack of typhoid fever necessitated my leaving the islands +before I could carry out this plan, but upon my return with the first +Philippine Commission in 1899 I remembered Señor Sanchez's story. In +view of the probability that American occupation would continue +for a long period, the existence or non-existence near Manila of an +extensive highland region with a temperate climate became a question +of great practical importance. I therefore caused search to be made +in the Spanish archives to see what, if any, reliable information was +available, and to my great satisfaction unearthed a detailed report +made by a committee of three distinguished and competent Spanish +officers who had spent some weeks at Baguio in the _comandancia_ of +Benguet, during which period they had made six temperature observations +daily, had tramped over the neighbouring country very thoroughly, +had located a number of springs of potable water and determined their +approximate flow, and in short had gathered a large series of very +valuable data which more than bore out the statements of Señor Sanchez. + +I found, furthermore, that Spanish engineers had made a survey for +a carriage road into this country, and had prepared a profile of it +with estimates of the amount and cost of the necessary excavation +and other work. + +While in Washington during the winter of 1899-1900, I brought +this matter to the attention of Secretary Root. Just as the second +Philippine Commission was filing out of his office, after receiving +its instructions, he called out to us directing that we look into +that Benguet matter, and if the facts proved to be as stated open up +the country. + +Mindful of these instructions the commission delegated General Luke +E. Wright and myself to visit Benguet and familiarize ourselves with +conditions by investigation on the ground. General MacArthur was +dubious when we expressed a desire to carry out the instructions of +the secretary of war. He told us that the country was very dangerous, +doubtless confusing it with Bangued, the capital of Abra, near which +there was at that time a strong and active Insurgent force. + +We insisted on going, so he said that he would send a troop of +cavalry with us, and he kept his word. During the last week of July +we finally sailed from Manila on a naval vessel for San Fernando in +the province of Union. From this place we expected to go by road as +far as Naguilian, in the same province, and thence on horseback to +Trinidad and Baguio, in Benguet. + +In order to expedite investigations as much as possible we took +with us Mr. Horace L. Higgins, president of the Manila and Dagupan +Railway Company, who was an engineer of experience, to report on +the practicability of constructing a railway to Baguio. We also took +Major L. M. Maus, of the army medical corps, and Dr. Frank S. Bourns, +who then held the volunteer rank of major in the same corps, to report +on the possibilities of the place as a health resort. Two young naval +officers went along just for the trip. + +Major Maus accompanied us only because requested to do so. Taking +the latitude and altitude as a basis for his calculations, he had +already determined with a lead pencil and piece of paper just what +the climate of Baguio must be, and had demonstrated to his own +complete satisfaction that the statements of the members of the +Spanish committee above referred to were necessarily false. + +His first rude shock came when we were met at San Fernando by a young +aide to Colonel [506] Duval, who was in command of the local garrison +at that place. This lieutenant told us that some negro soldiers were +stationed at Trinidad and were being kept supplied by an army pack +train. I asked him how they were getting on. He said very well, +except that they could not keep warm. They had called for all the +spare blankets available, but still complained of the cold! + +The trail proved to be in execrable condition. No repair work had been +done on it since 1896, and its constant use during the then-existing +rainy season by a pack train had completed its destruction. Much of +the way it was a mere V in the earth, with deep mud at the bottom. + +We left Naguilian early in the morning and stopped for lunch at +a little place properly called Sablán, but unofficially known as +"The Bells." Aguinaldo had thought at one time of establishing his +headquarters in Benguet and had planned to have a gun foundry at +Sablán. His troops accordingly stole most of the church bells in +the neighbouring lowland towns, meaning to use them for gun metal, +and compelled the unfortunate Benguet Igorots to carry them up the +steep trail. Boiler pipes, which had been used in lieu of carrying +poles, had in several instances been badly bent out of shape. There +was even an old vertical boiler which had been lugged up entire for +some unknown reason. + +The labour involved must have been enormous, and we were assured +that when the Igorot bearers, prostrated with fatigue, had refused +to continue their titanic task without rest, they had been driven +to it at the muzzles of Insurgent rifles, and that some of them had +been shot as a lesson to the others. At all events, the boiler and +the bells were there, and there the boiler and the larger bells have +remained ever since! + +It was still steaming hot at Sablán, and the whole countryside +was buried in the densest tropical vegetation. Major Maus was +triumphant. Things were working out just as he had predicted. However, +as we were already halfway up, we thought that we might as well +continue the journey. I had expected to find pines and oaks, but +had anticipated that they would grow amidst a dense tangle of damp +tropical vegetation. + +We were all literally dumfounded when within the space of a hundred +yards we suddenly left the tropics behind us and came out into a +wonderful region of pine parks. Trees stood on the rounded knolls at +comparatively wide intervals, and there were scores of places where, +in order to have a beautiful house lot, one needed only to construct +driveways and go to work with a lawn-mower. At the same moment, +a delightful cold breeze swept down from the heights above us. + +Just at sunset we experienced a second surprise, coming out on the +knife-sharp crest of a ridge, and seeing spread before us the Trinidad +Valley, which is shaped like a huge wash-basin. Its floor was vividly +green with growing rice, Igorot houses were dotted here and there over +its surface, and the whole peaceful, beautiful scene was illuminated +by the rays of the setting sun. The air had been washed clean by +the heavy rain which had poured down on us throughout the afternoon, +and the sight was one never to be forgotten. + +Just at dusk we reached the little settlement of Trinidad, which had +been the capital of the Spanish _comandancia_ of Benguet, finding +that its inhabitants were in part Ilocanos and in part Igorots. + +Here we were hospitably entertained by the officers of the military +post. It was so cold that one's breath showed. Major Maus improved +the opportunity to indulge in a severe chill. Finding him buried +under blankets, we asked his views as to the Benguet climate. They +were radical! It is only fair to the Major to say that the report +which he ultimately made set forth the facts fully and fairly. It +did not suit General MacArthur. Years afterward, when discussing the +climate of Benguet with Surgeon-General Sternberg, I referred to this +report and found to my amazement that he had never seen it. He caused +an investigation to be made, and it was at last resurrected from a +dusty pigeonhole. + +On our arrival at Trinidad we received a letter from Mr. Otto Scheerer, +the one white resident of Benguet, inviting us to make our headquarters +at his house when we visited Baguio. Bright and early the next morning +Mr. Scheerer himself appeared on the scene and guided us to his home, +where he entertained us most hospitably during our entire stay. The +trip from Trinidad, a distance of four miles, was made over a wretched +pony trail. + +We found conditions exactly as described in the Spanish report. The +country was gently rolling, its elevation ranging from forty-five +hundred to fifty-two hundred feet. The hills were covered with short, +thick grass, and with magnificent pine trees, which for the most +part grew at considerable distance from each other, while along the +streams there were wonderful tree ferns and luxuriant tangles of +beautiful tropical vegetation. It took us but a short time to decide +that here was an ideal site for a future city, if water could be +found in sufficient quantity. + +We revisited each of the several springs discovered and described +by the Spanish committee, but decided that they would be inadequate +to supply a town of any great size. Mr. Scheerer now came to the +front and guided us to the very thing that we were looking for, +but had hardly dared hope to find; namely, a magnificent spring of +crystal-clear water. At that time it was flowing nearly a million +gallons per day. It burst forth from a hillside in such a manner as +to make its protection from surface drainage easy, and we decided +that there was nothing lacking to make Baguio an admirable site for +the future summer capital and health resort of the Philippines. + +It was obvious that the construction of a highway from San Fernando, +in Union, to Baguio would involve considerable expense, and we asked +Mr. Scheerer about other possible lines of communication. A study +of the Spanish maps had led us to consider two: one up the valley of +the Agno River, and the other up that of the Bued River. The latter +route had the great advantage of affording direct communication with +the end of the railway line at Dagupan. + +Mr. Scheerer took us to a point which commanded a view for some +distance down the Bued River valley, and conditions looked rather +favourable. Mr. Higgins undertook to make a trip down this valley to +the plains of Pangasinán, reporting to us on his arrival at Manila, +so we returned to that place and awaited advices from him. He was +furnished with a guard of soldiers from Trinidad, and attempted to +go down the river bed, but encountered unexpected difficulties, and +his progress was finally checked by a box cañon from which he escaped +with difficulty, spending a night without food or water on a chilly +mountain top known as "Thumb Peak." The following morning he managed +to cross to a high mountain called Santo Tomás, whence he returned +to Baguio. He was, however, of the opinion that the trip down the +cañon could be made without special difficulty by a party suitably +provided with food and tentage. + +Convinced by our report that active measures should be taken to +establish communication with this wonderful region, the commission, +on September 12, 1900, appropriated $5000 Mexican, "for the purpose +of making a survey to ascertain the most advantageous route for +a railway into the mountains of Benguet, Island of Luzon, and the +probable cost thereof." + +Captain Charles W. Meade, then serving as city engineer of Manila, +was selected to make the survey. There was every theoretical reason to +believe him competent, and we did not question either his integrity +or his ability. After being absent from Manila for some time, he +reported in favour of the Bued River valley route, saying that it +was entirely feasible to build a railway along it. + +He suggested that, as the construction of a wagon road would be +necessary in building the railroad, we might as well undertake that +first, and so be able to go to Baguio in wheeled vehicles before the +railroad was completed. He asked for $75,000 United States currency, +with which to build this road, stating that he expected to be able +to do it for $65,000, but would like $10,000 as a margin of safety. + +On December 21, 1901, the commission passed an act authorizing the +construction of a highway from Pozorubio, in Pangasinán, to Baguio, +"the same to be built under the general supervision of the military +governor and the immediate direction of Captain Charles W. Meade, +Thirty-sixth Infantry, United States Volunteers, who has been detailed +by the military governor for that purpose, along the general line +of survey recently made by Captain Meade for a railway between said +towns." The $75,000 asked for were appropriated by this act. + +Work began promptly at both ends of the line. In June, 1901, +I set out on my first trip through the wild man's territory in +northern Luzón. Incidentally, and for my personal satisfaction only, +I inspected the work on the road. We had been rather disappointed by +Captain Meade's failure to make more rapid progress. At the lower end +I found that delay was being caused by a huge cliff necessitating a +very heavy rock cut. I was assured by Captain Meade that from this +point on the line ran through dirt most of the way, so that the road +could be completed very rapidly. This statement proved to be grossly +in error. It took years of hard work to open up the road. + +Its cost when finally ready for traffic was $1,961,847.05. Its length +was forty-five kilometers eight hundred ninety-one meters, [507] of +which thirty-four kilometers were in non-Christian territory. Some +ten kilometers of the remainder have since been incorporated in the +first-class road system of the province of Pangasinán, as this part +is chiefly used by the people of that province in shipping their +agricultural products to Benguet, and in maintaining communication +between their towns. + +The additional cost of the road to date [508] since it was first +opened is $792,434, making its total cost to date $2,754,281.05. This +includes not only the actual cost of maintenance, but very extensive +improvements, such as the metalling of the road from the so-called +zigzag to Baguio, the construction of five steel bridges, and the +replacing of all the original bridges on the road and of all the +original culverts except those made of concrete or masonry. + +On my arrival in Benguet in 1901, I found that good progress had been +made on the upper end of the road, which had penetrated for a short +distance into the cañon proper without encountering any considerable +obstacles. + +On October 15, 1901, the commission stated in its annual report to the +secretary of war, "He [509] has been much delayed by the difficulty of +procuring the labour necessary for its early completion, and several +months will yet elapse before it is finished!" They did! + +On August 20, 1901, Captain Meade was relieved, and Mr. N. M. Holmes +was made engineer of the road. + +On February 3, 1902, a little sanitarium was opened in a small native +house at Baguio. During the following July I was sent to it as a +patient, and while in Benguet again inspected the road which had been +continued high up on the cañon wall to a point where, on a very steep +mountain side, a peculiar rock formation had been encountered at the +very grass roots. This rock disintegrated rapidly under the action +of the sun when exposed to it. Comparatively solid in the morning, +it would crack to pieces and slide down the mountain side before +night. A sixty-foot cut had already been made into the precipitous +mountain side, and the result was an unstable road-bed, hardly four +feet in width, which threatened to go out at any moment. + +My trip to Baguio promptly relieved a severe attack of acute intestinal +trouble from which I had been suffering, and when Governor Taft fell +ill the following year with a similar ailment, and his physicians +recommended his return to the United States, I did my best to persuade +him to try Baguio instead. He decided to do so. + +Five rough cottages had meanwhile been constructed for the use of +the commissioners, the lumber for them being sawed by hand on the +ground. Boards had been nailed to frames as rapidly as they fell +from the logs, and had shrunk to such an extent that a reasonably +expert marksman might almost have thrown a cat by the tail through +any one of the houses. At night they looked like the old-fashioned +perforated tin lanterns, leaking light in a thousand places. These +were the luxurious homes provided for the high officials of the +government of which so much has been said! + +We paid for them an annual rental amounting to ten per cent of their +cost, which had of course been excessively high on account of the +necessity of packing everything used in them, except the lumber, +up the Naguilian trail. + +However, we were in no frame of mind to be critical. We had put in +three years of killing hard work, labouring seven days in the week, +and keeping hours such as to arouse a feeling little short of horror +among old British and other foreign residents. We were all completely +exhausted, and Mr. Taft was ill. For my part, I would gladly have paid +almost any sum for a tent under the pine trees and the privilege of +occupying it for a few weeks. + +On the trip up Mr. Taft had ridden a magnificent saddle horse which +had been given to him by General Chaffee. At the time he left, Manila +had been burning hot. When he was at last seated on the porch of the +little house which was to be his home for weeks, with a cool breeze +sighing through the needles of a spreading pine tree close at hand, +his satisfaction knew no bounds. Already his magnificent constitution +had begun to respond to the stimulation of the wonderful mountain air, +and filled with enthusiasm he summoned a stenographer and dictated +the following cablegram to the secretary of war:-- + + "April 15, 1903. + + "_Secwar_, + + "_Washington_. + + "Stood trip well, rode horseback 25 miles to 5000 feet + altitude. Hope amoebic dysentery cured. Great province this, + only 150 miles from Manila with air as bracing as Adirondacks + or Murray Bay. Only pines and grass lands. Temperature this + hottest month in the Philippines in my cottage porch at three + in the afternoon 68. Fires are necessary night and morning. + + "_Taft_." + +As quick as the wires could bring it, he received the following reply: + + "_Washington_, D.C., April 16, 1903. + + "_Taft_, + + "_Manila_. + + "Referring to telegram from your office of 15th inst., how + is horse? + + "_Root_." + +When he read it his shouts of laughter, rolling over the hills of +Baguio, must have been audible half a mile away! + +Mr. Taft's sojourn in the hills put him again in fine condition and +made it possible for him to return to Manila and resume the heavy +burden of work which there awaited him. The other members of the +commission also greatly benefited by their stay in the hills. + +While there we heard disquieting rumours as to the practicability +of completing the road. There was a difference of opinion between +the engineer in charge and one of his immediate subordinates as to +the route which should be followed. The consulting engineer of the +commission was accordingly requested to make a survey to determine a +practicable route for the unfinished portion of the road and estimate +the cost of completing it. In due time he advised us that it was +practicable to complete it, but that the cost would be at least +$1,000,000. Warned by our experience with Meade, we wished additional +expert advice, so summoned to Baguio Colonel L. W. V. Kennon, a man +of great energy and executive ability, who had had large experience +in engineering work in mountainous country, and requested him to go +down the Bued River valley and report on the progress of the work, +and the practicability of completing the road on the route which had +been determined upon. + +Being the youngest and most active member of the commission, I was +detailed to accompany him. On this trip I became convinced that +all of the engineers interested, except the consulting engineer, +had grossly understated the difficulties which must be overcome +before the road could be completed. Colonel Kennon decided that it +was entirely feasible to build the road, but that the comparatively +short stretch already completed from Baguio into the upper end of +the cañon must be abandoned and a new line adopted. Furthermore, +he gave us some very definite and extremely unpleasant information +as to the probable cost of completing the work, his statements on +this subject confirming those of the consulting engineer. + +The commission was thus put face to face with the hard facts but did +not flinch. On the contrary, it passed the following resolution on +June 1, 1903:-- + + "On Motion, _Resolved_, That it be declared the policy of + the Commission to make the town of Baguio, in the Province of + Benguet, the summer capital of the Archipelago and to construct + suitable buildings, to secure suitable transportation, + to secure proper water supply, and to make residence in + Baguio possible for all of the officers and employees of + the Insular Government for four months during the year, that + in pursuance of this purpose the Secretary of the Interior, + the Consulting Engineer to the Commission, the Chief of the + Bureau of Architecture, and Major [510] L. W. V. Kennon, United + States Army, whom it is the intention of the Commission to + put in actual charge of the improvements in Benguet Province, + including the construction of the Benguet Road, the erection + of the buildings and the construction of a wagon road from + Naguilian, be appointed a Committee to report plans and + estimates to the Commission for the proposed improvements in + the Province of Benguet and to submit same to the Commission + for action and necessary appropriation, and + + "_Be it further resolved_, That steps should be immediately + taken looking to the increase of the capacity of the Sanitarium + by at least twenty rooms, to the construction of seven more + cottages on the grounds of the Sanitarium, to the construction + of a Governor's residence on the site overlooking the big + spring which is the source of the Bued River immediately + south of the Sanitarium proper, to the construction of an + Administration building sufficient for the Commission, the + Commission's staff and the Executive Bureau, of at least + twenty-five rooms, and to the making of a plan for a town + site for the municipality of Baguio; but that the details + of construction and improvements, with such variations from + the indicated plan as may seem wise, shall be left to the + committee appointed under the previous resolution." + +In his annual report dated November 15, 1903, Governor Taft said:-- + + "In connection with the subject of health, reference should be + made to the province of Benguet and to Baguio, the capital of + that province. The secretary of commerce and police will refer + to the work now being done in the construction of the Benguet + road from Pozorrubio, through Twin Peaks, to Baguio. There + have been serious engineering mistakes made in the road, + and it is proving to be much more costly than was expected; + but when completed its importance in the development of + these islands can hardly be overestimated. One of the things + essential to progress in the islands is the coming of more + Americans and Europeans who shall make this their business + home. If there can be brought within twelve hours' travel + of Manila a place with a climate not unlike that of the + Adirondacks, or of Wyoming in summer, it will add greatly + to the possibility of living in Manila for ten months of the + year without risk. It will take away the necessity for long + vacations spent in America; will reduce the number who go + invalided home, and will be a saving to the insular government + of many thousands of dollars a year. It will lengthen the + period during which the American soldiers who are stationed + here may remain without injury to their health and will thus + reduce largely the expense of transportation of troops between + the islands and the United States. More than this, Filipinos + of the wealthier class frequently visit Japan or China for + the purpose of recuperating. People of this class are much + interested in the establishment of Baguio as a summer capital, + and when the road is completed a town will spring up, made up + of comfortable residences, of a fine, extensive army post, + and sanitariums for the relief of persons suffering from + diseases prevalent in the lowlands. It is the hope of the + government that the Roman Catholic Church will send American + priests as it has sent American bishops to the islands, to + assist in the moral elevation of the people. The fear of the + effect of the climate has kept many from coming. The Roman + Catholic Church authorities have announced their intention + of erecting rest houses at Baguio for the purpose of the + recuperation of their ministers and agents. The Methodists and + Episcopalians have already secured building lots in Baguio for + this purpose. It is the settled purpose of the Commission to + see this improvement through, no matter what the cost, because + eventually the expenditures must redound to the benefit of the + government and people of the islands. We have already stated, + in the report on the public land act, that it is proposed, + under that act, which allows the organizing of town sites, + to sell the public land in suitable lots at auction so that + every one interested shall have the opportunity to obtain a + good lot upon which to build a suitable house." [511] + +Mr. Taft would be delighted could he see to-day how completely his +anticipations have been fulfilled. + +Colonel Kennon was put in charge of construction work, and things began +to move. They kept moving until the road was finished. From this time +on we knew that the expense involved would be out of all proportion +to the original estimate, but we were determined to push the work +through, having reached the decision that it was worth while to open +up communication with Baguio at any cost within reason, because of its +future certain value to the people of the islands as a health resort. + +On April 1, 1904, I rode over the road in a vehicle nearly to Camp +Four, and came the rest of the way to Baguio on horseback over a new +trail which zigzagged up a mountain side near Camp Four and followed +the crest of the range from there in. A little later the Commission +came by the same route, and spent the hot season in the cool Benguet +hills. + +On January 29, 1905, Colonel Kennon drove into Baguio in the first +wagon to arrive there over the Benguet Road, which was opened for +regular service on March 27th of the same year. The cost of the road +on November 1, 1905, had, as previously stated, been $1,966,847.05, +and the cost of the heavy work in the cañon had been approximately +$75,000 per mile, which is not excessive when compared with the cost +of similar work in the United States, especially as this sum included +maintenance of the portions constructed during previous years. + +The fact that a certain amount of congressional relief funds was +expended on the construction of this road has been made the subject +of very unjust criticism. A large number of poor Filipinos, who were +in dire straits, were thus given an opportunity for remunerative +employment, and the distribution of a portion of the congressional +relief fund in this way was in entire harmony with the fixed policy +of the commission to avoid pauperizing the people by giving money +or food outright to able-bodied persons, and to afford them relief +by furnishing them opportunity to work for a good wage. A further +reason why the expenditure of money from this fund on the Benguet +Road was appropriate is found in the fact that the region opened up +is destined to play a very important part in the cure of tuberculosis, +which is the principal cause of death among the people of the lowlands, +but is practically unknown among the Igorots of the hills. + +During the earlier years after the road was open owners of bull carts +in Pangasinán made large sums transporting freight over it. This is +not the case at the present time, as the growing volume of freight +requiring to be moved led to the blocking of the road with bull carts +and necessitated the installation of an automobile truck line so that +it might be more expeditiously handled. + +In December, 1904, the great landscape architect, Mr. D. H. Burnham, +visited Baguio, and made a plan for its future development. He was +enthusiastic over its possibilities, and gave his services free of +charge. His plan is being closely adhered to, and although funds are +not now available for going far toward carrying it out, we have at +least avoided anything which would interfere with it. + +The next important event in the history of Baguio was the first sale +of residence and building lots, which took place on May 28, 1906, +and was conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Public +Land Act relative to town sites. + +Although a howling typhoon was sweeping Benguet at the time, 91 +residence lots and 15 business lots were disposed of at this first +sale, and at a subsequent one held in Manila a few weeks later all +the remaining lots then surveyed were sold. + +The town site includes two hundred sixteen square miles, and new lots +are surveyed as required. All sums derived from the sale of lots are +used for the improvement of the town site, and thus Baguio is made +to help build itself. + +In the spring of 1900 the Baguio Country Club was organized. Because +of the extraordinary false statements made concerning it by certain +unscrupulous politicians, I give its history somewhat fully. Its +purpose was to afford a meeting place for the people of the town +and to give them an opportunity for outdoor sports. It purchased a +hundred acres of land on which a low assessment had been placed in +view of the semipublic purpose which it was to serve. + +At the outset the "club house" was a rude, grass-roofed shed made of +pine slabs. Its doors and windows were mere openings which could not be +closed. It was erected in about a week. Three holes of a golf course +and a croquet ground had been prepared. These decidedly primitive +club facilities nevertheless served to bring the people of Baguio +together and give them an opportunity for a good time out of doors. + +In February, 1907, a Country Club Corporation was organized +with a capital stock of $5000, of which $3000 have thus far been +subscribed. The shares cost $50. No single subscriber owns more than +three, with the sole exception of Mr. Forbes, who took ten to help +the club get started. Ownership of stock brings no emoluments, but, +on the contrary, indirectly involves expense which the present owners +have been willing to bear for the public good. + +From these small beginnings the Baguio country club has grown into +an important institution. As funds became available from the sale +of stock, the payment of dues and tile generous donations of a +few members, an excellent nine-hole golf course was completed, and +tennis courts and facilities for trap-shooting were installed. In +March and April, 1908, a modest club house was built at a cost of +some $5000. It has two small locker rooms, a large living room, +a tiny office, a little bath, a kitchen, and nine single sleeping +rooms. Three very small cottages, costing $375 each, were erected +on the club grounds for the use of the members. Five larger cottages +have since been constructed. + +Any person of good character is eligible to membership. The entrance +fee is $25, but officers of the army, navy and marine corps stationed +at Baguio are admitted without the payment of this fee, and persons +temporarily there may secure the privileges of the club by paying at +the rate of $5 per month. The annual dues are $20. The families of +members are entitled to the privileges of the club. Among its members +are the highest officials of the insular government and teachers, +clerks, stenographers and other employees drawing small salaries, +as well as numerous permanent residents of Baguio. + +It knows no race or creed, and Filipinos take advantage of its +privileges quite as freely as do Americans. Representatives of +every nationality in the islands may be found on its golf course on +a pleasant afternoon. It is the common meeting place of Baguio, and +hardly a day passes without the giving of some pleasant luncheon or +dinner in its little living room or in the outdoor space covered by +an overhanging roof at its eastern end. No more democratic institution +ever existed. + +Congressman Jones, in his attacks on the Philippine administration, is +fond of stating that "there is a club for officials at Baguio." The +statement is true, but reminds one of that other statement of a +ship's first mate who came on board intoxicated just before the vessel +sailed. The following morning, happening to look at the ship's log for +the previous day, he saw the entry "The mate drunk to-day." It was his +first offence, and he begged the captain to erase this record, but the +captain said "It is true, is it not?" and insisted that it must stand. + +A little later the captain was taken ill. Upon resumption of duty he +found an entry in the log reading: "The captain sober to-day." When +he furiously insisted that it be erased, the mate said "It is true, is +it not?" Now, it is true that there is a club for government officers +at Baguio, but in making this statement Mr. Jones and his ilk have +neglected to say that there is also at Baguio a club for employees; a +club for private citizens; a club for Americans; a club for Filipinos; +a club for foreign consuls and other foreign residents of the islands; +a club for business men; a club for clerks; and that all of these +institutions are one and the same, namely, the Baguio Country Club, +which is now strictly self-supporting and meets its obligations from +the funds derived from the dues of its members. These dues are absurdly +low in view of the privileges which it affords. + +Although Mr. Forbes does not like to have it known, I cannot refrain +from stating that the club has not always been self-supporting, and +that he has repeatedly made up deficits from his private funds. The +cost involved in getting the golf course into shape was out of all +proportion to the resources of the organization. Sufficient funds +were not available to pay for the club house and cottages when they +were constructed, and had it not been for the generosity of Mr. Forbes +the club would not exist to-day in anything like its present form. + +The polo field at Baguio has been referred to as another evidence of +extravagant governmental expenditure. It is true enough that it was +in the first instance an expensive luxury, as an immense amount of +earthwork had to be done in order to make a level piece of ground of +sufficient size. The field is administered by the Country Club, and is +open to the use of the public for any form of amusement which will not +interfere with its use for polo. The detractors of the government have +neglected to mention that the cost of its construction and maintenance +have been met from the private funds of Mr. Forbes. + +Returning now to the story of the growth of Baguio, the next +step forward was the construction of an official residence for the +governor-general, for which $15,000 were appropriated. Mr. Forbes had +not the slightest personal interest in this appropriation. When it +was made he had no knowledge of the fact that he was later to become +governor-general, and his private Baguio residence was decidedly more +comfortable and commodious than this official one. His subsequent +occupancy of the latter building involved a real personal sacrifice. + +In 1908 a modern hospital and the governor-general's residence were +completed. No other government official is furnished a free house. All +have to rent government cottages or stay at hotels, unless they choose +to build for themselves. The policy of giving the governor-general +an official residence in Baguio is in accord with that which gives +him one at Manila. + +In April, 1908, there was opened a "Teachers' Camp," to which came +American school teachers from all over the islands. They were housed +in a hundred and fifty tents, which were set up under the shade of the +pine trees. Larger tents served as kitchen, dining room, storehouse +and recitation rooms, while a structure of bamboo and nipa palm, +erected at a total cost of $150, was utilized for general assembly +purposes. Four talented lecturers were employed to instruct and +entertain the teachers. At one time there were a hundred and ninety +persons in the camp. + +The credit for initiating this very important move is due chiefly to +William F. Pack, at that time governor of the province of Benguet, who +strongly advocated bringing the teachers to Baguio, and did everything +in his power to make the first assembly the great success which it was. + +It has now become a fixed institution, and has accomplished +untold good. Americans who spend too many years in out-of-the-way +municipalities of the Philippines without coming in contact with their +kind are apt to lose their sense of perspective, and there is danger +that they will grow careless, or even slovenly, in their habits. It +is of the utmost benefit for school teachers to get together once a +year, learn of each other's failures and successes, and profit by each +other's experiences, forget their troubles while engaging in healthful +athletic sports, listen to inspiring and instructive discourses, +and above all else benefit by open-air life in a temperate region. + +The Teachers' Camp is now a beautiful and attractive place. A fine +system of walks and drives make every part of it readily accessible. It +has an excellent athletic field. The teachers live in tents, but +good permanent buildings have been provided in which are located the +mess, a social hall, recitation rooms, etc., and several comfortable +cottages have been constructed for the use of visiting lecturers +and others. An outdoor amphitheatre which seats a thousand persons +has been built at small expense by taking advantage of peculiarly +favorable natural conditions. Filipino teachers share the pleasures +and benefits of the camp with their American associates, and the +"assembly" certainly does great good. + +During the hot season of 1908 the Bureau of Lands transferred a number +of its employees to Baguio, quartering them in tents. This was done +in order to ascertain the practical effect of sending American and +Filipino employees to this mountain resort. The conclusion was reached +that the small additional expense involved was more than justified +by the larger quantity and higher quality of the work performed as a +result of the greatly improved physical condition of the workers. Every +Filipino sent to Baguio gained in weight, with the single exception +of a messenger who had to run his legs off! Other bureaus subsequently +followed the example of the Bureau of Lands, with similar results. + +During the 1909 season, the railroad having reached Camp One, five +large Stanley steam automobiles were operated by the government in +transporting passengers from this place to Baguio, and more than two +thousand persons were thus moved over the road. + +Meanwhile, the unexpectedly heavy expense involved in completing the +road had been made the subject of severe criticism by the public press +of Manila. Most of the critics were entirely honest, having no idea +of the character of the country opened up, or of the importance of +making it readily accessible. + +Just at the time when the commission should have crowded its programme +through to conclusion, it faltered. The only government construction +work performed at the summer capital that year, in addition to what +has been mentioned, was the erection of a small office building and of +a barrack building for labourers, the enlarging of five government +cottages, the addition of out-buildings, and the enlarging of a +building which served as a combination sanatorium and hotel. + +This policy of inaction was a mistaken one. It made the Benguet Road +seem like the city avenue which ran into a street, the street into +a lane, the lane into a cow path, the cow path into a squirrel track +and the squirrel track up a tree, for while one could get to Baguio, +there was very little there after one arrived. The accommodations +at the sanatorium were strictly limited, and there was some apparent +justification for the charge freely made that the Philippine Commission +had voted to spend very large sums of money to open up a health resort +from which only its members and its staff derived benefit. + +The government had at the outset been obliged to construct its +buildings on a piece of private land purchased from Mr. Otto Scheerer, +as prior to the passage of the Public Land Act and its approval by the +President and Congress, building on public land was impossible. Now, +however, a town site had been surveyed, and plans for the future +development of Baguio had been made by one of the world's most +competent experts. The time had arrived for action. Mr. Forbes, then +secretary of commerce and police, argued vigorously for the carrying +out of the original plan of the commission by the construction of +adequate public buildings. To help the development of the place, +he purchased two adjacent building lots and on the tract of land so +secured built a handsome and expensive home, where he subsequently +entertained not only his personal friends, but guests of the +government, as well as various persons who had no other claim on him +than the fact that they were officers or employees of the government +who were in need of a change of climate and could ill afford to seek it +at their own expense. Among his house guests were General Aguinaldo, +Speaker Osmeña and many other Filipinos. It was Mr. Forbes's idea, +and mine as well, that members of the commission ought to set the +example by building at Baguio. I followed his example to the extent +of buying a lot and constructing on it a simple and inexpensive house, +thus obtaining the first and only home that I have ever owned. + +Ultimately Mr. Forbes formulated a plan for the construction of a group +of government buildings, a mess hall and a large number of small and +inexpensive cottages for rental to government officers and employees +so that the executive offices of the government might be transferred +to Baguio during the heated term and it might become the true summer +capital of the Philippines. This plan was adopted in substance, and +it was decided to transfer the bureaus of the government to Baguio +for the coming hot season, so far as practicable. + +Funds were appropriated for the carrying out of Mr. Forbes's plan, +but before the construction work had fairly begun there occurred, +on October 17, 1909, a destructive typhoon. Eighteen inches of rain +fell in nine hours, and twenty-six inches in twenty-four hours. The +Bued River quickly rose fifty feet, carrying away trees and rocks +which obstructed its course, and seriously injuring the road for +miles. Four of the largest bridges were swept away and the work of +constructing government buildings, which was just about to begin, +was greatly retarded. It was not thought possible to transfer the +bureaus of the government to Baguio for the coming hot season as +planned. Indeed, there were not lacking those who insisted that no +one would be able to get there. Mr. Haubé, the energetic and capable +young engineer in charge, had the road open on the twentieth day of +December, and the projected buildings ready for occupancy in February, +a noteworthy and highly creditable achievement. + +It was then thought that the storm which had done such serious damage +to the road was of unprecedented violence, but there was worse to +come. On July 14 and 15, 1911, a terrific typhoon swept across northern +Luzón, bringing down one of the world's record rainfalls. Between +noon of the 14th and noon of the 15th, forty-five and ninety-nine +hundredths inches of rain fell at Baguio. A mountain forming a part +of the wall of the Bued cañon split from the top and the detached +portion toppled over into the river, damming it to a depth of about +a hundred and fifty feet at a time when it was carrying an enormous +volume of water. When this dam burst, an avalanche of earth and rock, +swept onward by a huge wave, rushed down the cañon, leaving complete +destruction in its wake. Every bridge in its course was carried away, +and the road was left in such condition that it would have cost +$300,000 to open it for traffic. Then Providence, having apparently +done its worst, relented and sent another typhoon which washed away +most of the débris left by the first one, uncovering the road-bed +and making it possible to reopen communication for $50,000. + +The cost of maintaining the Benguet Road has proved +excessive. Mountains tower above it on both sides to a height of four +to seven thousand feet and the drainage basin which finds its outlet +down the narrow gorge through which the road runs is enormous. Even +so, under ordinary climatic conditions its maintenance does not offer +very exceptional difficulties, as much of it is blasted out of rock; +but during extraordinarily heavy storms the danger of destruction by +overwhelming floods is great. + +While a century may pass before there is another storm like the one +which brought down the terrific slide above described, there may be +one at any time, and when the railroad has once reached Baguio, it is +hardly probable that such extensive repairs as were necessary after the +last destructive typhoon will ever again be made, especially as the +horse trail built on a carriage road grade from Baguio to Naguilian +in the lowlands has been widened little by little, until it is now +safe for small automobiles. The maintenance of the bridges alone, +on the Benguet Road, is a very formidable item, while there is only +one short bridge on the Naguilian Road before the province of Union +is reached. As it runs on or near the crests of ridges all the way, +there are no extensive watersheds above it, and it is not liable +to serious injury during the most violent storms. The total cost +of the Benguet portion of this road to date [512] has been only +$33,405. This stretch is seventeen and a half miles in length and +does not include that portion of the road which lies within the city +of Baguio. The total distance from the centre of Baguio to Bauang, +the nearest railroad station on the coast, is thirty-four miles. + +With the completion of the new government buildings and the transfer +of the several bureaus to Baguio for the season of 1910 a real boom +began. The old sanatorium building had long been leased to a private +individual who used it for hotel purposes, adding to it from time to +time. A second hotel had been built. The railroad had been extended +to Camp One and a regular automobile service established for the +convenience of the public between Camp One and Baguio. The Jesuits +had constructed a great rest house and meteorological observatory on +a commanding hill. The Dominicans had purchased a neighbouring hill +top and prepared to erect thereon a very large reënforced concrete +building to serve for college purposes and as a rest house for members +of the order who required a change of climate. + +Development began early at Camp John Hay, an extensive and beautiful +military reservation set aside within the Baguio town site. Some +progress had been made in this direction prior to the coming of +Major-General Leonard Wood. That highly efficient and far-seeing +officer gave a tremendous impetus to the work. He had been something +of a sceptic on the subject of Baguio before visiting the place, but, +like all other responsible persons who take the trouble to see it, +promptly became an enthusiast when he had an opportunity to observe +conditions for himself. Many army officers and their families who +could not obtain accommodations in the limited number of buildings +on the reservation were glad to take tents for the season, and the +Camp promptly began to serve useful ends. It has steadily grown +and developed ever since, and is now a well-organized army post. Its +remarkable progress has been due in large measure to the initiative and +ingenuity of Captain M. R. Hilgard, who has been its commander since +October, 1905. Great progress has been made in erecting buildings, +but they are still far short of the needs of the service. At the +present writing [513] there are many tents in use by officers and +their families. These serve very well during the dry months, but with +the oncoming of the heavy showers, which usher in the rainy season, +become damp and uncomfortable and make it necessary for the occupants +to return to the lowlands just at the time when Baguio is growing +most attractive and the heat of Manila is becoming most oppressive. + +The ground set aside in the military reservation is adequate for a +brigade post, and such a post should be established as soon as the +railroad reaches Baguio. The different commands in the islands could +then be ordered there in succession, and officers and men given the +benefits of one of the best climates in the world. + +Baguio has continued steadily to develop, and the Benguet Road +no longer ends by running up a tree. The government has not only +erected a residence for the governor-general, but has established +offices for the chief executive, the secretaries of departments, +the Philippine Commission, the Executive Bureau, and the Bureaus of +Agriculture, Civil Service, Education, Forestry, Health, Public Works +and Constabulary. There are also a hospital, a series of tuberculosis +cottages for the treatment of patients from the lowlands, cottages +and dormitories for government officers and employees, a great mess +hall where meals may be had at moderate cost, an automobile station, +a garage, storehouses, a pumping plant, and labourers' quarters. At +the Teachers' Camp there are a separate mess hall, an assembly hall +and a fine athletic field. + +The city of Baguio has a city hall, a storehouse, a corral and market +buildings. Lot owners who have built summer homes for themselves have +brought up friends to show them what Baguio was like. Curiously it has +never seemed possible to convey any adequate idea of its attractions +and advantages by word of mouth. Again and again I have urged sceptics +to come and see for themselves. When after the lapse of years they +finally did so, they have invariably asked me why I had not told them +about it before, forgetting that I had exhausted my vocabulary without +being able to make them understand. Practically without exception, +the persons who actually visit Baguio become "boosters." + +It is fortunate in a way that the boom did not come quicker, for +the hard truth is that up to date the rapidity of the growth of the +summer capital has been determined absolutely by the local lumber +supply. The original Filipino hand-sawyers were ultimately replaced +by small portable mills, and these in turn by large modern mills +to which logs are brought by skidding engines or overhead cables, +yet it is true to-day, as it has always been true, that no sawmill +has ever been able to furnish dry lumber, for the simple reason that +the green output is purchased as fast as it can be sawed. + +For a time the lumbermen took advantage of the necessities of the +public, but when timber on the government concessions first granted +them had been exhausted and they applied for new cutting areas, +my turn came. I fixed maximum prices on lumber which they might not +exceed without forfeiting their concessions. I also fixed a minimum +annual cut which they were compelled to make, and imposed a regulation +providing that at least half of the total cut should be offered for +sale to the public. + +There is no justification for the claim that Baguio is a rich +man's city. The town site is very large and can be indefinitely +extended. Good lots may be had at extremely moderate prices, and the +cost of houses is strictly a matter of individual means and taste. A +large section is given up to small dwellings for Filipinos. The +man who earns his living with a bull cart has no more difficulty +in establishing a home there than does the Filipino millionnaire, +and rich and poor are building in constantly increasing numbers. + +While experience has taught me that I cannot convey by words alone +any adequate conception of what Baguio is like, I must nevertheless +here make the attempt. + +Twenty-one miles of well surfaced roads wind among its pine-covered +hills and afford beautiful glimpses of the luxuriant vegetation +along its numerous small streams. There are building sites to suit +all tastes, and each house owner is convinced that his particular +location is better than that of any one else. One spring supplies +exceptionally pure water sufficient for the needs of at least ten +thousand people, and an abundant additional supply can be obtained +when needed. The scenery is everywhere beautiful, and in many sections +truly magnificent. + +Gently rolling hills enclose valleys with sides sometimes steep and +precipitous and sometimes gently sloping. The country is watered by +numerous streams bordered by magnificent tree-ferns, and by trees, +shrubs, and plants requiring a large amount of water, while the dry +hillsides bear noble pines standing at wide intervals and often +arranged as if grouped by a skilled landscape artist. During the +rainy season they are covered with ferns and orchids, while exquisite +white lilies, larger than Easter lilies, dot the hillsides. The dense +_cógon_ of the Philippine lowlands is absent. Bamboo grass or _runo_ +occurs sparingly in the immediate vicinity of streams and springs, but +the hills are covered with a short grass seldom more than knee high, +so that one may ride or walk over them in almost any direction with +comfort. A system of excellent horse trails affords communication +with neighbouring provinces where one may see wonderful tropical +vegetation, magnificent scenery, strange wild peoples, and the most +remarkable terraced mountainsides in the world. These regions may +be visited with safety and comfort, as public order is well-nigh +perfect and rest houses have been provided at reasonable intervals +on all important main trails. + +The delightfully cool climate of Baguio makes active outdoor exercise +enjoyable, and insures the speedy restoration to health and vigor +of persons suffering ill effects from tropical heat, or recuperation +from wasting diseases. Open fires are comfortable morning and evening +throughout the year, and the pitch pine wood burns beautifully. Except +during typhoons the rainy season weather is delightful. When one +wakens in the morning the atmosphere and the landscape have been +washed clean. The air is clear as crystal, and mountain peaks fifty +or seventy-five miles away stand out with cameo-like sharpness. The +needles of the pines fairly glisten and their delightful odor +is constantly in one's nostrils. The whole country is green as a +lawn. Roses, violets, azaleas, "jacks-in-the-pulpit," and several kinds +of raspberries and huckleberries, all growing wild, make one feel as +if back in America. One may visit the neighbouring Trinidad valley +and see cabbages and coffee, bananas and Irish potatoes, flourishing +on one piece of land. Strawberry plants imported from America bear +continuously from December to May. Fresh vegetables of all sorts tickle +palates which have grown weary of the canned goods of the lowlands. + +Anywhere from twelve to three o'clock, the clouds begin to roll in and +heavy showers fall, usually lasting until nine or ten at night. Then +the stars come out. The next day is like its predecessor. + +After the first rains, which usually come about the middle of April, +there is as a rule a month of beautiful weather with very little +precipitation. Then the rains begin to come steadily again, and keep +it up until the end of the wet season, falling in the manner already +described so that one can get one's outdoor exercise in the morning, +while the afternoon showers are conducive to industry. + +The following table shows the average maximum, minimum and mean +temperatures for each month of the year, the figures covering the +period January, 1902, to January, 1908:-- + + + Month Average Average Mean + Maximum Minimum + °F. °F. °F. + January 75.1 50.2 63.3 + February 75.4 45.8 61.6 + March 77.5 49.4 64.1 + April 78.2 51.9 65.7 + May 77.7 54 66.2 + June 77 56.8 66.2 + July 75.9 55.9 65.4 + August 76 54.9 65.1 + September 75.2 56 65.2 + October 76.4 53.8 65.1 + November 76.4 49.8 64.1 + December 76.1 50.3 64.1 + + +All of the above figures are for temperatures at a height of six +feet above the ground. Temperatures nearer the ground are decidedly +lower. It has been found that in the Baguio plateau the lowest +temperatures correspond to the deepest valleys. In such places white +frost is not rare during the months of January, February, and March, +while on the tops of hills the temperature is milder, frost being +almost unknown. During typhoons conditions do not differ essentially +from those experienced elsewhere in the islands, except that the +rainfall is exceptionally heavy. + +Major-General J. Franklin Bell, who has given special attention to +mountain resorts the world over, vigorously asserts that Baguio has +no equal on the globe. Certainly the climate is more nearly perfect +than any other of which I have personal knowledge, and the delightful +coolness and the bracing air afford heavenly relief to jangling nerves +and exhausted bodies, worn out by overwork and by a too prolonged +sojourn in tropical lowlands. + +One of the very important things about the Baguio climate is its +marvellous effect upon victims of tuberculosis. + +Persons suffering from this disease in its earlier stages may +confidently look forward to restored health if willing to live +out of doors under the pine trees, and there have been a number of +extraordinary recoveries among those in advanced stages. + +A series of little cottages which can be thrown wide open have been +operated for some time in connection with the government hospital, +in order practically to demonstrate the effect of the climate on +tuberculosis victims. + +The results are conclusive, and whenever funds are available there +should be established a settlement of such cottages on some one of +the numerous good sites sufficiently removed from the town to avoid +any possible danger of infecting healthy persons. There should also +be a large mess hall from which good nourishing food can be served, +and plenty of level ground on which tents can be erected during the +dry season. Baguio's potential importance as a resort for victims of +the great white plague justifies every cent of expenditure necessary +to make it readily accessible. + +The Sisters of the Assumption have erected a handsome building which +serves as a rest house and a girls' school. The sisters known as the +"Belgian Canonist Missionaries" are erecting a building which will +afford them a place to come for recuperation when wearied by strenuous +work in the lowlands, and will make it possible for them to open a +school for Igorot girls, which they are planning to do. + +Bishop Brent has established an excellent school for American boys, +situated on a sunny hilltop. The instruction is very good, the food +excellent, and a healthier, heartier-looking lot of youngsters than +those who enjoy the privileges of this institution cannot be found +anywhere. There is abundant opportunity for them to play basket-ball, +tennis and golf. Some of them indulge in polo, playing on Filipino +ponies. + +Bishop Brent also has a mission school for Igorot girls, and plans +to open a boarding school for American girls in the near future. + +The Belgian missionary priests, locally known as the "Missionary +Priests of the Church of San Patricio," have their headquarters at +Baguio, where the chief of their order resides and where they come +occasionally for rest and recuperation. Archbishop Harry has a modest +home on one of the numerous hilltops. + +The building of a school for constabulary officers, to which young +men arriving from the United States are sent before entering upon +active service, crowns another hill and commands a magnificent view +of the surrounding country. + +Several business concerns, such as the Compañia General de Tabacos de +Filipinas, have erected rest houses for their officers and employees, +while the number of attractive private homes increases as rapidly as +the supply of building materials will permit. Filipino residents of +Manila have recently invested more than a hundred thousand dollars +in Baguio homes. + +But this is not all. No description would be anything like complete +without mention of a unique structure which is certain to become famous +the world over. It has been built under the immediate supervision of +Major-General Bell, who has given freely of his time and thought to +make it the extraordinary success which it is. I refer to the wonderful +amphitheatre which stands at the side of the official residence of the +major-general commanding the Division of the Philippines. Advantage has +been taken of the existence of a natural amphitheatre with remarkable +acoustic properties. Man has added what Nature left undone, and the +result is an imposing and beautiful auditorium capable of seating +four thousand people, throughout which a whisper can be heard. It +is utilized for religious services, concerts, lectures, theatrical +performances and other public entertainments. No charge is exacted for +its use, but if an admission fee is collected, a liberal percentage +of the proceeds must go to some worthy charity. It has been terraced +in stone by Igorot labourers; the trees originally standing in it +have been protected, and tree ferns, shrubs and flowering plants +have been added. The result beggars description, and photographs do +it scant justice. + +Igorots from Bontoc, and even Ifugaos, now visit Baguio with increasing +frequency, attracted by a large market established especially for the +benefit of the hill people, where they may sell their manufactured +articles or agricultural products, and may purchase at moderate cost +the commodities which they need. The Benguet Igorots do not raise rice +enough for their own use. Formerly they had to make up the shortage +by eating _camotes_, but they have now become so prosperous that they +can afford to buy rice, which is carted in over the Benguet Road. + +There are promising gold mines close at hand. Their development would +have been impossible had not the construction of the Benguet Road +made it feasible to bring in the necessary heavy machinery. + +Some of the fruits, many of the flowers and practically all of the +vegetables of the temperate zone can be advantageously produced in +Benguet. They are being shipped to Manila in steadily increasing +quantities. + +One would gather from the criticisms of the enemies of the Philippine +government that the Benguet Road was a pleasure boulevard. The +government motor trucks transported over it during the last fiscal +year 22,390 passengers and 7696.24 metric tons of freight. + +Railroad corporations are inclined to be a bit soulless. The Manila +Railway Company is extending its line to Baguio by means of a branch +leaving the main line at Aringay. The building of this extension is now +[514] fifty-five per cent completed, and the company is bound under +the terms of its agreement to finish the road by August, 1914. In the +event of its failure to do so, it must pay a monthly penalty amply +sufficient in amount to cover the cost of maintaining the Benguet +Road. Baguio will continue to develop steadily until the railroad +is opened and then will go ahead by leaps and bounds. It is sure to +prosper because it meets a very real and very imperative need. + +In this connection the following extracts from a letter of August 7, +1913, from the director of medical services in India to the department +surgeon of the Philippines are of interest:-- + + "In reply to your letter of June 31st I attach a statement + showing the number and location of the hill stations in + India with the approximate capacity of each, and their height + above sea-level. + + "With regard to your inquiry regarding the number of cases + treated in these sanitaria we use these hill stations not + only for the treatment of convalescents, but also for giving + healthy men an opportunity of spending the Indian hot weather + under the best climatic conditions procurable. To this end, + so far as is practicable, all units are sent to the hills for + the first hot weather after their arrival in India, and they + are thus able to settle down to their new conditions of life + without being immediately exposed to the trying and enervating + environment of a plains station in the summer months. We also + send as many soldiers as we can of the older residents from + hot stations to summer in the hills. + + * * * * * + + "Practically all soldiers' wives and families are given an + opportunity of a change from the more unhealthy stations to + the hills during the hot weather. + + * * * * * + + "Our experience shows that the following cases are most + benefited by a change to the hills:-- + + "1. All cases of malarial fever and malarial cachexia. + + "2. Patients recovering from acute diseases. + + "3. Convalescents after surgical operations. + + "4. Cases of anaemia and debility. + + "5. Cases of chronic venereal diseases. + + "6. Neurasthenics." + +Not only are all such cases greatly benefited at Baguio, but patients +suffering from dysentery and chronic diarrhoea are also greatly +benefited and often cured by a sufficiently long sojourn there. This +is the experience of the civil government at its hospital and of +the military authorities at the Camp John Hay hospital, according to +General Bell. + +Continuing the quotations from the letter of the director of medical +services in India:-- + + "We have found that by the judicious use of hill stations + for convalescents both the invaliding and death rate of the + British troops in Indian have been enormously reduced and the + efficiency of the Army has been increased with a considerable + financial saving to the Government. + + "It is advisable that all troops and families should be + accommodated in huts, especially during the rainy season in + the hills, but there is no doubt that they are benefited by + the change even if they have to live in tents and are thereby + exposed to considerable discomfort." + +The importance attached by the British to hill stations is shown by +the fact that there are no less than 29 in India, their height above +sea-level varying from 2000 to 7936 feet. Of these eleven have no +permanent accommodations and are used for men only. + +I add the following extracts from a letter of Major P. M. Ashburn, +Medical Corps, U.S.A., president of the army board for the study of +tropical diseases:-- + + "A man can remain in the tropics indefinitely without being + actually sick, if infectious diseases are avoided. This is fast + leading to the fallacy that we can advantageously remain many + years in these latitudes. The fact that while a man may never + be sick, he yet may have his physical and mental vigour greatly + impaired by prolonged exposure to heat is thus lost sight + of. No man can do his best work, either physical or mental, + if he is hot and uncomfortable. The same feeling of lassitude + and indisposition to exertion is experienced at home during + the hot summer, which after a few years here becomes chronic." + + "It is a matter of official recognition that government + employees need to get away from the heat of Manila each year, + hence the removal to Baguio. + + "It is likewise commonly recognized that many women and + children become so run down and debilitated as to need to go + to Japan, Baguio or the United States. + + "It is often true that monotony and discomfort are the cause + of nervous and mental breakdown, witness the often-mentioned + insanity among farmers' wives and the nervous breakdowns + attributable to pain and strain, even though it be, as in + many cases of eyestrain, so slight as not to be recognized + by the patient." + +In short, it is the monotony of a tropical lowland climate which makes +an occasional change so imperatively necessary. Shall residents of +the Philippines be forced to seek that change, at great expense of +time and money, in Japan, the United States or Europe, or shall we +make and keep available for them a region which admirably answers +the purpose, distant only half a day's travel from Manila? + +I give extracts from a memorandum of Col. William H. Arthur, Department +Surgeon of the Philippines, which are important in this connection:-- + + "3. Experience has shown that long residence in the Philippines + has a marked effect on the mental and physical vigour of people + not born and raised in the tropics. This is manifested in many + ways, and men, women and children who are not actually ill, + seem to lose their energy, become listless, irritable, and + forgetful, and find the least exertion burdensome. This is + much aggravated in the hot season, and very few individuals + manage, without permanent mental and physical deterioration, + to live through many hot seasons in the plains. + + "4. There are in the Philippine Islands two places where + relief from these conditions can be found:--(1) Camp John Hay, + near Baguio, in the mountain province of Benguet, Island of + Luzón; and (2) Camp Keithley, in the Lake Lanao District of + the Island of Mindanao. Camp John Hay, in the province of + Benguet, is in the mountains at an elevation of approximately + 5000 feet and is 175 miles from Manila, most of which distance + is covered by railroad. Within 18 months it is expected that + the railroad all the way to Baguio will be completed. + + "5. Experience has shown that a large number of cases of + disease or injury, or patients convalescing from surgical + operations, recover much more rapidly in the cool mountain + climate of Baguio than in the depressing heat and humidity of + the plains. Before the establishment of this mountain refuge + from the heat of the plains, many cases of this class were + transferred to the United States that are now brought back + to health at Camp John Hay and Camp Keithley. The beneficial + effect of the change in climate is particularly noticeable in + people who have become run down after one or more hot seasons + spent at the lower levels. + + "6. The great value of a refuge in the mountains from the + effect of prolonged heat is shown in enclosed reports, which + indicate the classes of cases especially benefited, but there + are a great many others not reported and not actually sick + but whose vitality and resistance are more or less diminished + and who find great benefit from an occasional sojourn in the + mountains of Benguet or the highlands of Mindanao, especially + during the hottest part of the year." + +I have quoted thus at length from communications of a distinguished +British medical officer, of a well-known and able special student +of tropical diseases, and of the ranking United States army surgeon +in the islands to show the consensus of opinion among experienced +experts as to the necessity of hill stations in the tropics. I might +give numerous additional similar opinions of equally competent men +but will only add two more statements of Major Ashburn, the latter +of which seems to me admirably to sum up the situation:-- + + So firm is my belief in the efficacy of the place that I have + at considerable expense kept my two sons in school there, + instead of keeping them at home in Manila at no expense + for schooling, and so satisfactory has been the result in + normal, vigorous growth and robust health for both boys, + that I consider the money so spent about the best investment + I have ever made. + + * * * * * + + I state all this to show the faith that is in me. To experience + Baguio and to see the rapid improvement of visitors there + is to be convinced that it is a delightful and beneficial + climate. To appreciate the full degree of its delights it + is only necessary to compare in one's own experience (not + in weather reports) a hot season in Manila and one there. To + appreciate its benefits it is necessary to compare in one's + own experience (not in statistics) the appearance of health + of the people seen at the two times and places. As recent + work on beri-beri has clearly shown the vast importance in + diet of substances formerly not known to have any importance, + so, I think, are the factors in climate not to be recorded by + wind gauges, thermometers or other meteorological instruments, + and factors in health and efficiency not recorded in books + on physiology, bacteriology, pathology or health statistics." + +Let no one think that the summer capital of the Philippines has been +built solely for the benefit of Americans. The Filipinos need it +almost as much as we do, and many of them profit by the change with +extraordinary promptness. + +It is really almost incredible that such a place should exist +within eight hours' travel of Manila, and every possible victim of +tuberculosis in the islands, which means every inhabitant of the +lowlands, has a right to demand that it should be made, and kept, +readily accessible. Existing accommodations are nothing like adequate +for the crowds which desire to take advantage of them during the +season. Hotels are filled to overflowing. There are always several +different applicants for each government cottage. Many persons who +would be glad to spend the hot months in the Benguet mountains find +it impossible to do so, because they cannot obtain accommodation, +and at present many more are obliged to shorten their stay in order +to give others a chance. + +In the early days, when we were facing unforeseen difficulties and +discouragements, I was for a time the one member of the Philippine +Commission who was really enthusiastically in favour of carrying +out the original plans for the summer capital. It was then the +fashion to charge me with responsibility for the policy of opening +up communication with the place and for the mistakes made in the +construction of the Benguet Road, although I had never had any control +over the road work and had been one of five at first, and later one +of nine, to vote for every appropriation found necessary in order to +complete it. + +It was the enthusiasm of Mr. Forbes which at a critical time finally +saved the situation, and now that Baguio has arrived, and the wisdom of +the policy so long pursued in the face of manifold discouragements has +been demonstrated, my one fear is that he will get all the glory and +that I shall be denied credit for the part which I actually did play +in bringing about the determination to establish quick communication +with one of the most wonderful mountain health resorts to be found in +any tropical country, and in giving that determination effect. But I +have had a more than abundant reward of another sort. My wife, my son +and I myself, when seriously ill, have been restored to vigorous health +by brief sojourns at this one of the world's great health resorts. + +It has been very much the fashion for Filipino politicians to rail at +Baguio, and now that the dangerous experiment of giving them control +of both houses of the legislature is being made, they may refuse to +appropriate the sums necessary to make possible the annual transfer +of the insular government to that place. The result of such a bit of +politics would be a marked increase in the present extraordinarily +low death rate among government officers and employees, American and +Filipino, [515] beginning in about two years, when the cumulative +effect of long residence in the lowlands makes itself felt. + +Meanwhile, Baguio can stand on its own feet, and if, as the politicians +suggest, the government buildings there be sold at auction, purchasers +for all dwelling houses should readily be found. Too many Filipinos +have learned by happy experience the delights of this wonderful region, +to let such an opportunity pass. Baguio has come to stay. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +The Coördination of Scientific Work + + +When Americans landed at Manila, they found no government institutions +for the training of physicians and surgeons and no hospital in any +sense modern or indeed worthy of the name. + +There did exist the equipment of what had been called a municipal +laboratory, outfitted for a limited amount of chemical work only. + +When the Philippine Commission arrived on the scene, it fell to my +lot to draft the necessary legislation for placing scientific work +on a firm foundation, and, later, as secretary of the interior, to +exercise ultimate executive control over practically all such work +carried on under the insular government. + +The complete initial lack of adequate hospital facilities and of +means for making chemical and bacteriological investigations had been +promptly remedied by the establishment of army hospitals and an army +laboratory. Although these could not be placed fully at the service of +the public, they nevertheless bridged the gap for the time being, and +in formulating laws and making plans for the future I was inclined to +say, "Blessed be nothing," as we were not hampered by useless employees +or archaic equipment, but were left free to make a clean start. + +I had thoroughly learned one lesson at the University of Michigan while +a member of its zoölogical staff. We had a zoölogical laboratory in +which were conducted the zoölogical half of a course in general biology +and numerous other courses in animal morphology, mammalian anatomy, +comparative anatomy and embryology. There was also a botanical +laboratory in which all of the botanical work of the institution +was carried on. This did not involve any overlapping, but there was +overlapping of the work of the zoölogical laboratory and that of the +medical department, which had an anatomical laboratory, a histological +laboratory, a pathological laboratory and a so-called hygienic +laboratory. The professor of anatomy thought that his students would +understand human anatomy better if they knew something of comparative +anatomy, and instead of sending them to us wished to start his own +courses. The histologist dabbled in embryology and was soon duplicating +our course in the embryology of the chick. He was constantly at war +with the pathologist over the question of where histology left off +and pathology began, and both of them were inclined to differ with +the man in charge of the hygienic laboratory over similar questions of +jurisdiction. Furthermore, we had a chemical laboratory split up into +various more or less independent subdivisions, and a psychological +laboratory. In these several institutions for scientific research +there was much duplication of instruction and of books, apparatus +and laboratory equipment. Great economies might have been effected +by the establishment of a central purchasing agency, which could have +obtained wholesale rates on supplies ordered in large quantity. Nothing +of the sort existed. One laboratory chief would order from the corner +drug store, while another bought in Germany. + +There was danger that a similar condition of things might arise in +the Philippines. The Bureau of Health would want its chemical and its +biological laboratories; the Bureau of Agriculture would need to do +chemical work covering a wide range of subjects, and botanical and +entomological work as well. The Bureau of Forestry would of course +require a large amount of botanical work, and would also need to +have chemical work done on gums, resins and other forest products, +to say nothing of investigating insects injurious to trees and more +especially to timber after cutting. The latter class of destroyers +do enormous damage in the Philippines. Much chemical work would +be required by the Bureau of Customs, which as a matter of fact +later insisted upon the necessity of a "microscopical laboratory" +to provide facilities for the examination of fibres, etc. Obviously +there would be a large amount of work for the general government in +connection with investigation of the mineral resources of the country, +and the testing of coals, cements and road materials. + +Smallpox was decimating the population. There was need of the +manufacture of great quantities of virus with which to combat it, +and of other common and necessary serums and prophylactics as well. + +Here then was a golden opportunity to start right. In imagination I saw +a Bureau of Science for scientific research and for routine scientific +work, a great General Hospital, and a modern and up-to-date College of +Medicine and Surgery, standing side by side and working in full and +harmonious relationship. The medical school would give to the youth +of the land the best possible facilities for theoretical training +in medicine and surgery, while access to the wards of the hospital +would make possible for them a large amount of practical bedside +work. Its operating amphitheatres would increase the opportunity +for clinical instruction, as would a great free outpatient clinic, +conducted primarily for the benefit of the poor. Professors in the +college would hold positions on the hospital staff, not only in order +to give to them and to their students every facility for clinical +demonstration work, but to enable them constantly to "keep their +hands in." Promising Filipino graduates would be given internships +and other positions on the house staff of the hospital. Patients +would be admitted to its free beds subject to the condition that they +allow their cases to be studied by the faculty and students of the +college. The necessary biological and chemical examinations for the +hospital would be made in the laboratories of the Bureau of Science, +which would at the same time afford every facility for the carrying on +of scientific investigation by advanced students, by members of the +faculty of the college and by members of the hospital staff. Members +of the staff of the biological laboratory would have the use of the +great volume of pathological material from the hospital, and with +free access to its rooms and wards, would have an almost unparalleled +opportunity for the study of tropical diseases, while some of the +officers and employees of the Bureau of Science and of the Bureau of +Health might be made members of the faculty of the college and their +services utilized as instructors. + +As we had neither laboratories, hospital nor college at the time, +the realization of this somewhat comprehensive scheme seemed rather +remote. It was commonly referred to as "Worcester's dream," and one +of my friends in the army medical corps probably quite correctly +voiced public sentiment when he said, "Poor Worcester has bats in his +belfry." However, he laughs best who laughs last! After the lapse of +a good many years my dream came true. The three great institutions +which I hoped might sometime be established are to-day in existence, +and are doing the work which I hoped that they might perform. Now +let us consider how they came to be. + +In the early days I drafted an act providing for the establishment of +a Bureau of Government Laboratories which should perform all of the +biological and chemical work of the government under the direction +of one chief, and on July 1, 1901 the commission passed it. + +I was more than fortunate in securing as the director of this +bureau Dr. Paul C. Freer, then professor of general chemistry at the +University of Michigan. + +Dr. Freer obtained leave of absence for a year, in order to help us +get started. This leave was twice extended for additional periods of +one year each, and in the end he decided to sever his connection with +the university and throw in his lot with the Philippine government. + +He remained in charge of the Bureau of Government Laboratories and +of its successor, the Bureau of Science, until his death on April +17, 1912. + +Himself a chemist and investigator of note, he had a wide and +catholic knowledge of science in general, and no better man could +have been found for this important piece of constructive work. For +nearly a year the two of us laboured over plans for the laboratory +building and lists of the necessary books, instruments, apparatus, +glassware, chemicals and other supplies. At the end of this time we +submitted to the commission what I do not hesitate to say was the +most complete estimate for a large project which ever came before +it. Much forethought was necessary in order to time the orders for +books, instruments and apparatus so that it would be possible to +house them properly when they arrived, and the estimated expense was +distributed over a period of two and one-half years. + +Meanwhile work had begun in cramped temporary quarters in a +hot little "shack," for it deserved no better name, back of the +Civil Hospital. Here under almost impossible conditions there were +performed a large volume of routine biological and chemical work, +and a considerable amount of research, the results of which proved +to be of far-reaching importance. + +With the employment of the first chemists and bacteriologists there +arose a class of questions which I determined to settle once for +all. There is a regrettable tendency among some scientific men to try +to build barbed-wire fences around particular fields of research in +which they happen to be interested, and to shoo every one else away. + +At the outset I gave all employees clearly to understand that such +an unscientific and ungenerous spirit would not be tolerated in the +Bureau of Government Laboratories. The field which opened before us +was enormous. There was work enough and more than enough for all, and +we should at the outset adopt a spirit of friendliness and helpfulness +toward every scientific man who desired to lend a hand. + +This rule of conduct has been steadfastly adhered to. Numerous +well-known scientists have visited the Philippines and to each we have +extended all possible assistance, furnishing laboratory quarters, +instruments, apparatus and reagents, and, whenever practicable, +material as well. Indeed, many of our scientific guests have been +made employees of the bureau without pay, so that there might be no +questioning of their right to use government equipment. + +Two important results have followed this policy. One is that we have +established the friendliest and most helpful relations with numerous +research institutions. The other is that we have been able to assist +in the performance of much valuable work which has borne important +results, and which would perhaps have remained undone had it not been +possible for us to aid those who undertook it. + +In due course of time came our fine new building, with good facilities +for performing all kinds of laboratory work. When it was equipped +and occupied, we were able to say that the opportunities offered at +Manila for investigating tropical diseases were probably unequalled +elsewhere, and there was a deal of such investigation urgently needing +to be made. Our equipment for chemical research was also very complete +and the vast undeveloped natural resources of the islands presented +a practically virgin field for such investigation. + +At the outset absurd rumours spread as to the cost of buildings and +equipment, and there was much popular outcry against the supposed +wastefulness of the government. A simple statement of the facts +served to kill these foolish tales, and people soon began to see that +the creation of the Bureau of Government Laboratories was merely the +application of common-sense to existing conditions and had resulted in +greatly increased economy and efficiency. Indeed, at the suggestion +of a committee appointed to make a study of the government service +and suggest measures for its betterment, the principle which I had +adopted was carried still further. Not only was all zoölogical and +botanical work transferred to this bureau, but the Bureau of Ethnology +and the Bureau of Mines were abolished as separate entities and were +made divisions of it, and its title was changed to "The Bureau of +Science." Little by little the scope of the work has steadily widened. + +The scientific books and periodicals of the government were scattered +among half a dozen different bureaus and were not being well cared +for. I arranged to have them all temporarily transferred to the +library of the Bureau of Science and catalogued there. Those said +to be really needed for frequent reference were then returned to +the several bureaus but were kept under observation by the bureau of +science librarian, who took particular pains to look after the binding +of serial publications as rapidly as the volumes were completed. + +The list of books requested by the several bureau chiefs for +reference was suspiciously long. I gave orders that each set of bureau +bookshelves be provided with cards and a box into which to drop them, +and each time a book was used a card was made out for it and placed +in the box. After six months I quietly gathered up the cards and had +them checked against the lists of books for which the several bureau +chiefs had asked, and was then able to order a large proportion of them +back to the library for the reason that they had not been used at all. + +The result of this policy is that we have to-day a central +scientific library in which are catalogued all the scientific books +of the government. Books needed by the several bureaus for frequent +reference are placed where they can be used conveniently, and the +card catalogue indicates where they are, so that they can readily be +found. In this way it has been possible to avoid much needless and +expensive duplication. The library now contains 26,652 bound volumes. + +We were extremely fortunate in the men whose services we secured +in the early days, and the volume of research work turned out was +unexpectedly large. The question of how best to arrange for the +prompt publication of our results became urgent, and in the end we +answered it by publishing the _Philippine Journal of Science_, now +in its eighth year and with an assured and enviable position among +the scientific journals of the world. + +In the early days before we knew what we now know about the +preservation of health in tropical countries there was a deal of +sickness among government officers and employees. While the army was +more than liberal in helping us meet the conditions which arose, +it was of course very necessary that we should establish our own +hospital as soon as possible. + +On October 12, 1901, the so-called "Civil Hospital" was opened +in a large private dwelling, obtained, as we then fondly imagined, +merely as a temporary expedient. Together with two adjoining and even +smaller buildings it continued to be our only place for the treatment +of ordinary medical and surgical cases until September 1, 1910! I +can here only very briefly outline the causes of this long delay. + +At the outset the building was large enough to meet immediate needs. At +the time when it began to grow inadequate there was a plan on foot +for a large private institution, in which the government was to secure +accommodations for its patients, and a hospital building was actually +erected, but interest in this project waned, the private backing which +was believed to have been assured for it failed, and the whole scheme +went by the board. Then plans for a great general hospital were called +for. A very large amount of time was consumed in their preparation and +when they were finished the expense involved in carrying them out was +found to be far beyond the means of the government. Ultimately I was +charged with the duty of securing other plans involving a more moderate +expenditure. Again long delay necessarily ensued. When semi-final +plans were submitted, the consulting architect insisted on a series +of arches along the sides of the several ward pavilions which were +doubtless most satisfying from an artistic point of view, but would +have shut off light and fresh air to an extent which I could not +tolerate. A three months' deadlock was finally broken by his acceding +to my wishes, but in October, 1906, just as the completed plans were +finally ready to submit to the commission, I was compelled by severe +illness to return to the United States. There remained three American +and three Filipino members of the commission. One of the former was +Mr. W. Morgan Shuster, then secretary of public instruction. Prior +to the time when he became a candidate for a secretaryship he had +been bitter in his criticism of the Filipinos. Coincidently with the +development of this ambition he became almost more pro-Filipino than +some of the Filipino politicians themselves. For a time he seemed to +control the Filipino vote on the commission and largely as a result of +his activities every important matter which I left pending, including +that of the establishment of the great general hospital so vitally +needed by the people of the islands, was laid on the table. I was +informed that Mr. Shuster had announced that we could have $125,000 +for the hospital and no more! We needed $400,000. + +Beginning on the day after my return the following April these several +projects, including that for the Baguio Hospital and that for the +Philippine General Hospital. were taken from the table and passed. + +Construction work goes slowly in the tropics. One ward pavilion of the +Philippine General Hospital was occupied on September 1, 1910. Soon +afterward the four others came into use. + +On June 10, 1907, a medical college was opened. It was called "The +Philippine Medical School." Its creation at this time was made possible +by the existence of the Bureaus of Science and Health. Its staff was +at the outset recruited very largely from these two bureaus. The +director of the Bureau of Science was made its dean and continued +to hold this position until his death. To his unselfish efforts and +to those of the director of health is due the well-organized modern +college which we have to-day. In lieu of better quarters the first +classes were held in an old Spanish government building which was +altered and added to until it answered the purpose reasonably well. + +The preparation of the act which provided for the establishment of +this college was intrusted to me. I called for the assistance of a +committee of technical experts and asked that they submit a draft +for my consideration, which they did. It contained a provision to the +effect that the college should be under the administrative control of +the secretary of the interior. I struck out the words "secretary of the +interior" and inserted in lieu thereof the words "secretary of public +instruction" for two reasons. First, the school theoretically belongs +under that official, in spite of its necessarily close relationship +with the Bureau of Science and the Bureau of Health. Second, I wanted +the support of the secretary of public instruction for the measure, +as it involved considerable expenditure and I was not sure how the +bill might fare in the commission. It happened that the incumbent +of that position was very much inclined to take a liberal view of +bills which extended his jurisdiction. Mr. Taft, when he visited +the Philippines in 1909, reached the conclusion that I was guilty +of an error of judgment in doing this, and a little later expressed +the view that the Medical College ought to be under the control of +the secretary of the interior, because of its intimate relationship +with the bureaus above mentioned. I might perhaps even then have had +this change made, but refrained from attempting to do so, believing +that all would go well under the existing arrangement. So long as +Dr. Freer lived this was the case. + +He was a man of absolute honesty and sincerity of purpose, and +was far-seeing enough fully to realize that the interests of the +government, and of individuals as well, would best be served by +carrying out the broad and liberal policy which was then in effect. + +The next event of importance was the establishment of the University +of the Philippines, which was provided for by an Act passed on June +18, 1908. + +The Philippine Medical School was in due time incorporated with the +university as its College of Medicine and Surgery, passing under the +executive control of the university board of regents. + +At this time the plan of which I had dreamed so many years before +was in full force and effect and was working admirably. Members of +the Bureau of Science staff served on the college faculty and held +appointments in the Philippine General Hospital as well, one of them +being the chief of a division there. Members of the college faculty +carried on research work at the Bureau of Science. The great working +library installed in the building of the latter bureau served as the +medical library. Members of the college faculty also rendered important +service in the Philippine General Hospital, where two of them were +chiefs of divisions, two held important positions on the house staff +and numerous others served as interns. Officers of the Bureau of Health +were appointed to the faculty of the college and carried on research +work at the Bureau of Science. The staff of the latter bureau made +the chemical and biological examinations needed in connection with +the work of the hospital as well as those required by the Bureau of +Health. The Bureau of Science manufactured the sera and prophylactics +required by the Bureau of Health in its work. The two large operating +amphitheatres in the Philippine General Hospital were planned with +especial reference to the accommodation of students, who could pass +along a gallery from one to the other. The work of the free clinic, +attended daily by hundreds of Filipinos seeking relief, was largely +turned over to the college faculty, and increased opportunities were +thus given for medical students to study actual cases. + +The arrangement was an ideal one. It excited the admiration of numerous +visiting European and American experts, who were competent to judge +of its merits, and its continued success was dependent only upon the +honesty of purpose, loyalty and good faith of the several parties +to it. + +Then came the untimely death of Dr. Freer. A few months later an +attempt was made by certain university officers to secure control of +the professional work of the hospital for that institution, leaving +the director of health and the secretary of the interior in charge +of the nurses, servants, accounts and property, and burdened with +the responsibility for the results of work involving life and death, +but without voice in the choice of the men who were to perform it. + +Those who were responsible for this effort evidently had not taken +the trouble to read the law, and I had only to call attention to its +provisions in order to end for the time this first effort to disturb +the existing logical distribution of work between the two institutions. + +Before I left Manila in October, 1913, a second attempt was being made +to secure control of the professional work of the hospital for the +university, but this time the plan was more far-reaching, in that it +contemplated the transfer to the university of control of the Bureau of +Science as well; and more logical, in that a bill accomplishing these +ends had been drafted for consideration by the Filipinized legislature. + +The original plan for the coördination of the scientific work of +the Philippine government was sound in principle and will, I trust, +eventually be carried out, whatever may be done temporarily to upset +it during a period of disturbed political conditions. There is much +consolation to be derived from contemplating the fact that pendulums +swing. + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] Cuyo, Palawan, Balabac, Cagayan de Joló, Joló proper, Basilan, +Mindanao, Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Siquijor, Cebu, Bohol, Samar, +Leyte, Masbate, Marinduque and Mindoro. + +[2] I employ the noun Filipinos to designate collectively the eight +civilized, Christianized peoples, called respectively the Cagayans, +Ilocanos, Pangasináns, Zambalans, Pampangans, Tagálogs, Bicols and +Visayans, or any of them; the adjective Filipino to designate anything +pertaining to these peoples, or any of them; the noun Philippines +to designate the country, and the adjective Philippine to designate +anything pertaining to the country as distinguished from its people. + +[3] Busuanga, Culion, Tawi Tawi, Tablas, Romblon and Sibuyan. + +[4] I use the word "Insurgents" as a proper noun, to designate the +Filipinos who took up arms against the United States, hence capitalize +it, and the adjective derived from it. + +[5] General Aguinaldo. + +[6] Beginning with the letters "P.I.R." + +[7] See pp. 53, 55, 68. + +[8] See pp. 27, 47, 49, 63 of this book for repetitions and variations +of this charge of Aguinaldo. + +[9] See p. 31 of his book, "The American Occupation of the +Philippines," in referring to which I will hereafter use the word +Blount, followed by a page number. + +[10] U. S. Consul General Rounseville Wildman of Hongkong. + +[11] U. S. Consul O. F. Williams of Manila. + +[12] Blount, p. 43. + +[13] A term, more or less corresponding to mayor, then applied to +the ranking municipal officer of a _pueblo_ or town. + +[14] Eight hundred thousand Mexican dollars, the actual value of +which constantly fluctuated. + +[15] The Ilocanos are one of the eight civilized peoples who +collectively make up the Filipinos. They number 803,942, and inhabit +certain provinces in northern Luzon. + +[16] I have not felt at liberty to correct spelling, capitalization, +punctuation or grammar in quotations, except in the case of perfectly +evident printer's errors. It should be remembered that the results +of Taylor's work were left in the form of galley proof. + +[17] Taylor, 42 F Z-43 F Z. + +[18] For the history of this document, see p. 51. + +[19] P.I.R., 1300.2. + +[20] Senate Document 62, part 1, Fifty-fifth Congress, Third Session, +P. P. 341 _et seq_. + +[21] Senate Document 62, part 1, Fifty-fifth Congress, Third Session; +also P.I.R., 496. + +[22] Blount, pp. 11-12. + +[23] Pratt. + +[24] P.I.R., 516. 4. + +[25] "The Consul--after telling me that, before arriving in Hongkong +harbor, a launch would be sent by the Admiral to secretly take us to +the North American squadron, a secrecy which pleased me also, as it +would avoid giving publicity to my acts--then advised me that I should +appoint him the representative of the Philippines in the United States +to promptly secure the official recognition of our independence. I +answered that whenever the Philippine government should be formed, +I would nominate him for the office he desired, although I considered +that but small recompense for his aid, and that in case of our having +the good fortune to secure our independence I would bestow upon him +a high post in the customs service besides granting the commercial +advantages and the participation in the expenses of the war which the +Consul asked for his Government in Washington, since the Filipinos +agreed in advance to what is here stated, considering it a proper +testimonial of gratitude."--P.I.R., 1300. 2. + +[26] Blount, p. 12 + +[27] Blount, pp. 8-9. + +[28] Ibid., p. 9. + +[29] The following is one of them:-- + + "_H. Kong_, May 16, 1898. + + "Señor Don Jose Enrique Basa: + + "My Dear Enrique: As an aid to the American policy in the + Philippines,--America being the most liberal and humanitarian + nation in the world,--I earnestly recommend the widest possible + circulation of the proclamation which I send herewith in order + that the Americans may be supported in the war against the + tyrannical friars and the Spaniards who have connived with + them, and that public order, so necessary under the present + conditions, be preserved. + + "Thy relative, twenty-six years an emigrant. + + (Signed) "_J. M. Basa_." + +--P.I.R., 1204-10. + +[30] P.I.R., 1204-10. + +[31] Ibid., 1204-10. + +[32] P.I.R., 53-2. + +[33] Teodoro Sandico, an influential Tagálog leader, who spoke English +well and afterward served as a spy while employed by the Americans +as an interpreter. + +[34] Señor Garchitorena was a wealthy Tagálog of Manila, and, at +this time, a prominent member of the Hongkong junta. + +[35] Dr. Galicano Apacible, a very intelligent and rather conservative +Tagálog physician. After Aguinaldo left Hongkong, he was the leading +member of the junta. + +[36] Sr. Graco Gonzaga, a prominent Filipino lawyer of the province +of Cagayan. + +[37] There is an illegible word in the original. + +[38] P.I.R., 406-5. + +[39] P.I.R., 398. 9. + +[40] "_Hongkong_, 12 Jan. 1899,--2 P.M. + +"_Senator Hoar_, Washington. + +"As the man who introduced General Aguinaldo to the American +government through the consul at Singapore, I frankly state that the +conditions under which Aguinaldo promised to cooperate with Dewey +were independence under a protectorate. I am prepared to swear to +this. The military party suborned correspondents are deceiving the +American nation by means of malevolent lying statements. If your +powerful influence does not change this insensate policy there will +be a hopeless conflict with the inevitable results disastrous for +the Americans. + +"_Bray_." + +--P.I.R., 853-4. + +[41] "Then Aguinaldo had an interview with the United States consul +in Hongkong, in which he told him that he was anxious to become an +American citizen, but this being impossible, he desired to be allowed +to return to the Philippines and place himself under the orders of +Commodore Dewey. According to the brother of that Consul, who certainly +must have had opportunities for knowing the facts in the case, he +made no demands for independence, but said that he hoped that the +Americans would not leave the Filipinos to their fate, but would annex +the Philippines and protect them against the Spaniards. He promised +the Consul that he would fight with the Americans and not attempt to +foment a revolution against the United States. His highest expressed +aim was to throw off the Spanish yoke, and, that once accomplished, +he would abide by the decision of the United States as to the ultimate +disposition of the Philippines. If Aguinaldo had expressed his real +intentions of obtaining arms and using them only for his own purposes, +and, if he found it expedient, against the United States, it is not +to be thought that he would have been returned to the Philippines on +a United States vessel."--Taylor, 44 F Z. + +[42] P.I.R., 471. 7. + +[43] P.I.R., 1300. 2. + +[44] Admiral Dewey's testimony, from which I quote extracts, will +be found in Senate Documents, Vol. 25.57 Congress, 1st session, +pp. 2928, 2941. + +[45] P.I.R., 1300.2. + +[46] P.I.R., 1300.2. + +[47] Taylor, 4 MG., E. + +[48] Report of the Philippine commission to the President. January 31, +1900. Vol. I, p. 121. + +[49] P.I.R., 396. 3. + +[50] Ibid., 396. 3. + +[51] P.I.R., 461.4. + +[52] "My Dear Brother: I inform you that we arrived here in Cavite +at eleven o'clock and disembarked at four o'clock in the afternoon +after our conference with the American Admiral. Everything appears +to be favourable for obtaining our independence. I cannot say more +on that subject as it would take too long. + +"I have no other object in writing this except to ask you and your +companions to meet at once and arrange the best way to entrap all the +enemy in your town, employing deceit, for instance, make a present +of whatever you think best to the chiefs successively and then +at once enter the houses and attack them, or if not this, do what +you think best. Show valor and resolution, brothers, the hour has +arrived for the Philippines to belong to her sons and not to them, +only one step and we shall reach Independence; be constant, brothers, +and be united in feelings, do not imitate those who show two faces, +whatever such people do sooner or later they will be slaves. Respect +foreigners and their property, also enemies who surrender. + +"I want you to know that in respect to our conduct I have promised +the American Admiral and other nations, that we shall carry on modern +war. Even if a Spaniard surrenders, he must be pardoned and treated +well and then you will see that our reputation will be very good in +all Europe which will declare for our Independence; but if we do not +conduct ourselves thus the Americans will decide to sell us or else +divide up our territory as they will hold us incapable of governing +our land, we shall not secure our liberty; rather the contrary; +our own soil will be delivered over to other hands. + +"Therefore, my brethren, I urge that we strive to unite our efforts, +and let us fire our hearts with the idea of vindicating our +country. Many nations are on our side."--P.I.R., 12. 1. + +[53] Mabini was a Tagálog paralytic of exceptional ability. In my +opinion he was the strongest man whom the revolution produced. + +[54] P.I.R., 451. 1. + +[55] Extract from the Journal of Simeon Villa. + + "The memorable month of August, 1896, arrived. Aguinaldo was + 'master' of the Cavite Lodge. Moreover, he was a member of + the 'Katipúnan' Society and the chief of the many members + who were in the pueblo of Cavite Viejo. What was to be + done? Aguinaldo, not knowing what to do, and mindful of the + fact that the curate there knew positively that he was not + only a mason, but also the chief of the Katipúnans of his + pueblo, considered it expedient on the night of August 29 to + at once call a meeting of all the compromised persons in his + town. Aguinaldo made clear to them their grave situation. + +"They all agreed that on the following day Aguinaldo, their chief, +should make representations to the Governor of Cavite; so he went away +very early the following morning, presented himself to the governor, +and in the name of the people of Cavite Viejo offered him their +respects and their loyalty to Spain, at the same time requesting +him to condescend to send to his town a garrison of 100 men for +its security. The governor replied that he would first consult the +captain-general, and if the proposition was approved he would send +the garrison at once. + +"As Aguinaldo was greatly beloved by the governor and his wife, they +offered him wine and sweetmeats. As soon as this was over he took +his leave and returned happy to his town. On arrival in the town +he assembled all the compromised persons and informed them of the +brilliant result of his efforts. Continuing, he told them that then was +the opportune moment for rising in arms against the Spaniards. To this +they unanimously replied by saying it was terrible, because no arms +were available, and that for this reason it would certainly prove to +be a disaster for them. + +"But Aguinaldo, in company with his godfather, the lamented Candido +Tirona, insisted on convincing them with their strong arguments. They +made them understand that Spanish cruelty would annihilate them +without fail, and for no other reason than that they were members of +the Katipúnan. + +"As it happened, at that very time there were two 'Guardia Civil' +soldiers in the court-house. So at about 2 o'clock in the morning, +Aguinaldo and Tirona went directly to the court-house. Arriving there, +these two determined insurgent chiefs intimated to the guards that +they should surrender their equipments. These replied that it was +impossible, and said they would die first. Instantly a struggle ensued +between the four men, which lasted nearly an hour. But it resulted in +favor of the insurgent chiefs who succeeded in taking the guns and +cartridges. Once in possession of these armaments, the two chiefs, +accompanied by a number of the town people, directed themselves to +the convent in order to capture the curate. Very unfortunately for +them, the curate was no longer there when they arrived; he had made +his escape. While the struggle was going on with the guards in the +court-house, he received the news and fled at once by embarking in +a native boat. + +"The insurgent chiefs then returned to the court-house and immediately +prepared a communication to all the municipal captains in the provinces +of Cavite, Batangas and Laguna, inviting them to at once rise against +Spain, and stating that their own town of Cavite Viejo was already +freed from slavery. + +"Each one of these communications was sent out by a mounted courier, +so that before the expiration of many hours all the towns in Cavite +Province were informed of what had taken place in Cavite Viejo. + +"On the following day some of the towns took up arms. At the same +time Aguinaldo, in company with many people from his town, marched on +Imus in order to attack the Spanish troops who were there. When he +arrived in Imus the people of this town at once joined him and they +all went to the convent, in which were the friars and the soldiers +of the 'Guardia Civil.' Just as he arrived at the atrium of the +Church his companions did not wish to follow him, for fear that the +soldiers were occupying the church tower. So Aguinaldo advanced alone +until he reached the door of the convent. Once here, he called his +companions to aid him. But these were not so determined as he was, +and only about five responded. When these got to where Aguinaldo was, +he commenced breaking in the door which was soon open. They went +upstairs, but they found nobody, since the friars and soldiers had +crossed over to the treasury building. + +"Aguinaldo's companions were now numerous, because the others followed +him when they saw that nothing happened to those who went up into +the convent; and all of these went immediately to the treasury +building, in which were the friars and soldiers whom they were +hunting. When they reached it they found the doors closed, so they +could not pass. Aguinaldo ordered the house burned. Those in hiding +inside the house were without any other remedy and had to surrender; +but meanwhile some of them had been burned to death, among these a +lieutenant of the 'Guardia Civil.' By this victory Aguinaldo succeeded +in taking 17 rifles and two 2 1/2 pounder guns."--P.I.R., 869. + +[56] "My Beloved Countrymen: I accepted the agreement of peace +proposed by Don Pedro A. Paterno after his consultation with the +Captain-General of the islands (Philippines), agreeing in consequence +thereof to surrender our arms and disband the troops under my immediate +command under certain conditions, as I believed it more advantageous +for the country than to continue the insurrection, for which I had but +limited resources, but as some of the said conditions were not complied +with, some of the bands are discontented and have not surrendered +their arms. Five months have elapsed without the inauguration of +any of the reforms which I asked in order to place our country on +a level with civilized people--for instance, our neighbor, Japan, +which in the short space of twenty years has reached a point where +she has no reason to envy any one, her strength and ascendency being +shown in the last war with China. I see the impotence of the Spanish +Government to contend with certain elements which oppose constant +obstacles to the progress of the country itself and whose destructive +influence has been one of the causes of the uprising of the masses, +and as the great and powerful North American nation has offered its +disinterested protection to secure the liberty of this country, I again +assume command of all the troops in the struggle for the attainment +of our lofty aspirations, inaugurating a dictatorial government to be +administered by decrees promulgated under my sole responsibility and +with the advice of distinguished persons until the time when these +islands, being under our complete control, may form a constitutional +republican assembly and appoint a president and cabinet, into whose +hands I shall then resign the command of the islands. + +"_Emilio Aguinaldo_. + +Given at Cavite, May 24, 1898."--P.I.R. 206.6. + +[57] "The great North American nation, the cradle of genuine liberty +and therefore the friend of our people oppressed and enslaved by +the tyranny and despotism of its ruler, has come to us manifesting a +protection as decisive as it is undoubtedly disinterested toward our +inhabitants, considering us as sufficiently civilized and capable of +governing ourselves and our unfortunate country. In order to maintain +this high estimate granted us by the generous North American nation +we should abominate all those deeds which tend to lower this opinion, +which are pillage, theft, and all sorts of crimes relating to persons +or property, with the purpose of avoiding international conflict +during the period of our campaign."--P.I.R., 43. 3. + +[58] Of this extraordinary occurrence Taylor says:-- + + "Invitations to the ceremony of the declaration of independence + were sent to Admiral Dewey; but neither he nor any of his + officers were present. It was, however, important to Aguinaldo + that some American should be there whom the assembled people + would consider a representative of the United States. 'Colonel' + Johnson, ex-hotel keeper of Shanghai, who was in the + Philippines exhibiting a cinematograph, kindly consented to + appear on this occasion as Aguinaldo's Chief of Artillery and + the representative of the North American nation. His name does + not appear subsequently among the papers of Aguinaldo. It is + possible that his position as colonel and chief of artillery + was a merely temporary one which enabled him to appear in a + uniform which would befit the character of the representative + of a great people upon so solemn an occasion!"--Taylor, 26 A J. + +[59] P.I.R., 451.4. + +[60] P.I.R., 451.4. + +[61] See p. 50. + +[62] "They are aware that a Government has been established here from +the beginning: first the Dictatorial, and afterwards, when several +provinces had been freed from Spanish domination, there was implanted +in the same a proper organization, and thus a new Government was +established in the form best adapted to the principles of liberty; +but notwithstanding all this and in spite of their protestations of +friendship, they have always refused to recognize that government. + +"The things they request involve the recognition of a right which we +cannot and ought not to grant, unless they recognize our Government +and unless the limits of the powers of both sides be defined. If they +wish us to recognize them in Cavite, let them recognize our rights +in Parañaque. + +"The United States are our creditors more than any other nation; +not only are they due the gratitude of the Filipino people, but +also they should be allowed to profit by the advantages this people +can grant them without loss of our legitimate right to a free and +independent life. Therefore we are disposed to make a treaty or +convention with them. They will be no longer able to allege the +lack of national character, for in the near future there is to be +assembled the Revolutionary Congress composed of the Representatives +of the provinces. + +"They should understand that they have come to make war on the +Spaniards; that the Filipinos have risen in arms against the same enemy +to achieve their liberty and independence; and that in consequence they +cannot exercise dominion over us without violation of international +law. If they persist in refusing to recognize our Government, we shall +see ourselves obliged to come to an agreement with any other government +that will consent to recognize us on friendly terms."--P.I.R., 58. + +[63] Blount, p. 24. + +[64] P.I.R., 416. 1. + +[65] _Ibid._, 102. 5. + +[66] Senate Document 208, 1900, p. 9. + +[67] Taylor, 26 A J. + +[68] P.I.R., 5. 10. + +[69] "Going to Singapore, I had several interviews with the Consul of +the United States, Mr. Spencer Pratt, who informed me that the war was +directed against Spain only and that in addition your action in the +Philippines had as an object the independence of my beloved country. + +"The Commander of the _MacCulloch_ telegraphed me also from Hongkong, +offering in the name of Commodore Dewey, to take me to Cavite, in +order to raise the Filipinos against Spain. + +"Without any written treaty, counting only upon the sacred word of +American citizens, I went to Hongkong, embarked on the _MacCulloch_ +and a few days later had the honor to make the acquaintance of the +victorious Commodore Dewey, who likewise informed me that he had +come to make war against Spain, that he had annihilated the fleet +of Admiral Montojo and that the United States desired to give the +Philippines their independence."--P.I.R., 441.2. + +[70] P.I.R., 102. 1. + +[71] P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[72] P. 39. + +[73] For J. M. Basa. + +[74] P.I.R., 507-7. + +[75] P.I.R., 477. 1. + +[76] "Until the Philippine question is finally decided, you would do +well in not having any controversy with the Americans. After having +secured the extinction of Spanish control for good, you may then +liquidate accounts with the United States in the event that they wish +to control in the interior; but in the meantime, let what will occur, +do not allow yourself to have any controversy with them. Matters are +in a very delicate state at the present time."--P.I.R., 398. 3. + +In a postscript to the same letter Bray says:-- + +"America is a great nation and does not wish that conditions be +dictated to her. I am more than ever convinced that you must be +patient and await what they propose, without opposing their wishes +and insanities, before the questions before the Paris Congress are +definitely settled and the islands ceded by Spain; then there would +still be time to show your teeth if they try to govern the country. I +would not object at present to them taking up their residence there +and acting in the capacity of guard for good government, placing +our trust for the future in Providence which will never abandon the +Philippines."--P.I.R. + +[77] Blount, p. 283. + +[78] _Ibid_., p. 283. + +[79] See p. 74. + +[80] "Both Spanish fleets had been destroyed and Spain had but one +left to protect her own coast cities. The death knell of her once +proud colonial empire had sounded. Decrepit as she was, she could not +possibly have sent any reinforcements to the Philippines. Besides, +the Filipinos would have 'eaten them up.'"--Blount, p. 127. + +[81] P.I.R., 471.4. + +[82] _Ibid_., 471.4. + +[83] _Ibid_., 450. 2. + +[84] P.I.R., 471.4. + +[85] "You should not forget what I have stated at the beginning of this +letter; because I am of the opinion that those questions should be well +considered by all of you. If our people desire independence under the +American protectorate, it is necessary that our representatives to +the United States be given instructions as to the conditions which +we should grant to the United States. The peace negotiations are in +full blast, and it is probable that we will be rather late in sending +our representatives. Therefore, if you agree to independence under a +protectorate, you should recommend it at once. I leave it, however, +to your care, as you are better qualified than myself concerning the +conditions of our country."--P.I.R., 471.4. + +[86] "My Dear Friend: ... The last telegrams from Europe which +Felipe will send you by this mail are alarming for our future. The +preliminaries of peace are announced. The demand of America is, +annexation of Porto Rico and the Ladrone Islands, independence of +Cuba under an American protectorate and an American coaling station +in the Philippines. That is, they will again deliver us into the hands +of Spain. On the other hand, all the powers will unite to prevent the +annexation of the Philippines, according to the telegrams of Regidor; +the American cabinet hesitates about including us in the negotiations +for peace from fear of a conflict with us and the Filipinos in Europe +advise us to send a message to America giving our unconditional +adhesion. If events will be what these telegrams indicate, we have a +dark and bloody future before us. To be again in the hands of Spain +will mean a long and bloody war, and it is doubtful whether the end +will be favourable to us. The treaty of peace sanctioned by the other +powers will assure the dominion of Spain. Spain free from Cuba and +her other colonies will employ all her energy to crush us and will +send here the 150,000 men she has in Cuba. I do not think that the +Filipinos will again submit to their tyrants and there will be a long +and bloody war. And on account of the treaty the other powers will +aid Spain to completely dominate us and place all possible obstacles +in our way to prevent shipment of arms and all kinds of revolutionary +labours. In view of all this and bearing in mind the present urgency +of the matter, it is necessary for that government to establish and +publish its policy. We believe that the best for us and the only +feasible one, if we want to establish negotiations with America, +is independence under an American protectorate."--P.I.R., 453.3. + +[87] "The policy which you will pursue in the United States is the +following one:-- + +"Make them understand that whatever may be their intention towards us, +it is not possible for them to overrule the sentiments of the people +represented by the government, and they must first recognize it if +we are to come to an agreement. Still do not accept any contracts +or give any promises respecting protection or annexation, because we +will see first if we can obtain independence. This is what we shall +endeavour to secure; meanwhile, if it should be possible to do so, +still give them to understand in a way that you are unable to bind +yourself but that once we are independent, we will be able to make +arrangements with them."--P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[88] P.I.R., 5. 7. + +[89] In a letter written on that date to Agoncillo he says:-- + +"Notwithstanding, I enclose you the credentials as requested; thereby +you will see that in addition to your representing us at Washington, +you may assist the commission they have formed for the purpose of +determining the future condition of the Philippines. + +"But you must act in such manner that they may not be able to say +that we have accepted the said commission, because it is my wish to +protect [protest? D. C. W.] at all times against their being charged +with determining our destiny. You must bear in mind that the policy of +the government is to obtain absolute independence, and if perchance +we should know by the course of events that such cannot be the case, +we will then think of protection or annexation."--P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[90] On August 30, 1898, Aguinaldo wrote Agoncillo:-- + +"It is said that General Merritt is going away to take part in the +work of the Commission. On this account it is important that you +proceed as quickly as possible to America, in order to know what +takes place. If perchance we should go back to Spanish control, ask +them to help us as the French helped them during their own revolution +and ask also the terms."--P.I.R., Books C--1. + +[91] Taylor, 18 AJ. + +[92] See p. 61. + +[93] _Ibid_. + +[94] Some time during August, 1898, Sandico wrote a letter to Aguinaldo +of which the postscript reads as follows:-- + +"P.S.--If you think of appointing me as Delegate to Manila, please +send me my credentials. There are also annexationists here [_i.e._, +in Manila.--D. C. W.]."--P.I.R., 416. 3. + +[95] Now Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippine +Islands. He is a man of excellent character, high attainments and +great ability. He held important legal positions under the Spanish +government. In October, 1898, he was appointed Secretary of Foreign +Relations of the "Philippine Republic," but never served as such +officer. He was given the degree of Doctor of Law by Yale University +in 1904. + +[96] Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, one of the most brilliant living +Filipinos. He had spent many years in Paris, was a talented physician, +and under American rule served for more than seven years as a member +of the Philippine Commission. + +[97] Taylor, 55 AJ. + +[98] Taylor, 26 AJ. + +[99] Senate Documents, Vol. 25, Fifty-seventh Congress, First Session, +p. 2969. + +[100] Senate Documents, Vol. 25, pp. 2931-2932. + +[101] Senate Documents, Vol. 25, p. 2956. + +[102] _Ibid_., p. 2966. + +[103] _Ibid_., p. 2966. + +[104] Senate Documents, Vol. 25, p. 2955. + +[105] _Ibid._, p. 2952. + +[106] The following passage is an extract from an unsigned order +dated July 22, 1898:-- + +"For the preservation of peace and good order in the community and +to put an end to the acts of those who within and without the city +of Manila and in the neighboring provinces not under the control +of the Spanish Government, are evading the orders issued by these +Headquarters, and in view of the large number of those who are +storing and monopolizing food and other most necessary articles, +under the pretence of desiring to sell them to the Americans, but +whose real intention is to ship them secretly to Manila where they +receive higher prices for their merchandise, without regard for the +injury they are doing the cause of our independence, I have seen fit +to decree the following: ... " P.I.R., 45.5 and 125. 3. + +Relative to this matter, Taylor says:-- + +"The defection of Buencamino and Pilar had opened the road to +Aguinaldo, but at first the blockade was not effective. There were too +many natives there with friends and relations in Aguinaldo's camp to +make him desire to subject the city to the hardships of an effective +siege. And, furthermore, he did not have the force, nor did his men +have the necessary discipline, to prevent the ingress of supplies. It +was not until the first part of July that the price of provisions +increased. It was at no time found necessary by the authorities to take +over all the stores of provisions in the city. Indeed, there seems to +have been a fairly steady traffic in supplies between Manila and the +country to the north. It was a traffic in which it has been charged +that certain Spanish officers of rank made large sums. Aguinaldo +permitted it, and on July 26, 1898, signed an order directing that +food should be sent into Manila from the north to prevent starvation +in the city, and ordered the heads of the towns in the vicinity not +to interfere with this traffic (P.I.R., 1087-4). The entrance of food +supplies was confined to the northern line, for then it would not be +known to the Americans who, after July 30, occupied the entrenchments +in front of San Antonio Abad. It was not expedient for them to see +too much of Aguinaldo's methods."--Taylor, 14 AJ. + +[107] P.I.R., 398. 2. + +[108] Senate Document 331, p. 2976, 1902. + +[109] P.I.R., 102-10. + +[110] P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[111] P.I.R., 102-10. + +[112] _Ibid._ + +[113] P.I.R., 102. 10. + +[114] _Ibid_., Books C-1. + +[115] _Ibid_., 102-10. + +[116] P.I.R., 102-10. + +[117] Now a major-general. + +[118] P.I.R., 102-10. + +[119] _Ibid._ + +[120] _Ibid._ + +[121] "Debtor to the generosity of the North Americans, and to the +favors we have received through Admiral Dewey and (being) more desirous +than any other person of preventing any conflict which would have as +a result foreign intervention, which must be extremely prejudicial, +not alone to my nation, but also to that of Your Excellency, I consider +it my duty to advise you of the undesirability of disembarking North +American troops in the places conquered by tho Filipinos from the +Spanish, without previous notice to this government, because as no +formal agreement yet exists between the two nations the Philippine +people might consider the occupation of its territories by North +American troops as a violation of its rights. + +"I comprehend that without the destruction of the Spanish squadron +the Philippine revolution would not have advanced so rapidly. Because +of this I take the liberty of indicating to Your Excellency the +necessity that before disembarking, you should communicate in writing +to this government the places that are to be occupied and also the +object of the occupation, that the people may be advised in due +form and (thus) prevent the commission of any transgression against +friendship."--P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[122] Blount, p. 59. + +[123] On July 15 General Noriel telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:-- + +"Urgent. Received a telegram from the captain adjutant, who is in +Parañaque, of the following tenor: 'I inform your excellency that +two cascos of armed Americans have arrived at this point. I await +orders from Your Excellency.' Which I hasten to communicate to Your +Excellency for the proper action."--P.I.R., 849. + +Later on the same day Arevalo telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:-- + +"Lieutenant-Colonel Duboce with three hundred men waiting for more +troops from Cavite, and also orders, but not to attack."--P.I.R., 849. + +[124] Captain Torres telegraphed Aguinaldo on July 15 as follows:-- + +"I have read all your telegrams and carried out the same, and I +incidentally questioned them about their purposes, [they] replying that +they will aid; let time demonstrate it. They also intend to encamp over +here at Parañaque. I will report to you any occurrence."--P.I.R., 69.6. + +[125] P.I.R., 69. 5. + +[126] Ibid., 849. + +[127] "Admiral Dewey's Aide was here to-day. I told him I was ignorant +of your whereabouts and, if he had no objection, he might talk with +me as I am your representative; but he said that he could not do so, +as he had orders to speak with you personally, about something very +important. He then departed."--P.I.R., 1179. 5. + +[128] The following telegram was addressed to the President or the +Secretary of War by Sulpicio at Bacoor, on August 8, 1898:-- + +"Last night I received a telegram from General Noriel, asking +for 100 cavanes of rice which he needs immediately, since he has +ordered to send him all the troops here on account of the landing of +Americans in Parañaque. General Mascardo will send him the troops +which are here. There are 56 bundles [of rice.--TR.] deposited in +this storehouse."--P.I.R., 1179. 5. + +[129] This man's record is not known to me. Apparently he was an +officer in the Spanish army, for he is later reported as surrendering +to the Insurgents at Santa Ana on August 13, 1898. See footnote 4, +p. 104. + +[130] Taylor, 33 AJ. + +[131] Artemio Ricarte was one of the ranking Insurgent generals +directing operations against Manila. + +[132] P.I.R., 1087. 5. + +[133] Taylor, 30 AJ. + +[134] Taylor, 30 AJ. + +[135] P.I.R., 849. + +[136] On August 2, 1899, Agoncillo wrote Mabini:-- + +"I send Don Emilio the information I have been able to obtain here, +in order that in view thereof you [plural] may consider the best +solution of our present political problem, which is an exceptional +case in history. In my opinion, the most critical moment, which I +call agonizing, whether correctly or not I know not, is the capture of +Manila, where General Merritt will constitute a provisional government, +in compliance with the instructions from his Government. It is +unnecessary to recommend that you observe great tact, great prudence, +when this event occurs. Ascertain the real wishes of the people in +this conflict and the war resources at our disposal and those which +you may count on during the struggle until its termination." + +--P.I.R., 451.3. + +In his document entitled "Means for Attaining Filipino Independence" +Aguinaldo had written:-- + +"VIII. Exterior attack. Above everything the Revolutionists must occupy +all Manila including the Walled City with the object and purpose that +the nation possessing the Philippines according to the decision of the +Powers will be forced to come to an understanding with the Filipinos +to avoid the shedding of blood."--P.I.R., 457. 5. + +[137] Taylor, 29 AJ. + +[138] That is, the surrender of Manila. + +[139] Fort San Antonio A'bad. + +[140] Senate Documents, Vol. 25, p. 2943. + +[141] "I must tell you that I feel as you should feel in regard to +our government not having officially participated in the capitulation +of Manila. Accordingly the war must be continued with Spain, because, +if we attack to-night, the Americans, acting upon the request of the +Spaniards and foreigners in addition to those who took part in the +capitulation, will have to ask us to suspend operations; hence we shall +be included in the negotiations and this will work to our advantage. + +"To-night at 2 A.M. you will attack without fail in order that we may +be included in the capitulation which the Americans made to-day. You +must not stop the attacks because they do, and this is also the opinion +of our partisans among the foreigners."--P.I.R., 1179. 5 & 427. 5. + +[142] "Our Rule in the Philippines," The _North American Review_, +1900, No. 170. + +[143] General Ricarte to Aguinaldo, August 12, 1898, 11.15 P.M.: + +"Have received the telegram from your honourable person regarding +attack at four o'clock in the morning, although we will make the +attack anyway. I have directed Gen. Pío Del Pilar begin firing cannon +at the hour set. At the present time we are making preparations and +will also give orders to the chiefs of the columns."--P.I.R., 849. + +[144] "August 13, 1898. + +"Dated. Camp Dewey 13. To General Aguinaldo. Commanding Philippine +Forces, Bacoor: Do not let your troops enter Manila without the +permission of the American commander on this side of Pasig river. You +will be under our fire. + +"_Anderson_, Brig. General." + +--P.I.R., 102-10. + +[145] "Copy: Gen. Riego, Cavite: Have just received a note from +Gen. Anderson saying to me he does not permit my troops to enter Manila +without permission from the American commander on this side of the +Pasig River. They will be under his fire. Go with Señor Buencamino +and ask for an explanation, in writing if possible, as to the motive +for said note, without losing a moment. August 13, '98. E.A." + +--P.I.R., 849. + +[146] "I received a telegram. My interpreter is in Cavite. In +consequence of this I have not answered until now. My troops are +forced by yours, by means of threats of violence, to retire from +positions taken. It is necessary to avoid conflict, which I should +lament, that you order your troops that they avoid difficulty with +mine, as until now they have conducted themselves as brothers to take +Manila. I have given strict orders to my chiefs that they preserve +strict respect to American forces and to aid them in ease they are +attacked by a common enemy." + +[147] Gregorio Araneta, later a member of the Philippine Commission +and Secretary of Finance and Justice. He was Secretary of Justice +under the Malolos government, and was also secretary of the Insurgent +Congress. He was at this time a bright young lawyer of good ability +and character. + +[148] P.I.R., 849. + +[149] _Ibid_. + +[150] P.I.R., 849. + +[151] _Ibid_., 849. + +[152] _Ibid_., 1179. 5. + +[153] _Ibid_. + +[154] _Ibid_. + +[155] Report of War Dept., 1898, Vol. I, part 2, p. 69. + +[156] Taylor, Exhibit 739. + +[157] The following two telegrams were sent by General Pio del Pilar +to Aguinaldo at 9.30 P.M.:-- + +"I inform you that the Bayambang troops who have presented themselves +before me when we entered Santa Ana this afternoon, are: 4 lieutenants, +171 soldiers with their respective rifles and ammunitions, Major +Fernando Acevedo, Captain Licerio Geronimo, 1 Spanish lieutenant, +and 1 prisoner by the name of Enrique Flores. All of them I put under +your orders."--P.I.R., 1179.5. + +"Very urgent. I inform you of the capture made by my soldiers: 2 +lieutenants of the Marine Corps, 2 lieutenants of the Spanish Infantry, +52 soldiers. Rifles about 400. I put them under your orders and await +your instructions."--P.I.R., 1179. 5. + +[158] The Spanish Governor-General. + +[159] P.I.R., 1300. 2. + +[160] Taylor, 58 HJ. + +[161] _Ibid_., 59. + +[162] See footnote 2, p. 108. + +[163] P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[164] Taylor, 15 AJ. + +[165] The word Indios, here translated "Indians," means Malayan +Filipinos of pure blood as distinguished from _mestizos_ or people +of mixed blood. + +[166] P.I.R., 918. 2. + +[167] The following telegram was sent by Colonel José to Aguinaldo:-- + +"Urgent. August 20, 1898: Colonel López reports that our troops are +still sacking and committing outrages in Malate, Paco and Ermita, +even menacing people with their arms. Urge you to take proper measures +to stop these abuses."--P.I.R., 1167. 3. + +[168] Extract from a letter of August 20, 1899, from Mabini to +Aguinaldo: + +"Señor López, your adjutant, arrived and told me of many complaints +regarding the behaviour of the soldiers. He says that our officers +carry off many horses, some of them belonging to foreigners. If the +foreigners should enter a protest against such doings, I do not know +what will be thought of our government. + +"It is also absolutely necessary that a stop should be put to the +passes, and that the tax on merchandise entering Manila, should no +longer be exacted. It is absolutely necessary, if you think well +of it, for us to promote General Pío, and make him your second in +command. It is necessary for him to leave the vicinity of Manila, +as we cannot remove him by force; and do not reprimand him. + +"If you approve, I will write a Decree, but I reflect that nothing +will succeed, if our commanders are not obliged to comply." + +--P.I.R., 472. 13. + +[169] _I.e._ the Americans. + +[170] P.I.R., 458. 8. + +[171] Major J. F. Bell accompanied Sandico on this trip. + +[172] P.I.R., 1166. 12. + +[173] "I regret very much to have to inform you that as long as +personal property is not respected here in Manila especially, by some +of our men, as long as personal security does not exist and as long +as prisoners are tortured, we cannot hope to deserve the confidence +of the other governments. Murders, thefts of carriages and horses, +are very frequent here, as is kidnapping, ... + +"Sergeant Barcena, of the Fifth Company of the Second Zone, that +is the zone of General Pío del Pilar, informed me that the cruel +officers of that Zone, were Major Carmona and a lieutenant who was +formerly a barber. + +"I know that the Government has ordered that private persons and +property be respected and has withdrawn from the military the power of +trying civilians; but in view of the fact that notwithstanding this +restriction some of them continue to discharge powers of which they +have been divested, I find it necessary to call your attention thereto, +in order that more energetic measures may be adopted so that other +nations may not be led to believe that our government is very weak. + +"In the jurisdiction of the Americans, I have surprised small groups +of officers, who devote themselves to summoning persons before them +and arresting them. These groups can be found in Binondo, Tondo and +Trozo. I have used all friendly measures to secure their dissolution, +but if they continue their conduct, I shall be obliged to turn them +over to the American authorities, although I inform you that I shall +not make use of such measures, until diplomatic means are exhausted. + +"I understand very well that in endeavouring to stop the abuses +committed by our officers and by the Filipinos who claim to belong to +us, in Manila, I expose myself to becoming a victim of their vengeance; +nevertheless, this does not terrify me, because my duty to the country +requires it. + +"I beg of you that if you take any steps against Major Carmona and the +barber lieutenant, to be very careful and call General Pío del Pilar +and come to an understanding with him as to the mode of punishment +of these officers .... + +"I have discovered grave cases which are occurring in the Presidio of +Manila, which I propose to relate to you when I shall have the honor +to see you personally. The Americans are already aware of these cases, +and are working in their own interest untiringly. + +"I could tell you a good many other things, but I do not do so on +account of lack of time, and because I wish to reserve them until I can +speak to you privately. In the meantime, order me as you will, etc." + +--P.I.R., 416. 7. + +[174] "General Anderson received us very well, but in the proposed +agreement the clauses requiring the prior permission of our commanders +before American troops could pass or approach our lines displeased him +very much. Gen. Anderson refuses to treat until after the withdrawal +of Noriel's troops. I think it prudent to yield. This telegram is in +amplification of another which, at the request of Gen. Anderson, we +sent through his telegraph station to your excellency."--P.I.R., 849. + +[175] "It is impossible to order General Noriel to fall back because +if we order it they will ask the same thing from General Pío and +we shall get nothing ourselves. And the worst is that after we have +evacuated Manila and its environs they will follow us up to our new +positions to take them too without our being able to obtain from +them any formal statement of the concession signed in duo form. Tho +conflict is coming sooner or later and we shall gain nothing by asking +as favours of them what are really our rights. We shall maintain them +as long as we are able, confiding in Providence and in Justice. I +confirm my last telegram. Tell General Anderson that we shall hold +a meeting of the council of Government in order to decide. Please +return here soon with your companions. I inclose the map which I hope +you will return."--P.I.R., 427. 1. + +[176] Senate Document No. 208, p. 22. + +[177] _Ibid_., p. 23. + +[178] _Ibid_., p. 26. + +[179] Senate Document No. 208, p. 24. + +[180] Pío del Pilar. + +[181] Report of the War Department, 1899, Vol. I, part IV, pp. 5-10. + +[182] See Buencamino's letter to Jáudines, p. 108. + +[183] Taylor 36 AJ. _et seq_. + +[184] See p. 41. + +[185] P.I.R., 427. 1. + +[186] "The insolent commentary of the American Consul here, if it is +true, clearly shows the intention of America to impose her will upon us +by force. In this case, the conflict will come sooner or later. Would +it not be better for us to provoke the conflict while the Americans +have not as yet concentrated their troops there? Or would it be better +to wait for the results of the Congress of Paris? This question should +be answered immediately by the committee on foreign relations of the +Congress of representatives and the decision should be sent at once +to us so that we can proceed according to your instructions."--P.I.R., +453. 11. + +[187] "I gave an order long ago not to permit our line to be passed, +and to say frankly that it was by my order. To be prepared to defend +our rights you are ordered to place troops in front of American +position at Sampaloc and to tell them plainly to leave, to warn +the Sandatahan [bolo men.--D. C. W.] and get everything ready; you +must warn the commanders of the zones about Manila. Do not forget, +whenever in doubt."--P.I.R., 849. + +[188] P.I.R., 88. 9. + +[189] P.I.R., 88. 9. + +[190] _Ibid._ + +[191] P.I.R., 88. 9. + +[192] _Ibid_., 849. + +[193] "Until the decision of the Paris Congress is known, all of us +here are of the opinion that you should maintain a defensive attitude +regarding the Americans, giving way to them with regard to Manila and +its suburbs or in anything they may wish, although apparently only, +and not show them your teeth. After the decision of the Congress +is known, you may take the offensive if advisable, and according to +the information we may have of the American soldiers it should not be +difficult for you and your army to settle accounts with them."--P.I.R., +398. 6. + +[194] "If you and the Americans should happen to come in conflict +before the departure of the Spanish soldiers, it might happen that +the Yankees would enter into an alliance with them to combat the +Filipinos. Think well over this."--P.I.R., 398. 6. + +[195] "It is also of urgent necessity, Señor President, to reëstablish +committees in all the suburbs and that the masons and the Katipúnan be +reorganized, and it is advisable that all be provided with knives ready +for any event, but it is proper that these arms be hidden."--P.I.R., +466. 9. + +[196] "Our soldiers are always desirous of fighting in order to +bring affairs to an end, as they are very resentful with regard to +the evacuation of the suburbs mentioned."--P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[197] "Most urgent. Have received telegraphic order from War Dept., +which says: 'Prevent American troops from disembarking.' In case they +insist what am I to do? May I begin firing?" + +This telegram was indorsed by Aguinaldo:-- + +"Answered affirmatively December 1, 1898."--P.I.R., 849. + +[198] "Most urgent. According to despatch from Captain detached at +Batangas, American divers are working unceasingly. He says that he +ordered them to be fired on in case they try to land. Await your +reply." + +Aguinaldo's reply ran as follows:-- + +"I do not mind their working at sea, but you must under no conditions +allow them to land troops; be brave for the sake of your Tagálog +heart. Approve your action."--P.I.R., 1179. 2. + +[199] P.I.R., 849. + +[200] _Ibid_. + +[201] _Ibid_. + +[202] 56 AJ. + +[203] "We are constantly alarmed here by American troops who wish +to come within the military line. To-day received word from second +chief, second zone, Manila, that as soon as they opened fire against +the American troops I assist by entering Manila. I have no orders in +this matter; I await your directions."--P.I.R., 849. + +[204] P.I.R., 849. + +[205] Taylor, 70 AJ. + +[206] "It is absolutely necessary that an order be received here +permitting the uprising of those in prison before the movement is +begun anywhere else; in the prison the word shall be given at the +moment the bugle sounds retreat; it is indispensable that some of our +party be prepared in the vicinity of the Iris bridge, San Pedro street +and Dulumbrayan bridge, in order to prevent the Americans quartered +in the Pennsylvania barracks (Zorilla theatre) from aiding those in +the prison."--P.I.R., 73. 3. + +[207] P.I.R., 40. 8. + +[208] _Ibid_., Books C-1. + +[209] _Ibid_., 1141. 3. + +[210] P.I.R., 1186. 10. + +[211] _Ibid_., 849. + +[212] See p. 733. + +[213] Taylor, 68-69 AJ. + +[214] P.I.R., 206-207. + +[215] "Above all I expect that you will respect the persons and goods +of private persons of all nationalities, including the Chinese; that +you will treat well the prisoners and grant life to those of the +enemy who surrender. And that you be on the sharp lookout for those +traitors and enemies who, by robbery, will seek to mar our victory." + +[216] P.I.R., 849. + +[217] _Ibid_. + +[218] For the document on which this statement is based see p. 733. + +[219] P.I.R., 849. + +[220] Taylor, 81 AJ. + +[221] "In reply to your telegram concerning your dream of entering +Manila after four hours of combat. I have the honour to inform you +for myself and the officers and soldiers under my command that your +dream will come true as soon as the conflict with the Americans begins, +since we shall advance at any cost."--P.I.R., 849. + +[222] On January 21, 1899, the commander of the fourth zone, Caloocan, +wired Aguinaldo that: + +"Julian Santo, commander of the territorial militia of Trozo, informs +me that 400 native soldiers of the Spanish army to-day incorporated +in his militia. He lives in the walled city, and he wants to know +your opinion upon the present situation, since the Americans want to +hold them as prisoners or confine them in Bilibid prison." + +(Indorsed, handwriting of Aguinaldo:) "Tell the Filipino soldiers +in the walled city affiliated to our cause that they must keep +on good terms with the Americans, in order to deceive them, and +prevent their confining them, since the hoped-for moment has not yet +arrived."--P.I.R., 849. + +[223] On January 20, 1899, a correspondent wrote to one of the +Insurgents abroad: + +"In some places (in Manila) there have been fights with bolos between +Filipinos and Americans who wanted to tear down the proclamation of +our president while the people defended it with their bolos. They +say that it amuses them to see the Americans run when they draw their +knives. It is said that some 10,000 servants have gone on strike. Some +Americans have already disappeared by the method of 'dukut' but it +will not be proper to publish this in my opinion."--P.I.R., 980. 82. + +[224] Taylor, AJ. 73. + +[225] (Telegram received by E. Aguinaldo:) + +"To the President of the Republic, Malolos, from the Provincial +Governor of Manila, San Juan del Monte, Jan. 29, 1899, 10.25 A.M.: +I yesterday visited the military road in process of construction, +Santa Ana to Pineda. Tomorrow it will be sufficiently completed to +permit passage, and in two days after it will be finished. Considering +opening another military road direct from Caloocan to San Juan. Desire +authority. + +(Endorsed, handwriting of Aguinaldo:) "Telegram received. I am very +much satisfied, and in the name of the government I congratulate you +and the presidents of Santa Ana and Pineda with their inhabitants +for their efforts for the public good. You are authorized to open +another military road from Caloocan to San Juan del Monte, and I +want you to endeavor to finish it this week, as I am certain you +will."--P.I.R., 849. + +(Telegram received by E. Aguinaldo:) + +"To the Secretary of the Interior, Malolos, from Sah Juan del +Monte--Received Feb. 3, 1899 from the Provincial Governor Manila: +Road marked out; work began Wednesday. I shall put forth every effort +to finish by middle of the coming week."--P.I.R., 849. + +[226] Taylor, 73 AJ. + +[227] Taylor, 73 AJ. + +[228] P.I.R., 2018. + +[229] _Ibid_., 1090. 5. + +[230] P.I.R., 453. 4. + +[231] P.I.R., 453. 2. + +[232] P.I.R., 493. 12. + +[233] Blount, p. 190. + +[234] Taylor, 86 AJ. + +[235] Blount, p. 175. + +[236] Blount, p. 98. + +[237] The constitution used was most certainly not patterned after +our own. See p. 265. + +[238] Blount, p. 111. + +[239] "The light Messrs. Sargent and Wilcox throw on the then universal +acknowledgment of the authority of the Aguinaldo government and the +perfect tranquillity and public order maintained under it, in the +Cagayan valley."--Blount, pp. 114-115. + +[240] "The country in fact, as Aguinaldo always claimed in his +proclamations of that period seeking recognition of his government +by the Powers, in a state of profound peace and tranquillity--free +from brigandage and the like."--Blount, p. 115. + +[241] P.I.R., 958. 11. + +[242] P.I.R., 849. + +[243] Blount, p. 108. + +[244] _Ibid_., p. 109. + +[245] "With a view to showing every one and especially foreigners +travelling through the territory of the Republic, that we are not +opposed to a good such as a refined and civilized people should have, +the fronts of buildings should be whitewashed, streets should be +cleaned and fences repaired."--P.I.R., 292. 3. + +[246] "It would be a great satisfaction to me to aid you with all +my strength; and the only thing that I see to object to is that the +Commanders and Generals in this province are getting pretty abusive +toward our brethren and allow themselves to be bribed by the Tagálog +merchants so as to allow them to enter Manila with their goods, +which is of great assistance to our enemies. + +"Concerning the contributions which I have collected from the Chinamen, +it amounts to more than P2,000 here in Tambobong, Meycauayan and +Polo alone; and those from the other pueblos have not yet come to +see me. Furthermore, I would like an order from you prohibiting the +outrages that are being committed against such merchants as are not +our enemies; and when the contributions from the Chinamen of all the +pueblos shall have been completed, I wish to publish a proclamation +forbidding any injury to the Chinamen and any interference with their +small business enterprises; since this is a disgrace to our government +and to your name; for the natives of hereabouts themselves are the +people who are committing said abuses, and in hopes of putting a +stop to them, I await your decision at the earliest possible moment +concerning the proclamation referred to."--P.I.R., 355. 11. + +[247] "Last night in the place known as Santo Cristo (Manila?) the +store of J. Ricafort, a Chinaman, was entered by five soldiers of our +army under an unknown commander supposed to be Colonel Paua. They +tried to kidnap the wife of Ricafort. At the request of P. García +they desisted upon payment of 20 pesos and the agreement that 100 +pesos would be paid later. If this was not done they would return +and hang them. To quiet these people I gave them a pass to assure +their personal safety, and exacted at the same time a promise that +they should not report the matter to the Americans. Pauline García +is now at Pedro Macati."--P.I.R., 1187.4. + +[248] P.I.R., 223. + +[249] "Early in the war we had availed ourselves of a certain tribe, +or clan, known as the Maccabebes, who look nowise different from all +other Filipinos, but who had, under the Spanish government, by reason +of long-standing feuds with their more rebellious neighbours, come +to be absolutely loyal to the Spanish authorities. When we came they +had transferred that loyalty to us, and had now become a recognized +and valuable part of our military force."--Blount, pp. 333-334. + +[250] "On July 28, 1898, the head of the province of Pampanga wrote +that the punishment of beating people in the plaza and tying them +up so that they would be exposed to the full rays of the sun should +be stopped. He complained that these methods had been carried so far +that even people of good social position had been so punished. It was +especially undesirable to employ such punishments, as the people of +other nations weeing them would not believe that the reign of liberty, +equality, and fraternity had begun in the Philippines."--P.I.R., 196.3. + +[251] Taylor, 47 AJ. + +[252] P.I.R., 944. + +[253] "I have the honour to inform you that I have been in this town +since yesterday afternoon issuing, in a proclamation, conciliatory +orders to the populace that the people comprised in the uprising +must present themselves and express aversion and repudiation of +it, promising them consideration and pardon as long as they lay +aside arms. In compliance with and following the earlier published +proclamation, they presented two guns and innumerable bolos. I hope +soon for tranquillity among the people there through these efforts. I +ask dispense with assembly of the Junta. _Camilin_, November 30, +1898."--P.I.R., 849. + +[254] P.I.R., 849. + +[255] _Ibid._ + +[256] P.I.R. 849. + +[257] _Ibid._ + +[258] _Ibid._ + +[259] Gregorio Aglipay, an Ilocano Catholic priest who became an +active Insurgent leader. Later he abandoned the Catholic faith and +set up a new church which gained many adherents in the Philippines. + +[260] P.I.R., 849. + +[261] _Ibid._ + +[262] _Ibid._ + +[263] P.I.R., 1231. 2. + +[264] Taylor, 62 AJ. + +[265] P.I.R., 77. + +[266] P.I.R., 47.7. + +[267] _Ibid_., 951.3. + +[268] Blount, p. 109. + +[269] P.I.R., 1006. + +[270] P.I.R., 870. 4. + +[271] Blount, p. 113. + +[272] _Ibid_., p. 111 + +[273] At Carig, Isabela. + +[274] Taylor, 43 AJ. + +[275] See p. 731. + +[276] The parsonage, or residence of the priest. + +[277] Insurgent officers. + +[278] Their on commander so reported. See p. 202. + +[279] Shortly afterward "elected" governor. + +[280] This form of torture is commonly referred to in the Philippines +as the "water cure." + +[281] Major Delfin commanded the expedition which took Nueva Vizcaya. + +[282] P.I.R., 246. 3. + +[283] Dimas Guzman. + +[284] Blount, p. 112. + +[285] Blount, p. 114. + +[286] Blount, p. 113 + +[287] Blount, p. 114. + +[288] A distance of 120 miles. + +[289] "The former Spanish Governor of the Province was of course a +prisoner in Villa's custody. Villa had the ex-Governor brought in, +for the travellers to see him, and remarked, in his presence to them, +'This is the man who robbed this province of twenty-five thousand +dollars during the last year of his office.'"--Blount, p. 115. + +[290] _La Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas_, a very strong +commercial organization. + +[291] "I call your attention to the fact that the only terms to +the surrender were to respect life, and it was for this reason that +I seized all the money they [i.e. the friars,--D.C.W.] had hidden +away, which was accomplished by applying the stick. In this capital +I found thirty-four thousand dollars in silver and a draft on the +Compañia General de Tabacos for twenty thousand dollars which can be +collected here... + +"The bearer can give you more details concerning the abuses +committed in this province of Vizcayana by the forces of Mayor Duflin +Esquizel. Also, I wish to inform you that we have done nothing to the +Compañia General de Tabacos, for we have learned from their records +that much of their stock is held by Frenchmen, and consequently we fear +a conflict. For this reason we await your orders on this matter. We +took all the arms we found in their possession, however."--P.I.R., +271.2. + +[292] P.I.R. 192.4. + +[293] "I was in that town, for a similar purpose, with Governor Taft in +1901, after a bloody war which almost certainly would not have occurred +had the Paris Peace Commission known the conditions then existing, just +like this, all over Luzon and the Visayan Islands."--Blount, p. 116. + +[294] "On account of this the vulgar people doubted the legality of +our actions in the collection of taxes, and accordingly it became +difficult; and this, coupled with the inveterate abuses of the heads +of the towns, which the head of the province was not able to perceive +in time to check, caused a tumult in Echague, which, owing to wise +councils and efforts at pacification, was appeased without it being +followed by serious consequences; but I have no doubt that this tumult +was due only to the suggestions of ungovernable and passionate persons +animated by the spirit of faction, since those who took part in it +were all Ilocanos, no native of Echague having any hand in it. The +same thing occurred in Naguilian, where the disorders were also +quieted. Not only did I make no report of all this to the government of +the republic on account of the abnormality of the present conditions, +but I also succeeded in concealing them from the foreigners here so +that they should not succeed in discovering the truth, which would +be to the prejudice of our cause."--Taylor, 42 AJ. + +[295] "I may add that as judge of that district in 1901-2 there came +before me a number of cases in the trial of which the fact would be +brought out of this or that difference among the local authorities +having been referred to the Malolos Government for settlement. And +they always awaited until they heard from it,"--Blount, p 112. + +[296] "General Otis's reports are full of the most inexcusable +blounders about how 'the Tagals' took possession of the various +provinces and just about those of a New Yorker or a Bostonian sent up +to Vermont in the days of the American Revolution to help organize +the resistance there, in conjunction with one of the local leaders +of the patriot cause in the Green Mountain State."--Blount, p. 112. + +[297] Blount, p. 114. + +[298] Taylor, 42 AJ. + +[299] Blount, p. 111. + +[300] P.I.R., 974. 3. + +[301] "December 20, 1898. + +"_To the Honorable President of the Revolutionary Government_. + +"The undersigned residents of the _barangay_ of D. Francisco Querubín +and D. Melchor Balueg, of Bucay, of the province of Abra, appeal to +you with the utmost subjection from their place of residence and state: +That their heads or representatives, D. Francisco Querubín and Melchor +Balueg, respectively, force them to pay two _pesos_ each as a war tax, +your humble vassals above cited being hardly able to earn their own +livelihood and support their families, and, notwithstanding their +labor, some of them cannot get anything to eat without appealing to +the charity of their richer neighbours; but notwithstanding this sad +situation, they offer a _peseta_ each as a mark of gratitude to the +mother country, Filipinas, but said gentlemen, the representatives +mentioned, have not the slightest pity and worry us to the extent +of having kept us in our houses a day and a night without anything +to eat, not even permitting us to go out to get a drink. + +"We must inform you that the head of the _barangay_, D. Melchor Balueg, +when he gathers the supplies for the troops stationed in his town, said +supplies consisting of rice, pigs, chickens and eggs, uses one-half +of what is gathered, and then again orders his assistants to save." + +"In fact, the undersigned request you to direct that the _peseta_ +which they offer be accepted and that the said Don Francisco Querubín +and Don Melchor Balueg be relieved of their duties, in order to put +a stop to the abuses constantly committed by them; and if this be +not done, the petitioners will be obliged to leave their homes and +property in the town and take up their residences in the mountains +with the Negritos and Igorots, in order that the others may remain +in the town and live tranquilly. + +"This is a grace which we do not doubt we will receive from you, +whose life may God preserve for many years. + +"_Bucay_, November 12, 1898." (26 signatures) + +(In blue pencil in the handwriting of Aguinaldo:) "It will be approved. + +"Dec. 20, 1898. + +"E. A." + +--P.I.R., 991. 4. + +[302] P.I.R., 849. + +[303] Blount, p. 130. + +[304] _Ibid_., pp. 130-131. + +[305] P.I.R., 1142. 4. + +[306] _Ibid_., 2002. 3. + +[307] P.I.R., 964. 3. + +[308] On November 30, 1898, the commander in Alaminos, Zambales +Province, telegraphed that his soldiers were all about to desert as +the head of the town would not furnish rations or pay without orders +from the governor."--P.I.R., 2002.3. + +[309] "On December 22, Aguinaldo, in accordance with a request from +the governor of Zambales Province, ordered the heads of the provinces +of Pangasinán, Tarlac, Bataan, and Pampanga to prohibit the people +of their provinces from going to Zambales without passports signed by +them, stating the route they were to take in going and returning and +the length of time to be spent in the journey. The governor of Zambales +had asked for this regulation in order to prevent the commission of +robberies in Zambales and to distinguish persons justly subject to +suspicion from those of good conduct."--P.I.R., 266. 3. + +[310] "On January 9, the governor of Zambales found it impossible +to continue the inspection of certain towns of his province and to +continue holding elections, as many of the officials had fled to escape +the exactions and abuses of the military commanders."--P.I.R., 988. 2. + +[311] "The Governor of Cavite reports two drunken Americans have been +killed by our soldiers. I tell him to have an investigation immediately +and report the fact to the American commander."--P.I.R., 849. + +[312] "Most urgent. Gen. Anderson informs me in a letter that, +'in order to avoid the very serious misfortune of an encounter +between our troops, I demand your immediate withdrawal with your +guard from Cavite. One of my men has been killed and three wounded +by your people.' This is positive and does not admit of explanation +or delay. I ask you to inform me of your decision."--P.I.R., 849. + +[313] "_Gen. Riego de Dios, Cavite_: Telegram received. Do not +leave the post, and say that you cannot abandon the city without +my orders, and say that he was not killed by our soldiers, but by +them themselves [the Americans.--D. C. W.], since they were drunk, +according to your telegram. Give up your life before abandoning that +place, and investigate matters."--P.I.R., 849. + +[314] "Urgent. Gen. Alvarez telegraphed that Riego de Dios informed him +that the town of Maragondong had risen in arms on account of abuses +committed by the local President against Salvador Riego. This is the +reason the town took up arms. Will go there to-morrow."--P.I.R., 849. + +[315] Taylor, 19 AJ. + +[316] P.I.R., 1057. 4. + +[317] Taylor, 95 HS. + +[318] The name applied to the Filipinos of Ambos Camarines, Albay +and Sorsogón. + +[319] P.I.R., 262. 3. + +[320] Taylor, 48 AJ. + +[321] Blount, p. 116. + +[322] Accepting the 1903 census figures. + +[323] Aguinaldo considered Mindanao important enough to form one of the +three federal states into which he proposed to divide the Philippines. + +[324] Blount, p. 228. + +[325] _Ibid_., p. 229. + +[326] Bandits, or organized robbers. + +[327] The old Spanish name for Palawan. + +[328] Blount, p. 228. + +[329] P.I.R., 944. 10. + +[330] Blount, p. 116. + +[331] Blount, p. 229. + +[332] According to the census of 1903, 154,706. + +[333] See table on p. 651. + +[334] (Contemporary copy in Spanish.--P.I.R., Books C-L:) + +"January 19, 1899. + +"The President of the Philippine Republic very cordially greets his +great and powerful brother, the Sultan of Jolo, and makes known:-- + +"That the Filipinos, after having thrown off the yoke of foreign +domination cannot forget their brothers of Jolo to whom they are +bound by the ties of race, interests, security and defense in this +region of the Far East. + +"The Philippine Republic has resolved to respect absolutely the +beliefs and traditions of each island in order to establish on solid +bases the bonds of fraternal unity demanded by our mutual interests. + +"I therefore in the name of all the Filipinos very gladly offer to +the powerful Sultan of Jolo and to all brothers who acknowledge his +great authority, the highest assurance of friendship, consideration +and esteem. + +"_Malolos_, January 18, 1899." + +(No signature.) + +[335] P.I.R., 76. 1. + +[336] From an official document on file at Manila. + +[337] "Being brothers, the descendants of the same race and of one +soul, the same sun shines upon us and we breathe the same air, so +that our sentiments are also one, and we aspire to the independence +and liberty of our country in order to secure its progress and place +it on a level with other civilized nations; and with this assurance I +have taken the liberty to address you this letter, begging of you to +accept the commission which in the name of our government I have the +honour to confer upon you. You are authorized thereunder to establish +in all the 'Rancherias' of Mindanao and Jolo, a civil and military +economic-administrative organization, in accordance with the decrees +which I enclose herewith, and after having established the same, +I request that you make a report to our Honourable President of the +Philippine Republic, Sr. Emilio Aguinaldo, of the result thereof +and of the number of the force with their arms and ammunition, in +order to ascertain whether they would be sufficient to prevent the +invasion of the enemy and whether there is any necessity of sending +reinforcements of arms to said Islands for this purpose. If in this +war, which I consider to be the last, we secure our independence, and +with the opposition of our brothers in that region, with yourself at +their head, we are successful in preventing the enemy from gaining a +foothold, the grateful country will always render a tribute of homage +and gratitude to your memory. + +"God preserve you many years. + +"May 31, 1899. "_Baldomero Aguinaldo_, + +"Lieut. Gen. Superior P. M. Commander of Southern Region. + +"To _The Honourable Sultan Raha Halon_" + +--P.I.R., 810-4. + +[338] Spanish for "mountain people." + +[339] P.I.R., 512. A 5. + +[340] Extract from a letter to Apacible of the Hongkong junta dated +February 26, 1899:-- + +"It is also said that the Cantonal Government of Negros has wished +to make a treaty with the Americans, some members of that government +having come in American transports to confer with General Otis. We +are not aware of the conditions of the arrangement, because the Negros +people have thus far not wished to put themselves in communication with +us; we only know by news more or loss reliable that the capital of that +island has been occupied by the American forces without opposition. + +"Of Mindanao we know absolutely nothing; we also are ignorant of what +has been the lot of our agents in America." + +[341] "Of the Visayas and Mindanao we know nothing positive as yet, it +is whispered that the Americans have succeeded in occupying Negros and +Cebú against the will of the inhabitants. Iloílo continues the struggle +energetically. It does not matter that they occupy temporarily those +beautiful islands, because Luzón will know how to fight for herself +and the rest of the islands, and will not lay down arms without the +independence of the Philippine Archipelago." + +[342] Blount, p. 140. + +[343] P.I.R., 62. 2. + +[344] _Ibid_., 144. 1. + +[345] "The second reason for my resignation is the pain caused me by +having still to read among the reports of our military associates that +in some of the chiefs, besides odious favouritism, is clearly seen a +desire to enrich themselves, accepting bribes, making even prisoners +a means of gain, and others there are, above all the commissaries, +who dare to decrease the allowance of the soldier, little enough +already;--I throw the blame of all this upon those who taught us such +a custom; consequently I have reason to hope that they will change +their methods. + +"The same cause of complaint I have concerning some companions who +are discharging civil offices, especially those who are far from +the oversight of the government, who put their own welfare before +the common good, and devise a thousand means to further their own +ends, even to the extent of gambling. Where are the police? Are they, +perchance, also bribed? Pity money is so ill spent! However, every one +is obliged to know that falsehood will never prevail against truth, +and as evidence hereof many soldiers have confessed to the government +as to having received certain sums in the share of the booty, and +if we consider that the latter who receive their share have told the +truth, why should those who are present during the partition of the +money and receive nothing, not do so? In this way the eyes of some +that were blinded are gradually opened; I confess, moreover, that +the latter are to be blamed less than those in authority who are so +attached to the methods of the past administration, who, we may hope, +will change their mode of conduct and exhibit true patriotism. + + + +"I certify to the truth of all the above-mentioned evils, which must +be eradicated. I retain the evidence for presentation when called on, +so that if any of the readers hereof should consider themselves +referred +to and should resent it, I am ready to beg their pardon."--P.I.R., 8.2. + +[346] Blount, p. 108. + +[347] Senate Documents, Vol. 25, pp. 2928-2941. + +[348] P.I.R., 838-2. + +[349] In this connection note Blount's statement:-- + +"But we are considering how much of a government the Filipinos had +in 1898, because the answer is pertinent to what sort of a government +they could run if permitted now or at any time in the future."--Blount, +p. 73. + +[350] Blount refers to + +"The death-warrant of the Philippine republic signed by Mr. McKinley +on September 16th."--Blount, p. 99. + +Speaking of Mr. Roosevelt's opinion of the practicability of granting +independence to the Filipinos, he says-- + +"Yet it represented then one of the many current misapprehensions +about the Filipinos which moved this great nation to destroy a young +republic set up in a spirit of intelligent and generous emulation of +our own."--Blount, p. 230. + +[351] "Here was a man claiming to be President of a newly established +republic based on the principles set forth in our Declaration of +Independence, which republic had just issued a like Declaration, and he +was invited to come and hear our declaration read, and declined because +we would not recognize his right to assert the same truths."--Blount, +p. 59. + +[352] "The war satisfied us all that Aguinaldo would have +been a small edition of Porfirio Diaz, and that the Filipino +republic-that-might-have-been would have been, very decidedly, +'a going concern,' although Aguinaldo probably would have been able +to say with a degree of accuracy, as Diaz might have said in Mexico +for so many years, 'The Republic? I am the Republic.'"--Blount, p. 292. + +[353] "The war demonstrated to the army, to a Q. E. D., that the +Filipinos are 'capable of self-government,' unless the kind which +happens to suit the genius of the American people is the only kind of +government on earth that is respectable, and the one panacea for all +the ills of government among men without regard to their temperament or +historical antecedents. The educated patriotic Filipinos can control +the masses of the people in their several districts as completely as +a captain ever controlled a company."--Blount, p. 292. + +[354] "Even to-day the presidente of a pueblo is as absolute boss +of his town as Charles F. Murphy is in Tammany Hall. And a town or +pueblo in the Philippines is more than an area covered by more or +less contiguous buildings and grounds. It is more like a township +in Massachusetts, so that when you account governmentally for the +pueblos of a given province, you account for every square foot of +that province and for every man in it." + +[355] "In there reviewing the Samar and other insurrections of 1905 +in the Philippines, you find him (_i.e._ Roosevelt) dealing with +the real root of the evil with perfect honesty, though adopting the +view that the Filipino people were to blame therefor, because we +had placed too much power in the hands of an ignorant electorate, +which had elected rascally officials."--Blount, p. 297. + +Also:-- + +"But we proceeded to ram down their throats a preconceived theory that +the only road to self-government was for an alien people to step in +and make the ignorant masses the _sine qua non_."--Blount, p. 546. + +Also:-- + +"Of course the ignorant elecorate we perpetrated on Samar as an +'expression of our theoretical views' proved that we had 'gone too +fast' in conferring self-government, or to quote Mr. Roosevelt, had +been 'reposing too much confidence in the self-governing power of +a people,' if to begin with the rankest material for constructing a +government that there was at hand was to offer a fair test of capacity +for self-government."--Blount, p. 546. + +[356] P.I.R., 499. 1 Ex. 134. + +[357] Ibid., 206. 1. + +[358] Ibid., 1124. 2. + +[359] Ibid., 204. 6. + +[360] P.I.R., 206. 6. + +[361] P.I.R., 674. 1. + +[362] _Ibid._, 206. 3. + +[363] P.I.R., 206. 3. + +[364] On July 7, 1898, the secretary of the revolutionary junta +in Mindanao, in writing to Aguinaldo, closed his letter with the +following formula: "Command this, your vassal, at all hours at the +orders of his respected chief, on whom he will never turn his back, +and whom he will never forswear. God preserve you, Captain General, +many years." P.I.R., 1080. 1. Every now and then we find a queer use +of the term "royal family." This seems to have been common among the +mass of the people. Heads of towns and men of position often used +the expression "royal orders" in speaking of the orders and decrees +issued by Aguinaldo. For example, the officials of Tayug, a town of +19,000 people in Pangasinán Province, certified, on October 9, 1898, +that they had carried out the instructions for "the establishment of +the popular government in accordance with the royal decree of June 18, +1898."--P.I.R., 1188. 1. + +In October certain of Aguinaldo's adherents in Tondo wrote to him and +protested against the acts of the local presidente, who, they held, +had not been duly elected in accordance with the provisions of the +"royal order" of June 18, 1898. They closed their respectful protest +by requesting that said royal order should be obeyed.--Taylor, AJ., 63. + +In 1899 an officer of the army in Union Province wrote: "In accordance +with the orders of the secretary of war of our republican government +of these islands, issued in compliance with royal decree, article 5, +published on March 8." On September 1, 1898, the local presidente +of the town of Mangatarem, writing to the head of the province, +said that he had not furnished the estimates required because the +elections provided for in "article 7 of the royal decree of the +superior government, dated June 18 last," had not been approved. A +young son of a member of Aguinaldo's cabinet, writing to his father in +September, 1899, spoke of the "royal decree of June 18, 1898."--P.I.R., +1188. 3. In Romblon, in August, 1898, elections were held in compliance +with the prescription of the "royal decree of June 18, 1898," and +Aguinaldo approved them, apparently without considering that this +was an anomalous way of describing a decree of the dictator of the +so-called republic. On March 7, 1899, a general in the revolutionary +service stated that an officer had been released from arrest by a +"royal order." The attitude of mind which made men speak of Aguinaldo's +"royal orders" in 1898 did not change when he fled before the advance +of the United States army. His orders remained royal orders. They +were again and again referred to in this way. + +[365] P.I.R., Books C-1. + +[366] P.I.R., 1216. 1. + +[367] P.I.R., 1216. 1. + +[368] P.I.R., 223. + +[369] P.I.R. 1133. 1. + +[370] P.I.R., 1137. 4. + +[371] _Ibid.,_ R., 1165. 2. + +[372] P.I.R., 319. 1. + +[373] _Ibid.,_ 3. 33. + +[374] _Ibid.,_ 1022. 3. + +[375] P.I.R., 1200. + +[376] P.I.R., 907. 6. + +[377] P.I.R., 39. 7. + +[378] The following memorandum to accompany a letter from Señor Don +Sixto Lopez, Secretary of Señor Don Felipe Agoncillo, to the Honorable +the Secretary of State, written January 5, 1899, clearly sets forth +this claim:-- + +"Pursuant to the action of said congress a detailed system of +government has been provided for and is actually maintained in all the +portions of the Philippine Islands, except so much of the provinces of +Manila and Cavite as is now in the actual possession of the American +Army, such excepted part containing only about 3 per cent. of the +population of the entire islands and an infinitely smaller proportion +of their area. + +"From the foregoing it will appear that the Philippine government is +now, as it has been practically ever since the 16th of June, 1898, +in substantially full possession of the territory of the people it +represents."--Taylor Ex. 530 57 KU., Congressional Record, June 3, +1902, Vol. 35, part 6, p. 6217. + +[379] Blount, p. 70. + +[380] "September, 1898. + +"_Decree_ + +"Although article 11, Chapter 2, of the Organic Decree of June +23 (1898) last, prescribes that the appointment of provisional +representatives of Congress be given to persons who have been born +or have resided in the provinces which they are to represent; taking +into consideration the urgent necessity that said body enter upon +its functions immediately, I hereby decree the following:-- + +"1. The following are appointed provisional Representatives ... + +"2. A meeting of Congress is called for the 15th instant, to be held +in the town of Malolos, province of Bulacán. + +"3. The Secretary of the Interior shall take steps to notify the +persons appointed and those elected by the popular commanders in the +provinces already occupied by the Revolution, of the call as soon +as possible. + +"Giv ...." + +(Attached hereto is the following, with the names written in Mabini's +handwriting:) + +"September, 1898. + +"Provinces not subject to the Revolutionary Government of the +Philippines. + + +Names Classes +Albay Highest class 2. Salvador V. del Rosario and Felipe +Buencamino +Ilocos Norte do 2. José, Antonio Luna +Ilocos Sur do 2. Ignacio Villamor, José Aleji +Isabela de Luzón Third class 1. Aristón Bautista +Sorsogón do 1. José Albert +Cagayán do 1. Pablo Tecson + +Abra Pol.-Mil. Govt. 1. Isidro Paredes +Nueva Viscaya do 1. Enrique Mendiola +Corregidor do +Catanduanes do +Batanes do +Masbate and Ticao Pol.-Mil. 1. Alberto Barreto + Comandancia +Amburayan do +Apayaos do +Benguet do 1. Joaquín Luna +Binatanga do +Bontoc do 1. Fernando Canon +Burias do +Cayapa do +Itaves do +Lepanto do 1. León Apacible +Príncipe do 1. Mariano Ocampo +Quiangan do +Tiagan do +Cabugauan do +Island of Cebú Pol.-Mil. Govt. 2. Cayetano Arellano and + of highest Pardo de Tavera + class +Iloilo, Panay do 2. Gregorio Araneta and Melecio +Figueroa +Island of Leyte do 1. León Guerrero +Negros Occidental do 1. José María de la Viña +Island of Samar do Pablo Ocampo +Antique, + Island of Panay do 1. Hipólito Magsalin +Cápiz Lowest class 1. Miguel Zaragoza +Negros Oriental do 1. Aguedo Velarde +Island of Bohol do 1. Juan Manday Gabriel +Romblón Pol.-Mil. 1. Vicente González Maninang + Comandancia +Concepión do 1. Mariano V. del Rosario +Zamboanga 1st Dist. 1. Pedro A. Paterno + Pol.-Mil. Govt. +Misamis 2d Dist. do 1. Maximino Paterno +Surigao 3d Dist. do 1. Benito Valdés +Davao 4th Dist. do 1. Telesforo Chuidian +Cotabato 5th Dist. do 1. Enrique Mercaida +Basilan 6th Dist. do 1. Juan Tuason + +Lanao 7th Dist. do 1. Gonzalo Tuason +Dapitan Pol.-Mil. 1. Gonzalo Tuason + Comandancia +Butúan do +Barás is under Pol.-Mil. Govt. of Bahia Illana +Levac is under Pol.-Mil. Comandancia of Cottabatto +Matti Pol.-Mil. Comandancia +Malabang. This Comandancia is under the Military + Comandancia of Bahia Illana. +Reina Regente. This Comandancia is under the Pol.-Mil. + Govt. of Cottabato +Bay of Sarangani Pol.-Mil. Comandancia + and adjacent + islands +Tucuran Pol.-Mil. Govt. +Island of Joló do 1. Benito Legarda +Siassi Pol.-Mil. Com. +Tataan do +Bongao do +Island of Paragua Pol.-Mil. Govt. 1. Felipe Calderón. +Balabac do 1. Manuel Jérez +Calamianes do 1. Manuel Genato +Marianas Islands do +Oriental Carolines do +Camarines, + North and South Don Tomás del Rosario and + Don Cecilio Hilario + + +Exhibit 226, 76 MG, E, Extract from original in Spanish, A. L. S., +P.I.R., 416. 1." + +[381] P.I.R., 38. 3. + +[382] The 1903 census returns are here used for each of the several +peoples. + +[383] P.I.R., 485. 1. + +[384] P.I.R., 40. 1. + +[385] P.I.R., 377. 13. + +[386] _Ibid_., 472. 9. + +[387] _Ibid_., 40. 8. + +[388] _Ibid_., 849. See p. 143. + +[389] A general term covering education, public works, agriculture +and commerce. + +[390] P.I.R., 512. A 5. + +[391] P.I.R., 485. 5. + +[392] Senate Document 138, Fifty-sixth Congress, First Session. + +[393] P.I.R., Books B-6. + +[394] P.I.R., 472. 8. + +[395] "To the Military Chiefs of the towns mentioned in the margin + +[there is nothing in the margin.--TR.]:-- + +"As there are still many soldiers paying no notice to the order +forbidding the waste of cartridges, you are required to give a certain +amount of ammunition to each soldier and to see every day if there +is any cartridge missing, and if so, inquire into the reason. In +order that this may be successfully carried out, I have deemed it +proper to prescribe the punishment for such offence, of which you +will inform the soldiers under your command, and post this circular +in a prominent place. Said punishments are as follows:-- + +"_Art_. 1. A soldier found wasting ammunition shall be punished with 12 +lashes; in case he commits the same offence again he shall be punished +with 24 lashes; and on a further offence of like character by the +same soldier, he shall be court-martialled and severely punished. + +"_Art_. 2. A soldier who has been found short of even one cartridge out +of the ammunition assigned to him, shall be punished with 12 lashes, +provided that he has not previously been in any engagement. + +"_Art_. 3. A soldier who has been found with no cartridges by reason +of throwing them away during an engagement, shall be court-martialled, +and severely punished. + +"I most earnestly recommend you to carefully look after your soldiers +and see that every one is complying with the foregoing order. + +"This order should be transmitted from one town to another mentioned in +the margin, and the last one should return it to this office with the +information that the same has been received and complied with by all. + +"May God guard you many years. + +"_E. Aguinaldo_, Dictator. + +"_Cavite_, June 17th, 1898." + +--P.I.R., 1124. 2. + +[396] "November 16, 1900. + +(Stamp) "_Lacuna Brigade. Headquarters_. + +"_Major Thomas Tagunton_: Advise all officers of this brigade that +he who allows his soldiers to load their rifles without being before +the enemy, shall be liable to capital punishment. If the soldiers +intentionally or otherwise fire their pieces, whether in the air +or at any determined or undetermined person, said soldiers and the +officers to whose command they belong shall also be liable to the same +punishment as above, without further proceedings, for the reason that +we are almost in front of the enemy, and all the more if the shots +take effect upon any of the soldiers or chiefs. + +"Sergeants and corporals shall also take heed of the present warnings, +as they will also be given the same punishment if they by abandoning +their squads allow them to commit certain outrages. + +"You will report receipt of and compliance with this order. + +"God preserve you many years. + +"General Headquarters, November 16, 1900. + +(Signed) "_Lacuna_, General, Political-Military Governor and Chief +of Operations."--P.I.R., 643. 1. + +[397] Taylor, AJ. 85. + +[398] "_Kabatúan_, Oct. 14th, 1899. + +"_Edict_ + +"_Martín F. Delgado, General and Politico-Military Governor of the +Province of Iloílo_. + +"As a consequence of the frequent assaults and robberies committed +by persons wearing military uniforms, and with the determination to +correct, with a firm hand, such scandalous conduct, which, besides +causing such deeds to be laid at the door of the military, also +makes it easier for evil-doers to commit their misdeeds, I have, +at the suggestion of the Councillor of Police, ordered the following:-- + +"1. From this date forward all private citizens are absolutely +prohibited from wearing military uniforms. + +"2. All authorities, both civil and military, under this Government, +are obliged to see to the strict enforcements of this edict. + +"3. All persons who, not being in the military service, are, after +the publication of this edict, found wearing military uniforms, +and who cannot show that they are in the military service, will be +suspected as evil-doers and will be sent to this Government to be +subjected to the corresponding corrective measures. + +(Signed) " _Martín Delgado_, + +"_Governor-General-President_." + +--P.I.R., 881. 4. + +[399] "On April 10, 1899, General Delgado wrote that, benignity having +failed, rigorous methods would be used to enforce collections and +that if the people did not pay-- + +"'I shall, with great pain, see myself under the necessity of +withdrawing all my forces to the mountains and leaving them [the +pueblos] to the fate which God will decide upon,' which of course +meant that he would leave them to the mercy of the bandits who stood +ready to descend upon them."--P.I.R., B., 4. + +"This threat was not an idle one."--Taylor, 67 HS. E-L. + +[400] "_Santa Cruz, Laguna_, July, 1899. + +"_Hon. Sr. Emilio Aguinaldo_.... + +"There was a notorious bandit here who was the terror of the +province with his gang; I had him arrested and shot and the robberies +ceased. Murders were being committed; I had the murderers caught, shot +one of them, and there were no more murders; officers of the reserve +would consider themselves kings in their towns, they would shoot +the local _presidentes_ and commit other unlawful acts; I disarmed +them, and tried the most celebrated one, called Arcadio Castillo, +alias Bancucane, who attempted to escape and was killed. With the +death of these persons order has been completely reëstablished in +this province. Several had rifles that were used only for robbery +and after two or three trials all turned over their rifles, and the +arming of the battalion was completed. + +(Signed) "_Juan Cailles_." + +--P.I.R., 7 & 8. + +[401] "_Regional Revolutionary Government of the Visayas_. + +"_Office of the President_. + +"_Kabatúan_, March 16, 1899. + +"_To the Honourable President of the Philippine Republic_, + +"_Señor Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy_, + +"_Most Distinguished President_: + +"In order to avoid the distress which the knowledge of the abuses +which are already unbearable, daily committed by the troops of Señor +Diocno, will cause you, this government has hesitated to communicate +them to you, but, as there is almost a reign of terror here, it feels +that it must inform you of them in order to remedy them. The death +of private individuals and assaults committed in the towns are daily +reported as having been committed by the troops of General Diocno. Of +the numerous companies of Señor Diocno, only two under the orders of +General Araneta fight against the enemy, the remainder are the terror +of the town and it is a week since Sr. Diocno went to Capiz without +telling any one what he was going to do. + +"In view of the facts pointed out, the soldiers of this General +constituting a constant danger to the town, this government asks you to +order General Diocno to turn over his rifles to us to kill Americans +with and to enable the towns to recover their former tranquillity; +this government asks this of you, relying upon the well-known justice +with which you act and it wishes for you many years of life for our +liberty and our independence. + +"_Kabatúan_, March 16, 1899. + +(Signed) "_Jovito Yusay_, + +"_Temporary President._ + +(Signed) "_Francisco Soriano_, + +"_General Secretary._" + +--P.I.R., 52. 5. + +[402] "Martin Delgado y Bermejo, lieutenant general and general in +chief of the republican army of the Visayan Islands. + +"_General Headquarters of Santa Barbara_, + +"April 20, 1899. + +"The existence of a state of war, and the trying circumstances through +which the country is now passing have brought about a complete +change in the order of nearly all the pueblos; and I have noticed +with profound regret that sacking, robbery, sequestrations, and +other crimes highly dishonourable to our noble cause, are of daily +occurrence. With a view to preventing such conduct in the future, +and in order to guarantee to the inhabitants of the military district +under my command the most complete tranquillity, I hereby decree: + +"1. That any person or persons who commit acts of brigandage, +sequestration, incendiarism, rape, or other disturbances of a public +nature calculated to excite the public, or which infringe individual +or property rights, shall be severely punished in accordance with +military law. + +"2. That all offenders who present themselves to the Local or Military +Authorities within the 30 days immediately following this date, and +who turn over their arms and join our forces and help to fight other +outlaws and to defend the nation, will be pardoned for the crimes +they have committed. + +"3. That when the period of 30 days above mentioned has passed, any +person taken in the act of committing robbery, or who attempts to rob +with an organized band of outlaws, or who steals, rapes, or performs +acts of incendiarism, or any other criminal act, will be summarily +condemned to death by a military tribunal. + +"The Local Juntas of the various towns in conjunction with citizens +of standing and the military authorities will organize a vigilance +service to maintain public order and the authority of the law. + +"_M. Delgado_." + +--P.I.R., Books B 4. + +[403] "February 13, 1899. + +(In the margin: A stamp which says:) "Philippine Republic--Headquarters +of operations of the provinces of Southern Luzón. + +"It is with great regret that I have learned that robberies, assaults, +kidnapping, and other crimes which are committed only by barbarous +and savage tribes, are taking place in our towns, without taking +into consideration that the purpose of the insurrection which has +given origin to our social regeneration is true justice, for the +reëstablishment of which the lives and property are being sacrificed +of all who are proud of being called Filipinos. These acts are being +committed without restriction by civilians as well as soldiers perhaps +with the coöperation of their respective chiefs, to the shame of +the authority vested in them and to the prejudice of the society to +which they unworthily belong, and even to the integrity itself of +the Republic. And in order that these barbarous and savage acts may +disappear and that rigorous and exemplary punishment be meted out, +I have deemed it proper to forward to you for general information +the proclamation of these Headquarters of February 12th last, which +is as follows": + +(Signed) "_Mariano Trias_. + +"_Lieutenant-General_. + +"_To the Politico-Military Chief of Infanta_."--P.I.R., 896-9. + +[404] "There does not seem to have been the faintest conception that +there was any reason for not using the white flag to deceive people +who were foolish enough to believe that Aguinaldo was going to adhere +to the rules prescribed for its use. The writer in the early spring +of 1899 once watched an insurgent party advance under a white flag +upon an American line of trenches. When an officer and a bugler went +forward to receive them they threw down the flag and immediately +opened fire with the rifles which they were then seen to be dragging +behind them."--_Taylor_, 48 HS. + +[405] "Such ammunition was not effective unless fired from very +close quarters, but even its possession made the guerrillas stronger +than the people of the country and undoubtedly had much to do with +securing their coöperation, not only as bolomen but also in the +digging of the pits which were placed in the trails and also set +about the towns. These were required to be constructed by the local +authorities. In the bottom was set a sharp spike of bamboo, sometimes +poisoned; and the pit was covered with leaves and soil upon a fragile +framework; so that if a man stood upon it he would fall through upon +the spike. Bows were set in the jungle with a string set across the +trail so that any one stumbling over it would discharge a sharp bamboo +shaft with a poisoned head. On September 18, 1900, Lukban congratulated +the people of the town of Katubig upon the efficient use they had made +of arrows with the heads dipped in 'dita,' a native poison. (P.I.R., +502. 8.)" + +--_Taylor_, 83 HS. + +[406] See also the chapter entitled "Murder as a Governmental +Institution." + +[407] See p. 313. + +[408] The following newspaper supplement printed in Tagálog for the +benefit of the common people, is typical of this class of literature, +with which the country was kept flooded: + +(Circular printed in Tagálog. P.I.R., 17-6. Supplement to _Heraldo +Filipino_. + +"Friday, 24th February, 1899. + +"_Countrymen_: + +"We must consider ourselves fortunate that the bad intentions of +North America were found out early. If we had not found them out by +this time we should have been entrapped. And we should thank God that +they commenced the war. + +"You ought to know by this time that these people can teach us +nothing good. What we can learn from them is all evil. You must +admit the truth of what they are reported to do to our brothers in +Manila where they rob the houses when the dwellers in them are out +or busy. Their evil inclinations prevail over them to such an extent +that the houses most worthy of consideration are not safe. They are +worse than the wild people who live in the woods, they have not the +slightest idea of looking at things from the point of view of a man +of honour nor have they the slightest respect for reason, for this +does not control their actions in the least. Without the slightest +attention to civility they rush into houses and if they find the +people eating, without saying a word, they take what they want from +the table, put it into their mouths and go as they came. + +"If they find people sleeping or resting, taking the siesta, it makes +no difference to them; they go into the most private parts of the +house as though they were walking in the street. + +"In the shops they take what pleases them and if the owner wants +payment they threaten him with their rifles. + +"One can hardly believe and my pen refuses to write all of the +perversity, and evil and bad habits of these people. + +"Their habits and manners are a disgrace to the country where they +were born. In no history have such customs and manners been described +even in that of the most ignorant people. + +"They search women who pass, feeling all over their bodies, taking +from them money and whatever else they carry and if they come on them +in a lonely place they strip them naked after violating them and do +not leave a rag on them. + +"Are these those honest men of whom we have heard? Are these the +people who were going to teach us good habits? Are these the people who +were going to guide us? The race which does these things is the most +hated one in the world, it is the race which commits most cruelties, +it is the race which does not treat its mother with respect; in this +race there is not the slightest idea of personal dignity, it is a +race which does not know what honour is, which does not possess the +slightest vestige of regard for good manners. Are these the people +who are going to protect us? It is better for us to die at once than +fall into the power of these unequalled malefactors. + +"¡Down with the bad men! + +"¡Kill the Americans!! + +"¡Let the people of the United States be exterminated!!! + +"¡Notice.--This sheet is distributed gratis." + +[409] "A light upon the treatment of women by these people is given +by the fact that after an American detachment had captured Lukban's +papers and family on August 18, and came so close to taking him that +he was able to recognize their guide, one of his correspondents wrote +to him that to their surprise the women, who had fully expected to +be abused, had been treated with respect and given a house to live +in. (P.I.R., 1143.4.)"--_Taylor_, 84 HS. + +[410] In a letter to General Ambrosio Moxica from ------ dated March 2, +1900, occurs the following:-- + +"The guerillas quartered in the neighbourhood must render mutual +assistance and keep up communication, so as to get the news as to where +the enemy comes or goes, and the time at which they will pass certain +points, endeavouring also to arrange that all the guerilla bands should +have regular couriers, with you or with general headquarters, giving +advice daily of any occurrence and carrying correspondence. They must +select trustworthy women to carry correspondence, charging them to +hide the letters underneath their skirts, bearing in mind that the +Americans do not search them; and in sending to the towns for arms +or food, the orders must be sent by women and for small quantities, +so as not to attract attention."--P.I.R., 2035. 3. + +[411] Simeon Villa, who accompanied Aguinaldo on his long flight, +kept a somewhat detailed account of events in the form of a diary. + +[412] P.I.R., 869. + +[413] _Ibid._ + +[414] P.I.R., 2035. 3. + +[415] P.I.R., 886. 13. + +[416] Exhibit 1233 + +(Original in Spanish. Contemporary copy. P.I.R., Books B. 4.) + +"_General Headquarters, Santa Barbara_, Feb. 28th, 1899." + +(Literal copy of telegram.) + +"Casualties, Americans, on 6th, 2000 Colonels dead, one General; +all churches converted into hospitals full American wounded; total +American casualties 7000 confirmed by General Fullón just arrived +from Malolos; says also Iloílo quiet and not taken. + +"A true copy + +"By order of Chief of Staff. + +"_Juan Beloso_." + +[417] (Supplement to the _Filipino Herald_.) + +"Thursday, Feb. 23rd, 1899.--4 P.M. + +"The Filipino Army occupies the suburbs of Manila. + +"The three columns commanded by Generals Pío del Pilar and Licerio +and Col. Hizon now occupy the suburbs of Sampaloc, San Miguel, San +Sebastian, Binondo, San Nicholas and Tondo. + +"The Cavite battalion has possession of the Cuartel de Meisic and +our flag is now flying there. + +"_Six Thousand Americans Besieged!!!_ + +"The American troops now in Caloocan and La Loma to the number of over +six thousand are besieged by the columns commanded by Generals Luna, +Llanera and García. + +"_The Honourable President_ + +"This very moment the special train carrying the Honourable President +has left for Caloocan. + +"Viva the independent Philippines!!! + +"Viva the unconquerable Philippine Army!!! + +"Notice. This sheet is distributed gratis."--P.I.R., 70-6. + +[418] (News.) The American General, MacArthur, with his entire staff, +was taken prisoner by our troops in Northern Luzón. Another American +general died on the 5th of January last in the North, who was seriously +wounded in an ambush or fight. When shot he was a colonel, but on +account of said fight he was promoted to the rank of a general, so that +later when he died, he had the benefit of that rank."--P.I.R., 2035. 3. + +[419] (Telegrams) + +"_Washington_, January 15, 1900, 10 A.M. + +"(Received, Cebú, January 16, 1900, 11 A.M.) + +"Owing to a new disaster of the Union Army, MacKinley has tendered +his resignation as President, Mr. Bryan succeeding him. + +"Peace promulgated in the Philippines. Basis of the protectorate is +being discussed. + +"Philippine independence will be proclaimed February the 4th. + +"Remark.--The basis of a protectorate has been published in +English." + +"_Manila_, January 20, 1900, 10 A.M. + +"(Received at Cebú on the same day, at 11 A.M.) + +"Otis' successor, John Waterly, of the democratic party, has just +arrived. He brings with him papers and instructions in regard to +proclamation of the Philippine Republic. + +"It is believed that Rev. Martin, Bishop of Cebú, will be transferred +to the Archbishopric of Manila, and Rev. Nozaleda to Spain."--P.I.R., +Books B-10. + +[420] P.I.R., 1193. 2. + +[421] _Ibid.,_ 2025. + +[422] Taylor, 47 HS. + +[423] Beginning on page 730. + +[424] Taylor, 36 GV, Exhibit 1017. + +[425] Taylor, 28 HS. + +[426] P.I.R., 1021.6. + +[427] Unhusked rice. + +[428] Village. + +[429] 153, according to Blount himself. + +[430] "Nor can the ultimate responsibility before the bar of history +for the awful fact that, according to the United States Coast and +Geodetic Survey Atlas of the Philippines of 1899, the population of +Batangas province was 312,192, and according to the American Census +of the Philippines of 1903, it was 257,715, rest entirely on military +shoulders."--Blount, pp. 383-384. + +[431] Blount, p. 597. + +[432] See Chapters XI and XII. + +[433] Taylor, 13 KK, E. + +[434] Taylor, 15 and 16 KK, E. + +[435] "Pope" Isio was the last of a series of bandit leaders, claiming +for themselves miraculous powers, who long infested the mountains +of Negros. + +[436] P.I.R., 970. 7. + +[437] P.I.R., 1134-1. + +[438] P.I.R., 17. 9. + +[439] For the full text of these instructions, see appendix. + +[440] "Mr. McKinley sent Mr. Taft out, in the spring preceding +the election of 1900, to help General MacArthur run the +war."--_Blount_. The Taft Commission was sent out, to 'aid' +General MacArthur, as the Schurman Commission had 'aided' General +Otis."--Blount. + +[441] "In February, 1899, the dogs of war being already let loose, +President McKinley had resumed his now wholly impossible Benevolent +Assimilation programme, by sending out the Schurman Commission, +which was the prototype of the Taft Commission, to yearningly +explain our intentions to the insurgents, and to make clear to them +how unqualifiedly benevolent those intentions were. The scheme was +like trying to put salt on a bird's tail after you have flushed +him."--Blount. + +[442] P.I.R., 1300. 2. + +[443] A brand of whiskey then much in use. + +[444] For the text of this document see the Appendix, p. 977. + +[445] In view of the alleged attitude of General Otis toward the work +of the Commission, the following statement by him as to the effect +of this proclamation is of interest:-- + +General Otis said: "It was unanimously decided to print, publish, +post, and disseminate as much as possible among the inhabitants under +insurgent domination this address, printing the same in the English, +Spanish, and Tagálog languages. This was done, but scarcely had it been +posted in Manila twenty-four hours before it was so torn and mutilated +as to be unrecognizable. It suffered the same fate as the proclamation +of January 4, set out in pages 113 and 114 of this report, but it +produced a marked beneficial influence on the people, especially those +outside our lines, as it carried with it a conviction of the United +States' intentions, on account of the source from which it emanated, +it being an expression from a committee of gentlemen especially +appointed to proclaim the policy which the United States would pursue." + +--_Taylor_, 90 AJ. + +Taylor adds: "The commander of one of the regiments of sandatahan in +Manila reported that he had forced the people of the city to destroy +the proclamations issued by the commission (P.I.R., 73. 9). As he +found this necessary, the action of the people could hardly have +reflected their real feelings in the matter." + +[446] Taylor, 96 AJ. + +[447] _Ibid._ + +[448] Taylor, 97 AJ. + +[449] Taylor, 97 AJ. + +[450] _Ibid._ + +[451] Nominally they were named by Aguinaldo. + +[452] Report of the Philippine Commission to the President, Vol. I, +1900, p. 9. + +[453] Now chief justice of the Philippine Supreme Court. + +[454] Blount, p. 235. + +[455] Blount, p. 105. + +[456] Report Philippine Commission, Vol. I, p. 183. + +[457] P. 981. + +[458] September 15, 1913. + +[459] The building where the executive offices of the insular +government have been located since the American occupation. + +[460] Taylor, 18 HS. + +[461] This name is applied to certain provinces organized +under special acts because the majority of their inhabitants are +non-Christians. + +[462] Tayabas, Romblon, Masbate, Iloilo, Antique, Capiz, Cebú, Bohol, +Occidental Negros, Oriental Negros, Leyte, Albay, Ambos, Camarines, +Sorsogon, Marinduque, Batangas, Surigao, and Misamis. + +[463] Obviously a misprint, perhaps, for "perusal of." + +[464] Blount, p. 380. + +[465] For further details see pp. 746; 753. + +[466] A native surf boat. + +[467] See Chapters XXI-XXIV. + +[468] Chap. XV. + +[469] Chap. XIV. + +[470] Chap. XVI. + +[471] Chap. XVII. + +[472] Chap. XVIII. + +[473] See Chapter XIX. + +[474] Chap. XXX. + +[475] Chap. XXX. + +[476] Chap. XXXI. + +[477] Chap. XXXII. + +[478] Chapter XXVII. + +[479] Chapters XIV, XXII, XXIII and XXIV. + +[480] Reply to Jones, Pamphlet, Manila, 1913. + +[481] See pp. 375-77. + +[482] See pp. 357-77. + +[483] Under the new regime these figures have been reversed. + +[484] See Chapters XX-XXIV. + +[485] "The merit system has received renewed support from President +Roosevelt in his administration, and by the extension of civil +service throughout the nation, as well as in our new possessions. The +Philippine service is reported to be very satisfactory, and efforts +are being made for the extension and larger development of regulations +in Porto Rico." + +[486] "From the President down, every official charged with a +duty touching the government of our dependencies is imbued with a +profound sense of duty, and adequate realization of the situation +and the imperative necessity of an unselfish, patriotic execution of +the laws and regulations in the interest of the highest welfare of +the inhabitants of the dependencies. With this state of affairs, the +establishment of the merit system in them on an enduring basis should +follow as a matter of course. It will be the aim of this Committee to +aid in every possible way in extending and improving the system, and +to that end to give to the whole subject careful and detailed study." + +[487] No data for 1906 available. + +[488] Eight passed last year. + +[489] He now receives $9000. + +[490] Male servant. + +[491] Two weeks at Christmas and ten weeks in April, May and June. + +[492] Blount, p. 425. + +[493] Blount, p.430. + +[494] Native dugouts. + +[495] See p. 998. + +[496] Female servant. + +[497] Men appointed to assist the judge in deciding questions of +fact. Their decision is not binding on him. + +[498] Here [_i.e._ in me] you have a new servant. + +[499] Malaria. + +[500] A strong alcoholic drink commonly made by diluting low-grade +alcohol with water and flavouring it. + +[501] There was one stray case in March. + +[502] "To the Editor of El Soberanía Nacional, Manila, P.I. + +"_Sir_: In your issue of the 7th of July there appeared a paragraph +embodying a shameful libel of the administration of the San Lazaro +Hospital, which reads as follows: + +"'_Un cuadro verdaderamente aterrador es el que prezenta el patio del +Hospital de San Lazaro. Los fallecidos por la enfermedad del colera, +son expuestos desnudos en el atrio de dicho Hospital con un cartel +atado en los pies con la inscripción de sus respectivos nombres._' + +"This statement was so grossly and ridiculously false and at the same +time so extremely harmful in its effect as to bring you fairly and +squarely within the reach of the law. + +"Yesterday morning I sent you a courteous letter requesting you to +come to my office, purposing to discuss the affair with you in a +friendly manner, and hoping to find that the statement referred to +had been prepared by some irresponsible subordinate and published +through oversight. + +"As, however, you have neither acceded to my request for a conference +nor had the courtesy to reply to my letter, I now have the honour +to forward you herewith a communication which embodies a reply to +the false statement above referred to and at the same time conveys +information as to what is actually being done at the San Lazaro +Hospital. I request that you give this letter immediate publicity +through your paper, and in the editorial columns or elsewhere in +some conspicuous place retract immediately and fully the libellous +statement relative to the exposure of the dead, above referred to. + +"Kindly advise me of your intention in the matter. The bearer of +this communication has instructions to wait for your reply. I shall +interpret failure to hear from you by return messenger as refusal +to retract this slander and to publish the enclosed communication, +and shall act accordingly. + +"Very respectfully, + +"Dean C. Worcester, + +"_Secretary of the Interior._" + +[503] Just before I left Manila in October, 1913, cholera reappeared +there. + +[504] Sept. 15, 1913. + +[505] The first organization of American physicians in the Philippines +was the Manila Medical Association, from which the Philippine Island +Medical Association ultimately developed. + +[506] Now a major-general. + +[507] About 28.7 miles. + +[508] May 1, 1913. + +[509] Captain Meade. + +[510] He had the volunteer rank of colonel, but was a major in the +regular army. + +[511] Report of the Philippine Commission, Part 1, 1903, p. 58. + +[512] May 1, 1913. + +[513] April 15, 1913. + +[514] May 1, 1913. + +[515] This rate, for the fiscal year 1913, was 3.33 per thousand for +Filipinos and 2.49 per thousand for Americans. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippines: Past and Present +(Volume 1 of 2), by Dean Conant Worcester + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILIPPINES V.1/2 *** + +***** This file should be named 12077-8.txt or 12077-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/0/7/12077/ + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project +Gutenberg. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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