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diff --git a/12077-h/12077-h.htm b/12077-h/12077-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a6040b --- /dev/null +++ b/12077-h/12077-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,23109 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> +<!-- This HTML file has been automatically generated from an XML source on 2013-01-27T06:25:29Z. --> +<html lang="en-us"> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content= +"HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 25 March 2009), see www.w3.org"> +<title>The Philippines: Past and Present (Volume 1 of 2)</title> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<meta name="generator" content= +"tei2html.xsl, see http://code.google.com/p/tei2html/"> +<meta name="author" content="Dean Conant Worcester (1866–1924)"> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg"> +<link rel="schema.DC" href= +"http://dublincore.org/documents/1998/09/dces/"> +<meta name="DC.Creator" content= +"Dean Conant Worcester (1866–1924)"> +<meta name="DC.Title" content= +"The Philippines: Past and Present (Volume 1 of 2)"> +<meta name="DC.Date" content="2004-04-01"> +<meta name="DC.Language" content="en-us"> +<meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html"> +<meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Project Gutenberg"> +<meta name="DC.Rights" content= +"This book is not copyrighted in the United States. If you live elsewhere please check the laws of your country before downloading this book."> +<meta name="DC.Identifier" content= +"http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12077"> +<meta name="DC:Subject" content="Philippines -- History -- 1898-1946"> +<meta name="DC:Subject" content="Philippines"> +<style type="text/css"> +body +{ +font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, serif; +font-size: 100%; +line-height: 1.2em; +margin: 1.58em 16%; +text-align: left; +} +/* Titlepage */ +.titlePage +{ +border: #DDDDDD 2px solid; +margin: 3em 0% 7em 0%; +padding: 5em 10% 6em 10%; +text-align: center; +} +.titlePage .docTitle +{ +line-height: 3.5em; +margin: 2em 0% 2em 0%; +font-weight: bold; +} +.titlePage .docTitle .mainTitle +{ +font-size: 1.8em; +} +.titlePage .docTitle .subTitle, .titlePage .docTitle .seriesTitle, .titlePage .docTitle .volumeTitle +{ +font-size: 1.44em; +} +.titlePage .byline +{ +margin: 2em 0% 2em 0%; +font-size:1.2em; +line-height:1.72em; +} +.titlePage .byline .docAuthor +{ +font-size: 1.2em; 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+} +.xd21e9482width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e9604width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e9829width +{ +width:549px; +} +.xd21e10083width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e10175width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e10367width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e10470width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e10613width +{ +width:544px; +} +.xd21e10721width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e10895width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11001width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11108width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11166width +{ +width:458px; +} +.xd21e11239width +{ +width:500px; +} +.xd21e11325width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11444width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11515width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11590width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11824width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e11927width +{ +width:720px; +} +.xd21e12012width +{ +width:313px; +} +.xd21e12019width +{ +width:480px; +} +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12077 ***</div> + +<div class="front"> +<div class="div1 cover"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first"></p> +<div class="figure xd21e166width"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt= +"Original Front Cover." width="494" height="720"></div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div1 frenchtitle"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first xd21e171">The Philippines Past and Present <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e173" href="#xd21e173" name= +"xd21e173">ii</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div1 frontispiece"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first"></p> +<div class="figure xd21e176width" id="p001"><img src="images/p001.jpg" +alt="Peace and Prosperity." width="720" height="424"> +<p class="figureHead">Peace and Prosperity.</p> +<p class="first">This chance photograph showing General Emilio +Aguinaldo as he is to-day, standing with Director of Education Frank L. +Crone, beside a field of corn raised by Emilio Aguinaldo, Jr., in a +school contest, typifies the peace, prosperity, and enlightenment which +have been brought about in the Philippine Islands under American +rule.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e182" href="#xd21e182" name= +"xd21e182">iii</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div1 titlepage"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first"></p> +<div class="figure xd21e185width"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt= +"Original Title Page." width="448" height="720"></div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="titlePage"> +<div class="docTitle"> +<div class="mainTitle">The Philippines Past and Present</div> +</div> +<div class="byline">By<br> +<span class="docAuthor">Dean C. Worcester</span><br> +Secretary of the Interior of the Philippine Islands +1901–1913;<br> +Member of the Philippine Commission, 1900–1913<br> +Author of “The Philippine Islands and Their People”</div> +<div class="docImprint">In Two Volumes — With 128 Plates<br> +Volume I<br> +New York<br> +The Macmillan Company<br> +1914<br> +<i>All rights reserved</i></div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e221" href="#xd21e221" name= +"xd21e221">v</a>]</span></p> +<div id="toc" class="div1 contents"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="main">Contents</h2> +<h2 class="sub">Vol. I</h2> +<table class="tocList"> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">Page</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">I.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch01" id="xd21e238" name= +"xd21e238">View Point and Subject-Matter</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">II.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch02" id="xd21e247" name= +"xd21e247">Was Independence Promised?</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">18</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">III.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch03" id="xd21e256" name= +"xd21e256">Insurgent “Coöperation”</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">67</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">IV.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch04" id="xd21e265" name= +"xd21e265">The Premeditated Insurgent Attack</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">127</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">V.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch05" id="xd21e274" name= +"xd21e274">Insurgent Rule and the Wilcox-Sargent Report</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">152</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">VI.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch06" id="xd21e283" name= +"xd21e283">Insurgent Rule in the Cagayan Valley</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">170</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">VII.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch07" id="xd21e292" name= +"xd21e292">Insurgent Rule in the Visayas and Elsewhere</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">206</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">VIII.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch08" id="xd21e301" name= +"xd21e301">Did We Destroy a Republic?</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">242</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">IX.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch09" id="xd21e310" name= +"xd21e310">The Conduct of the War</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">270</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">X.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch10" id="xd21e319" name= +"xd21e319">Mr. Bryan and Independence</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">295</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XI.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch11" id="xd21e329" name= +"xd21e329">The First Philippine Commission</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">301</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XII.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch12" id="xd21e338" name= +"xd21e338">The Establishment of Civil Government</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">325</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XIII.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch13" id="xd21e347" name= +"xd21e347">The Philippine Civil Service</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">360</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XIV.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch14" id="xd21e356" name= +"xd21e356">The Constabulary and Public Order</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">378</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XV.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch15" id="xd21e365" name= +"xd21e365">The Administration of Justice</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">400</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XVI.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch16" id="xd21e374" name= +"xd21e374">Health Conditions</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">408</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XVII.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch17" id="xd21e383" name= +"xd21e383">Baguio and the Benguet Road</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">449</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tocDivNum">XVIII.</td> +<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#ch18" id="xd21e392" name= +"xd21e392">The Coördination of Scientific Work</a></td> +<td class="tocPageNum">488</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e397" href="#xd21e397" name= +"xd21e397">vii</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div1 contents"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="main">List of Illustrations</h2> +<h2 class="sub">Vol. I</h2> +<ul> +<li><a href="#p001">Peace and Prosperity</a> +<span class="tocPageNum"><i>Frontispiece</i></span></li> +<li><a href="#p002">Fort San Antonio Abad, showing the Effect of the +Fire from Dewey’s Fleet</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">6</span></li> +<li><a href="#p003">Felipe Buencamino</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">14</span></li> +<li><a href="#p004">The San Juan Bridge</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">20</span></li> +<li><a href="#p005">Insurgent Prisoners</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">28</span></li> +<li><a href="#p006">Typical Insurgent Trenches</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">36</span></li> +<li><a href="#p007">Inside View of Insurgent Trenches at the Bagbag +River</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">42</span></li> +<li><a href="#p008">General Henry W. Lawton</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">50</span></li> +<li><a href="#p009">Feeding Filipino Refugees</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">58</span></li> +<li><a href="#p010">The First Philippine Commission</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">64</span></li> +<li><a href="#p011">The Second Philippine Commission</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">72</span></li> +<li><a href="#p012">The Return of Mr. Taft</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">80</span></li> +<li><a href="#p013">Governor-general James F. Smith with a Bontoc +Igorot Escort</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">88</span></li> +<li><a href="#p014">Governor-general Forbes in the Wild Man’s +Country</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">96</span></li> +<li><a href="#p015">The Philippine Supreme Court</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">104</span></li> +<li><a href="#p016-1">An Unsanitary Well</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">112</span></li> +<li><a href="#p016-2">A Flowing Artesian Well</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">112</span></li> +<li><a href="#p017">An Unimproved Street in the Filipino Quarter of +Manila</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">120</span></li> +<li><a href="#p018">An Improved Street in the Filipino Quarter of +Manila</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">128</span></li> +<li><a href="#p019">Disinfecting by the Acre</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">136</span></li> +<li><a href="#p020">An Old-style Provincial Jail</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">144</span></li> +<li><a href="#p021">Retreat at Bilibid Prison, Manila</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">154</span></li> +<li><a href="#p022">Bilibid Prison Hospital</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">160</span></li> +<li><a href="#p023">Modern Contagious Disease Ward, San Lazaro +Hospital</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">168</span></li> +<li><a href="#p024">Filipina Trained Nurses</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">176</span></li> +<li><a href="#p025">Staff of the Bontoc Hospital</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">184</span></li> +<li><a href="#p026">A Victim of Yaws before and after Treatment with +Salvarsan</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">192</span></li> +<li><a href="#p027">The Culion Leper Colony</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">200</span></li> +<li><a href="#p028">Building the Benguet Road</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">208</span></li> +<li><a href="#p029">Freight Autos on the Benguet Road</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">216</span></li> +<li><a href="#p030">The Famous Zig-zag on the Benguet Road</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">224</span></li> +<li><a href="#p031">A Typical Baguio Road</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">232</span><span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e599" href="#xd21e599" name="xd21e599">viii</a>]</span></li> +<li><a href="#p032">One of the First Benguet Government Cottages</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">240</span></li> +<li><a href="#p033">Typical Cottages at Baguio</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">248</span></li> +<li><a href="#p034">A Baguio Home</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">256</span></li> +<li><a href="#p035">The Baguio Hospital</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">264</span></li> +<li><a href="#p036">Government Centre at Baguio</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">272</span></li> +<li><a href="#p037">A Scene in the Baguio Teachers’ Camp</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">280</span></li> +<li><a href="#p038">The Baguio Country Club</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">286</span></li> +<li><a href="#p039">The Bureau of Science Building, Manila</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">306</span></li> +<li><a href="#p040">The Philippine General Hospital</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">314</span></li> +<li><a href="#p041">The College of Medicine and Surgery, Manila</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">322</span></li> +<li><a href="#p042">An Old-style Schoolhouse, with Teachers and +Pupils</a> <span class= +"tocPageNum">330</span></li> +<li><a href="#p043">A Modern Primary School Building</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">338</span></li> +<li><a href="#p044-1">Old-style Central School Building</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">346</span></li> +<li><a href="#p044-2">Modern Central School Building</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">346</span></li> +<li><a href="#p045">Typical Scene in a Trade School</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">354</span></li> +<li><a href="#p046">An Embroidery Class</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">362</span></li> +<li><a href="#p047">Philippine Embroidery</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">370</span></li> +<li><a href="#p048">Filipino Trained Nurses</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">380</span></li> +<li><a href="#p049">A School Athletic Team</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">386</span></li> +<li><a href="#p050">Filipina Girls playing Basket-ball</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">394</span></li> +<li><a href="#p051">University Hall, Manila</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">402</span></li> +<li><a href="#p052">Bakídan</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">410</span></li> +<li><a href="#p053">In Hostile Country</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">418</span></li> +<li><a href="#p054">Travel under Difficulties</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">426</span></li> +<li><a href="#p055">Dangerous Navigation</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">434</span></li> +<li><a href="#p056">A Negrito Family and their “House”</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">442</span></li> +<li><a href="#p057">A Typical Negrito</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">446</span></li> +<li><a href="#p058">Typical Kalingas</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">452</span></li> +<li><a href="#p059">Settling a Head-hunting Feud</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">458</span></li> +<li><a href="#p060">Entertaining the Kalingas</a> + <span class="tocPageNum">464</span></li> +<li><a href="#p061">An Ifugao Family</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">470</span></li> +<li><a href="#p062">Ifugao Dancers</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">478</span></li> +<li><a href="#p063">An Ifugao Dancer</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">484</span></li> +<li><a href="#p064">Ifugao Rice Terraces</a> +<span class="tocPageNum">492</span></li> +</ul> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e807" href="#xd21e807" name= +"xd21e807">1</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="body"> +<div id="ch01" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e238">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="super">The Philippines Past and Present</h2> +<h2 class="label">Chapter I</h2> +<h2 class="main">View Point and Subject-Matter</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">It is customary in Latin countries for a would-be +author or orator to endeavour, at the beginning of his book or his +speech, to establish his status. Possibly I have become partially +Latinized as the result of some eighteen years of residence in the +Philippines. At all events it is my purpose to state at the outset +facts which will tend to make clear my view point and at the same time +briefly to outline the subject-matter which I hereinafter discuss.</p> +<p>As a boy I went through several of the successive stages of +collector’s fever from which the young commonly suffer. First it +was postage stamps; then birds’ nests, obtained during the winter +season when no longer of use to their builders. Later I was allowed to +collect eggs, and finally the birds themselves. At one time my great +ambition was to become a taxidermist. My family did not actively oppose +this desire but suggested that a few preliminary years in school and +college might prove useful.</p> +<p>I eventually lost my ambition to be a taxidermist but did not lose +my interest in zoölogy and botany. While a student at the +University of Michigan I specialized in these subjects. I was fortunate +in having as one of my instructors Professor Joseph B. Steere, then at +the head of the Department of Zoölogy. Professor Steere, who had +been a great traveller, at times entertained his classes <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e822" href="#xd21e822" name= +"xd21e822">2</a>]</span>with wonderfully interesting tales of adventure +on the Amazon and in the Andes, Peru, Formosa, the Philippines and the +Dutch Moluccas. My ambition was fired by his stories and when in the +spring of 1886 he announced his intention of returning to the +Philippines the following year to take up and prosecute anew +zoölogical work which he had begun there in 1874, offering to take +with him a limited number of his students who were to have the benefit +of his knowledge of Spanish and of his wide experience as a traveller +and collector, and were in turn to allow him to work up their +collections after their return to the United States, I made up my mind +to go.</p> +<p>I was then endeavouring to get through the University on an +allowance of $375 per year and was in consequence not overburdened with +surplus funds. I however managed to get my life insured for $1500 and +to borrow $1200 on the policy, and with this rather limited sum upon +which to draw purchased an outfit for a year’s collecting and +sailed with Doctor Steere for Manila. Two other young Americans +accompanied him. One of these, Doctor Frank S. Bourns, was like myself +afterwards destined to play a part in Philippine affairs which was not +then dreamed of by either of us.</p> +<p>We spent approximately a year in the islands. Unfortunately we had +neglected to provide ourselves with proper official credentials and as +a result we had some embarrassing experiences. We were arrested by +suspicious Spanish officials shortly after our arrival and were tried +on trumped-up charges. On several subsequent occasions we narrowly +escaped arrest and imprisonment.</p> +<p>The unfriendly attitude of certain of our Spanish acquaintances was +hardly to be wondered at. They could not believe that sensible, +civilized human beings would shoot tiny birds, pay for eggs the size of +the tip of one’s little finger more than hens’ eggs were +worth, undergo not a few hardships and run many risks while living in +the simplest of native houses on very inadequate food, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e830" href="#xd21e830" name= +"xd21e830">3</a>]</span>unless actuated by some hidden purpose. At +different times they suspected us of looking for gold deposits, of +designing to stir up trouble among the natives, or of being political +spies.</p> +<p>When Doctor Bourns came back with the American troops in 1908 and I +returned as a member of the first Philippine Commission in 1909, this +last supposition became a fixed belief with many of our former Spanish +acquaintances who still remained in the islands, and they frankly +expressed their regret that they had not shot us while they had the +chance.</p> +<p>Over against certain unpleasant experiences with those who could not +understand us or our work I must set much kind and invaluable +assistance rendered by others who could, and did.</p> +<p>All in all we spent a most interesting year, visiting eighteen of +the more important islands.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e839src" href= +"#xd21e839" name="xd21e839src">1</a></p> +<p>Throughout this trip we lived in very close contact with the +Filipinos, either occupying the <i>tribunales</i>, the municipal +buildings of their towns, where they felt at liberty to call and +observe us at all hours of the day and night, or actually living in +their houses, which in some instances were not vacated by the owners +during our occupancy.</p> +<p>Incidentally we saw something of several of the wild tribes, +including the Tagbanuas of Palawan, the Moros of Joló, Basilan +and Mindanao, and the Mangyans of Mindoro.</p> +<p>We experienced many very real hardships, ran not a few serious risks +and ended our sojourn with six weeks of fever and starvation in the +interior of Mindoro. While we would not have cut short our appointed +stay by a day, we were nevertheless delighted when we could turn our +faces homeward, and Doctor Bourns and I agreed <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e851" href="#xd21e851" name= +"xd21e851">4</a>]</span>that we had had quite enough of life in the +Philippines.</p> +<p>Upon my arrival at my home in Vermont a competent physician told my +family that I might not live a week. I however recuperated so rapidly +that I was able to return to the University of Michigan that fall and +to complete the work of my senior year. I became a member of the +teaching staff of the institution before my graduation.</p> +<p>Little as I suspected it at the time, the tropics had fixed their +strangely firm grip on me during that fateful first trip to the Far +East which was destined to modify my whole subsequent life. I had +firmly believed that if fortunate enough to get home I should have +sense enough to stay there, but before six months had elapsed I was +finding life at Ann Arbor, Michigan, decidedly prosaic, and longing to +return to the Philippines and finish a piece of zoölogical work +which I knew was as yet only begun.</p> +<p>Doctor Bourns, like myself, was eager to go back, and we set out to +raise $10,000 to pay the expenses of a two-years collecting tour, in +the course of which we hoped to visit regions not hitherto penetrated +by any zoölogist.</p> +<p>Times were then getting hard, and good Doctor Angell, the president +of the university, thought it a great joke that two young fellows like +ourselves should attempt to raise so considerable a sum to be spent +largely for our own benefit. Whenever he met me on the street he used +to ask whether we had obtained that $10,000 yet, and then shake with +laughter. One of the great satisfactions of my life came when, on a +beautiful May morning in 1890, I was able to answer his inquiry in the +affirmative.</p> +<p>He fairly staggered with amazement, but promptly recovering himself +warmly congratulated me, and with that kindly interest which he has +always shown in the affairs of young men, asked how he could help us. +Through his kindly offices and the intervention of the State Department +we were able to obtain a royal order from the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e863" href="#xd21e863" name= +"xd21e863">5</a>]</span>Spanish government which assured us a very +different reception on our return to the Philippines in August from +that which had been accorded us on the occasion of our first visit to +the islands.</p> +<p>There was now revealed to us a pleasing side of Spanish character +which we had largely missed during our first visit. Satisfied as to our +identity and as to the motives which actuated us, the Spanish +officials, practically without exception, did everything in their power +to assist us and to render our sojourn pleasant and profitable. Our +mail was delivered to us at points fifty miles distant from provincial +capitals. When our remittances failed to reach us on time, as they not +infrequently did, money was loaned to us freely without security. +Troops were urged upon us for our protection when we desired to +penetrate regions considered to be dangerous. Our Spanish friends +constantly offered us the hospitality of their homes and with many of +them the offer was more than <i>pro forma</i>. Indeed, in several +instances it was insisted upon so strongly that we accepted it, to our +great pleasure and profit.</p> +<p>Officials were quite frank in discussing before us the affairs of +their several provinces, and we gained a very clear insight into +existing political methods and conditions.</p> +<p>During this trip we lived in even closer contact with the +Filipino<a class="noteref" id="xd21e875src" href="#xd21e875" name= +"xd21e875src">2</a> population than on the occasion of our first visit. +Our rapidly growing knowledge of Spanish, and of Visayan, one of the +more important native dialects, rendered it increasingly easy for us to +communicate with them, gain their confidence and learn to look at +things <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e878" href="#xd21e878" name= +"xd21e878">6</a>]</span>from their view point. They talked with us most +frankly and fully about their political troubles.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e881width" id="p002"><img src="images/p002.jpg" +alt= +"Fort San Antonio Abad, showing the Effect of the Fire from Dewey’s Fleet" +width="720" height="426"> +<p class="figureHead">Fort San Antonio Abad, showing the Effect of the +Fire from Dewey’s Fleet</p> +<p class="first">This fort, which marked the southern and western end +of the Spaninsh line of defences around the city of Manila, was +bombarded by the United States Fleet as a preliminary to the successful +assault of August 13, 1898, on the city. The photograph, although not +taken until March, 1899, gives some idea of the havoc wrought by the +shells which struck the outer wall. The chief damage was done when they +exploded within the fort.</p> +</div> +<p>During this our second sojourn in the Philippines, which lengthened +to two years and six months, we revisited the islands with which we had +become more or less familiar on our first trip and added six others to +the list.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e889src" href="#xd21e889" name= +"xd21e889src">3</a> We lived for a time among the wild Bukidnons and +Negritos of the Negros mountains.</p> +<p>After my companion had gone to Borneo I had the misfortune to +contract typhoid fever when alone in Busuanga, and being ignorant of +the nature of the malady from which I was suffering, kept on my feet +until I could no longer stand, with the natural result that I came +uncommonly near paying for my foolishness with my life, and have ever +since suffered from resulting physical disabilities. When able to +travel, I left the islands upon the urgent recommendation of my +physician, feeling that the task which had led me to return there was +almost accomplished and sure that my wanderings in the Far East were +over.</p> +<p>Shortly after my return to the United States I was offered a +position as a member of the zoölogical staff of the University of +Michigan, accepted it, received speedy promotion, and hoped and +expected to end my days as a college professor.</p> +<p>In 1898 the prospect of war with Spain awakened old memories. I +fancy that the knowledge then possessed by the average American citizen +relative to the Philippines was fairly well typified by that of a good +old lady at my Vermont birthplace who had spanked me when I was a small +boy, and who, after my first return from the Philippine Islands, said +to me, “Deanie, are them Philippians you have been a +visitin’ the people that Paul wrote the Epistle to?”</p> +<p>I endeavoured to do my part toward dispelling this ignorance. My +knowledge of Philippine affairs led me <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e900" href="#xd21e900" name="xd21e900">7</a>]</span>strongly to +favour armed intervention in Cuba, where similar political conditions +seemed to prevail to a considerable extent, and I fear that I was +considered by many of my university colleagues something of a +“jingo.” Indeed, a member of the University Board of +Regents said that I ought to be compelled to enlist. As a matter of +fact, compulsion would have been quite unnecessary had it not been for +physical disability.</p> +<p>My life-long friend and former travelling companion, Doctor Bourns, +was not similarly hampered. He promptly joined the army as a medical +officer with the rank of major, and sailed for the islands on the +second steamer which carried United States troops there. As a natural +result of his familiarity with Spanish and his wide acquaintanceship +among the Filipinos, he was ordered from the outset to devote his time +more largely to political matters than to the practice of his +profession. He did all that he could to prevent misunderstandings +between Filipinos and Americans. He assisted as an interpreter at the +negotiations for the surrender of Manila on August 13, 1898, after +taking part in the attack on the city. Later he was given the rather +difficult task of suppressing a bad outbreak of smallpox among the +Spanish prisoners of war, which he performed with great success. He was +finally made chief health officer of Manila, although he continued to +devote himself largely to political matters, got numberless deserving +Filipinos out of trouble, and rapidly increased his already wide circle +of Filipino friends. Through his letters I was kept quite closely in +touch with the situation.</p> +<p>Meanwhile I decided that the Philippines were not for me, asked for +and obtained leave for study in Europe, and in December 1898 set out +for New York to engage passage for myself and my family. I went by way +of Washington in order to communicate to President McKinley certain +facts relative to the Philippine situation which it seemed to me ought +to be brought to his attention. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e906" +href="#xd21e906" name="xd21e906">8</a>]</span></p> +<p>I believed that there was serious danger of an outbreak of +hostilities between Filipinos and Americans, and that such a +catastrophe, resulting from mutual misunderstanding, might be avoided +if seasonable action were taken. I have since learned how wrong was +this latter belief. My previous experience had been almost exclusively +with the Visayans and the wild tribes, and the revolution against the +United States was at the outset a strictly Tagálog affair, and +hence beyond my ken.</p> +<p>President McKinley very kindly gave me all the time I wanted, +displayed a most earnest desire to learn the truth, and showed the +deepest and most friendly interest in the Filipinos. Let no man believe +that then or later he had the slightest idea of bringing about the +exploitation of their country. On the contrary, he evinced a most +earnest desire to learn what was best for them and then to do it if it +lay within his power.</p> +<p>To my amazement, at the end of our interview he asked me whether I +would be willing to go to the islands as his personal +representative.</p> +<p>I could not immediately decide to make such a radical change in my +plans as this would involve, and asked for a week’s time to think +the matter over, which was granted. I decided to go.</p> +<p>Meanwhile, the President had evolved the idea of sending out a +commission and asked me if I would serve on it. I told him that I would +and left for my home to make preparations for an early departure. A few +days later he announced the names of the commissioners. They were Jacob +Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University; Major-General Elwell +S. Otis, then the ranking army officer in the Philippines; Rear-Admiral +George Dewey, then in command of the United States fleet in Philippine +waters; Colonel Charles Denby, who had for fourteen years served as +United States Minister to China, and myself.</p> +<p>Colonel Denby was delayed in Washington by public <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e920" href="#xd21e920" name= +"xd21e920">9</a>]</span>business. Mr. Schurman and I reached Yokohama +on the morning of February 13, and on arrival there learned, to our +deep regret, that hostilities had broken out on the fourth instant. We +reached Manila on the evening of March 4, but Colonel Denby was unable +to join us until April 2. Meanwhile, as we could not begin our work in +his absence, I had an exceptional opportunity to observe conditions in +the field, of which I availed myself.</p> +<p>I served with the first Philippine Commission until it had completed +its work, and was then appointed to the second Philippine Commission +without a day’s break in my period of service.</p> +<p>The members of this latter body were William H. Taft of Ohio; Luke +E. Wright of Tennessee; Henry C. Ide of Vermont; Bernard Moses of +California, and myself. Briefly stated, the task before us was to +establish civil government in the Philippine Islands. After a period of +ninety days, to be spent in observation, the commission was to become +the legislative body, while executive power continued to be vested for +a time in the military.</p> +<p>This condition endured until the 4th of July, 1901, on which day Mr. +Taft was appointed civil governor. On September 1, 1901, each of the +remaining original members of the commission became an executive +officer as well. Mr. Wright was appointed secretary of commerce and +police; Mr. Ide, secretary of finance and justice; Mr. Moses, secretary +of public instruction, and I myself, Secretary of the Interior. On the +same day three Filipino members were added to the commission: Dr. T. H. +Pardo de Tavera, Sr. Benito Legarda and Sr. José R. de +Luzuriaga.</p> +<p>Until the 16th of October, 1907, the Commission continued to serve +as the sole legislative body. It is at the present time the upper house +of the Philippine Legislature, the Philippine Assembly, composed of +eighty-one elective members, constituting the lower house. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e930" href="#xd21e930" name= +"xd21e930">10</a>]</span></p> +<p>I have therefore had a hand in the enactment of all legislation put +in force in the Philippine Islands since the American occupation, with +the exception of certain laws passed during my few and brief +absences.</p> +<p>As secretary of the interior it fell to my lot to organize and +direct the operations of a Bureau of Health, a Bureau of Govermnent +Laboratories, a Bureau of Forestry, a Bureau of Public Lands, a Bureau +of Agriculture, a Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes, a Mining Bureau and a +Weather Bureau. Ultimately, the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes and the +Mining Bureau were incorporated with the Bureau of Government +Laboratories to form the Bureau of Science, which continued under my +executive control. The Bureau of Agriculture was transferred to the +Department of Public Instruction in 1909.</p> +<p>I was at the outset given administrative control of all matters +pertaining to the non-Christian tribes, which constitute, roughly +speaking, an eighth of the population of the Philippines, and until my +resignation retained such control throughout the islands, except in the +Moro Province, which at an early day was put directly under the +governor-general.</p> +<p>I participated in the organization of civil government in the +several provinces of the archipelago, and myself drafted the Municipal +Code for the government of the towns inhabited by Filipinos, as well as +the Special Provincial Government Act and the Township Government Act +for that of the provinces and settlements inhabited chiefly by the +non-Christian tribes.</p> +<p>At the outset we did not so much as know with certainty the names of +the several wild and savage tribes inhabiting the more remote and +inaccessible portions of the archipelago. As I was unable to obtain +reliable information concerning them on which to base legislation for +their control and uplifting, I proceeded to get such information for +myself by visiting their territory, much of which was then quite +unexplored. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e942" href="#xd21e942" +name="xd21e942">11</a>]</span></p> +<p>After this territory was organized into five so-called +“Special Government Provinces,” some of my Filipino +friends, I fear not moved solely by anxiety for the public good, +favoured and secured a legislative enactment which made it my official +duty to visit and inspect these provinces at least once during each +fiscal year. I shall always feel indebted to them for giving me this +opportunity to become intimately acquainted with some of the most +interesting, most progressive, and potentially most important peoples +of the Philippines.</p> +<p>When in 1901 I received the news that a central government was soon +to be established, I was in the Sub-province of Lepanto on my first +trip through the wilder and less-known portions of northern Luzon. +During each succeeding year I have spent from two to four months in +travel through the archipelago, familiarizing myself at first hand with +local conditions.</p> +<p>I have frequently taken with me on these inspection trips +representatives of the Bureaus of Forestry, Agriculture, Science and +Health to carry on practical investigations, and have made it my +business to visit and explore little known and unknown regions. There +are very few islands worthy of the name which it has not been my +privilege to visit.</p> +<p>The organization of an effective campaign against diseases like +bubonic plague, smallpox, Asiatic cholera and leprosy in a country +where no similar work had ever previously been undertaken, inhabited by +people profoundly ignorant of the benefits to be derived from modern +methods of sanitation, and superstitious to a degree, promptly brought +me into violent conflict with the beliefs and prejudices of a large +portion of the Filipino population.</p> +<p>A similar result followed the inauguration of an active campaign for +the suppression of surra, foot and mouth disease, and rinderpest, which +were rapidly destroying the horses and cattle. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e953" href="#xd21e953" name= +"xd21e953">12</a>]</span></p> +<p>From the outset I was held responsible for the enforcement of marine +and land quarantine regulations, which were at first very obnoxious to +the general public.</p> +<p>When the Pure Food and Drugs Act adopted by Congress for the United +States was made applicable to the Philippines without any provision for +its enforcement, this not altogether pleasant duty was assigned to +me.</p> +<p>I did not seek appointment to the Philippine service in the first +instance. The political influence at my command has never extended +beyond my own vote. During a period of twelve years my removal was +loudly and frequently demanded, yet I saw President Schurman, Colonel +Denby, General Otis, Admiral Dewey, Commissioner Moses, Governor Taft, +Governor Wright, Governor Ide, Governor Smith, Secretary Shuster, +Commissioner Tavera, Commissioner Legarda and Governor Forbes, all my +colleagues on one or the other of the Philippine commissions, leave the +service, before my own voluntary retirement on September 15, 1913.</p> +<p>I had long expected a request for my resignation at any time, and +had often wished that it might come. Indeed I once before tendered it +voluntarily, only to have President Taft say that he thought I should +withdraw it, which I did. I am absolutely without political ambition +save an earnest desire to earn the political epitaph, “He did +what he could.”</p> +<p>During my brief and infrequent visits to the United States I have +discovered there widespread and radical misapprehension as to +conditions in the Philippines, but have failed to find that lack of +interest in them which is commonly said to exist. On the contrary, I +have found the American public keenly desirous of getting at the real +facts whenever there was an opportunity to do so.</p> +<p>The extraordinary extent to which untrue statements have been +accepted at their face value has surprised and deeply disturbed me. I +have conversed with three college presidents, each of whom believed +that the current <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e967" href= +"#xd21e967" name="xd21e967">13</a>]</span>expenses of the Philippine +government were paid from the United States Treasury.</p> +<p>The preponderance of false and misleading statements about the +Philippines is due, it seems to me, primarily to the fact that it is +those persons with whom the climate disagrees and who in consequence +are invalided home, and those who are separated from the service in the +interest of the public good, who return to the United States and get an +audience there; while those who successfully adapt themselves to local +conditions, display interest in their work and become proficient in it, +remain in the islands for long periods during which they are too busy, +and too far from home, to make themselves heard.</p> +<p>Incidentally it must be remembered that if such persons do attempt +to set forth facts which years of practical experience have taught +them, they are promptly accused of endeavouring to save their own bread +and butter by seeking to perpetuate conditions which insure them fat +jobs.</p> +<p>When I think of the splendid men who have uncomplainingly laid down +their lives in the military and in the civil service of their country +in these islands, and of the larger number who have given freely of +their best years to unselfish, efficient work for others, this charge +fills me with indignation.</p> +<p>The only thing that kept me in the Philippine service for so long a +time was my interest in the work for the non-Christian tribes and my +fear that while my successor was gaining knowledge concerning it which +can be had only through experience, matters might temporarily go to the +bad. It has been my ambition to bring this work to such a point that it +would move on, for a time at least, by its own momentum.</p> +<p>I am now setting forth my views relative to the past and present +situation in the islands because I believe that their inhabitants are +confronted by a danger graver than any which they have before faced +since the time <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e979" href="#xd21e979" +name="xd21e979">14</a>]</span>when their fate wavered in the balance, +while the question whether the United States should acquire sovereignty +over them or should allow Spain to continue to rule them was under +consideration.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e982width" id="p003"><img src="images/p003.jpg" +alt="Felipe Buencamino" width="452" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead">Felipe Buencamino</p> +<p class="first">Perhaps the most prolific writer on political subjects +whom the Philippines have produced. He was at one time a member of +Aguinaldo’s cabinet and accompanied Aguinaldo’s mother and +son when they surrendered in order to obtain American protection.</p> +</div> +<p>It is my purpose to tell the plain, hard truth regardless of the +effect of such conduct upon my future career. It has been alleged that +my views on Philippine problems were coloured by a desire to retain my +official position. Nothing could be further from the truth. Indeed, no +man who has not served for long and sometimes very weary years as a +public official, and has not been a target for numerous more or less +irresponsible individuals whose hands were filled with mud and who were +actuated by a fixed desire to throw it at something, can appreciate as +keenly as I do the manifold blessings which attend the life of a +private citizen.</p> +<p>I trust that I have said enough to make clear my view point, and now +a word as to subject-matter. It is my intention to correct some of the +very numerous misstatements which have been made concerning past and +present conditions in the Philippines. I shall quote, from time to +time, such statements, both verbal and written, and more especially +some of those which have recently appeared in a book entitled +“The American Occupation of the Philippines, +1898–1912,” by James H. Blount, who signs himself +“Officer of the United States Volunteers in the Philippines, +1899–1901; United States District Judge in the Philippines, +1901–1905.”</p> +<p>Judge Blount has indulged so freely in obvious hyperbole, and has +made so very evident the bitter personal animosities which inspire many +of his statements, that it has been a genuine surprise to his former +associates and acquaintances that his book has been taken +seriously.</p> +<p>It should be sufficiently evident to any unprejudiced reader that in +writing it he has played the part of the special pleader rather than +that of the historian. He has used government records freely, and as is +usually the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e997" href="#xd21e997" +name="xd21e997">15</a>]</span>case when a special pleader quotes from +such records, the nature of the matter which he has omitted is worthy +of more than passing attention. I shall hope to be able to fill some of +the gaps that he has left in the documentary history of the events +which he discusses and by so doing, very materially to change its +purport.</p> +<p>As public documents have been so misused, and as a new +administration is bestowing on Filipinos political offices, and giving +them opportunities, for which they are as yet utterly unprepared, thus +endangering the results of years of hard, patient, self-sacrificing +work performed by experienced and competent men, it becomes necessary +to strike home by revealing unpleasant facts which are of record but +have not heretofore been disclosed because of the injury to reputations +and the wounding of feelings which would result from their publication. +In doing this I feel that I am only discharging a duty to the people of +the United States, who are entitled to know the truth if the present +possibility of Philippine independence is to be seriously considered, +and to the several Filipino peoples who are to-day in danger of rushing +headlong to their own utter and final destruction.</p> +<p>At the outset I shall discuss the oft-asserted claim that the +Filipino leaders were deceived and betrayed by American officials whom +they assisted, and that this unpardonable conduct led to the outbreak +of active hostilities which occurred just prior to the arrival at +Manila of the first Philippine Commission.</p> +<p>I shall then show that these leaders never established a government +which adequately protected life and property, or gave to their people +peace, happiness or justice, but on the contrary inaugurated a +veritable reign of terror under which murder became a governmental +institution, while rape, inhuman torture, burying alive and other +ghastly crimes were of common occurrence, and usually went unpunished. +The data which I use in establishing these contentions are for the most +part taken directly <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1005" href= +"#xd21e1005" name="xd21e1005">16</a>]</span>from the Insurgent records, +in referring to which I employ the war department abbreviation +“P.I.R.” followed by a number.</p> +<p>I next take up some of the more important subsequent historical +events, describing the work of the first Philippine Commission, and +showing in what manner the government established by the second +Philippine Commission has discharged its stewardship, subsequently +discussing certain as yet unsolved problems which confront the present +government, such as that presented by the existence of slavery and +peonage, and that of the non-Christian tribes. For the benefit of those +who, like Judge Blount, consider the Philippines “a vast straggly +archipelago of jungle-covered islands in the south seas which have been +a nuisance to every government that ever owned them,” I give some +facts as to the islands, their climate, their natural resources and +their commercial possibilities, and close by setting forth my views as +to the present ability of the civilized Cagayans, Ilocanos, Pampangans, +Zambals, Pangasináns, Tagálogs, Bicols and Visayans, +commonly and correctly called <i>Filipinos</i>, to establish, or to +maintain when established, a stable government throughout Filipino +territory, to say nothing of bringing under just and effective control, +and of protecting and civilizing, the people of some twenty-seven +non-Christian tribes which constitute an eighth of the population, and +occupy approximately half of the territory, of the Philippine +Islands.</p> +<p>I wish here to acknowledge my very great indebtedness to Major J. R. +M. Taylor, who has translated and compiled the Insurgent<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e1014src" href="#xd21e1014" name="xd21e1014src">4</a> +records, thereby making available a very large mass of reliable and +most valuable information without which a number of chapters of this +book would have remained unwritten. Surely no man who bases his +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1017" href="#xd21e1017" name= +"xd21e1017">17</a>]</span>statements concerning Filipino rule on the +facts set forth in these records can be accused of deriving his +information from hostile or prejudiced sources.</p> +<p>Of them, Major Taylor says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“No one reading the Insurgent records can fail +to be impressed with the difference between the Spanish and the +Tagálog documents. Many of the former are doubtless written with +a view to their coming into the hands of the Americans, or with +deliberate purpose to have them do so, and are framed accordingly. All +Tagálog documents, intended only for Filipinos, say much that is +not said in the Spanish documents. The orders of the Dictator<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e1024src" href="#xd21e1024" name="xd21e1024src">5</a> +to his subjects were conveyed in the latter series of +documents.”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1028" href="#xd21e1028" name= +"xd21e1028">18</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e839" href="#xd21e839src" name="xd21e839">1</a></span> Cuyo, +Palawan, Balabac, Cagayan de Joló, Joló proper, Basilan, +Mindanao, Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Siquijor, Cebu, Bohol, Samar, Leyte, +Masbate, Marinduque and Mindoro.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e875" href="#xd21e875src" name="xd21e875">2</a></span> I employ +the noun Filipinos to designate collectively the eight civilized, +Christianized peoples, called respectively the Cagayans, Ilocanos, +Pangasináns, Zambalans, Pampangans, Tagálogs, Bicols and +Visayans, or any of them; the adjective Filipino to designate anything +pertaining to these peoples, or any of them; the noun Philippines to +designate the country, and the adjective Philippine to designate +anything pertaining to the country as distinguished from its +people.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e889" href="#xd21e889src" name="xd21e889">3</a></span> Busuanga, +Culion, Tawi Tawi, Tablas, Romblon and Sibuyan.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1014" href="#xd21e1014src" name="xd21e1014">4</a></span> I use +the word “Insurgents” as a proper noun, to designate the +Filipinos who took up arms against the United States, hence capitalize +it, and the adjective derived from it.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1024" href="#xd21e1024src" name="xd21e1024">5</a></span> General +Aguinaldo.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch02" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e247">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter II</h2> +<h2 class="main">Was Independence Promised?</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">It has long been the fashion in certain quarters to +allege, or to insinuate, that American consuls and naval officers +promised the Insurgent leaders that the independence of the Philippines +would be recognized by the United States. It has been claimed by some +that the coöperation of the Insurgents in the military operations +against Manila was sought for and secured. Others say that they were at +least <i>de facto</i> allies of the United States, and that they were +in the end shamelessly betrayed and wantonly attacked.</p> +<p>These are very serious charges. I shall prove, chiefly by the +Insurgent records, that each of them is false. I ask the forbearance of +my readers if, in the three chapters which I devote to these matters, I +quote documentary evidence at length. When original documents or +extracts from them tell a clear and reasonably concise story, I +sometimes insert them bodily in the text. In other cases I give my own +version of the facts which they set forth, but give the full text in +foot-notes. In nearly all instances references are given to sources of +documentary information. I greatly regret that Taylor’s +narrative, with its very numerous supporting documents, is not readily +accessible to the student of history. It ought to have been published, +but never got beyond the galley-proof stage. In referring to it, I am +therefore obliged to use the word Taylor followed by the letters and +figures designating the page of this galley proof on which the passage +referred to is found. Whenever possible I give <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1041" href="#xd21e1041" name= +"xd21e1041">19</a>]</span>the War Department numbers<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e1043src" href="#xd21e1043" name="xd21e1043src">1</a> of +Insurgent documents, but in a few cases can give only the exhibit +numbers assigned by Taylor in printing the documents.</p> +<p>As his exhibits are serially arranged it is easy to find any one of +them. Copies of his work may be found in the War Department and in the +office of the Chief of the Philippine Constabulary.</p> +<p>Referring to the charge that the Insurgents were deceived, even had +deceit been practised as claimed, Aguinaldo would have had no just +ground for complaint, for he himself not only frankly advocated its +use, but deliberately employed it in his dealings with the Americans, +as clearly appears in records hereinafter cited.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1050src" href="#xd21e1050" name="xd21e1050src">2</a> However, +most Americans hold to a standard very different from his. Was it +departed from in this instance?</p> +<p>Aguinaldo has specifically and repeatedly charged that Pratt and +Dewey promised him the recognition of the independence of the +Philippines by the United States.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1055src" +href="#xd21e1055" name="xd21e1055src">3</a></p> +<p>Judge Blount has referred to the “<i>de facto</i> alliance +between the Americans and Aguinaldo,” and has dwelt at length on +“promises, both expressed and implied,” which were +subsequently repudiated by Consul Pratt, Admiral Dewey and Generals +Anderson and Merritt, constantly suggesting, even when he does not +specifically charge, bad faith on the part of these officers of the +United States.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1063src" href="#xd21e1063" +name="xd21e1063src">4</a></p> +<div class="figure xd21e1067width" id="p004"><img src="images/p004.jpg" +alt="The San Juan Bridge" width="720" height="431"> +<p class="figureHead">The San Juan Bridge</p> +<p class="first">This bridge is the one near which the first shot was +fired when hostilities began between Americans and Filipinos.</p> +</div> +<p>On analyzing his statements we find that he is discreetly +non-committal as to exactly what were the expressed promises, nor does +he make it so plain as might be desired what legitimate inferences were +deducible from the acts of the Americans in question. He quotes +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1075" href="#xd21e1075" name= +"xd21e1075">20</a>]</span>an alleged statement of General Anderson to +the effect that:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Whether Admiral Dewey and Consuls Pratt, +Wildman,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1080src" href="#xd21e1080" name= +"xd21e1080src">5</a> and Williams<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1083src" +href="#xd21e1083" name="xd21e1083src">6</a> did or did not give +Aguinaldo assurances that a Philippino government would be recognized, +the Phillippinos certainly thought so, judging from their acts rather +than from their words. Admiral Dewey gave them arms and ammunition, as +I did subsequently at his request.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1086src" href="#xd21e1086" name="xd21e1086src">7</a></p> +</div> +<p>Before discussing these charges I will briefly review certain +historical facts, knowledge of which will be useful in considering +them.</p> +<p>In August, 1896, an insurrection against Spain had broken out in the +Philippines under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, a resident of +Cavite Viejo, who had been a school teacher, and was, at that time, +<i>gobernadorcillo</i><a class="noteref" id="xd21e1096src" href= +"#xd21e1096" name="xd21e1096src">8</a> of his town.</p> +<p>It had been terminated by the so-called “Treaty of +Biacnabató,” signed in Manila on December 15, 1897.</p> +<p>This document provided for the surrender of “Don Emilio +Aguinaldo, Supreme Chief of the Insurgents in arms,” and Don +Marciano Llanera and Don Baldomero Aguinaldo, his subordinates, +together with their soldiers and arms.</p> +<p>“The Excellent Señor General in Chief” of the +Spanish forces was to “provide the necessary means for supporting +the lives” of those who surrendered before a certain fixed +date.</p> +<p>In actual practice what was done was to agree to pay them +$800,000<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1110src" href="#xd21e1110" name= +"xd21e1110src">9</a> in three instalments, the first of $400,000, the +second and third of $200,000 each.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo and certain other leaders were to take up <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1115" href="#xd21e1115" name= +"xd21e1115">21</a>]</span>their residence outside the islands. Their +deportation was duly provided for, and Aguinaldo and twenty-six of his +companions were taken to Hongkong, on the Spanish steamer +<i>Uranus</i>; arriving there on December 31, 1897.</p> +<p>On January 2, 1898, $400,000 were deposited in the Hongkong Bank, to +the credit of Aguinaldo and Co.</p> +<p>The Insurgent leaders remaining at Biacnabató had a meeting +under the presidency of Isabelo Artacho, an Ilocano<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e1124src" href="#xd21e1124" name="xd21e1124src">10</a> who was +the ranking officer in the absence of Aguinaldo, and requested that the +second instalment, of $200,000, be paid to them. The Spanish +governor-general, Primo de Rivera, acceded to their request, and they +divided the money, although Aguinaldo denied their right to do so, +claiming that it should have been sent to Hongkong.</p> +<p>The third payment of $200,000 was apparently never made. Primo de +Rivera says that he turned over a check for $200,000 to his successor, +General Augustin, in April, 1898; giving as his reason for refusing to +pay it to the Insurgents that there seemed to him to be no prospect of +its being equitably divided among those who were entitled to receive it +under the agreement.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo and his associates claimed that certain reforms were +promised by the Spanish government at the time the treaty of +Biacnabató was negotiated, and as these measures were not put +into effect, they organized a junta or revolutionary committee at +Hongkong. It included in its membership a number of Filipino political +exiles, then residing at that place.</p> +<p>The men who composed this organization soon fell to quarrelling and +it became necessary to come to a definite understanding as to its aims. +Under the arrangement finally reached, the junta, as a whole, was +charged with the work of propaganda outside of the archipelago; with +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1133" href="#xd21e1133" name= +"xd21e1133">22</a>]</span>all diplomatic negotiations with foreign +governments; and with the preparation and shipment of such articles as +were needed to carry on the revolution in the Philippines. It was to be +allowed voice by Aguinaldo’s government in any serious question +which might arise abroad, and would aid that government in bringing the +civil administration of the Philippines to the level of that of the +most advanced nations.</p> +<p>Trouble soon arose among the former Insurgent leaders over the +division of the funds deposited at Hongkong.</p> +<p>Taylor gives a trustworthy and concise account of the events of this +period, and as it is of historic interest, and makes clear just how +Aguinaldo came to go to Singapore, meet Pratt, and enter into +negotiations with him, I quote extensive extracts from it.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e1140src" href="#xd21e1140" name= +"xd21e1140src">11</a></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“From January 4 to April 4, Aguinaldo withdrew +from the banks 5786.46 pesos in part interest on the money he had +deposited. This was used to pay the expenses of himself and his +companions in Hongkong. These expenses were kept at a minimum; the +money was drawn and spent by him. If one of the men with him needed a +new pair of shoes, Aguinaldo paid for them; if another wanted a new +coat, Aguinaldo bought it. Minute accounts were kept, which are on file +among his papers, and it is seen from them that his expenses were +exceeding his income, which could only be 12,000 pesos a year, while he +was living at the rate of 22,000, with constant demands being made upon +him by men who came from the Philippines. Life was not easy under these +conditions. Aguinaldo’s companions were entirely dependent upon +him. Their most trivial expenses had to be approved by him, and he held +them down with a strong hand. They were men living in a strange land, +among a people whose language they did not speak, having nothing to do +but quarrel among themselves, exiles waiting for a chance to return to +their own country, which they watched with weary eyes while they +guarded the embers by which they hoped to light the fires of a new +insurrection. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1146" href= +"#xd21e1146" name="xd21e1146">23</a>]</span></p> +<p>“The men who had accompanied Aguinaldo to Hongkong were not +the only Filipinos domiciled there; a number of men had taken refuge in +that British colony after the events of 1872, and some of them at least +had prospered. Some of them, like the members of the Cortes family, +seem to have had almost no relations with the followers of Aguinaldo; +some, like J. M. Basa, knew them and took part in some of the meetings +of the governing groups, but were probably not admitted to their full +confidence, as Aguinaldo and his immediate following wanted and were +working for independence and independence alone, while the Filipinos +who had long lived in Hongkong wanted to see the archipelago lost to +Spain, but had no confidence in the ability of the country to stand +alone or in the fitness of Aguinaldo and his following to direct the +councils of a state. The character of the new refugees did not inspire +confidence in these older men, who hoped for a protectorate by or +annexation to the United States.</p> +<p>“On May 6, 1898, the consul-general of the United States there +informed the State Department that D. Cortés, M. Cortés, +A. Rosario, Gracio Gonzaga, and José Maria Basa (50), all very +wealthy land-owners, bankers, and lawyers of Manila, desired to tender +their allegiance and the allegiance of their powerful families in +Manila to the United States, and that they had instructed all their +connections to render every aid to the United States forces in Manila. +On May 14 he forwarded statements of other Filipinos domiciled in +Hongkong, not members of the junta, that they desired to submit their +allegiance and the allegiance of their families in the Philippine +Islands to the United States. One of Aguinaldo’s followers, +writing somewhat later, spoke with bitterness of the rich old men who +went about calling their companions ‘beggarly rebels,’ but +these men were rich, and their names and their apparent adhesion to the +cause represented by Aguinaldo would inspire confidence in him among +men of property in the Philippines. They were, accordingly, not to be +lightly alienated; therefore, at first, at least, no open break took +place with them, but their attitude toward the leaders of the +insurrection is shown by the fact that after the early summer of 1898 +they took no, or very little, part in the insurgent movement, although +they were living in Hongkong, the seat of the junta, which conducted +the propaganda for the insurgent government of the Philippines.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“But, in fact, Aguinaldo had no just conception of the +conditions and of the opportunities which were about to open before +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1155" href="#xd21e1155" name= +"xd21e1155">24</a>]</span>the Hongkong junta, for although war between +Spain and the United States was imminent and a United States squadron +was in Hongkong threatening Manila, Aguinaldo was chiefly concerned in +finding how to avoid losing the money which had been received from the +Spanish government as the price of his surrender. The importance of his +presence near the Philippines in case of war did not occur to him, or +if it did occur to him anything which he could obtain there from the +aid of the United States probably seemed for the moment of little +consequence compared with escaping from his wrangling companions with +enough money to live on in Paris.</p> +<p>“Artacho, who had received 5000 pesos as his share of the +second payment, arrived in Hongkong and on April 5 demanded 200,000 +pesos of the insurgent funds, probably under the agreement that he +should establish a company in Hongkong for the benefit of the former +leaders and not merely of those who had accompanied Aguinaldo. But the +leaders in Hongkong had denounced that agreement, and refused to pay. +He then entered suit before the supreme court of Hongkong, calling upon +Aguinaldo for an accounting of the trust funds deposited in his hands +for the benefit of Artacho and others, and asked for an injunction +restraining Aguinaldo or any member of the junta from handling or +disposing of any part of said funds. He filed as evidence copies of the +Biacnabató agreement and of the agreement made by the leaders on +December 19. This suit was brought not merely in the name of Artacho, +but in that of all the exiles who were described as living in exile in +Hongkong in accordance with an agreement made with the Spanish +Government. Artacho probably had adherents among these men, some at +least of whom were utterly weary of waiting in Hongkong and of living +upon what was doled out to them. Some at least saw no chance of any +other fate than indefinite exile spent in dependence upon the inner +group for even the means of existence.</p> +<p>“The suit was in equity, and called for an accounting for the +trust funds which the complainant recognized were legally in the hands +of Aguinaldo. It could be carried on only with great difficulty without +his presence and without his account books. Meetings were held, and +Artacho was denounced as attempting to extort blackmail, but he refused +to yield, and Aguinaldo, rather than explain the inner workings of the +Hongkong junta before a British court, prepared for flight. A summons +was issued for his appearance before the supreme court of Hongkong on +April 13, 1898, but he was by that time beyond its jurisdiction. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1161" href="#xd21e1161" name= +"xd21e1161">25</a>]</span></p> +<p>“He drew out the 50,000 pesos from the Chartered Bank, which +had become due according to the terms of the deposit, and perhaps such +other sums as could be drawn upon by check, engaged passage for Europe +by way of Singapore for G. H. del Pilar, J. M. Leyba, and himself under +assumed names, appointed V. Belarmino to succeed to his functions, and +gave him checks signed in blank to draw the interest of the sums on +deposit to provide for the support of the exiles. He gave as his reason +for departure that he was going to remain under cover until Artacho +could be bought off, but he intended to go far afield for this purpose, +as he gave his destination as Europe and the United States.</p> +<p>“Aguinaldo and his companions probably sailed from Hongkong on +April 8, 1898, and arrived in Singapore on April 21, after stopping in +Saigon. War between the United States and Spain had been rendered +inevitable by the resolution of Congress demanding that Spain should +withdraw her forces from Cuba, and was declared on April 21. Although +Aguinaldo and his followers did not appreciate the influence which +conditions on the other side of the world might have upon the future of +the Philippines, it happened that in Singapore at that time there was +an Englishman named Bray who did. He had been a member of the civil +service in India, and had lived for some years in the Philippines, but +he had fallen upon evil days and was engaged in writing letters to the +Singapore <i>Free Press</i> upon the Philippines, and in retailing such +information as was in his possession concerning them to the United +States consul-general in Singapore, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, for +transmittal to Commodore Dewey. Bray heard of the arrival of Aguinaldo +and realized what could be done with him, and that if the matter were +well handled it might be to his own advantage. He went at once to see +Aguinaldo and informed him that the United States consul-general was +anxious to see him. He went to the consul-general and informed him of +the importance of Aguinaldo, and that he was in Singapore. Aguinaldo +had to be persuaded to agree to a meeting. The consul-general was +anxious for it, and it took place, according to Aguinaldo, on the night +of April 22 (according to Pratt, on the morning of April 24). The +statement made by Aguinaldo is probably correct. According to his +account book, he paid $11 on April 23, 1898, for a telegram to the +Hongkong junta concerning the negotiations ‘with +America.’</p> +<p>“Aguinaldo knew but little English, Pratt knew no Spanish, so +in their interview Bray acted as interpreter. An interpreter who is +interested in the subject of the discussion may be a <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1171" href="#xd21e1171" name= +"xd21e1171">26</a>]</span>dangerous man. It is impossible to say what +he told Aguinaldo. Certainly Pratt did not know; but whatever was said +during these conversations it is within the limits of possibility that +Pratt may have been made to say by the interpreter more than he +intended, and that his statements of what would probably be granted by +the United States Government and his expression of good wishes for the +cause of Filipino independence may have been translated as assurances +and as promises. Bray, who, according to his Filipino former friends, +was apt to talk too much, may have talked too much on this occasion, +and so the myth of the formal agreement between Aguinaldo on behalf of +the Filipino insurgents and Pratt on behalf of the United States grew +up, a fiction which Bray himself, with a natural desire to add to his +own importance, did his best to circulate.</p> +<p>“Bray did not ask for his reward at the time, but probably +reckoned upon making himself indispensable as an adviser, so that later +he could make his own terms. For a time he wrote letters of advice to +Aguinaldo, which may have had some influence upon the line of conduct +which he adopted, and later was employed in furnishing from Hongkong +news to various newspapers of events and conditions in the Philippines. +His cablegrams shortly before the outbreak of hostilities between the +United States and the insurgents were more picturesque than veracious, +but they were apparently considered effective, as Aguinaldo ordered +that he should be given $5000. He wanted more, but the Hongkong junta +did not trust him, and he ceased to be in their +employment.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1175src" href= +"#xd21e1175" name="xd21e1175src">12</a></p> +</div> +<p>As we shall see, Bray did not do all of the interpreting at +Singapore, and we shall be able to determine with some accuracy what +actually transpired there.</p> +<p>We can now consider understandingly the charges made against Pratt +and Dewey.</p> +<p>It has been claimed over and over again, that Pratt promised +Aguinaldo recognition of tile independence of the Philippines if he and +his people would cooperate with the United States forces against +Spain.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo himself made the charge in his “Reseña +Verídica”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1186src" href= +"#xd21e1186" name="xd21e1186src">13</a> in the following words:— +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1192" href="#xd21e1192" name= +"xd21e1192">27</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In this interview Consul Pratt told me that +because the Spaniards had not complied with the agreement of +Biac-na-bató, the Filipinos had a right to renew their +interrupted revolution and advised me to take up arms anew against +Spain, assuring me that America would give the Filipinos the greatest +advantages (mayores ventajas). Then I asked the Consul what advantages +the United States would concede to the Philippines, suggesting, when I +had the proper opening, the propriety of making an agreement in +writing, to which the Consul answered that he would report, by +telegraph, on the subject to Mr. Dewey, who was the chief of the +expedition against the Philippines, and who had ample powers from +President McKinley.</p> +<p>“On the following day, between 10 and 12 in the morning, we +again took up the matter, Consul Pratt saying that the admiral had +answered my inquiry by saying that the United States would at least +recognize the independence of the Philippine government under a naval +protectorate, but that there was no necessity to put it in writing, as +the words of the admiral and the American consul were sacred and would +be fulfilled, not being like those of the Spaniards, and finally, that +the Government of North America was a very honourable Government, a +very just and very powerful one.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1198src" href="#xd21e1198" name="xd21e1198src">14</a></p> +</div> +<p>On April 27, 1908, Pratt telegraphed the Secretary of State as +follows: —</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first"></p> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1 telegram"> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">“General Aguinaldo gone my instance Hongkong +arrange with Dewey coöperation insurgents Manila.</p> +<div class="signed">“<span class="sc">Pratt</span>.”</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<p>On the 28th he wrote the Secretary, explaining how he had come to +meet Aguinaldo, and stating just what he had done. He said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“At this interview, after learning from General +Aguinaldo the state of an object sought to be obtained by the present +insurrectionary movement, which, though absent from the Philippines, he +was still directing, I took it upon myself, whilst explaining that I +had no authority to speak for the Government, to point out the danger +of continuing independent action at this stage; and, having convinced +him of the expediency of cooperating with our fleet, then at Hongkong, +and obtained the assurance of his willingness to proceed thither and +confer with <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1221" href="#xd21e1221" +name="xd21e1221">28</a>]</span>Commodore Dewey to that end, should the +latter so desire, I telegraphed the Commodore the same day as follows, +through our consul-general at Hongkong:—</p> +<div class="figure xd21e1224width" id="p005"><img src="images/p005.jpg" +alt="Insurgent Prisoners" width="720" height="432"> +<p class="figureHead">Insurgent Prisoners</p> +<p class="first">On the day of the Polo fight in provinces of Bulacan +these Insurgent soldiers lay in a trench and fired into a charging +company of American troops until the latter came in on top of them. +They were taken prisoners, sent to Manila and humanely treated there. +This photograph was taken as they were being marched down the railroad +track to the Manila train.</p> +</div> +<p>“‘Aguinaldo, insurgent leader, here. Will come Hongkong +arrange with Commodore for general cooperation insurgents Manila if +desired. Telegraph.</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">Pratt</span>.’”</p> +</div> +<p>The Commodore’s reply read thus:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“‘Tell Aguinaldo come soon as +possible.</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">Dewey</span>.’”</p> +</div> +<p>Pratt adds:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I received it late at night, and at once +communicated to General Aguinaldo, who, with his aide-de-camp and +private secretary, all under assumed names, I succeeded in getting off +by the British Steamer <i>Malacca</i>, which left here on Tuesday the +26th.</p> +<p>“Just previous to his departure, I had a second and last +interview with General Aguinaldo, the particulars of which I shall give +you by next mail.</p> +<p>“The general impressed me as a man of intelligence, ability, +and courage, and worthy the confidence that had been placed in him.</p> +<p>“I think that in arranging for his direct cooperation with the +commander of our forces, I have prevented possible conflict of action +and facilitated the work of occupying and administering the +Philippines.</p> +<p>“If this course of mine meets with the Government’s +approval, as I trust it may, I shall be fully satisfied; to Mr. Bray, +however, I consider there is due some special recognition for most +valuable services rendered.</p> +<p>“How that recognition can best be made I leave to you to +decide.</p> +<p>“I have, etc.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1269src" href= +"#xd21e1269" name="xd21e1269src">15</a></p> +</div> +<p>It will be noted that Pratt explained to Aguinaldo that he had no +authority to speak for the government; that there was no mention in the +cablegrams between Pratt and Dewey of independence or indeed of any +conditions on which Aguinaldo was to coöperate, these details +being left for <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1277" href= +"#xd21e1277" name="xd21e1277">29</a>]</span>future arrangement with +Dewey; and that Pratt thought that he had prevented possible conflict +of action and facilitated the work of occupying and administering the +Philippines.</p> +<p>The particulars as to the second and last interview between +Aguinaldo and Pratt were embodied in the following letter:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“No. 213. <span class="sc">Consulate-General of +the United States.</span></p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Singapore</span>, April 30, 1898.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Sir</span>: Referring to my dispatch No. +212, of the 28th instant, I have the honor to report that in the second +and last interview I had with Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo on the eve of his +departure for Hongkong, I enjoined upon him the necessity, under +Commodore Dewey’s direction, of exerting absolute control over +his forces in the Philippines, as no excesses on their part would be +tolerated by the American Government, the President having declared +that the present hostilities with Spain were to be carried on in strict +accord with modern principles of civilized warfare.</p> +<p>“To this General Aguinaldo fully assented, assuring me that he +intended and was perfectly able, once on the field, to hold his +followers, the insurgents, in check and lead them as our commander +should direct.</p> +<p>“The general stated that he hoped the United States would +assume protection of the Philippines for at least long enough to allow +the inhabitants to establish a government of their own, in the +organization of which he would desire American advice and +assistance.</p> +<p>“These questions I told him I had no authority to discuss.</p> +<p>“I have, etc.,</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">E. Spencer Pratt</span>,</p> +<p>“<i>United States Consul-General</i>.”</p> +</div> +<p>In a subsequent communication written on July 28, 1898, Pratt made +the following statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I declined even to discuss with General +Aguinaldo the question of the future policy of the United States with +regard to the Philippines, that I held out no hopes to him of any kind, +committed the government in no way whatever, and, in the course of our +confidences, never acted upon the assumption that the Government would +cooperate with him—General Aguinaldo—<span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1322" href="#xd21e1322" name= +"xd21e1322">30</a>]</span>for the furtherance of any plans of his own, +nor that, in accepting his said cooperation, it would consider itself +pledged to recognize any political claims which he might put +forward.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1324src" href="#xd21e1324" +name="xd21e1324src">16</a></p> +</div> +<p>What reason if any is there for denying the truth of this +allegation?</p> +<p>I will give in full Blount’s statement as to what occurred at +a meeting held at Singapore, to celebrate the early successes of Dewey +and Aguinaldo, as it constitutes his nearest approach to a direct +claim, that any one at any time promised independence:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“First there was music by the band. Then +followed the formal reading and presentation of the address by a Dr. +Santos, representing the Filipino community of Singapore. The address +pledged the ‘eternal gratitude’ of the Filipino people to +Admiral Dewey and the honored addressee; alluded to the glories of +independence, and to how Aguinaldo had been enabled; by the arrangement +so happily effected with Admiral Dewey by Consul Pratt, to arouse eight +millions of Filipinos to take up arms ‘in defence of those +principles of justice and liberty of which your country is the foremost +champion’ and trusted ‘that the United States... will +efficaciously second the programme arranged between you, sir, and +General Aguinaldo in this port of Singapore, and secure to us our +independence under the protection of the United States.’</p> +<p>“Mr. Pratt arose and ‘proceeded, speaking in +French,’ says the newspaper—it does not say Alabama French, +but that is doubtless what it was—‘to state his belief that +the Filipinos would prove and were now proving themselves fit for +self-government.’ The gentleman from Alabama then went on to +review the mighty events and developments of the preceding six weeks, +Dewey’s victory of May 1st, ‘the brilliant achievements of +your own distinguished leader, General Emilio Aguinaldo, <i>cooperating +on land with the Americans at sea</i>,’ etc. ‘You have just +reason to be proud of what has been and is being accomplished by +General Aguinaldo and your fellow-countrymen under his command. When, +six weeks ago, I learned that General Aguinaldo had arrived +<i>incognito</i> in Singapore, I immediately <i>sought him out</i>. An +hour’s interview convinced me that he <i>was the man for the +occasion</i>; and, having communicated with Admiral Dewey, I +accordingly arranged for him to join the latter, which he did at +Cavite. The rest you know.’”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1348src" href="#xd21e1348" name="xd21e1348src">17</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1351" href="#xd21e1351" name= +"xd21e1351">31</a>]</span></p> +<p>Now, it happens that Dr. Santos himself forwarded his speech, and +his version of Pratt’s reply thereto, in a letter to Aguinaldo, +dated Singapore, June 9, 1898. As he served as interpreter, he, if any +one, should know what Pratt said. After describing the change in tone +of the Singapore <i>Free Press</i>, with which strained relations had +formerly existed, and the subsequent friendliness of the editor of this +paper and that of the <i>Straits Times</i>, he says that on the +previous afternoon he went with the other Filipinos to greet Pratt. He +continues:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“This occasion was unusually opportune by reason +of ours having been victorious and immediately after the cry of our +worthy chief which found an echo in this colony. For this purpose 30 or +more Filipinos—9 of the higher class, 15 musicians and the +remainder of the middle class—went to greet Consul A., here, and +on the invitation of Mr. Bray we ascended. He received us in his +private office, and it was imposing to see that the only decoration was +the American flag which covered the desk, and in its centre, a carved +wooden frame holding the portrait of our worthy chief. He shook hands +with all of us, and I introduced them all. We found there also, and +were introduced to, the Editor of the <i>Straits Times</i> and the +<i>Free Press</i> of here, and after being thus assembled, after a +musical selection, I read the following speech in French:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“‘<span class="sc">His Excellency, The +Consul General of the United States of America in Singapore</span>:</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">Your Excellency</span>: The Filipinos +of all social classes residing in this port, have come to greet Your +Excellency as the genuine representative of the great and powerful +American Republic in order to express to you our eternal gratitude for +the moral and material support given by Admiral Dewey to our General +Aguinaldo in his campaign for the liberty of eight million Filipinos. +The latter and we ourselves hope that the United States, your nation, +persevering in its humanitarian policy, will without cessation and +(with) decided energy continue to support the programme agreed upon in +Singapore between Your Excellency and General Aguinaldo, that is to +say, the Independence of the Philippine Islands, under an American +protectorate. Accept our cordial acknowledgments and congratulations on +being the first one in accepting and supporting this idea which time +and events have well developed to the great satisfaction <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1380" href="#xd21e1380" name= +"xd21e1380">32</a>]</span>of our nation. Finally, we request you, Most +Excellent Sir, to express to your worthy President and the American +Republic, our sincere acknowledgments and our fervent wishes for their +prosperity. I have concluded.’</p> +</div> +<p>“The Consul replied hereto in French, in more or less the +following terms:—</p> +<p>“‘You have nothing to thank me for, because I have only +faithfully followed the instructions received from my Government; the +fact of the sudden departure of your General will permit you to infer +that I have done so. I shall in any case inform my Government of your +good wishes and I thank you in its name. You know that your wishes are +mine also, and for this reason at the last interview I had with Mr. +Aguinaldo, I repeated to him that he should observe the greatest +humanity possible in the war, in order that our army, our soldiers, our +nation and all the other nations may see that you are humane and not +savages, as has erroneously been believed.’</p> +<p>“After this there was enthusiastic applause for the Consul; he +offered us all cigars, glasses of very fine sherry, and lemonade for +the musicians and the majority. The toasts were offered with the sherry +by your humble servant, Sres. Cannon, Enríquez, Celio, Reyes, +the Consul, the editors of the <i>Free Press</i>, <i>Straits Times</i> +and Mr. Bray. We drank to America and her humanitarian work of +redemption; to the Philippines with America; we gave thanks to the +Consul, to Mr. Bray as an important defender; we drank to the <i>Free +Press</i> for taking such an interest in our affairs, and to the +<i>Straits Times</i> (sarcastically); but I was very careful not to +propose a toast to our general, which was done at the proper time by +‘Flaco’<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1401src" href= +"#xd21e1401" name="xd21e1401src">18</a> when we gave three cheers; for +the sake of courtesy we cheered for England, which had been so +hospitable to us, and when everybody had become quiet, the Editor of +the <i>Straits Times</i> took his glass in his hand and cried in a loud +voice, ‘The Philippine Republic,’ to which we all +responded. ‘Flaco’ disappeared a moment, and when he +returned he brought with him the American flag, and formally presented +it to us in French, which I interpreted to all in Spanish, as follows: +‘Gentlemen: The American Consul, with his deep affection for us, +presents us this flag as the greatest and most expressive remembrance +which he can give us. The red stripes stand for the generous blood of +her sons, shed to obtain her liberty; the white stripes stand for her +virginity and purity as our country; the blue background indicates the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1408" href="#xd21e1408" name= +"xd21e1408">33</a>]</span>sky and each star represents a free and +independent State; this is America, and the Consul is desirous that we +also should have so glorious a history as hers and that it may be as +brilliant as could be wished, securing peace with respect, and may God +be our help and guide in securing liberty. Viva and with it our most +sincere thanks for so signal a courtesy.’ Hereupon, to the +surprise of everybody as no one expected it, the Consul requested that +some Filipino airs be played which seemed to please him very much. +Finally, about 6.15, we left, very well satisfied with the reception +accorded us and the kindness of the Consul. Mr. Bray asked me for the +text of my speech, which I insert above and I secured from the Consul +his French text, which I enclose in my letter to Naning. Without +anything further for the present, awaiting your reply and your opinion +as to the above, as also orders and instructions for the future, I +am,</p> +<p>“Yours, etc.</p> +<p>(Signed) “<span class="sc">Isidoro de los +Santos</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p>To this letter Major Taylor has appended the following +note:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“(<i>Note by Compiler.</i>—In a letter +written in Tagalog to Aguinaldo on June 6 by Santos he describes the +American consul general as having cried out ‘Hurrah for General +Aguinaldo, hurrah for the Republic of the Philippines’ and then, +having apparently taken several drinks, he passed up and down the room +waving the American flag before giving it to the assembled Filipinos +(P.I.R., 406.7).)”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1426src" href= +"#xd21e1426" name="xd21e1426src">19</a></p> +</div> +<p>This final statement does not present the representative of the +United States government at Singapore in a very favourable light, but I +take the facts as I find them. If now we compare the speech actually +made by Dr. Santos with Blount’s version of it, we shall find +that with the exception of the words “eternal gratitude” +the passages which he encloses in quotation marks are not in the +original at all. The glories of independence are not alluded to, nor is +there so much as a suggestion that Aguinaldo had been enabled to arouse +eight millions of Filipinos to take up arms, which he certainly had not +done. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1431" href="#xd21e1431" name= +"xd21e1431">34</a>]</span></p> +<p>Dr. Santos in his speech did resort to a stereotyped Filipino +procedure so very commonly employed that those of us who have dealt +much with his people have learned to meet it almost automatically. It +consists in referring to one’s having said just exactly what one +did not say, and then if one fails to note the trap and avoid it, in +claiming that because one did not deny the allegation one has admitted +its truth.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo himself later repeatedly resorted to this procedure in his +dealings with Dewey and others.</p> +<p>In the present instance Santos employed it rather cleverly when he +expressed the hope that the United States would “continue to +support the programme agreed upon in Singapore, between your Excellency +and General Aguinaldo, that is to say, the independence of the +Philippine Islands under an American protectorate.”</p> +<p>Now if this was agreed to, Aguinaldo later constantly violated his +part of the agreement, for we shall see that he stated over and over +again, in correspondence with members of the junta and others, that a +protectorate would be considered only if absolute independence finally +proved unattainable, but there is no reason to believe that any such +agreement was made.</p> +<p>Dr. Santos read his speech to Mr. Pratt in French. Blount implies, +whether rightly or wrongly I do not know, that Pratt’s knowledge +of French was poor. At all events Pratt in his reply made not the +slightest reference to the hope expressed by Santos that the United +States would continue to support the programme which Santos said had +been agreed upon between Pratt and Aguinaldo, and claim of a promise of +independence based on these speeches must obviously be abandoned. There +is no doubt that Pratt personally sympathized with the ambitions of the +Filipino leaders, and openly expressed his sympathy on this and other +occasions, but to do this was one thing and to have attempted to +compromise his government would have been another and very different +one. The shrewd <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1443" href= +"#xd21e1443" name="xd21e1443">35</a>]</span>Filipinos with whom he was +dealing understood this difference perfectly well.</p> +<p>It is a regrettable fact that there exists some reason to believe +that his sympathy was not purely disinterested. Aguinaldo claims that +Pratt wished to be appointed “representative of the Philippines +in the United States to promptly secure the official recognition of our +independence” and that he promised him “a high post in the +customs service.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1447src" href= +"#xd21e1447" name="xd21e1447src">20</a></p> +<p>It will be noted that several sentences and phrases in +Blount’s statement are enclosed in quotation marks. From what +were they quoted? The next paragraph in his book tells us:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Says the newspaper clipping which has preserved +the Pratt oration: At the conclusion of Mr. Pratt’s speech, +refreshments were served, and as the Filipinos, <i>being Christians, +drink alcohol</i>, there was no difficulty in arranging as to +refreshments.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1458src" href= +"#xd21e1458" name="xd21e1458src">21</a></p> +</div> +<p>The use of this clipping from the Singapore <i>Free Press</i> +illustrates admirably Blount’s methods. The <i>Free Press</i> had +at first displayed a marked coldness toward the insurgent cause, but +its editor, Mr. St. Clair, was opportunely “seen” by Bray, +who reported that as a result of his visit, both the editor and the +paper would thereafter be friendly, and they were. In other words, the +<i>Free <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1471" href="#xd21e1471" +name="xd21e1471">36</a>]</span>Press</i> became the Singapore organ of +the insurrection, and its editor, according to Bray, “a true and +loyal friend” of Aguinaldo.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e1475width" id="p006"><img src="images/p006.jpg" +alt="Typical Insurgent Trenches" width="720" height="428"> +<p class="figureHead">Typical Insurgent Trenches</p> +<p class="first">The Insurgents built long lines of well-constructed +trenches from which they could escape without exposing themselves to +the fire of the American troops.</p> +</div> +<p>Blount claims to have made “an exhaustive examination of the +records of that period.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1483src" +href="#xd21e1483" name="xd21e1483src">22</a> Why then did he use as +evidence a newspaper clipping from an Insurgent organ, instead of +Santos’s letter?</p> +<p>Blount endeavours to make capital out of the fact that Pratt +forwarded to the State Department a proclamation which he says was +gotten up by the Insurgent leaders at Hongkong and sent to the +Philippines in advance of Aguinaldo’s coming. He says that it was +headed “America’s Allies” and quotes from it as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Compatriots: Divine Providence is about to +place independence within our reach.... The Americans, not from +mercenary motives, but for the sake of humanity and the lamentations of +so many persecuted people, have considered it opportune, etc. [Here +follows a reference to Cuba.] At the present moment an American +squadron is preparing to sail for the Philippines.... The Americans +will attack by sea and prevent any reënforcements coming from +Spain; ... we insurgents must attack by land. Probably you will have +more than sufficient arms, because the Americans have arms and will +find means to assist us. <i>There where you see the American flag +flying, assemble in numbers; they are our +redeemers!</i>”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1494src" href= +"#xd21e1494" name="xd21e1494src">23</a></p> +</div> +<p>The translation that he used is that given in Senate Document No. +62, L. 60, and is none too accurate. He allows it to be inferred that +this proclamation was actually issued. It was not. Its history is as +follows:—</p> +<p>On May 16, 1898, J. M. Basa, a Filipino, who had lived in Hongkong +since 1872, on account of his connection with the troubles of that +year, wrote letters<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1501src" href= +"#xd21e1501" name="xd21e1501src">24</a> to a number <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1527" href="#xd21e1527" name= +"xd21e1527">37</a>]</span>of friends recommending the widest possible +circulation of a proclamation enclosed therewith, as an aid to the +American policy in the Philippines “in the war against the +tyrannical friars and the Spaniards.”</p> +<p>With these letters there were sent two different proclamations, each +beginning with the words “Fellow Countrymen.” The first, +which is the one referred to by Blount, continues:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Divine Providence places us in a position to +secure our independence, and this under the freest form to which all +individuals, all people, all countries, may aspire.</p> +<p>“The Americans, more for humanity than for self-interest, +attentive to the complaints of so many persecuted Filipinos, find it +opportune to extend to our Philippines their protective mantle, now +that they find themselves obliged to break their friendship with the +Spanish people, because of the tyranny they have exercised in Cuba, +causing all Americans, with whom they have great commercial relations, +enormous damages.</p> +<p>“At this moment an American fleet is prepared to go to the +Philippines.</p> +<p>“We, your fellow-countrymen, fear that you will make use of +your arms to fire upon the Americans. No, brothers; do not make such a +mistake; rather (shoot) kill yourselves than treat our liberators as +enemies.</p> +<p>“Do not pay attention to the decree of Primo de Rivera, +calling on you to enlist for the war, for that will cost you your +lives: rather die than act as ingrates toward our redeemers, the +Americans.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“Note well that the Americans have to attack by sea, at the +same time avoiding reinforcements which may come from Spain; therefore +the insurrection must attack by land. Perhaps <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1546" href="#xd21e1546" name= +"xd21e1546">38</a>]</span>you will have more than sufficient arms, as +the Americans have arms, and will find the means to aid you.</p> +<p>“Whenever you see the American flag, bear in mind that they +are our redeemers.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1550src" href= +"#xd21e1550" name="xd21e1550src">25</a></p> +</div> +<p>On the margin is written: “Viva, for America with the +Philippines!”</p> +<p>Apparently what Basa here means by independence is independence from +Spain, for it is known that he was in favour of annexation to the +United States, and in the second proclamation we find the +following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“This is the best opportunity which we have ever +had for contriving that our country (all the Philippine Archipelago) +may be counted as another Star in the Great Republic of the United +States, great because of its wisdom, its wealth, and its constitutional +laws.</p> +<p>“Now is the time to offer ourselves to that great nation. With +America we shall have development in the broadest sense (of +advancement) in civilization.</p> +<p>“With America we shall be rich, civilized and happy.</p> +<p>“Fellow patriots, add your signatures to those which have +already been given. Explain to all our fellow countrymen the benefits +of this change, which will be blessed by Heaven, by men and by our +children.</p> +<p>“Viva America with the Philippines!!!”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e1569src" href="#xd21e1569" name="xd21e1569src">26</a></p> +</div> +<p>The letters were undoubtedly given to Aguinaldo for delivery on his +arrival. They were never delivered, and it is reasonable to suppose, +especially as Basa, who was a man of importance and means, was a member +of the group who desired annexation to the United States, that +Aguinaldo took the letters along in order to avoid a rupture with him +and then quietly suppressed them. Obviously, however, he sent or gave a +copy of the first one to Pratt, presumably without the written words: +“Viva, for America with the Philippines!”</p> +<p>And now comes a bit of evidence as to what occurred at Singapore +which I consider incontrovertible.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo returned promptly to Hongkong and on <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1578" href="#xd21e1578" name= +"xd21e1578">39</a>]</span>May 4, 1898, a meeting of the junta was held. +The minutes of this meeting,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1580src" href= +"#xd21e1580" name="xd21e1580src">27</a> signed by each of the several +Filipinos present, form a part of the Insurgent records which have come +into the possession of the United States Government. They state among +other things that:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The temporary Secretary read the minutes of the +preceding meeting, which were approved. The temporary President +reported that D. Emilio Aguinaldo had just arrived from Singapore and +it became necessary for him to take possession of the office to which +he has been elected.”</p> +</div> +<p>After the transaction of some further business Aguinaldo was +summoned, appeared at the meeting, and was duly installed as President. +Then:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The President described the negotiations which +took place during his absence in Singapore with the American Consul of +that English colony. Both agreed that the President should confer with +the Admiral commanding the American squadron in Mirs Bay, and if the +latter should accept his propositions, advantageous, in his judgment, +to the Philippines, he would go to said country in one of the cruisers +which form the fleet for the purpose of taking part in the present +events. And as he did not find the Admiral, he thought it well to have +an interview with the American Consul of this colony on the day of his +arrival, but was not satisfied with such interview.</p> +<p>“Considering the critical conditions in the Philippines at +present, he begged the committee to discuss the advisability of his +going to said islands with all the leaders of prominence in the last +rebellion residing in this colony, in case the Admiral gave them an +opportunity to do so.”</p> +</div> +<p>Note that there is here absolutely not one word of any promise of +independence made to Aguinaldo by Pratt or any one else. Is it +conceivable that Aguinaldo in describing “the negotiations which +took place during his absence in Singapore with the American Consul of +the English Colony” would, by any chance, have failed to inform +his associates in Hongkong of such an extraordinary and fortunate +occurrence as the promising by <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1597" +href="#xd21e1597" name="xd21e1597">40</a>]</span>Mr. Pratt and Admiral +Dewey that the United States would recognize Philippine +independence?</p> +<p>Sandico<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1601src" href="#xd21e1601" name= +"xd21e1601src">28</a> thought that Aguinaldo ought to go, +for—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“From conferences which he had with the Admiral +of the American fleet and with the American Consul in this colony, he +believed that under present conditions it was absolutely necessary for +the President to go to the Philippines, since, according to the +American Consul, Manila had been taken by said fleet, and a provisional +government was now being formed in that capital. The intervention of +the President in the formation of that government is undoubtedly +essential, since his prestige, which everybody recognizes, would +evidently prevent dissensions among the sons of the country, and it +would be possible thereby to obtain a perfect organization both for the +military and civil evolution of that country.</p> +<p>“Srs. Garchitorena<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1609src" href= +"#xd21e1609" name="xd21e1609src">29</a> and Apacible<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e1612src" href="#xd21e1612" name="xd21e1612src">30</a> +expressed themselves in similar terms. Notwithstanding the previous +remarks, the President insisted that he considered it reckless for him +to go to the Philippines without first making a written agreement with +the Admiral, as it might happen, if he placed himself at his orders, +that he might make him subscribe to or sign a document containing +proposals highly prejudicial to the interests of the country, from +which might arise the following two very grave contingencies:</p> +<p>“1st. If he should accept them, he would undoubtedly commit an +unpatriotic act, and his name would justly be eternally cursed by the +Filipinos.</p> +<p>“2d. If he should refuse, then the break between the two would +be evident.</p> +<p>“And to avoid this sad dilemma, he proposed to the committee +that the four parties (?) of the insurgents now here, under charge of +the competent chiefs authorized in writing by him, should go to the +Philippines to intervene, after a conference with the Admiral, in these +important questions; such means, in his opinion, should be first +employed to ascertain in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1621" href= +"#xd21e1621" name="xd21e1621">41</a>]</span>an authentic manner what +the intentions of the United States in regard to that country are; and +if his intervention is absolutely necessary, he would not object to go +at once to the Philippines, endeavouring by all the means in his power +to remedy the critical condition of the country, to which he had +offered, and always would willingly offer, to sacrifice his +life.”</p> +</div> +<p>Why adopt means to learn from the admiral what the intentions of the +United States were in regard to the Philippines if both he and Pratt +had already promised recognition of independence?</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Srs. Sandico, Garchitorena, Gonzaga<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e1629src" href="#xd21e1629" name= +"xd21e1629src">31</a> and Apacible replied that they were fully +convinced the Admiral of the American squadron would furnish the +President all the arms which he might desire, since the former was +convinced that the fleet could do nothing in the Philippines unless it +were used in conjunction with the insurgents in the development of +their plans of war against the Spanish government.... The authority to +treat which the President desired to give to the other chiefs, without +reflecting at all upon their personal qualifications, they did not +believe would be as efficacious as his personal intervention which is +necessary in grave affairs, such as those the subject of discussion; +there would be no better occasion than that afforded them to insure the +landing of the expeditionary forces on those islands and to arm +themselves at the expense of the Americans and to assure the situation +of the Philippines in regard to our legitimate aspirations against +those very people. The Filipino people, unprovided with arms, would be +the victims of the demands and exactions of the United States; but, +provided with arms, would be able to oppose themselves to them, +struggling for independence, in which consists the true happiness of +the Philippines. And they finished by saying that it made no difference +if the Spanish government did demand the return of the ₱400,000, +and if the demand were allowed in an action, since the object of the +sum would be obtained by the Admiral furnishing the Filipinos the arms +which they required for the struggle for their legitimate +aspirations.”</p> +</div> +<p>Here, then, was a definite plan to obtain arms from the Americans to +be used if necessary “against those very people” later. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1635" href="#xd21e1635" name= +"xd21e1635">42</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The President, with his prestige in the +Philippines, would be able to arouse those masses to combat the demands +of the United States, if they colonized that country, and would drive +them, if circumstances rendered it necessary, to a Titanic struggle for +their independence, even if they should succumb in shaking off the yoke +of a new oppressor. If Washington proposed to carry out the fundamental +principles of its constitution, there was no doubt that it would not +attempt to colonize the Philippines, or even to annex them. It was +probable then that it would give them independence and guarantee it; in +such case the presence of the President was necessary, as he would +prevent dissensions among the sons of the country who sought office, +who might cause the intervention of European powers, an intervention +which there was no reason to doubt would be highly prejudicial to the +interests of the country.... What injury could come to the Philippines, +even if we admitted that the Admiral would not give arms to the +President on account of his refusal to sign a document prejudicial to +the country, after he had taken all means to provide for her defence? +None. Such an act of the President could not be censured, but, on the +other hand, would be most meritorious, because it would be one proof +more of his undoubted patriotism.”</p> +</div> +<p>Not one word of any promise of independence do we find in this +remarkable document. On the contrary it furnishes conclusive proof that +no such promise had been made and that the future relations between +Filipinos and Americans were still completely uncertain.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e1643width" id="p007"><img src="images/p007.jpg" +alt="Inside View of Insurgent Trenches at the Bagbag River" width="720" +height="429"> +<p class="figureHead">Inside View of Insurgent Trenches at the Bagbag +River</p> +</div> +<p>And now comes some direct evidence. Bray and St. Clair, the latter +the editor of the Insurgent organ in Singapore, were present on the +occasion when independence was said to have been promised by Pratt. +Bray subsequently declared in the most positive terms that it was +promised. St. Clair wrote him a letter taking him roundly to task for +this claim, in the following very interesting terms:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I felt it to be my duty to let Pratt know that +you still hold that you and Santos have evidence that will controvert +his, (and) he was, of course, extremely disappointed, because he (is) +quite aware of what took place in Spanish, and as to turning of his +conversation into a pretense of agreement he knows nothing. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1653" href="#xd21e1653" name= +"xd21e1653">43</a>]</span>He says very truly: ‘My own party, the +Democrats, will say if they read this book—If this man takes it +upon himself to be a Plenipotentiary without authority, we had better +not employ him any more—I frankly cannot understand your action, +as to its unwisdom I have no doubt at all.<span class="corr" id= +"xd21e1655" title="Not in source">’</span></p> +<p>“Admiral Dewey goes home, it is believed, to advise the +President on Naval and Colonial Affairs, he knows exactly what did take +place and what did not, and I should know if he had any ground to think +that the slightest promise was made by Pratt to Aguinaldo he would +declare it unauthorized and decline to sanction it. I am certain Pratt +reported what he supposed took place accurately; he had no surety on +what you might have said, naturally.</p> +<p>“And, curiously, you never mentioned to me anything of the +agreement as having taken place then, nor in the paper you communicated +to me was there any mention of one, nor did Pratt know of any. It is +only more recently that the fiction took shape. ‘The wish father +to the thought,’ or the statement repeated till it has become +believed by the—,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1662src" href= +"#xd21e1662" name="xd21e1662src">32</a> this is common.</p> +<p>“Now I would like to urge you, from the practical point of +view, to drop any such foolishness. The vital thing, and nothing else +counts, is what Dewey said and did when he at last met Aguinaldo. That, +that, that, is the thing, all else is empty wind.</p> +<p>“Supposing that Pratt and Wildman had covered inches of paper +with ‘Clauses’ and put on a ton of sealing wax as consular +seals, what, pray, to any common sense mind would all that have been +worth? Nothing!! Nothing!! And yet, where is the agreement, where is +the seal? Where are there any signatures? And if you had +them—waste paper—believe me, that all this potter about +Pratt and Wildman is energy misdirected. The sole thing to have +impressed upon the public in America would be the chaining of Dewey and +Aguinaldo together as participants in common action; you surely +comprehend this means! Think and think again; it means success as far +as it is possible. The other work is not only lost, but does not gain +much sympathy, especially this criticism of the conduct of American +troops; things may be true that are not expedient to say. Sink +everything into Dewey-Aguinaldo coöperation, that was on both +sides honest even if it did not imply any actual arrangement, which, of +course, Dewey himself could not make. That here you have the +facts,—undenied—incontrovertible.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e1669src" href="#xd21e1669" name="xd21e1669src">33</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1672" href="#xd21e1672" name= +"xd21e1672">44</a>]</span></p> +<p>The following letter of Bray to Aguinaldo, dated January 12, 1899, +seems to me to throw much light on the question of how these claims +relative to the promised recognition of Filipino independence sometimes +originated and were bolstered up:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“With regard to your proclamation, there is +still a trump card to be played. Did you not say that the basis of any +negotiation in Singapore was the Independence of the Philippines under +an American protectorate? This is what Consul Pratt telegraphed and to +which Dewey and Washington agreed; as I figured up the +‘price’ of the telegram, I know very well what occurred, +and I am ready to state it and to swear to it when the proper time +comes. There are five of us against one in the event of Consul Pratt +receiving instructions to deny it. Furthermore, Mr. St. Clair knows +what happened and I am certain that he also would testify. St. Clair +still has the rough draft as an historical relic, and St. Clair is a +true and loyal friend of yours, as is your humble +servant.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1678src" href="#xd21e1678" +name="xd21e1678src">34</a></p> +</div> +<p>The utter unscrupulousness of Bray is shown by his claim that St. +Clair would confirm his false statements, made as it was after +receiving St. Clair’s letter above quoted.</p> +<p>But Bray did not wait for Aguinaldo to play this trump card. He +tried to play it himself by cabling Senator Hoar, on the same day, that +as the man who introduced General Aguinaldo to the American government +through the consul at Singapore he was prepared to swear that the +conditions under which Aguinaldo promised to cooperate with Dewey were +independence under a protectorate.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1685src" +href="#xd21e1685" name="xd21e1685src">35</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1709" href="#xd21e1709" name= +"xd21e1709">45</a>]</span></p> +<p>Let us now trace Aguinaldo’s subsequent movements, and see +what promises, if any, were made to him by Wildman and Dewey. He had +returned to Hongkong with two companions, all travelling under assumed +names. Only his most trusted friends among the members of the junta +were at first allowed to know where he was living.</p> +<p>His situation was a difficult one. It was necessary for him to come +to some sort of a temporary arrangement with Artacho, if he was to +avoid legal difficulties, and to reëstablish himself with some of +his companions, who had accused him of deserting with the intention of +going to Europe to live on money which belonged to them. When harmony +had been temporarily restored through the good offices of Sandico, +Aguinaldo had an interview with Consul General Wildman. He has since +claimed that Wildman, too, promised him independence, but the truth +seems to be that he himself said he was anxious to become an American +citizen. This being impossible, he wanted to return to the Philippines +and place himself under Dewey’s orders. He wanted to help throw +off the yoke of Spain, and this done, would abide by the decision of +the United States as to the fate of the Philippines.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e1714src" href="#xd21e1714" name="xd21e1714src">36</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1717" href="#xd21e1717" name= +"xd21e1717">46</a>]</span></p> +<p>Any claim that Aguinaldo had been promised independence by Wildman, +or, indeed, that the latter had been allowed to know that the Filipinos +desired it, seems to me to be negatived, not only by Wildman’s +own statements, but by a letter from Agoncillo to Aguinaldo written on +August 5, 1908, in which he says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The American consul left my house to-day at 3 +o’clock, as I had requested an interview with him before his +departure, and I was unable to go to the Consulate on account of the +swelling of my feet. From our conversation I infer that independence +will be given to us. I did not, however, disclose to him our true +desires.... Said consul approved my telegram to McKinley, which has +been sent to-day through him, a copy of which is herewith enclosed. If +they accept our representative in the commission, we may arrive at a +friendly understanding, and it will enable us to prepare for the fight +in case they refuse to listen to our request. On the other hand, if at +the very beginning they refuse to admit our representative, we will at +once be in a position to know what should be done, <i>i.e.</i> to +prepare for war.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1726src" href= +"#xd21e1726" name="xd21e1726src">37</a></p> +</div> +<p>On May 4, 1898, the Hongkong junta voted that Aguinaldo ought to go +to the Philippines, and go he did. It would seem that he at first gave +up the idea of joining Dewey, for on May 11 he wrote a cipher letter, +giving minute directions for the preparation of signals to assist his +ship in making land, by day or by night, at Dingalan Bay on the east +coast of Luzon; directing the capture of the town of San Antonio, just +back of Capones Islands, in Zambales, and ending with the words: +“We will surely arrive at one of the two places above mentioned, +so you must be prepared.”</p> +<p>Something led him again to change his mind, and he finally sailed on +the <i>McCulloch</i>.</p> +<p>In his “Reseña Verídica” written later for +political purposes, Aguinaldo has definitely claimed that Dewey +promised him that the United States would recognize the independence of +the Filipino people. I will let <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e1738" href="#xd21e1738" name="xd21e1738">47</a>]</span>him tell +his own story, confronting his statements with those of the +admiral.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“May 19, 1898.</p> +<p>“The <i>McCulloch</i> started at eleven o’clock on the +morning of the 17th of May for the Philippines; we anchored, between +twelve and one o’clock on the afternoon of the 19th, in the +waters of Cavite, and immediately the launch of the Admiral—with +his aid and private secretary—came to convey me to the +<i>Olympia</i>, where I was received, with my aid, Sr. Leyva, with the +honors of a general, by a section of marine guards.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e1751src" href="#xd21e1751" name= +"xd21e1751src">38</a></p> +</div> +<p>Relative to this matter, Admiral Dewey has testified:<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e1756src" href="#xd21e1756" name= +"xd21e1756src">39</a></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>The Chairman</i>. You, of course, never +saluted the flag?</p> +<p><i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Certainly not; and I do not think I ever +called Aguinaldo anything but Don Emilio; I don’t think I ever +called him ‘General.’</p> +<p><i>The Chairman</i>. And when he came on board ship was he received +with any special honors at the side?</p> +<p><i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Never.”</p> +</div> +<p>The “Reseña Verídica” +continues:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The Admiral received me in a salon, and after +greetings of courtesy I asked him ‘if all the telegrams relative +to myself which he had addressed to the Consul at Singapore, Mr. Pratt, +were true.’ He replied in the affirmative, and added, ‘that +the United States had come to the Philippines to protect its natives +and free them from the yoke of Spain.’</p> +<p>He said, moreover, that ‘America was rich in territory and +money, and needed no colonies,’ concluding by assuring me, +‘to have no doubt whatever about the recognition of Philippine +independence by the United States.’ Thereupon he asked me if I +could get the people to arise against the Spaniards and carry on a +rapid campaign.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1786src" href= +"#xd21e1786" name="xd21e1786src">40</a></p> +</div> +<p>As we have seen, Dewey sent only one telegram to Pratt about +Aguinaldo. It merely directed that the latter be sent. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1791" href="#xd21e1791" name= +"xd21e1791">48</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I then expressed to him my profound +acknowledgment for the generous help which the United States was giving +the Filipino people, as well as my admiration for the magnificence and +goodness of the American people. I also stated to him that +‘before leaving Hongkong, the Filipino Colony had held a meeting, +at which was discussed and considered the possibility that—after +defeating the Spaniards—the Filipinos might have a war with the +Americans, if they should refuse to recognize our independence, who +were sure to defeat us because they should find us tired out, poor in +ammunitions and worn out in the war against the Spaniards,’ +requesting that he pardon my frankness.</p> +<p>“The Admiral replied that he ‘was delighted at my +sincerity, and believed that both Filipinos and Americans should treat +each other as allies and friends, clearly explaining all doubts for the +better understanding between both parties,’ and added that, +‘so he had been informed, the United States would recognize the +independence of the Filipino people, guaranteed by the word of honor of +the Americans,—more binding than documents which may remain +unfulfilled when it is desired to fail in them as happened with the +compacts signed by the Spaniards, advising me to form at once a +Filipino national flag, offering in virtue thereof to recognize and +protect it before the other nations, which were represented by the +various squadrons then in the Bay; although he said we should conquer +the power from the Spaniards before floating said flag, so that the act +should be more honourable in the sight of the whole world, and, above +all, before the United States, in order that when the Filipino ships +with their national flag would pass before the foreign squadrons they +should inspire respect and esteem.’</p> +<p>“Again I thanked the Admiral for his good advice and generous +offers, informing him that if the sacrifice of my life was necessary to +honor the Admiral before the United States, I was then ready to +sacrifice it.</p> +<p>“I added that under such conditions I could assure him that +all the Filipino people would unite in the revolution to shake off the +yoke of Spain; that it was not strange that some few were not yet on +his side on account of lack of arms or because of personal +expediency.</p> +<p>“Thus ended this first conference with Admiral Dewey, to whom +I announced that I would take up my residence at the Naval Headquarters +in the Cavite Arsenal.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1803src" href= +"#xd21e1803" name="xd21e1803src">41</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1806" href="#xd21e1806" name= +"xd21e1806">49</a>]</span></p> +<p>Further on, in the same document, Aguinaldo advances the claim that +on the occasion of the visit of General Anderson and Admiral Dewey the +latter again promised him independence.</p> +<p>He says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In the same month of July, the Admiral, +accompanied by General Anderson, presented himself, and after greetings +of courtesy said to me: ‘You have seen confirmed all of what I +promised and said to you. How pretty your flag is. It has a triangle, +and it looks like Cuba’s. Will you give me one as a reminder when +I return to America?’</p> +<p>“I replied to him that I was convinced of his word of honour +and that there was no necessity whatever to draw up in documentary form +his agreements, and as for the flag, that he could count on it, even at +that very moment.</p> +<p>“Dewey continued: ‘Documents are not complied with when +there is no honour, as has happened with your agreement with the +Spaniards, who have failed in what was written and signed. Trust in my +word for I hold myself responsible that the United States will +recognize the independence of the country. But I recommend to you +[plural.—TR.] to keep everything which we have talked about and +agreed upon with a great deal of secrecy for the present. And, +moreover, I entreat you [plural.—TR.] to be patient if our +soldiers should insult some Filipino, because, as volunteers, they are +yet lacking in discipline.’”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1818src" href="#xd21e1818" name="xd21e1818src">42</a></p> +</div> +<p>Admiral Dewey has testified as follows, concerning the recognition +of Philippine independence by him:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>The Chairman</i>. You remember the question +of your recognizing his republic was a good deal discussed and you +wrote me a letter, which I read in the senate. Of course, I am only +asking now about what you said in the letter. There was no recognition +of the republic?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Never. I did not think I had any +authority to do it and it never occurred to me to do it. There was a +sort of a reign of terror; there was no government. These people had +got power for the first time in their lives and they were riding +roughshod over the community. The acts of cruelty which were brought to +my notice were hardly credible. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb50" +href="#pb50" name="pb50">50</a>]</span>I sent word to Aguinaldo that he +must treat his prisoners kindly, and he said he would.”</p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e1838width" id="p008"><img src="images/p008.jpg" +alt="General Henry W. Lawton" width="720" height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">General Henry W. Lawton</p> +<p class="first">This photograph was taken by the author at General +Lawton’s Manila residence, two months before his death.</p> +</div> +<p>He has further testified that he never as much as heard of +independence until the appearance of Aguinaldo’s proclamation of +June 15, 1898:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>.... Then when I heard that +our troops were coming I asked him to withdraw his troops from Cavite +and make room for our men. He demurred at this, but finally withdrew +and established headquarters across the bay at a place called Bacoor, +from which place on the 15th of June he sent me a proclamation +declaring the independence of the Philippines.</p> +<p>“<i>The Chairman</i>. Was that the first?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. That was the first intimation; the +first I had ever heard of independence of the Philippines.</p> +<p>“<i>The Chairman</i>. He had said something to you—</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Not a word. He had done what I told +him. He was most obedient; whatever I told him to do he did. I attached +so little importance to this proclamation that I did not even cable its +contents to Washington, but forwarded it through the mails. I never +dreamed that they wanted independence.”</p> +</div> +<p>Remembering that Admiral Dewey was not being interrogated as to the +statements of the “Reseña Veridica,” it will be seen +that he has, nevertheless, covered them fully.</p> +<p>It was my good fortune to be long and intimately associated with +Admiral Dewey while serving on the first Philippine commission. He +always grew indignant when the subject of any promises relative to +independence said to have been made by him was so much as mentioned, +and gave to the commission in writing the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The statement of Emilio Aguinaldo, under date +of Sept. 23, published in the <i>Springfield Republican</i>, so far as +it relates to reported conversations with me, or actions of mine, is a +tissue of falsehood. I never, directly or indirectly, promised the +Filipinos independence. I never received Aguinaldo with military +honors, or recognized or saluted the so-called Filipino flag. I never +considered him as an ally, although I did make <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="pb51" href="#pb51" name="pb51">51</a>]</span>use of +him and the natives to assist me in my operations against the +Spaniards.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1885src" href="#xd21e1885" +name="xd21e1885src">43</a></p> +</div> +<p>As Dewey’s allegations flatly contradict those of Aguinaldo, +we must choose between the two. While I have no doubt as to where the +choice will fall, I will now submit some additional matter of interest. +Let us first consider the history of the “Reseña +Verídica” in which Aguinaldo makes the charges above +quoted. On September 12, 1899, Buencamino wrote of it to Apacible in +Hongkong, saying:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“This work is entitled ‘<span lang= +"es">Reseña Verídica de la Revolución +Filipina</span>’ in which Don Emilio relates in detail his acts +with Admiral Dewey. It has been distributed to the Consuls and you are +ordered to reprint it there translated into English and send some +copies to the United States, even though only a thousand, if you deem +it advisable. Send copies also to Europe, Señor Agoncillo taking +charge of the publication. If the Agent you may have selected for the +United States should still be there, it would be advisable for him to +take a copy of the pamphlet with him for its publication.</p> +<p>“This is an order of the Government which I take pleasure in +transmitting to you for due execution.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1898src" href="#xd21e1898" name="xd21e1898src">44</a></p> +</div> +<p>But there was a change of heart about giving the pamphlet to the +consuls, for under date of September 30 Buencamino wrote:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We have not distributed them here in order that +Otis may not counteract the effects that we desire to produce with this +publication, through his usual machinations. Nor do we believe it +advisable to make this pamphlet public in those colonies before your +arrival in the United States.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1906src" href="#xd21e1906" name="xd21e1906src">45</a></p> +</div> +<p>To this letter he added in cipher the following postscript to Pablo +Ocampo, in charge of Aguinaldo’s correspondence in +Manila:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“At last moment—Nota bene:</p> +<p>“Don’t deliver any copy of the ‘Reseña +Verídica’ to the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1917" +href="#xd21e1917" name="xd21e1917">52</a>]</span>Consuls, even though +it was so directed in the beginning of the letter. All except one, +which is for you, will be sent to Hong-kong, Don Pedro de la +Viña being bearer of the same, as also of the other documents. +The copy intended for you is neither to be divulged nor published, for +strict reserve is required until those which are being sent arrive at +their destination.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1919src" href= +"#xd21e1919" name="xd21e1919src">46</a></p> +</div> +<p>The reason for preserving such secrecy relative to this document +until it could reach its destination and work its harm is of course +obvious. Its statements were so outrageously false that they would have +been instantly and authoritatively contradicted had it been issued +seasonably at Manila.</p> +<p>The truth is that Aguinaldo’s claim that he had been promised +independence was a gradual growth. Let us trace it.</p> +<p>On May 21, he wrote a circular letter to “My dear +brother,” inviting the recipients and their companions to meet +him at once, and arrange the best way to entrap all the enemy in their +homes.</p> +<p>In this he says that he has promised the American admiral that they +will “carry on modern war” and adds: “Even if a +Spaniard surrenders, he must be pardoned and treated well, and then you +will see that our reputation will be very good in all Europe, which +will declare for our independence; but if we do not conduct ourselves +thus, the Americans will decide to sell us or else divide up our +territory. As they will hold us incapable of governing our land, we +shall not secure our liberty, rather the contrary; our own soil will be +delivered over to other hands.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1930src" href="#xd21e1930" name="xd21e1930src">47</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1945" href="#xd21e1945" name= +"xd21e1945">53</a>]</span></p> +<p>In this letter, written on the very day of the interview at which he +subsequently claimed that Admiral Dewey had promised independence, does +he make any claim that this had occurred? No, he very distinctly +implies the contrary. Is it believable that if he could truly have said +“The United States, through its representatives Dewey and Pratt, +has promised to recognize our independence” he would have failed +to do so when this would instantly have secured him the vigorous +support which he was then uncertain of obtaining? I think not.</p> +<p>In this letter Aguinaldo specifically directs that deceit be +employed and that Spanish officers be treacherously attacked. The +practising of deceit was a carefully considered part of the insurgent +policy. In a letter from Hongkong dated July 21, 1898, Agoncillo writes +as follows to Mabini:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1950src" href= +"#xd21e1950" name="xd21e1950src">48</a>—</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“the time will come when disguises must be set +aside and we will see who is deceiving whom. The statements made by +some <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1958" href="#xd21e1958" name= +"xd21e1958">54</a>]</span>of the commanders of the fleet here to Don +Emilio and myself were to the effect that the exclusive purpose of the +Government at Washington with regard to the Filipinos, is to grant this +country independence, without any conditions, although I said to myself +that such a purpose was too philanthropical. Don Emilio knew what I +thought then, and I still think the same; that is to say that we are +the ones who must secure the independence of our country by means of +unheard of sacrifices and thus work out its happiness.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e1960src" href="#xd21e1960" name= +"xd21e1960src">49</a></p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo himself frankly advocated the use of deceit. He practised +what he preached. Simeon Villa, one of his companions on his subsequent +flight through Northern Luzon, before he finally took refuge at +Palanan, kept a diary, which constitutes an official record of this +long journey. In it he has inserted some bits of history of other days, +of which none is more interesting than his account of the beginning of +hostilities against the Spaniards, in August, 1896. From it we learn +that Aguinaldo, who was known to the friar of his town to be both a +mason and a chief of the Katipúnan, was in danger during August, +and on the night of the 29th of that month called a meeting of all the +compromised persons of the place, who agreed that on the following day +he should “make representations to the governor of the +province.” Villa says that he was greatly beloved by the governor +and his wife. Early on the following morning, he “presented +himself to the governor, and in the name of the people of Cavite Viejo, +offered him their respects and their loyalty to Spain,” at the +same time asking a garrison of a hundred men for his town, which the +governor promised to send at once if the captain-general approved.</p> +<p>That afternoon he reported the results of his efforts to his +fellow-conspirators, “and told them that then was the opportune +moment for rising against the Spaniards.” He initiated the +uprising himself the next morning.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e1967src" +href="#xd21e1967" name="xd21e1967src">50</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1995" href="#xd21e1995" name= +"xd21e1995">55</a>]</span></p> +<p>Could deceit be more deliberately practised or treachery more +frankly employed? <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1998" href= +"#xd21e1998" name="xd21e1998">56</a>]</span></p> +<p>I have indulged in this digression to show that Aguinaldo could +hardly have complained had the methods which he used against others +been employed against him. He was never deceived by the Americans, but +his claims relative to independence grew rapidly, and he was soon +deceiving his own people.</p> +<p>On May 24th, he issued no less than four proclamations. One of +these, doubtless intended to be seen by Americans, made no mention of +Independence, but said:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2004src" href= +"#xd21e2004" name="xd21e2004src">51</a>— <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2020" href="#xd21e2020" name= +"xd21e2020">57</a>]</span></p> +<p>“The great powerful North American nation has offered its +disinterested protection to secure the liberty of this +country.”</p> +<p>In another proclamation, doubtless intended for a different use, he +made the statement that the great North American nation had come to +give decisive and disinterested protection, “considering us as +sufficiently civilized and capable of governing +ourselves.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2025src" href="#xd21e2025" +name="xd21e2025src">52</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2030" +href="#xd21e2030" name="xd21e2030">58</a>]</span></p> +<p>On June 5, having practically gained control of Cavite Province, he +felt strong enough to announce that independence would be proclaimed on +June 12, and on that date he did proclaim it in a decree.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e2034width" id="p009"><img src="images/p009.jpg" +alt="Feeding Filipino Refugees" width="720" height="429"> +<p class="figureHead">Feeding Filipino Refugees</p> +<p class="first">Before the Insurgent troops retired from +Paranñaque near Manila, they plundered their own people and left +them without food. Our army fed them. This photograph shows a typical +scene when food distribution was about to begin.</p> +</div> +<p>The Admiral of the American Squadron, with the commanders and +officers of his command, was invited to the ceremonies, but none of +them went. As it was important for Aguinaldo to have some one there to +pose as a representative of the United States, he utilized for this +purpose a certain “Colonel” Johnson, an ex-hotel keeper of +Shanghai, who was running a cinematograph show. He appeared as +Aguinaldo’s chief of artillery and the representative of the +North American nation.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2042src" href= +"#xd21e2042" name="xd21e2042src">53</a></p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>Even as late as October 3, 1898, Agoncillo in a memorandum addressed +to President McKinley did not claim that independence had been +promised, but said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“As soon as the Spanish-American war began, the +American representatives and officials in Singapore, Hongkong and +Manila, invited the natives of the Philippines to assist the American +arms, which they did gladly and loyally, as allies, with the conviction +that their personality would be recognized, as well as their political, +autonomous and sovereign rights.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2056src" href="#xd21e2056" name="xd21e2056src">54</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2059" href="#xd21e2059" name= +"xd21e2059">59</a>]</span></p> +<p>In it he does, however, claim that the organization of a government +independent of America and Spain was accomplished with the tacit +consent of the admiral commanding the fleet and with that of the +general and military and political commanders of the United States of +North America in the Philippines.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Who, knowing these facts, not only did not +object but accepted them as a consummated legal act, and maintained +official relations with the new organization, making use thereof in its +subsequent actions and for the subsequent development of the campaign, +which was consequently brought to such a happy end.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e2065src" href="#xd21e2065" name= +"xd21e2065src">55</a></p> +</div> +<p>This is a second illustration of the stereotyped insurgent procedure +of announcing a policy and then claiming that failure to attack it +meant acquiescence in it. Admiral Dewey says that he did not even read +this proclamation. There was no reason why he should have done so, as +it did not deal with matters which he was authorized to settle. He had +no instructions relative to the recognition of new governments, and he +sent this document to Washington without comment, as he should have +done.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2070src" href="#xd21e2070" name= +"xd21e2070src">56</a></p> +<p>Apropos of this claim that American officers tacitly recognized the +Insurgent government, certain passages from an unsigned document in the +handwriting of Mabini, prepared about July 15, 1898, are of interest. +Mabini, speaking of the attitude of the Americans, says, +“Notwithstanding all this and in spite of their protestations of +friendship, they have always refused to recognize that +government.” Also, “If they persist in refusing to +recognize our government, we shall see ourselves compelled to come to +an agreement with any other government that will consent to recognize +us on friendly terms.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2078src" href= +"#xd21e2078" name="xd21e2078src">57</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e2090" href="#xd21e2090" name="xd21e2090">60</a>]</span></p> +<p>This statement is certainly sufficiently specific as to whether +Americans had recognized the Insurgent government on or before the date +when it was written.</p> +<p>Let us now consider the relations between Aguinaldo and General +Anderson.</p> +<p>Blount attempts to make much of a cablegram, sent by the latter, in +which, after describing the Filipinos, he adds, “The people +expect independence.” Blount says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“That cablegram of July 22nd, above quoted, in +which the commanding general of our forces in the Philippines advises +the Washington Government, ‘The people expect independence’ +is the hardest thing in the public archives of our government covering +that momentous period for those who love the memory of Mr. McKinley to +get around. After the war with the Filipinos broke out, McKinley said +repeatedly in public speeches, ‘I never dreamed they would turn +against us.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2101src" href= +"#xd21e2101" name="xd21e2101src">58</a></p> +</div> +<p>If there is nothing harder than this to get around the memory of +President McKinley will not suffer, as the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="pb61" href="#pb61" name= +"pb61">61</a>]</span>important thing is not what Aguinaldo had led his +people to expect, but what the American officials had promised him. The +President was certainly not bound to believe that the Filipinos would +turn against us even if they did then expect independence. Blount has +seen fit to leave unmentioned certain other facts which are very +pertinent in this connection.</p> +<p>Apparently sometime during September, 1898, Sandico made the +following statement in a letter to Aguinaldo:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I also have to inform you that Señores +Basa, Cortés and Co. have congratulated the Government of the +United States upon the capture of Manila, stating at the same time that +now that Filipino soil had been soaked with American blood, the Islands +must remain American. I believe that a telegram should be sent +immediately, to counteract that sent by them.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e2113src" href="#xd21e2113" name="xd21e2113src">59</a></p> +</div> +<p>Probably Sandico did not know that on August 15, 1898, Agoncillo had +transmitted another telegram to President McKinley through +Consul-General Wildman, reading as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Agoncillo, my Commissioner and +Ambassador-Extraordinary, representing the provisional government of +the Philippine Islands, in its name and the name of its President, +Emilio Aguinaldo, congratulates you on the successful termination of +the war, and commends the occupancy of Manila. I assure the United +States of the allegiance and unquestioning support of our people, and +petition that we be granted one or more representatives on the +commission that is to decide the future of our Islands.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e2121src" href="#xd21e2121" name= +"xd21e2121src">60</a></p> +</div> +<p>It would appear, therefore, that the President had more information +on this subject than was transmitted by General Anderson!</p> +<p>Not only did the latter passively refrain from recognizing +Aguinaldo’s pretensions, but on July 22, 1898, he wrote to him as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I observe that your Excellency has announced +yourself Dictator and proclaimed martial law. As I am here simply +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2133" href="#xd21e2133" name= +"xd21e2133">62</a>]</span>in a military capacity, I have no authority +to recognize such an assumption. I have no orders from my government on +the subject.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2135src" href= +"#xd21e2135" name="xd21e2135src">61</a></p> +</div> +<p>The effort to keep Americans in ignorance of the true state of +affairs was kept up until further deception was useless. Consul +Williams, for instance, wrote on June 16, 1898:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“For future advantage, I am maintaining cordial +relations with General Aguinaldo, having stipulated submissiveness to +our forces when treating for their return here. Last Sunday, 12th, they +held a council to form provisional government. I was urged to attend, +but thought best to decline. A form of government was adopted, but +General Aguinaldo told me today that his friends all hoped that the +Philippines would be held as a colony of the United States of +America.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2143src" href="#xd21e2143" +name="xd21e2143src">62</a></p> +</div> +<p>Yet on Sunday, June 12, Aguinaldo had in reality proclaimed the +independence of the Philippines. Few Americans at this time knew any +Spanish and none understood Tagalog, so that it was comparatively easy +to deceive them. What Consul Williams reported was what Aguinaldo +considered it expedient to have him believe.</p> +<p>The following undated letter from Aguinaldo to Mabini, supposed to +have been sent at this time, is of especial interest in this +connection:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“My dear Brother: I do not want to go there +[where the addressee is] until after the visit of the American Consul, +because I do not wish the negotiations to end in an ultimatum, and in +order that you may tell him all that is favourable for the cause of our +Nation. I charge you with the task of giving him a reply, and if he +should ask about me tell him that since the time of his last visit +there I have not recovered from my illness. If anything important +should happen we can communicate with each other by telegraph, using a +code in matters that require secrecy.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2153src" href="#xd21e2153" name="xd21e2153src">63</a></p> +</div> +<p>In a letter supposed to have been written during November, 1898, +prepared for Aguinaldo’s signature and <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2158" href="#xd21e2158" name= +"xd21e2158">63</a>]</span>addressed to Señor McKinley, President +of the Republic of the United States of North America, but apparently +never sent, Aguinaldo renews the charge<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2160src" href="#xd21e2160" name="xd21e2160src">64</a> previously +made in his “Reseñia Verídica,” that Pratt +and Dewey promised independence. It need not be further discussed.</p> +<p>The climax was finally reached in an official protest against the +Paris Treaty written by Agoncillo in Paris on the 12th of December, +1898, in which occurs the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The United States of America, on their part, +cannot allege a better right to constitute themselves as arbitrators as +to the future of the Philippines.</p> +<p>“On the contrary, the demands of honour and good faith impose +on them the explicit recognition of the political status of the people, +who, loyal to their conventions, were a devoted ally of their forces in +the moments of danger and strife. The noble general Emilio Aguinaldo +and the other Filipino chiefs were solicited to place themselves at the +head of the suffering and heroic sons of that country, to fight against +Spain and to second the action of the brave and skilful Admiral +Dewey.</p> +<p>“At the time of employing their armed coöperation, both +the Commander of the <i>Petrel</i> and Captain Wood in Hongkong, before +the declaration of war, the American Consuls-General Mr. Pratt in +Singapore, Mr. Wildman, in Hongkong, and Mr. Williams in Cavite, acting +as international agents of the great American nation, at a moment of +great anxiety offered to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2187" href= +"#xd21e2187" name="xd21e2187">64</a>]</span>recognize the independence +of the Filipino nation, as soon as triumph was obtained.</p> +<p>“Under the faith of such promises, an American man-of-war, the +<i>McCulloch</i> was placed at the disposal of the said leaders and +which took them to their native shores; and Admiral Dewey himself, by +sending the man-of-war; by not denying to General Aguinaldo and his +companions the exacting of his promises, when they were presented to +him on board his flag-ship in the Bay of Manila; by receiving the said +General Aguinaldo before and after his victories and notable deeds of +arms, with the honours due the Commander-in-Chief of an allied army, +and chief of an independent state; by accepting the efficacious +coöperation of that Army and of those Generals; by recognizing the +Filipino flag, and permitting it to be hoisted on sea and land, +consenting that their ships should sail with the said flag within the +places which were blockaded; by receiving a solemn notification of the +formal proclamation of the Philippine nation, without protesting +against it, nor opposing in any way its existence; by entering into +relations with those Generals and with the national Filipino +authorities recently established, recognized without question the +corporated body and autonomous sovereignty of the people who had just +succeeded in breaking their fetters and freeing themselves by the +impulse of their own force.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2194src" +href="#xd21e2194" name="xd21e2194src">65</a></p> +</div> +<p>It will be noted that the claim constantly grows. The commander of +the <i>Petrel</i> Captain Wood, Consul Wildman and Consul Williams are +now included among those alleged to have promised independence, and it +is claimed that Aguinaldo was received with the honours due the chief +of an independent state when he visited Admiral Dewey, whereas his own +original claim was that he was received with the honours due a general, +which is quite a different matter.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e2203width" id="p010"><img src="images/p010.jpg" +alt="The First Philippine Commission" width="720" height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">The First Philippine Commission</p> +<p class="first">This photograph taken in the room where the commission +held its hearings is the only one ever obtained which shows all the +members. From left to right: the author, Colonel Charles Denby, +President Jacob Gould Schurman, Mr. John R. MacArthur, Secretary to the +Commission, Admiral George Dewey and General E.S. Otis.</p> +</div> +<p>As a matter of fact, American officers usually addressed and treated +Aguinaldo as a general. The extent to which they were able to use his +organization to further the ends of their government will be set forth +later.</p> +<p>In a letter to Wildman, dated August 7, 1898, Aguinaldo admits that +there is no agreement, but says that he cannot <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2213" href="#xd21e2213" name= +"xd21e2213">65</a>]</span>tell the peoples that it does not exist, +“fearing that I may not be able to restrain the popular +excitement.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2215src" href= +"#xd21e2215" name="xd21e2215src">66</a> He begs Wildman to use his +influence on his government so that it will realize the inadvisability +of deciding the fate of the people “without considering their +will duly represented by my government.” Is it conceivable that, +if there had been any ground for claiming a promise of independence, +Aguinaldo would have failed to mention it at this time?</p> +<p>We may summarize the well-established facts as follows:—</p> +<p>Consul-General Pratt was, or professed to be, in hearty sympathy +with the ambition of the Filipino leaders to obtain independence, and +would personally have profited from such a result, but he refrained +from compromising his government and made no promises in its +behalf.</p> +<p>Admiral Dewey never even discussed with Aguinaldo the possibility of +independence.</p> +<p>There is no reason to believe that any subordinate of the Admiral +ever discussed independence with any Filipino, much less made any +promise concerning it.</p> +<p>Neither Consul Wildman nor Consul Williams promised it, and both +were kept in ignorance of the fact that it was desired up to the last +possible moment.</p> +<p>It is not claimed that either General Anderson or General Merritt +made any promise concerning it.</p> +<p>The conclusion that no such promise was ever made by any of these +men is fully justified by well-established facts.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo himself carefully refrained at the outset from saying, in +any document which Americans could read, that independence had been +promised, and advanced this claim only when the growing strength of his +land force had given him confidence. He repeated it, with increasing +emphasis, as his army increased in size, ultimately openly threatening +war if his pretensions were not recognized. In doing this, he was +merely carrying <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2235" href= +"#xd21e2235" name="xd21e2235">66</a>]</span>out a carefully prearranged +plan, agreed upon by the Hongkong junta.</p> +<p>And now let us examine the claim that the insurgents were our +“faithful allies” and “coöperated” with us +in the taking of Manila. We shall find that this subject richly repays +investigation. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb67" href="#pb67" name= +"pb67">67</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1043" href="#xd21e1043src" name="xd21e1043">1</a></span> +Beginning with the letters “P.I.R.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1050" href="#xd21e1050src" name="xd21e1050">2</a></span> See pp. +53, 55, 68.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1055" href="#xd21e1055src" name="xd21e1055">3</a></span> See pp. +27, 47, 49, 63 of this book for repetitions and variations of this +charge of Aguinaldo.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1063" href="#xd21e1063src" name="xd21e1063">4</a></span> See p. +31 of his book, “The American Occupation of the +Philippines,” in referring to which I will hereafter use the word +Blount, followed by a page number.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1080" href="#xd21e1080src" name="xd21e1080">5</a></span> U. S. +Consul General Rounseville Wildman of Hongkong.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1083" href="#xd21e1083src" name="xd21e1083">6</a></span> U. S. +Consul O. F. Williams of Manila.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1086" href="#xd21e1086src" name="xd21e1086">7</a></span> Blount, +p. 43.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1096" href="#xd21e1096src" name="xd21e1096">8</a></span> A term, +more or less corresponding to mayor, then applied to the ranking +municipal officer of a <i>pueblo</i> or town.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1110" href="#xd21e1110src" name="xd21e1110">9</a></span> Eight +hundred thousand Mexican dollars, the actual value of which constantly +fluctuated.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1124" href="#xd21e1124src" name="xd21e1124">10</a></span> The +Ilocanos are one of the eight civilized peoples who collectively make +up the Filipinos. They number 803,942, and inhabit certain provinces in +northern Luzon.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1140" href="#xd21e1140src" name="xd21e1140">11</a></span> I have +not felt at liberty to correct spelling, capitalization, punctuation or +grammar in quotations, except in the case of perfectly evident +printer’s errors. It should be remembered that the results of +Taylor’s work were left in the form of galley proof.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1175" href="#xd21e1175src" name="xd21e1175">12</a></span> Taylor, +42 F Z-43 F Z.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1186" href="#xd21e1186src" name="xd21e1186">13</a></span> For the +history of this document, see <a href="#pb51">p. 51</a>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1198" href="#xd21e1198src" name="xd21e1198">14</a></span> P.I.R., +1300.2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1269" href="#xd21e1269src" name="xd21e1269">15</a></span> Senate +Document 62, part 1, Fifty-fifth Congress, Third Session, P. P. 341 +<i>et seq</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1324" href="#xd21e1324src" name="xd21e1324">16</a></span> Senate +Document 62, part 1, Fifty-fifth Congress, Third Session; also P.I.R., +496.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1348" href="#xd21e1348src" name="xd21e1348">17</a></span> Blount, +pp. 11–12.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1401" href="#xd21e1401src" name="xd21e1401">18</a></span> +Pratt.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1426" href="#xd21e1426src" name="xd21e1426">19</a></span> P.I.R., +516. 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1447" href="#xd21e1447src" name="xd21e1447">20</a></span> +“The Consul—after telling me that, before arriving in +Hongkong harbor, a launch would be sent by the Admiral to secretly take +us to the North American squadron, a secrecy which pleased me also, as +it would avoid giving publicity to my acts—then advised me that I +should appoint him the representative of the Philippines in the United +States to promptly secure the official recognition of our independence. +I answered that whenever the Philippine government should be formed, I +would nominate him for the office he desired, although I considered +that but small recompense for his aid, and that in case of our having +the good fortune to secure our independence I would bestow upon him a +high post in the customs service besides granting the commercial +advantages and the participation in the expenses of the war which the +Consul asked for his Government in Washington, since the Filipinos +agreed in advance to what is here stated, considering it a proper +testimonial of gratitude.”—P.I.R., 1300. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1458" href="#xd21e1458src" name="xd21e1458">21</a></span> Blount, +p. 12</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1483" href="#xd21e1483src" name="xd21e1483">22</a></span> Blount, +pp. 8–9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1494" href="#xd21e1494src" name="xd21e1494">23</a></span> Ibid., +p. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1501" href="#xd21e1501src" name="xd21e1501">24</a></span> The +following is one of them:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“<span class="sc">H. Kong</span>, May +16, 1898.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Señor Don Jose Enrique Basa:</p> +<p class="footnote">“My Dear Enrique: As an aid to the American +policy in the Philippines,—America being the most liberal and +humanitarian nation in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1514" href= +"#xd21e1514" name="xd21e1514">37n</a>]</span>the world,—I +earnestly recommend the widest possible circulation of the proclamation +which I send herewith in order that the Americans may be supported in +the war against the tyrannical friars and the Spaniards who have +connived with them, and that public order, so necessary under the +present conditions, be preserved.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Thy relative, twenty-six years an +emigrant.</p> +<p class="footnote">(Signed) “<span class="sc">J. M. +Basa</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 1204–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1550" href="#xd21e1550src" name="xd21e1550">25</a></span> P.I.R., +1204–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1569" href="#xd21e1569src" name="xd21e1569">26</a></span> Ibid., +1204–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1580" href="#xd21e1580src" name="xd21e1580">27</a></span> P.I.R., +53–2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1601" href="#xd21e1601src" name="xd21e1601">28</a></span> Teodoro +Sandico, an influential Tagálog leader, who spoke English well +and afterward served as a spy while employed by the Americans as an +interpreter.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1609" href="#xd21e1609src" name="xd21e1609">29</a></span> +Señor Garchitorena was a wealthy Tagálog of Manila, and, +at this time, a prominent member of the Hongkong junta.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1612" href="#xd21e1612src" name="xd21e1612">30</a></span> Dr. +Galicano Apacible, a very intelligent and rather conservative +Tagálog physician. After Aguinaldo left Hongkong, he was the +leading member of the junta.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1629" href="#xd21e1629src" name="xd21e1629">31</a></span> Sr. +Graco Gonzaga, a prominent Filipino lawyer of the province of +Cagayan.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1662" href="#xd21e1662src" name="xd21e1662">32</a></span> There +is an illegible word in the original.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1669" href="#xd21e1669src" name="xd21e1669">33</a></span> P.I.R., +406–5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1678" href="#xd21e1678src" name="xd21e1678">34</a></span> P.I.R., +398. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1685" href="#xd21e1685src" name="xd21e1685">35</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“<span class="sc">Hongkong</span>, 12 +Jan. 1899,—2 P.M.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Senator Hoar</span>, +Washington.</p> +<p class="footnote">“As the man who introduced General Aguinaldo +to the American government through the consul at Singapore, I frankly +state that the conditions under which Aguinaldo promised to cooperate +with Dewey were independence under a protectorate. I am prepared to +swear to this. The military party suborned correspondents are deceiving +the American nation by means of malevolent lying statements. If your +powerful influence does not change this insensate policy there will be +a hopeless conflict with the inevitable results disastrous for the +Americans.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Bray</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 853–4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1714" href="#xd21e1714src" name="xd21e1714">36</a></span> +“Then Aguinaldo had an interview with the United States consul in +Hongkong, in which he told him that he was anxious to become an +American citizen, but this being impossible, he desired to be allowed +to return to the Philippines and place himself under the orders of +Commodore Dewey. According to the brother of that Consul, who certainly +must have had opportunities for knowing the facts in the case, he made +no demands for independence, but said that he hoped that the Americans +would not leave the Filipinos to their fate, but would annex the +Philippines and protect them against the Spaniards. He promised the +Consul that he would fight with the Americans and not attempt to foment +a revolution against the United States. His highest expressed aim was +to throw off the Spanish yoke, and, that once accomplished, he would +abide by the decision of the United States as to the ultimate +disposition of the Philippines. If Aguinaldo had expressed his real +intentions of obtaining arms and using them only for his own purposes, +and, if he found it expedient, against the United States, it is not to +be thought that he would have been returned to the Philippines on a +United States vessel.”—Taylor, 44 F Z.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1726" href="#xd21e1726src" name="xd21e1726">37</a></span> P.I.R., +471. 7.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1751" href="#xd21e1751src" name="xd21e1751">38</a></span> P.I.R., +1300. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1756" href="#xd21e1756src" name="xd21e1756">39</a></span> Admiral +Dewey’s testimony, from which I quote extracts, will be found in +Senate Documents, Vol. 25.57 Congress, 1st session, pp. 2928, 2941.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1786" href="#xd21e1786src" name="xd21e1786">40</a></span> P.I.R., +1300.2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1803" href="#xd21e1803src" name="xd21e1803">41</a></span> P.I.R., +1300.2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1818" href="#xd21e1818src" name="xd21e1818">42</a></span> Taylor, +4 MG., E.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1885" href="#xd21e1885src" name="xd21e1885">43</a></span> Report +of the Philippine commission to the President. January 31, 1900. Vol. +I, p. 121.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1898" href="#xd21e1898src" name="xd21e1898">44</a></span> P.I.R., +396. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1906" href="#xd21e1906src" name="xd21e1906">45</a></span> Ibid., +396. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1919" href="#xd21e1919src" name="xd21e1919">46</a></span> P.I.R., +461.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1930" href="#xd21e1930src" name="xd21e1930">47</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“My Dear Brother: I inform you that we +arrived here in Cavite at eleven o’clock and disembarked at four +o’clock in the afternoon after our conference with the American +Admiral. Everything appears to be favourable for obtaining our +independence. I cannot say more on that subject as it would take too +long.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I have no other object in writing this +except to ask you and your companions to meet at once and arrange the +best way to entrap all the enemy in your town, employing deceit, for +instance, make a <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1937" href= +"#xd21e1937" name="xd21e1937">53n</a>]</span>present of whatever you +think best to the chiefs successively and then at once enter the houses +and attack them, or if not this, do what you think best. Show valor and +resolution, brothers, the hour has arrived for the Philippines to +belong to her sons and not to them, only one step and we shall reach +Independence; be constant, brothers, and be united in feelings, do not +imitate those who show two faces, whatever such people do sooner or +later they will be slaves. Respect foreigners and their property, also +enemies who surrender.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I want you to know that in respect to our +conduct I have promised the American Admiral and other nations, that we +shall carry on modern war. Even if a Spaniard surrenders, he must be +pardoned and treated well and then you will see that our reputation +will be very good in all Europe which will declare for our +Independence; but if we do not conduct ourselves thus the Americans +will decide to sell us or else divide up our territory as they will +hold us incapable of governing our land, we shall not secure our +liberty; rather the contrary; our own soil will be delivered over to +other hands.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Therefore, my brethren, I urge that we +strive to unite our efforts, and let us fire our hearts with the idea +of vindicating our country. Many nations are on our side.”</p> +</div> +<p>—P.I.R., 12. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1950" href="#xd21e1950src" name="xd21e1950">48</a></span> Mabini +was a Tagálog paralytic of exceptional ability. In my opinion he +was the strongest man whom the revolution produced.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1960" href="#xd21e1960src" name="xd21e1960">49</a></span> P.I.R., +451. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e1967" href="#xd21e1967src" name="xd21e1967">50</a></span> Extract +from the Journal of Simeon Villa.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“The memorable month of August, 1896, +arrived. Aguinaldo was <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1973" href= +"#xd21e1973" name="xd21e1973">55n</a>]</span>‘master’ of +the Cavite Lodge. Moreover, he was a member of the +‘Katipúnan’ Society and the chief of the many +members who were in the pueblo of Cavite Viejo. What was to be done? +Aguinaldo, not knowing what to do, and mindful of the fact that the +curate there knew positively that he was not only a mason, but also the +chief of the Katipúnans of his pueblo, considered it expedient +on the night of August 29 to at once call a meeting of all the +compromised persons in his town. Aguinaldo made clear to them their +grave situation.</p> +<p class="footnote">“They all agreed that on the following day +Aguinaldo, their chief, should make representations to the Governor of +Cavite; so he went away very early the following morning, presented +himself to the governor, and in the name of the people of Cavite Viejo +offered him their respects and their loyalty to Spain, at the same time +requesting him to condescend to send to his town a garrison of 100 men +for its security. The governor replied that he would first consult the +captain-general, and if the proposition was approved he would send the +garrison at once.</p> +<p class="footnote">“As Aguinaldo was greatly beloved by the +governor and his wife, they offered him wine and sweetmeats. As soon as +this was over he took his leave and returned happy to his town. On +arrival in the town he assembled all the compromised persons and +informed them of the brilliant result of his efforts. Continuing, he +told them that then was the opportune moment for rising in arms against +the Spaniards. To this they unanimously replied by saying it was +terrible, because no arms were available, and that for this reason it +would certainly prove to be a disaster for them.</p> +<p class="footnote">“But Aguinaldo, in company with his +godfather, the lamented Candido Tirona, insisted on convincing them +with their strong arguments. They made them understand that Spanish +cruelty would annihilate them without fail, and for no other reason +than that they were members of the Katipúnan.</p> +<p class="footnote">“As it happened, at that very time there were +two ‘Guardia Civil’ soldiers in the court-house. So at +about 2 o’clock in the morning, Aguinaldo and Tirona went +directly to the court-house. Arriving there, these two determined +insurgent chiefs intimated to the guards that they should surrender +their equipments. These replied that it was impossible, and said they +would die first. Instantly a struggle ensued between the four men, +which lasted nearly an hour. But it resulted in favor of the insurgent +chiefs who succeeded in taking the guns and cartridges. Once in +possession of these armaments, the two chiefs, accompanied by a number +of the town people, directed themselves to the convent in order to +capture the curate. Very unfortunately for them, the curate was no +longer there when they arrived; he had made his escape. While the +struggle was going on with the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e1983" +href="#xd21e1983" name="xd21e1983">56n</a>]</span>guards in the +court-house, he received the news and fled at once by embarking in a +native boat.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The insurgent chiefs then returned to the +court-house and immediately prepared a communication to all the +municipal captains in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas and Laguna, +inviting them to at once rise against Spain, and stating that their own +town of Cavite Viejo was already freed from slavery.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Each one of these communications was sent +out by a mounted courier, so that before the expiration of many hours +all the towns in Cavite Province were informed of what had taken place +in Cavite Viejo.</p> +<p class="footnote">“On the following day some of the towns took +up arms. At the same time Aguinaldo, in company with many people from +his town, marched on Imus in order to attack the Spanish troops who +were there. When he arrived in Imus the people of this town at once +joined him and they all went to the convent, in which were the friars +and the soldiers of the ‘Guardia Civil.’ Just as he arrived +at the atrium of the Church his companions did not wish to follow him, +for fear that the soldiers were occupying the church tower. So +Aguinaldo advanced alone until he reached the door of the convent. Once +here, he called his companions to aid him. But these were not so +determined as he was, and only about five responded. When these got to +where Aguinaldo was, he commenced breaking in the door which was soon +open. They went upstairs, but they found nobody, since the friars and +soldiers had crossed over to the treasury building.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Aguinaldo’s companions were now +numerous, because the others followed him when they saw that nothing +happened to those who went up into the convent; and all of these went +immediately to the treasury building, in which were the friars and +soldiers whom they were hunting. When they reached it they found the +doors closed, so they could not pass. Aguinaldo ordered the house +burned. Those in hiding inside the house were without any other remedy +and had to surrender; but meanwhile some of them had been burned to +death, among these a lieutenant of the ‘Guardia Civil.’ By +this victory Aguinaldo succeeded in taking 17 rifles and two 2½ +pounder guns.”</p> +</div> +<p>—P.I.R., 869.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2004" href="#xd21e2004src" name="xd21e2004">51</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“My Beloved Countrymen: I accepted the +agreement of peace <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2009" href= +"#xd21e2009" name="xd21e2009">57n</a>]</span>proposed by Don Pedro A. +Paterno after his consultation with the Captain-General of the islands +(Philippines), agreeing in consequence thereof to surrender our arms +and disband the troops under my immediate command under certain +conditions, as I believed it more advantageous for the country than to +continue the insurrection, for which I had but limited resources, but +as some of the said conditions were not complied with, some of the +bands are discontented and have not surrendered their arms. Five months +have elapsed without the inauguration of any of the reforms which I +asked in order to place our country on a level with civilized +people—for instance, our neighbor, Japan, which in the short +space of twenty years has reached a point where she has no reason to +envy any one, her strength and ascendency being shown in the last war +with China. I see the impotence of the Spanish Government to contend +with certain elements which oppose constant obstacles to the progress +of the country itself and whose destructive influence has been one of +the causes of the uprising of the masses, and as the great and powerful +North American nation has offered its disinterested protection to +secure the liberty of this country, I again assume command of all the +troops in the struggle for the attainment of our lofty aspirations, +inaugurating a dictatorial government to be administered by decrees +promulgated under my sole responsibility and with the advice of +distinguished persons until the time when these islands, being under +our complete control, may form a constitutional republican assembly and +appoint a president and cabinet, into whose hands I shall then resign +the command of the islands.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Emilio +Aguinaldo</span>.</p> +<p class="footnote">Given at Cavite, May 24, 1898.”</p> +</div> +<p>—P.I.R. 206.6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2025" href="#xd21e2025src" name="xd21e2025">52</a></span> +“The great North American nation, the cradle of genuine liberty +and therefore the friend of our people oppressed and enslaved by the +tyranny and despotism of its ruler, has come to us manifesting a +protection as decisive as it is undoubtedly disinterested toward our +inhabitants, considering us as sufficiently civilized and capable of +governing ourselves and our unfortunate country. In order to maintain +this high estimate granted us by the generous North American nation we +should abominate all those deeds which tend to lower this opinion, +which are pillage, theft, and all sorts of crimes relating to persons +or <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2027" href="#xd21e2027" name= +"xd21e2027">58n</a>]</span>property, with the purpose of avoiding +international conflict during the period of our +campaign.”—P.I.R., 43. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2042" href="#xd21e2042src" name="xd21e2042">53</a></span> Of this +extraordinary occurrence Taylor says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“Invitations to the ceremony of the +declaration of independence were sent to Admiral Dewey; but neither he +nor any of his officers were present. It was, however, important to +Aguinaldo that some American should be there whom the assembled people +would consider a representative of the United States. +‘Colonel’ Johnson, ex-hotel keeper of Shanghai, who was in +the Philippines exhibiting a cinematograph, kindly consented to appear +on this occasion as Aguinaldo’s Chief of Artillery and the +representative of the North American nation. His name does not appear +subsequently among the papers of Aguinaldo. It is possible that his +position as colonel and chief of artillery was a merely temporary one +which enabled him to appear in a uniform which would befit the +character of the representative of a great people upon so solemn an +occasion!”—Taylor, 26 A J.</p> +</div> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2056" href="#xd21e2056src" name="xd21e2056">54</a></span> P.I.R., +451.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2065" href="#xd21e2065src" name="xd21e2065">55</a></span> P.I.R., +451.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2070" href="#xd21e2070src" name="xd21e2070">56</a></span> See +<a href="#pb50">p. 50</a>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2078" href="#xd21e2078src" name="xd21e2078">57</a></span> +“They are aware that a Government has been established here from +the beginning: first the Dictatorial, and afterwards, when several +provinces had been freed from Spanish domination, there was implanted +in the same a proper organization, and thus a new Government was +established in the form best adapted to the principles of liberty; but +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2081" href="#xd21e2081" name= +"xd21e2081">60n</a>]</span>notwithstanding all this and in spite of +their protestations of friendship, they have always refused to +recognize that government.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The things they request involve the +recognition of a right which we cannot and ought not to grant, unless +they recognize our Government and unless the limits of the powers of +both sides be defined. If they wish us to recognize them in Cavite, let +them recognize our rights in Parañaque.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The United States are our creditors more +than any other nation; not only are they due the gratitude of the +Filipino people, but also they should be allowed to profit by the +advantages this people can grant them without loss of our legitimate +right to a free and independent life. Therefore we are disposed to make +a treaty or convention with them. They will be no longer able to allege +the lack of national character, for in the near future there is to be +assembled the Revolutionary Congress composed of the Representatives of +the provinces.</p> +<p class="footnote">“They should understand that they have come +to make war on the Spaniards; that the Filipinos have risen in arms +against the same enemy to achieve their liberty and independence; and +that in consequence they cannot exercise dominion over us without +violation of international law. If they persist in refusing to +recognize our Government, we shall see ourselves obliged to come to an +agreement with any other government that will consent to recognize us +on friendly terms.”—P.I.R., 58.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2101" href="#xd21e2101src" name="xd21e2101">58</a></span> Blount, +p. 24.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2113" href="#xd21e2113src" name="xd21e2113">59</a></span> P.I.R., +416. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2121" href="#xd21e2121src" name="xd21e2121">60</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i>, 102. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2135" href="#xd21e2135src" name="xd21e2135">61</a></span> Senate +Document 208, 1900, p. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2143" href="#xd21e2143src" name="xd21e2143">62</a></span> Taylor, +26 A J.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2153" href="#xd21e2153src" name="xd21e2153">63</a></span> P.I.R., +5. 10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2160" href="#xd21e2160src" name="xd21e2160">64</a></span> +“Going to Singapore, I had several interviews with the Consul of +the United States, Mr. Spencer Pratt, who informed me that the war was +directed against Spain only and that in addition your action in the +Philippines had as an object the independence of my beloved +country.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The Commander of the <i>MacCulloch</i> +telegraphed me also from Hongkong, offering in the name of Commodore +Dewey, to take me to Cavite, in order to raise the Filipinos against +Spain.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Without any written treaty, counting only +upon the sacred word of American citizens, I went to Hongkong, embarked +on the <i>MacCulloch</i> and a few days later had the honor to make the +acquaintance of the victorious Commodore Dewey, who likewise informed +me that he had come to make war against Spain, that he had annihilated +the fleet of Admiral Montojo and that the United States desired to give +the Philippines their independence.”—P.I.R., 441.2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2194" href="#xd21e2194src" name="xd21e2194">65</a></span> P.I.R., +102. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2215" href="#xd21e2215src" name="xd21e2215">66</a></span> P.I.R., +Books C-1.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch03" class="div1 telegram"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e256">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter III</h2> +<h2 class="main">Insurgent “Coöperation”</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">I have previously<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2247src" +href="#xd21e2247" name="xd21e2247src">1</a> called attention to the +minutes of a session of the Hongkong junta held on May 4, 1898, from +which it indirectly appears that the Filipino leaders at that time +hoped to secure arms at the expense of the Americans and purposed to +attack them later if it seemed advisable.</p> +<p>The treacherous policy then outlined was never departed from by +Aguinaldo and his associates, who sailed for Manila with their eyes +wide open, knowing full well that they had been promised nothing; +prepared to match their wits against those of Admiral Dewey, and intent +on deceiving him and on securing from him arms to be used first against +the Spaniards and later against the Americans, after they had been +employed to help bring about the downfall of Spain.</p> +<p>There exists a significant circular signed +“J.M.B.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2255src" href= +"#xd21e2255" name="xd21e2255src">2</a> believed to have been an +outright forgery, both from its tenor and from the fact that the +signature “J.M.B.” is not in the handwriting of +Basa’s letter hereinbefore quoted.</p> +<p>It contains the following statements:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The true patriots have organized a committee to +which I belong, naming Aguinaldo as President and Agoncillo as +Vice-President. The latter and three others have commenced diplomatic +negotiations with the Admiral and American Consul, and we infer that +they are trying to make colonies of us, although they said they would +give us independence. The Committee deemed it advisable to simulate +belief, at the same time equipping ourselves with arms. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2263" href="#xd21e2263" name= +"xd21e2263">68</a>]</span></p> +<p>“We have accepted arms offered by the Admiral which will be +disembarked in the Philippines by the squadron.</p> +<p>“A part of our forces will aid the Americans by fighting with +them in order to conceal our real intentions, and part will be held in +reserve. If America triumphs and proposes a colony, we shall reject +such offer and rise in arms.</p> +<p>“A separate expedition will disembark at whatever point may be +considered suitable.</p> +<p>“José Alejandrino embarked with the American squadron +in order to give secret instructions to the Chiefs.</p> +<p>“Be very cautious about this exceedingly delicate point; you +will communicate with prudent and intelligent chiefs who will recognize +the gravity of the subject.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2274src" +href="#xd21e2274" name="xd21e2274src">3</a></p> +</div> +<p>Here, then, in a faked-up letter on which Basa’s initials were +forged in order to gain the prestige of his name for this treacherous +plan, we have definitely set forth the purpose of the Filipinos to +deceive the Americans by allowing a part of the Insurgent force to +fight with them, and then to attack them.</p> +<p>Reference has already been made to Agoncillo’s advice to +Aguinaldo, given under date of August 26, 1898, to the effect that +friendly relations should be maintained with the Americans until the +diplomatic negotiations at Paris should end; that an effort should be +made to find out the future status of the islands “by deceitful +means,” and that confidence should never be put in the +Americans.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo put the whole matter in a nutshell in a postscript to this +letter, saying:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“You should issue an order commanding that all +our chiefs should employ a policy of friendship toward the Americans +until our status is defined; but said order should be confidentially +given. Try to mislead them.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2286src" +href="#xd21e2286" name="xd21e2286src">4</a></p> +</div> +<p>Bray also very strongly advised awaiting the results of the Paris +conference.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2291src" href="#xd21e2291" name= +"xd21e2291src">5</a></p> +<p>Blount claims that the Filipinos hoped that the Treaty of Paris +would leave their country to them as it left Cuba to the +Cubans,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2303src" href="#xd21e2303" name= +"xd21e2303src">6</a> and adds that having helped us take the city of +Manila, they “felt that they had been ‘given the double +cross,’” “believed that the Americans had been guilty +of a duplicity rankly Machiavellian, and that was the cause of the +war.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2306src" href="#xd21e2306" name= +"xd21e2306src">7</a></p> +<p>The quotations already given from Insurgent records show plainly +that the principal thing for which the Filipinos were waiting was the +ousting of Spain from the Philippines by the United States; those which +follow show that war was by no means inevitable as a result of a a +decision at Paris adverse to Filipino hopes, for the question of +whether a United States protectorate, or even annexation to the United +States, might be considered, was left open to a very late +date.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2314src" href="#xd21e2314" name= +"xd21e2314src">8</a></p> +<p>It has been claimed not only that the Insurgents whipped the +Spaniards without our assistance, but whipped them so thoroughly that +Spanish sovereignty had practically disappeared from the islands at the +time Manila surrendered. It has further been alleged that +“decrepit” Spain “could not possibly have sent any +reinforcements to the Philippines. Besides, the Filipinos would have +‘eaten them up.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2322src" +href="#xd21e2322" name="xd21e2322src">9</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2327" href="#xd21e2327" name= +"xd21e2327">70</a>]</span></p> +<p>But the Filipinos had fought Spain before and were by no means +sanguine. Their more intelligent and reasonable men clearly foresaw +that they could not win unaided. Señor Antonio Regidor was at +the time residing in London. He was a Filipino of unusual intelligence +and exceptionally good education. He took a keen interest in the +situation, and on July 28, 1898, telegraphed Agoncillo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In the name of the Filipinos, you should +immediately send a telegraphic message to MacKinley, requesting him not +to abandon the islands, after having fought as brothers for a common +cause. Pledge him our unconditional adhesion, especially of well-to-do +people. To return to Spain, in whatever form, would mean annihilation, +perpetual anarchy. Filipinos en masse should visit the consuls at +Hongkong, Singapore. London commerce support it. Influence Aguinaldo to +accept American flag, flying it everywhere, thus obliging them to +remain.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2333src" href="#xd21e2333" +name="xd21e2333src">10</a></p> +</div> +<p>This leaves no room for doubt as to Regidor’s views, but +Agoncillo did not share them. He replied on July 29:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Provisional government’s aspiration is +independence. Make this campaign.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2341src" href="#xd21e2341" name="xd21e2341src">11</a></p> +</div> +<p>Regidor was not to be persuaded. On July 30 he replied as follows, +addressing his communication to Basa:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“America vacillating as to remaining fears +conflicts later with natives international question other difficulties +necessary to encourage her all of you submit united unconditionally +raising American flag great demonstrations necessary to influence +outside opinion show islands resolved united America high circles +advise in view present circumstances only feasible programme is +protectorate.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2351src" href= +"#xd21e2351" name="xd21e2351src">12</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2356" href="#xd21e2356" name= +"xd21e2356">71</a>]</span></p> +<p>Obviously, Agoncillo was somewhat impressed by this cablegram, for +on August 1 in a letter to Aguinaldo he made the following statements +and inquiries:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“If the American troops leave us alone there, +the questions which will arise are these: Have we sufficient arms to +maintain the war against Spain in order to secure our independence? If +the other nations are opposed to our independence and wish that we +should continue under the Spanish sovereignty, have we sufficient +strength to wage a war and obtain victory over Spain and over them in +the future? If you think that we have not sufficient strength to fight +against them, should we accept independence under the American +protectorate? And if so, what conditions or advantages should we give +to the United States? You should carefully consider the preceding +questions, and I suggest that you should, in a confidential manner, +consult them with your cabinet-in-banc, as well as with your private +secretary and military chiefs of rank; and your decision be notified to +our representatives abroad in order that they may know what they must +do in their negotiations. You will see from the telegram addressed to +me by Regidor that he suggests to me to send a message to MacKinley +requesting him not to abandon us, and to submit to them [the U. S.] +unconditionally. As I do not agree with him and as I cannot take any +action which is against the instructions of the government, I replied +to him that the only desire of our government is independence. This may +be seen from the enclosed telegram. On account of this reply, he was, I +think, somewhat offended, as he afterwards sent a telegram to Joviales +[Basa] instead of to me. The latter, upon receiving the telegram, +convened all the boastful patriots, and they adopted a resolution to +send a message to MacKinley requesting annexation. Fortunately, in the +meeting there was present Dr. Justo Lucban, who protested against such +measure. In view of this protest, they again agreed that I should be +present in the meeting, since I am the representative of our +government. At the meeting where I was present, I pointed out the +inadvisability of their resolution, stating, as one of the reasons, +that we should await your instructions in regard to the matter before +sending any message of that character. So the message was not sent; but +I was later informed that Basa had, after all, sent it yesterday, +because he believed that it would not injure our cause. Upon learning +this, I was carried away by passion and went so far as to say to Basa +the following: ‘Many of us, especially myself, think ourselves to +be wise, without being so; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2362" +href="#xd21e2362" name="xd21e2362">72</a>]</span>politicians for what +we hear from others; we claim to be patriots, but we are only so in +words; we wish to be chiefs, but none of us act in a way worthy of a +chief.’ To this he did not reply. Perhaps his conscience accused +him of an act of treachery, since we agreed in the meeting to await +your letter. What union can you expect from this +people?”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2364src" href="#xd21e2364" +name="xd21e2364src">13</a></p> +</div> +<p>Note that the Basa here referred to is the man whose initials were +forged on the letter quoted on <a href="#pb67">page 67</a>.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e2373width" id="p011"><img src="images/p011.jpg" +alt="The Second Philippine Commission" width="720" height="502"> +<p class="figureHead">The Second Philippine Commission</p> +<p class="first">From left to right: General Luke E. Wright, Professor +Dean C. Worcester, Professor Bernard Moses, Judge William H. Taft, and +Judge Henry C. Ide.</p> +</div> +<p>In the course of the above-mentioned letter Agoncillo came back once +more to the question of independence under a protectorate and made it +very clear that at this late day he did not know whether this was or +was not what the Filipinos desired.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2381src" +href="#xd21e2381" name="xd21e2381src">14</a></p> +<p>On August 21, Apacible obviously did not think that it would be an +easy matter to escape from Spanish domination, much less that the +islands were already rid of it, for he wrote to Mabini that the United +States were likely again to deliver the Filipinos into the hands of +Spain. He said that “if events will be what their telegrams +indicate, we have a dark and bloody future before us. To be again in +the hands of Spain will mean a long and bloody war, and it is doubtful +whether the end will be favourable to us... Spain free from Cuba and +her other colonies will employ her energy to crush us and will send +here the 150,000 men she has in Cuba.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2386src" href="#xd21e2386" name="xd21e2386src">15</a> Apacible +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2391" href="#xd21e2391" name= +"xd21e2391">73</a>]</span>thought that the best thing was independence +under an American protectorate.</p> +<p>On August 7, 1898, Aguinaldo warned Agoncillo that in the United +States he should “not accept any contracts or give any promises +respecting protection or annexation, because we will see first if we +can obtain independence.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2395src" +href="#xd21e2395" name="xd21e2395src">16</a></p> +<p>Even annexation to the United States was not excluded by Aguinaldo +from the possible accepted solutions, for in outlining the policy of +the Philippine government to Sandico on August 10, 1898, he +wrote:— <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2404" href= +"#xd21e2404" name="xd21e2404">74</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The policy of the government is as follows: +1st. To struggle for the independence of ‘the Philippines’ +as far as our strength and our means will permit. Protection or +annexation will be acceptable only when it can be clearly seen that the +recognition of our Independence, either by force of arms or diplomacy, +is impossible.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2408src" href= +"#xd21e2408" name="xd21e2408src">17</a></p> +</div> +<p>On August 26, 1898, Aguinaldo was still ready to consider annexation +if necessary.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2413src" href="#xd21e2413" +name="xd21e2413src">18</a> He was apparently not sanguine at this time +as to the result of a continued struggle with Spain. At all events, he +wanted the help of the Americans if such a struggle was to come, and +desired to know on what terms it could be had.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2421src" href="#xd21e2421" name="xd21e2421src">19</a></p> +<p>Meanwhile the Filipinos in Hongkong who favoured annexation made +themselves heard.</p> +<p>On July 18, 1898, Consul-General Wildman wrote from that +place:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I believe I know the sentiments of the +political leaders and of the moneyed men among the insurgents, and, in +spite of all statements to the contrary, I know that they are fighting +for annexation to the United States first, and for independence +secondly, if the United States decides to decline the sovereignty of +the Islands. In fact, I have had the most prominent leaders +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2434" href="#xd21e2434" name= +"xd21e2434">75</a>]</span>call on me and say they would not raise one +finger unless I could assure them that the United States intended to +give them United States citizenship if they wished it.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e2436src" href="#xd21e2436" name= +"xd21e2436src">20</a></p> +</div> +<p>We have already noted the action of Basa and the Cortez family who +insisted that the Islands must remain American,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2441src" href="#xd21e2441" name="xd21e2441src">21</a> and that of +Agoncillo, who cabled President McKinley in Aguinaldo’s name and +his own, congratulating him on the outcome of the war, commending the +occupation of Manila, and assuring the people of the United States of +the allegiance and unquestioning support of the Filipinos,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e2447src" href="#xd21e2447" name= +"xd21e2447src">22</a> but it is to be feared that the sending of this +cablegram was only one more move in the Insurgent game of deceit.</p> +<p>There were annexationists in Manila as well as in Hongkong.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e2454src" href="#xd21e2454" name= +"xd21e2454src">23</a> Indeed we know that some of the strongest and +best of the Filipinos there were in favour of it.</p> +<p>Felipe Buencamino, writing in 1901, said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In June of 1898, Don Cayetano Arellano<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e2468src" href="#xd21e2468" name= +"xd21e2468src">24</a> addressed to Don Felipe Buencamino and Don +Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista a letter written from the town of +Pagsanján, province of Laguna, in reply to one addressed to him +by those two gentlemen. In this letter Don Cayetano outlined the idea +of union with the United States and said: ‘Avoid all doing and +undoing, and when America has established a stable order of affairs, +then it will be time enough to make laws.’ Mabini, whose +influence at that time was in the ascendant in Aguinaldo’s +government, paid no heed to this wise advice. In October of 1898, while +the Philippine government was established in Malolos, and before +congress <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2471" href="#xd21e2471" +name="xd21e2471">76</a>]</span>had promulgated a Philippine +constitution, Messrs. Arellano and Pardo<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2473src" href="#xd21e2473" name="xd21e2473src">25</a> still more +earnestly advocated union with America, the first as secretary of +foreign affairs and the latter as chief diplomat. Their plan consisted +in asking the United States to acknowledge the independence of the +country under a protectorate through the mediation of General Otis, and +this plan was accepted at a cabinet meeting by Don Emilio Aguinaldo. +But on the following day Sandico came and told Aguinaldo that he had +had a conference with the Japanese consul and had been told by him: +‘that if Aguinaldo would support absolute independence the +Japanese Government would help.’ Aguinaldo believed +Sandico’s story (which turned out to be absolutely false) and did +not carry out the resolution adopted by the cabinet. Messrs. Arellano +and Pardo, after this affront, separated themselves from the Malolos +government. Aguinaldo told me afterwards that he had received a letter +from Agoncillo, dated Washington, assuring him that a majority of the +American people were inclined to acknowledge the independence of the +Philippines and of Cuba.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2476src" +href="#xd21e2476" name="xd21e2476src">26</a></p> +</div> +<p>But annexationists were not confined, in the Philippines, to the +vicinity of Manila.</p> +<p>As late as September 6 Consul Williams reported that a delegation +from four thousand Visayan soldiers, a delegation which also +represented southern business interests, had come to him and pledged +loyalty to annexation.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2483src" href= +"#xd21e2483" name="xd21e2483src">27</a></p> +<p>Clearly, then, the situation early in September was as follows: All +were agreed that the assistance of the United States was necessary in +getting rid of Spanish sovereignty.</p> +<p>Under the plan of Aguinaldo and his followers friendly relations +were to be maintained with the United States, if possible, until Spain +was ousted from her Philippine territory, and then they were to +“show their teeth,” and see “who was deceiving +whom,” resorting to “force of arms” if necessary. +Protection or annexation would be accepted only when it could be +clearly seen that the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2490" href= +"#xd21e2490" name="xd21e2490">77</a>]</span>recognition of +independence, won either by force of arms or by diplomacy, was +impossible.</p> +<p>Other influential and patriotic Filipinos favored annexation to the +United States or a United States protectorate, but their views were in +the end ignored by Aguinaldo and his following, and as the latter had +the guns their ideas prevailed.</p> +<p>The Treaty of Paris, which terminated Spanish sovereignty in the +Philippines, was signed on December 10, 1898. It is important to bear +this date in mind later, when considering the Insurgent records +relative to the preparations which were so carefully made for attacking +the American troops.</p> +<p>And now let us consider the actual facts as to the coöperation +alleged to have been asked by Americans and given by Filipinos. The +following points are not in dispute:—</p> +<p>Pratt asked Aguinaldo to coöperate with Dewey.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo was taken to Manila with the understanding that he would +do so.</p> +<p>Dewey assisted Aguinaldo by destroying the main Spanish fleet; by +bringing him and his associates back to the Philippines; by furnishing +them arms and ammunition; by blockading Manila and by keeping at a safe +distance the Spanish mosquito fleet, which would have made dangerous, +or impossible, the landing of the arms subsequently imported by the +Insurgents.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo successfully attacked the Spanish garrisons in the +provinces and used the arms and ammunition captured, or brought in by +deserters, to equip a force which surrounded and attacked Manila, drove +large numbers of people into the walled city, thus rendering the +position of the Spanish garrison very difficult in the face of a +possible bombardment, and prevented this garrison from betaking itself +to the provinces, as it might otherwise have done, leaving Manila to +shift for itself.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo was powerless to take the place by assault. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2509" href="#xd21e2509" name= +"xd21e2509">78</a>]</span></p> +<p>It lay at the mercy of Dewey’s guns, and it would have been +possible for the Admiral to take it at any time, but he could not at +first have garrisoned it with United States forces, and never thought +of attempting to use Insurgent forces for this purpose.</p> +<p>Did Dewey really want or need Aguinaldo’s help? Let us +consider his testimony on the subject:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. You did want a man +there who could organize and rouse the people?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I didn’t want anybody. I would +like to say now that Aguinaldo and his people were forced on me by +Consul Pratt and Consul Wildman; I didn’t do anything—</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. Did they have any power to force him +upon you?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes; they had in a way. They had not +the official power, but one will yield after a while to constant +pressure. I did not expect anything of them; I did not think they would +do anything. I would not have taken them; I did not want them; I did +not believe in them; because, when I left Hongkong, I was led to +suppose that the country was in a state of insurrection, and that at my +first gun, as Mr. Williams put it, there would be a general uprising, +and I thought these half dozen or dozen refugees at Hongkong would play +a very small part in it.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2535src" +href="#xd21e2535" name="xd21e2535src">28</a></p> +</div> +<p>The picture of the poor admiral, busy getting his fleet ready for +battle, pestered by officious consuls on the one hand and by +irresponsible Filipinos on the other, is pathetic; but it had its +humorous features, which were not lost on the Admiral himself. I quote +the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Was there any +communication between you and Pratt in which the matter of a written +pledge or agreement with Aguinaldo was discussed with reference to the +Philippine Islands?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. No.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. What became of the correspondence, +Admiral, if you know?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. It is all in the Navy Department. When +I turned over my command my official correspondence was all sent to the +Navy Department. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2561" href= +"#xd21e2561" name="xd21e2561">79</a>]</span>“<i>Senator +Patterson</i>. You retained all of your letters from any United States +officials?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. No; they went to the Department.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. I mean you did not destroy +them.</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. No; I did not destroy them.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. And you turned them over to the +Navy Department?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes; our regulations require that. I +may say that for my own information I kept copies of certain telegrams +and cablegrams. I don’t think I kept copies of Mr. Pratt’s +letters, as I did not consider them of much value. He seemed to be a +sort of busybody there and interfering in other people’s business +and I don’t think his letters impressed me.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. He was the consul-general?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes; but he had nothing to do with the +attack on Manila, you know.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. I understand that.</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I received lots of advice, you +understand, from many irresponsible people.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. But Pratt was the consul-general of +the Government there?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes; he was consul-general.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. And he communicated with you, +giving you such information as he thought you might be interested in, +and among other information he gave you was this concerning +Aguinaldo?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I don’t remember; no, I really +don’t remember his telling me anything about Aguinaldo more than +that cablegram there, and I said he might come. And you see how much +importance I attached to him; I did not wait for him.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. What you said was: ‘Tell +Aguinaldo to come as soon as possible.’</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes; but I did not wait a moment for +him.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Yes; but there was a reason for +that.</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I think more to get rid of him than +anything else.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. Rid of whom?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Of Aguinaldo and the Filipinos. They +were bothering me. I was very busy getting my squadron ready for +battle, and these little men were coming on board my ship at Hongkong +and taking a good deal of my time, and I did not attach the slightest +importance to anything they <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2663" +href="#xd21e2663" name="xd21e2663">80</a>]</span>could do, and they did +nothing; that is, none of them went with me when I went to Mirs Bay. +There had been a good deal of talk, but when the time came they did not +go. One of them didn’t go because he didn’t have any +toothbrush.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Burrows</i>. Did he give that as a reason?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes; he said, ‘I have no +toothbrush.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2675src" href= +"#xd21e2675" name="xd21e2675src">29</a></p> +</div> +<p>However, Dewey ultimately yielded to the pressure exercised on him +by Pratt and Wildman, and allowed Aguinaldo and some of his associates +to be brought to Manila. Having them there he proposed to get +assistance from them, not as allies, but as a friendly force attacking +a common enemy, in its own way.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e2682width" id="p012"><img src="images/p012.jpg" +alt="The Return of Mr. Taft" width="720" height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">The Return of Mr. Taft</p> +<p class="first">This photograph, taken on the occasion of the return +of Mr. Taft to the Philippines after his appointment as secretary of +war, shows him in a stand on the Luneta reviewing the procession +organized in his honor, in which thousands of Filipinos +participated.</p> +</div> +<p>Let us continue with his testimony as to cooperation between +Aguinaldo and the naval forces of the United States:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Then, Admiral, until +you knew that they were going to send land forces to your assistance +you thought there was a necessity to organize the Filipinos into land +forces, did you?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. No; not a necessity.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. You thought it might prove of value +to you?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I testified here, I think, in a way +that answers that. I said to Aguinaldo, ‘There is our enemy; now, +you go your way and I will go mine; we had better act +independently.’ That was the wisest thing I ever said.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. But you stated that you were using +these people and they were permitted to organize, that you might use +them.</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. They were assisting us.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Very well, they were to assist you. +Did you not either permit them or encourage them—I do not care +which term you use—to organize into an army, such as it was, that +they might render you such assistance as you needed?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. They were assisting us, but +incidentally they were fighting their enemy; they were fighting an +enemy which had been their enemy for three hundred years. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2731" href="#xd21e2731" name= +"xd21e2731">81</a>]</span>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. I understand +that, Admiral.</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. While assisting us they were fighting +their own battles, too.</p> +<p>“<i>The Chairman</i>. You were encouraging insurrection +against a common enemy with which you were at war?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I think so. I had in my mind an +illustration furnished by the civil war. I was in the South in the +civil war, and the only friends we had in the South were the negroes, +and we made use of them; they assisted us on many occasions. I had that +in mind; I said these people were our friends, and ‘we have come +here and they will help us just exactly as the negroes helped us in the +civil war.’</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. The negroes were expecting their +freedom—</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. The Filipinos were slaves, too.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. What were the Filipinos +expecting?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. They wanted to get rid of the +Spaniards; I do not think they looked much beyond that. I cannot recall +but I have in mind that the one thing they had in their minds was to +get rid of the Spaniards and then to accept us, and that would have +occurred—I have thought that many times—if we had had +troops to occupy Manila on the 1st day of May before the insurrection +got started; these people would have accepted us as their friends, and +they would have been our loyal friends—I don’t know for how +long, but they would have been our friends then.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. You learned from Pratt, or Wildman, +or Williams, very early, did you not, that the Filipinos wanted their +own country and to rule their own country; that that is what they were +expecting?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I heard from Williams that there was an +insurrection there against the Spaniards. The Spaniards were very cruel +to them, and I think they did not look much beyond getting rid of them. +There was one, Dr. Rizal, who had the idea of independence, but I +don’t think that Aguinaldo had much idea of it.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. Then what useful purpose did the +Filipino army serve; why did you want the Filipino army at all?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I did not want them.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. Did you not want the Filipino +forces?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. No, not really. It was their own idea +coming over there. We could have taken the city at any moment we had +the troops to occupy it.”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2803" href="#xd21e2803" name= +"xd21e2803">82</a>]</span></p> +<p>Admiral Dewey has made the following statements relative to the +importance of Aguinaldo’s military operations:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Then he began operations toward Manila, and he +did wonderfully well. He whipped the Spaniards battle after battle, and +finally put one of those old smoothbore guns on a barge, and he wanted +to take this up—wanted me to tow it up so he could attack the +city with it. I said, ‘Oh, no, no; we can do nothing until our +troops come.’ I knew he could not take the city without the +assistance of the navy, without my assistance, and I knew that what he +was doing—driving the Spaniards in—was saving our own +troops, because our own men perhaps would have had to do that same +thing. He and I were always on the most friendly terms; we had never +had any differences. He considered me as his liberator, as his friend. +I think he had the highest admiration for us because we had whipped the +Spaniards who had been riding them down for three hundred years.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i> (continuing). You sent this short +dispatch to the Secretary of the Navy:—</p> +<p>“‘Aguinaldo, the revolutionary leader, visited the +<i>Olympia</i> yesterday. He expects to make general attack on May 31. +Doubt his ability to succeed. Situation remains unchanged.’</p> +<p>“Do you recall that visit?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. He came to tell you, did he, that +he was going to make a general attack, and you—</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. And you doubted his ability to +succeed?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. And he wanted me to assist him. He +wanted me to tow one of his guns up into position. I knew he could not +take the city; of course he could not.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Did you urge that he should not +make the attack?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I do not remember that; very likely I +did.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. And was he not persuaded or +restrained by you from doing so?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I do not remember; but it is very +likely. I did not want to see a lot of them killed unnecessarily, +because I knew they could not take that walled city. They had +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2869" href="#xd21e2869" name= +"xd21e2869">83</a>]</span>no artillery, and they could not take it, I +knew very well, and I wanted the situation to remain as it was until +our troops came to occupy it.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. But you found that whenever you +expressed a strong objection to anything being done at that time that +Aguinaldo yielded to your request?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Up to the time the army came he did +everything I requested. I had not much to do with him after the army +came.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2881src" href="#xd21e2881" +name="xd21e2881src">30</a></p> +</div> +<p>But Dewey’s influence over Aguinaldo was not sufficient to +prevent his looting, as the following extracts from his testimony +show:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Is that what you mean +when you say he looted—that he made reprisals for his army, took +provisions and whatever was necessary? That is what you meant?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. That is one part of it.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. This was taking provisions for the +use of the army?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. That is one thing he did.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. You said you did not object to that +at the time?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. No. It would have been useless; he got +beyond me very soon—he got out of my hands very soon.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e2917src" href="#xd21e2917" name= +"xd21e2917src">31</a></p> +<p>“<i>Senator Carmack</i>. You said yesterday you suspected that +Aguinaldo took the lion’s share of the provisions that were +gathered for the army. What was the ground upon which you made that +accusation?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Because he was living in Malolos like a +prince, like a king, in a way that could only have come about by his +taking the lion’s share. Then, in regard to his looting, I repeat +what I said yesterday. He began within forty-eight hours after he +landed in Cavite to capture and take everything he wanted. I know these +things of my own knowledge, because I saw the loot brought in; and I +know that every dollar that was taken from the workingmen at the +navy-yard was taken at the threat of death.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2932src" href="#xd21e2932" name="xd21e2932src">32</a></p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Do you believe in this proclamation +he was uttering falsehoods to the Filipino people? <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2944" href="#xd21e2944" name= +"xd21e2944">84</a>]</span></p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes; I do absolutely. I think he was +there for gain—for money—that independence had never up to +that time entered his head. He was there for loot and money. That is +what I believe, since you ask me my belief; I believe that +implicitly.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e2950src" href="#xd21e2950" name= +"xd21e2950src">33</a></p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. And you found nothing to cause any +doubt as to his loyalty up to the time until after Manila +surrendered?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. His loyalty to whom?</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. To you and to the cause for which +he was fighting?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I began to suspect he was not loyal to +us about the time our troops arrived, when he demurred at moving out of +Cavite to make room for our troops.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. Do you mean by that that you feared +that he was commencing to think more of independence than the success +of the American cause?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Yes.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2986src" href="#xd21e2986" name="xd21e2986src">34</a></p> +</div> +<p>We have seen to what extent Aguinaldo coöperated with the +marine forces of the United States. Now let us examine the claim that +he cooperated with the land forces after their arrival.</p> +<p>One of the things which the Insurgents are said to have accomplished +was the maintenance of an effective land blockade which prevented the +entrance of provisions, and produced a very serious food shortage. Both +Otis and Dewey have stated that they did this, but we learn from the +Insurgent records how erroneous was this conclusion.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e2995src" href="#xd21e2995" name="xd21e2995src">35</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3007" href="#xd21e3007" name= +"xd21e3007">85</a>]</span></p> +<p>The landing of the American troops for the attack on Manila was not +actively opposed by the Filipinos, but it was narrowly and +distrustfully watched.</p> +<p>Necessary transportation requested by General Anderson was +ultimately furnished by Aguinaldo, but only grudgingly after a three +weeks’ delay, and as a result of threats that it would be seized +if not voluntarily supplied.</p> +<p>The necessary positions in the trenches around Manila from which to +make the attack on that city were, in part at least, yielded to the +Americans by the Filipinos upon the request of the former.</p> +<p>The Insurgents twice informed the Spaniards in advance of projected +American attacks.</p> +<p>They carried out their own attack on the city without regard to the +plans, or the requests, of the Americans. They secretly treated with +the Spaniards in the endeavour to secure the surrender of the city to +themselves. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3019" href="#xd21e3019" +name="xd21e3019">86</a>]</span></p> +<p>After the capitulation to the Americans had been agreed upon, and on +the very morning of the day of the surrender, they endeavoured to push +home an attack. Disregarding the request that they keep out of the +final assault, they crowded into the city with, and after, the American +troops. They fired on Spanish soldiers on the city wall while a flag of +truce was flying, provoking a return fire which killed and wounded +American soldiers.</p> +<p>They demanded for themselves Malacañang palace and other +buildings and a share in “the war booty.” They promptly +looted the parts of the city which they occupied, and ultimately +retired from their positions within the city limits on the evening of +their last day of grace after being warned by General Otis that if they +did not do so they would be driven out.</p> +<p>I will now quote from the records in support of these +statements.</p> +<p>The following is the programme of “coöperation” +outlined to Aguinaldo by Bray in a letter dated June 30, +1898:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I am very anxious to receive the news of the +capitulation of Manila and I hope that General Augustín will be +obliged to turn over his sword to you in person and not to the +Americans. You are by right entitled to it and I should like to see it +so from a political standpoint, as I am of the opinion that you should +declare the independence of the Philippines before the arrival of +General Merritt, appointed by the President to be Governor with full +powers to establish a provisional government.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>Any attempt on the part of the Americans to garrison the interior +towns with their troops or any other act which might be construed as a +conquest, should meet with resistance.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“After having written these lines, I had another conference +with Mr. St. Clair of the Free Press, who sent for me regarding the +question of independence. He has had a consultation with the Supreme +Judge of this place, and he is of opinion that you should proclaim +independence at once, notwithstanding what Admiral Dewey and Consul +Williams say against it, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3039" +href="#xd21e3039" name="xd21e3039">87</a>]</span>this should be done +before General Merritt can arrive. A Government having been thus +constituted in due form, the Americans would have no right to invade +the Philippines without committing a violation of international law. +They are no longer fighting against the Spaniards against whom they +declared war. The advice of Consul Williams to delay this, is a +diplomatic play to gain time until the arrival of General Merritt, +because he is well aware of the false position said General would find +himself in. The key to the situation is now in your hands; do not +permit any one to take it away from you. The Americans have done +nothing but bombard and destroy the Spanish fleet on the high seas; +they have not conquered any land, but in the meantime the control of +the Philippines has passed by conquest from the hands of the Spaniards +and the Americans have no right to enter further. Under certain +conditions and guarantees, permit the landing of American troops; but +be very careful, they must not be permitted to land until they execute +an agreement with the duly constituted government of the Philippines, +respecting all its institutions, and they must under no pretext +whatever be permitted to garrison any place except the municipal limits +of Manila, Cebú, and Iloílo, and even therein care should +be observed ... You must not permit a single soldier to land without +having these guarantees.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3041src" +href="#xd21e3041" name="xd21e3041src">36</a></p> +</div> +<p>When General Anderson, with the first United States troops of +occupation, arrived at Manila Bay, Aguinaldo did not call on him, as an +“ally” might have been expected to do. Later, however, +Admiral Dewey and General Anderson went to see Aguinaldo, but without +any of the ceremony of an official military call, the Admiral saying to +General Anderson:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Do not take your sword or put on your uniform, +but just put on your blouse. Do not go with any +ceremony.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3049src" href="#xd21e3049" +name="xd21e3049src">37</a></p> +</div> +<p>And they went in that way.</p> +<p>On July 4, 1898, General Anderson wrote Aguinaldo definitely +requesting his coöperation in the following words:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“For these reasons I desire to have the most +amicable relations with you, and to have you and your force +coöperate with us in the military operations against the Spanish +forces.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3059src" href="#xd21e3059" +name="xd21e3059src">38</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3062" href="#xd21e3062" name= +"xd21e3062">88</a>]</span></p> +<p>On July 5 Aguinaldo replied, thanking General Anderson for the</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“amicable sentiments which the natives of these +islands inspire in the Great North American nation,”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3068src" href="#xd21e3068" name= +"xd21e3068src">39</a></p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e3072width" id="p013"><img src="images/p013.jpg" +alt="Governor-general James F. Smith with a Bontoc Igorot Escort" +width="720" height="430"> +<p class="figureHead">Governor-general James F. Smith with a Bontoc +Igorot Escort</p> +<p class="first">Up to the time of Governor-general Smith, no +governor-general had ever penetrated the land of the Luzon +head-hunters. He crossed Bontoc and Ifugao, in company with the author, +in 1907. This photograph shows him on the crewst of the Polis range, at +the boundary line between these two sub-provinces, sixty-four hundred +feet above the sea.</p> +</div> +<p>and also for his desire to have friendly relations with the +Filipinos and treat them with justice, courtesy and kindness. There is, +however, not a word relative to coöperation in his reply, and +Anderson apparently never renewed his request for coöperation in +military operations.</p> +<p>On July 6 he wrote to Aguinaldo again, saying:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I am encouraged by the friendly sentiment +expressed by Your Excellency in your welcome letter received on the 5th +instant, to endeavour to come to a definite understanding, which I hope +will be advantageous to both. Very soon we expect large additional land +forces, and it must be apparent to you as a military officer that we +will require much more room to camp our soldiers and also store room +for our supplies. For this I would like to have Your Excellency’s +advice and coöperation, as you are best acquainted with the +resources of the country.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3086src" +href="#xd21e3086" name="xd21e3086src">40</a></p> +</div> +<p>To this letter there was no reply. However, in a letter dated July +9, 1898, to the Adjutant-General of the United States Army, General +Anderson says of Aguinaldo:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“When we first landed he seemed very suspicious, +and not at all friendly, but I have now come to a better understanding +with him and he is much more friendly and seems willing to +coöperate. But he has declared himself Dictator and President, and +is trying to take Manila without our assistance. This is not probable, +but if he can effect his purpose he will, I apprehend, antagonize any +attempt on our part to establish a provisional +government.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3094src" href= +"#xd21e3094" name="xd21e3094src">41</a></p> +</div> +<p>Evidently, however, coöperation, even in the matter of getting +necessary transportation, did not materialize, for on July 17 S. R. +Jones, Chief Quartermaster, wrote Aguinaldo as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We will want horses, buffaloes, carts, etc., +for transportation, bamboo for shelter, wood to cook with, etc. For all +this <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3103" href="#xd21e3103" name= +"xd21e3103">89</a>]</span>we are willing to pay a fair price, but no +more. We find so far that the native population are not willing to give +us this assistance as promptly as required. But we must have it, and if +it becomes necessary we will be compelled to send out parties to seize +what we may need. We would regret very much to do this, as we are here +to befriend the Filipinos. Our nation has spent millions in money to +send forces here to expel the Spaniards and to give good government to +the whole people, and the return we are asking is comparatively +slight.</p> +<p>“General Anderson wishes you to inform your people that we are +here for their good, and that they must supply us with labor and +material at the current market prices. We are prepared to purchase five +hundred horses at a fair price, but cannot undertake to bargain for +horses with each individual owner.”</p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo sent this letter by a staff officer to General Anderson +inquiring whether it was sent by authority of the latter, who then +indorsed on it in a statement that it was. Nevertheless, Major Jones +reported on July 20 that it was impossible to secure transportation +except upon Aguinaldo’s order and that the natives had removed +their cart wheels and hidden them, from which it is to be inferred that +the transportation requested had not been furnished.</p> +<p>Obviously General Anderson was informed that Aguinaldo had given +orders against furnishing the transportation desired, for on July 21 he +wrote the Adjutant-General of the Army as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Since I wrote last, Aguinaldo has put in +operation an elaborate system of military government, under his assumed +authority as Dictator, and has prohibited any supplies being given us, +except by his order. As Go this last, I have written to him that our +requisitions on the country for horses, ox carts, fuel, and bamboo (to +make scaling ladders) must be filled, and that he must aid in having +them filled.”</p> +</div> +<p>On July 23 General Anderson wrote Aguinaldo as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">General</span>: When I came +here three weeks ago I requested Your Excellency to give what +assistance you could to procure <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3124" href="#xd21e3124" name="xd21e3124">90</a>]</span>means of +transportation for the American Army, as it was to fight the cause of +your people. So far we have received no response.</p> +<p>“As you represent your people, I now have the honor to make +requisition on you for five hundred horses and fifty oxen and ox carts. +If you cannot secure these I will have to pass you and make requisition +directly on the people.</p> +<p>“I beg leave to request an answer at your earliest +convenience.</p> +<p>“I remain with great respect, etc.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e3132src" href="#xd21e3132" name="xd21e3132src">42</a></p> +</div> +<p>To this letter, Aguinaldo replied as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Replying to your letter of yesterday, I have +the honor to manifest to Your Excellency that I am surprised beyond +measure at that which you say to me in it, lamenting the non-receipt of +any response relative to the assistance that you have asked of me in +the way of horses, carabaos, and carts, because I did reply through the +bearer that I was disposed to issue proper orders whenever you advised +me of the number of these, giving me notice in advance.</p> +<p>“I have sent orders to the nearest provinces in order that +within the shortest time possible horses be brought for sale, but I +cannot assure Your Excellency that we will have the number of 500 that +you need, because there are not many horses in this vicinity, owing to +deaths from epizoötic diseases in January, February, and March +last.</p> +<p>“Whenever we have them collected, I shall have the pleasure to +advise Your Excellency.</p> +<p>“I have also ordered to be placed at my disposal 50 carts that +I shall place at your disposition when you need them, provided you give +me previous notice four days in advance.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3146src" href="#xd21e3146" name="xd21e3146src">43</a></p> +</div> +<p>General Anderson replied:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Your favour of the 26th ultimo in relation to +requisitions for cattle, horses, etc., is satisfactory I regret that +there should have been any misunderstanding about it. The people to +whom we applied even for the hiring of carromatas, etc., told our +people that they had orders to supply nothing except by your orders. I +am pleased to think that this was a misapprehension on their +part.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3156src" href="#xd21e3156" +name="xd21e3156src">44</a></p> +</div> +<p>From this series of communications it appears that it took three +weeks, and a very direct threat to seize transportation, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3163" href="#xd21e3163" name= +"xd21e3163">91</a>]</span>to bring about Aguinaldo’s promise of +assistance in securing it. What help had he given, meanwhile, in other +matters?</p> +<p>On July 14, 1899, General Anderson wrote asking him to assist +American officers in making reconnaissance of the approaches to Manila, +and to favor them with his advice.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3167src" +href="#xd21e3167" name="xd21e3167src">45</a></p> +<p>On July 19, 1899, he again wrote Aguinaldo asking him to allow Major +J. F. Bell,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3172src" href="#xd21e3172" name= +"xd21e3172src">46</a> who was gathering information for General +Merritt, to see maps, and further requesting him to place at +Bell’s disposal any available information about the force of the +enemy and the topography of the country.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3175src" href="#xd21e3175" name="xd21e3175src">47</a></p> +<p>On July 21 he wrote again asking for passes for a Lieutenant E. I. +Bryan and party, who were making a reconnaissance.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e3181src" href="#xd21e3181" name="xd21e3181src">48</a></p> +<p>Such records as I have been able to find do not show what response, +if any, Aguinaldo made to these several requests, but General +Anderson’s original views as to the willingness of the Insurgents +to coöperate with him underwent an early change, for on July 18, +1898, in a letter to the Adjutant-General of the United States Army he +makes the following statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The Insurgent chief, Aguinaldo, has declared +himself Dictator and self-appointed President. He has declared martial +law and promulgated a minute method of rule and administration under +it.</p> +<p>“We have observed all official military courtesies, and he and +his followers express great admiration and gratitude to the great +American republic of the north, yet in many ways they obstruct our +purposes and are using every effort to take Manila without us.</p> +<p>“I suspect also that Aguinaldo is secretly negotiating with +the Spanish authorities, as his confidential aide is in +Manila.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3194src" href="#xd21e3194" +name="xd21e3194src">49</a></p> +</div> +<p>This suspicion was entirely justified, as we shall see later.</p> +<p>On July 24 Aguinaldo wrote a letter to General Anderson in effect +warning him not to disembark American <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3202" href="#xd21e3202" name="xd21e3202">92</a>]</span>troops in +places conquered by the Filipinos from the Spaniards without first +communicating in writing the places to be occupied and the object of +the occupation.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3204src" href="#xd21e3204" +name="xd21e3204src">50</a></p> +<p>Aguinaldo’s assumption of civil authority on July 15, 1899, +did not pass unnoticed. On July 21 General Anderson wrote the +Adjutant-General of the army concerning it:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“His assumption of civil authority I have +ignored, and let him know verbally that I could, and would, not +recognize it, while I did not recognize him as a military leader. It +may seem strange that I have made no formal protest against his +proclamation as Dictator, his declaration of martial law, and +publication and execution of a despotic form of government. I wrote +such a protest, but did not publish it, at Admiral Dewey’s +request, and also for fear of wounding the susceptibilities of +Major-General Merritt, but I have let it be known in every other way +that we do not recognize the Dictatorship. These people only respect +force and firmness. I submit, with all deference, that we have +heretofore underrated the natives. They are not ignorant, savage +tribes, but have a civilization of their own; and although +insignificant in appearance, are fierce fighters, and for a tropical +people they are industrious. A small detail of natives will do more +work in a given time than a regiment of volunteers.”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3216" href="#xd21e3216" name= +"xd21e3216">93</a>]</span></p> +<p>Because he was invited as general rather than as president, +Aguinaldo refused to attend a parade and review on the 4th of July. +This fact is, in itself, an answer to his claim that the Americans were +tacitly recognizing his pretensions.</p> +<p>After referring to this incident, Blount says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On subsequent anniversaries of the day in the +Philippines it was deemed wise simply to prohibit the reading of our +declaration before gatherings of the Filipino people. It saved +discussion.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3224src" href= +"#xd21e3224" name="xd21e3224src">51</a></p> +</div> +<p>This statement is incorrect. I myself was present the following year +when the declaration was read on the Luneta to a considerable gathering +of Filipinos among whom were many school children, and it has often +been read since.</p> +<p>The landing of American troops at Parañaque and their going +into camp near that town on July 15 caused much excitement, and a +lively interchange of telegrams between Insurgent officers +followed.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3231src" href="#xd21e3231" name= +"xd21e3231src">52</a></p> +<p>They were suspicious of the intentions of the Americans,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3243src" href="#xd21e3243" name= +"xd21e3243src">53</a> and trouble soon began.</p> +<p>On July 16 General Noriel telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:— +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3251" href="#xd21e3251" name= +"xd21e3251">94</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“An American has come here who says that he is a +Colonel of the Army whom we should obey; and that it is your desire. We +did not listen to him, awaiting your order.”</p> +</div> +<p>On the back of the telegram is written the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Reply.—You should not obey. What this +American Colonel says is a lie. Be cautious so as not to be deceived. +You should require from him proof. Be always vigilant, but upright, +also all of the officers and soldiers must be strict and not +timid.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3262src" href="#xd21e3262" +name="xd21e3262src">54</a></p> +</div> +<p>Obviously there was no real coöperation between American and +Filipino troops at this time. General Anderson ignored General +Aguinaldo’s request for information as to places where American +troops were to land in Filipino territory and the objects of +disembarking them.</p> +<p>The Americans proceeded with their plans for the attack upon Manila, +and it became desirable to occupy some of the Insurgent trenches. On +July 29 Arévalo telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In conference with General Greene I asked for +an official letter, a copy of which I send you: ‘Headquarters 2nd +Brigade, U. S. Expeditionary Forces, Camp Dewey, near Manila, July +29th, 1898. <span class="sc">El Señor Noriel, General de +Brigade</span>. Sir: In pursuance of our conversation of yesterday and +the message which Captain Arévalo brought to me during the +night, I beg to inform you that my troops will occupy the intrenchments +between the Camino Real and the beach, leaving camp for that purpose at +8.00 o’clock this morning. I will be obliged if you will give the +necessary orders for the withdrawal of your men. Thanking you for your +courtesy, I remain, very respectfully, your obedient servant, +<span class="sc">F. V. Greene, Brigadier General</span>, +commanding.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3278src" href= +"#xd21e3278" name="xd21e3278src">55</a></p> +</div> +<p>This clear direct declaration of intention by General Greene is the +actual transaction referred to by Blount as “Jockeying the +Insurgents out of their trenches.” He bases his statements +concerning the matter on a newspaper report. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3283" href="#xd21e3283" name= +"xd21e3283">95</a>]</span></p> +<p>The attitude of the army officers in the matter of obtaining +permission to occupy the trenches needed in preparing for the assault +on the city could not have been more correct.</p> +<p>On August 10 General Merritt gave the following emphatic +instructions relative to the matter:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“No rupture with Insurgents. This is imperative. +Can ask Insurgent generals or Aguinaldo for permission to occupy their +trenches, but if refused not to use force.”</p> +</div> +<p>On the same day General Anderson wrote to Aguinaldo, asking +permission to occupy a trench facing blockhouse No. 14, in order to +place artillery to destroy it. The permission was granted on the +following day.</p> +<p>During the early part of August, Aguinaldo seems to have avoided +conferences with American officers. On the second of the month Mabini +wrote him how he had put off Admiral Dewey’s aid with a false +statement that he did not know Aguinaldo’s whereabouts.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3296src" href="#xd21e3296" name= +"xd21e3296src">56</a></p> +<p>The landing of American troops at Parañaque for the assault +on Manila led to the concentration of Insurgent troops at the +neighbouring town of Bacoor.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3301src" href= +"#xd21e3301" name="xd21e3301src">57</a></p> +<p>On August 8 Fernando Acevedo<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3309src" +href="#xd21e3309" name="xd21e3309src">58</a> wrote to General +Pío <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3315" href="#xd21e3315" +name="xd21e3315">96</a>]</span>del Pilar that the Americans were going +to attack the next day and that,—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It is requisite and necessary before their +attack takes place to-morrow, that you to-morrow or to-night annihilate +them, sparing none, for the way they have deceived us, and will again +without fail, in the contract signed by Sr. Emilio; and convince +yourself, my friend, that it is necessary to do this; and when it is +done the whole world will wonder and say that we have done well, and +will not be able to give out that the people here are fools spending +the time sucking their fingers.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3320src" href="#xd21e3320" name="xd21e3320src">59</a></p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e3324width" id="p014"><img src="images/p014.jpg" +alt="Governor-general Forbes in the Wild Man’s Country" width= +"720" height="414"> +<p class="figureHead">Governor-general Forbes in the Wild Man’s +Country</p> +<p class="first">Mr. Forbes has made frequent trips through the wild +man’s country in Northern Luzon, and knows it from end to end. +Its people know and like him. This photograph shows a crowd of Ifugaos +welcoming him on his arrival at Banaue in May, 1913. They are clapping +their hands over their heads in true Ifugao fashion.</p> +</div> +<p>Worse yet, information was sent to the Spaniards of the proposed +American attack on the 13th instant, as is shown by the following +letter:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“(Battalion of Cazadores, No. 2. Expeditionary. +Office of the Lieutenant-Colonel. Private.)</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Señor Don Artemio +Ricarte</span>:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3341src" href="#xd21e3341" +name="xd21e3341src">60</a></p> +<p>“My Dear Sir: I have received to-day your kind letter giving +warning of the attack on Manila, and I thank you for your personal +interest in me, which, on my part, I reciprocate. I assure you that I +am yours, most truly and sincerely,</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Luis Martinez Alcobendas</span>.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Singalon</span>, August 10, +1898.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3356src" href="#xd21e3356" +name="xd21e3356src">61</a></p> +</div> +<p>According to Taylor, this was not the first occurrence of this sort. +He says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The officers of the United States Army who +believed that the insurgents were informing the Spaniards of the +American movements were right. Sastrón has printed a letter from +Pío del Pilar, dated July 30, to the Spanish officer commanding +at Santa Ana, in which Pilar said that Aguinaldo had told him that the +Americans would attack the Spanish lines on August 2 and advised that +the Spaniards should not give way, but hold their positions. Pilar +added, however, that if the Spaniards should fall back on the walled +city and surrender Santa Ana to himself, he would hold it with his own +men. Aguinaldo’s information was correct, and on August 2 eight +American soldiers were killed or wounded by the Spanish +fire.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3364src" href="#xd21e3364" +name="xd21e3364src">62</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3367" href="#xd21e3367" name= +"xd21e3367">97</a>]</span></p> +<p>Taylor continues:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“And yet Aguinaldo claimed to be an ally of the +Americans. It is not probable that these were the only two such letters +written. Aguinaldo had by this time found out that although he could +defeat the scattered Spanish detachments, he could not defeat the +Spanish force holding the lines of Manila. He did not want the +Americans in the Philippines. They were in his way, and he had already +made up his mind that if they did not give him what he wanted, he would +drive them out by force. He saw very early that it was extremely +improbable that he should obtain from them what he wanted; accordingly +all losses both among Spaniards and Americans would, from +Aguinaldo’s point of view, inure to his benefit. The best +possible thing for him would be to hold his own force intact while they +wore each other out. The Spanish losses, small as they were, occurred +in front of the American lines, not in front of the Filipinos. There is +no reason, accordingly, for believing that the Filipinos suffered +heavily. To arrange that the Spaniards should inflict losses upon the +Americans, while he saved his own men, showed ingenuity on the part of +Aguinaldo; but it was decidedly not the conduct of an +ally.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3373src" href="#xd21e3373" +name="xd21e3373src">63</a></p> +</div> +<p>The feeling toward the American troops at this time is further shown +by a telegram from General Pío del Pilar, sent from San Pedro +Macati on August 10, 1898:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Commandant Acebedo writes that the Spaniards +are about to surrender because they want to turn over the place; the +Americans want them to leave only the batteries and say that they will +station themselves in said batteries. It appears that they want to +deceive us; they do not want to give us arms, and if they do not give +us arms, we shall attack them and drive them out. I await your +reply.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3381src" href="#xd21e3381" +name="xd21e3381src">64</a></p> +</div> +<p>This is perhaps not quite the kind of coöperation that Admiral +Dewey and Generals Anderson and Merritt had expected.</p> +<p>The truth is that the Insurgents were determined to capture Manila +for themselves, not only because of the “war booty,” for +which they were hungry, but because of the status which they felt that +the taking of the capital <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3388" +href="#xd21e3388" name="xd21e3388">98</a>]</span>of the Philippines +would assure them. The great importance which they attached to this +plan is shown in communications written by Agoncillo, Aguinaldo and +others.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3390src" href="#xd21e3390" name= +"xd21e3390src">65</a></p> +<p>Of conditions at this time, Taylor says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On July 7, Aguinaldo appointed Artemio Ricarte +and Pantaleón García to negotiate the surrender of Manila +by the Spaniards to him (Exhibit 155). On July 5 Pantaleón +García was planning to enter Manila by way of Tondo or of Santa +Cruz (P.I.R., 243.7). On the 9th Aguinaldo ordered that rice should be +gathered from the towns of Manila Province for the use of his troops in +the decisive attack upon Manila which he intended making in a few days +(P.I.R., 1087. 5).</p> +<p>“Aguinaldo, finding that his chance of obtaining Manila for +himself was growing steadily less, now determined to force himself into +the city with the Americans and demand a consideration for the +assistance he had rendered them during the siege. It is true he had +assisted them, but his assistance had not been intentional. It was the +result of the operations he was carrying on for his own ends. The +operations of the Filipinos and the Americans were against Spain as a +common enemy of both; but the operations were not joint operations, and +although their purpose was a common purpose, it was not a mutual one. +On August 8 Aguinaldo appointed General <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3409" href="#xd21e3409" name="xd21e3409">99</a>]</span>Ricarte +commander in the operations about Manila, ordered him to respect the +property of all foreigners, and told him that in case his troops +succeeded in entering Manila they were to carry their flag and plant it +there (P.I.R., 703. 2). Judging from an unsigned draft of a letter, he +must have warned the foreign consuls in Manila about the same time to +gather under the protection of their flags all of their fellow-citizens +who had not taken refuge on the vessels in the bay, so that when his +troops entered the city no foreign lives would be taken, and no foreign +property would be injured. The earnestness with which he urged that all +foreigners not Spaniards should take steps to identify themselves and +their property shows that he considered the persons and property of +Spanish civilians as fair booty of war.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3411src" href="#xd21e3411" name="xd21e3411src">66</a></p> +</div> +<p>There was certainly no need of Insurgent assistance in the assault +on Manila.</p> +<p>The reports which reached Aguinaldo that the surrender of Manila had +been agreed upon in advance were correct, as is shown by the following +testimony of Admiral Dewey:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. When did you reach an +understanding with the Spanish commander upon the subject,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3424src" href="#xd21e3424" name= +"xd21e3424src">67</a>—how long before the 12th or 13th of +August?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. Several days before.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. To whom did you communicate the +arrangement that you had?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. General Merritt and, of course, all of +my own captains—General Merritt, and I think a council of +officers on board of one of the steamers. I think there were several +army officers present when I told the General that; and I may say here +that I do not think General Merritt took much stock in it.</p> +<p>“<i>Senator Patterson</i>. What statement did you make to +them, Admiral, in substance?</p> +<p>“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. That the Spaniards were ready to +surrender, but before doing so I must engage one of the outlying forts. +I selected one at Malate, away from the city.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3452src" href="#xd21e3452" name="xd21e3452src">68</a> They said I +must engage that and fire for a while, and then I was to make a signal +by the international code, ‘Do you surrender?’ Then they +were to hoist a white flag at a certain bastion; and <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3455" href="#xd21e3455" name= +"xd21e3455">100</a>]</span>I may say now that I was the first one to +discover the white flag. We had 50 people looking for that white flag, +but I happened to be the first one who saw it. I fired for a while, and +then made the signal according to the programme. We could not see the +white flag—it was rather a thick day—but finally I +discovered it on the south bastion; I don’t know how long it had +been flying there when I first saw it.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3457src" href="#xd21e3457" name="xd21e3457src">69</a></p> +</div> +<p>On August 12, the day before Manila surrendered, Buencamino +telegraphed Aguinaldo, urging him in the strongest terms to attack that +night so that Americans might be obliged to ask him to stop, with the +result that the Insurgents would be included in the official +negotiations. He further advised Aguinaldo that he must not suspend his +attack because the Americans suspended theirs.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3462src" href="#xd21e3462" name="xd21e3462src">70</a></p> +<p>General Anderson tells us that, on the evening of August 12, he +received an order from General Merritt to notify Aguinaldo to forbid +the Insurgents under his command from entering Manila. This +notification was delivered to Aguinaldo that night, and was received by +him with anger.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3470src" href="#xd21e3470" +name="xd21e3470src">71</a></p> +<p>On the following morning the Insurgents actually made an independent +attack of their own, as planned.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3479src" +href="#xd21e3479" name="xd21e3479src">72</a> It <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3487" href="#xd21e3487" name= +"xd21e3487">101</a>]</span>promptly led to trouble with the Americans, +and at 8 A.M. Aguinaldo received a telegram from General Anderson +sternly warning him not to let his troops enter Manila without the +consent of the American commander on the south side of the Pasig +River.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3489src" href="#xd21e3489" name= +"xd21e3489src">73</a></p> +<p>Aguinaldo apparently took no action in response to this request, +except to direct General Riego de Dios, who was at Cavite, to go with +Buencamino without losing a moment and ask for an explanation, in +writing if possible.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3507src" href= +"#xd21e3507" name="xd21e3507src">74</a></p> +<p>At 10.50 A.M. he telegraphed General Anderson saying that his troops +were being forced, by threats of violence, to retire from positions +which they had taken, and asking Anderson to order his troops to avoid +difficulty with the Insurgent forces. Aguinaldo said that he had +directed his men to aid the American forces if the latter are attacked +by a common enemy, but was discreetly silent on the subject of their +entering Manila.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3515src" href="#xd21e3515" +name="xd21e3515src">75</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3520" +href="#xd21e3520" name="xd21e3520">102</a>]</span></p> +<p>Fifteen minutes later, at 11.05, he received a reply to his telegram +to General Riego de Dios, in which that officer communicated the views +of Araneta<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3523src" href="#xd21e3523" name= +"xd21e3523src">76</a> and Buencamino, who had been unable to find +General Anderson. This important communication follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Most urgent. Araneta and Buencamino having been +consulted in regard to your telegram of to-day, they confirm +capitulation, and in regard to the telegraphic note of General Anderson +they are of the opinion, first that we should continue hostilities +while we ask for an explanation; second, that explanation should be in +the following terms: Inquire reason for note and ask why our troops are +not to enter Manila without permission of the American commander; +third, in case the (terms of?) capitulation is given as the reason, to +answer that we do not suspend our attempt to enter Manila. Its +capitulation is not favourable to our independence. General Anderson is +not here. General Merritt is probably in Manila. Only Admiral Dewey is +in the Bay. We ask authorization to express our explanation in the +proposed terms and to have a conference with Admiral Dewey in order to +have our claims reach General Merritt.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3529src" href="#xd21e3529" name="xd21e3529src">77</a></p> +</div> +<p>An endorsement written by Mabini and signed by Aguinaldo on the +above paper reads:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I authorize every assertion of right, but state +that we believe that we have the right to enter Manila without +permission as we have a part in the surrender of the Spaniards. They +would not have surrendered if our troops had not cut off their retreat +to the interior. Besides but for us the landing of troops would have +cost them much blood. Obtain an answer as soon as possible in order to +lay a protest before the consuls in case it is +necessary.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3537src" href="#xd21e3537" +name="xd21e3537src">78</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3542" href="#xd21e3542" name= +"xd21e3542">103</a>]</span></p> +<p>Naturally, trouble followed. At 1.30 P.M. General Ricarte +telegraphed to Aguinaldo:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Americans wish to put us out. Give +directions.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3548src" href= +"#xd21e3548" name="xd21e3548src">79</a></p> +</div> +<p>Apparently about the same hour he wired more at length, as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Most urgent. American troops rearguard our +trenches. Mabolo and San José warn us that they will fire on us +when the time comes. Impossible to remain there without disagreeing +with them. Since 5 o’clock this morning we have been furiously +attacking. Americans firing incessantly, Spaniards silent. No losses +yet.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3556src" href="#xd21e3556" name= +"xd21e3556src">80</a></p> +</div> +<p>At 3.52 he wired again:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“General Pío del Pilar informs me of the +following: ‘Come here, if possible, as our soldiers at the barrio +of Concepción are not allowed to go out and we are prohibited to +move on any farther. We it was who succeeded in capturing that place. +Come here or there will be trouble, since they are driving me away, and +refusing to listen to what I say.’ I am at this very moment going +to aforesaid place.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3566src" href= +"#xd21e3566" name="xd21e3566src">81</a></p> +</div> +<p>At 5 P.M. another was sent by Ricarte to Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Colonel San Miguel arrived here from Ermita. +Regional Exposition, Agricultural College and other buildings are ours. +Our flag flies already at Ermita. Colonel Agapito Donzón with +his troops is in the Pérez building, Paco. Colonels Julian +Ocampo and Isidoro Tolentino are in the convent of Ermita. All houses +without flag are guarded by our soldiers.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3576src" href="#xd21e3576" name="xd21e3576src">82</a></p> +</div> +<p>At 6.15 P.M. he telegraphed as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I inform you that the chiefs of our troops have +reported to me that our flag at Singalong church (<i>visita</i>) was +removed by the Americans and they hoisted theirs instead, not allowing +us to approach thereto. General Pío del Pilar is at present at +the barrio of Concepción. Americans prohibited him to move on +any farther. How can he enter Manila?”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3589src" href="#xd21e3589" name="xd21e3589src">83</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3594" href="#xd21e3594" name= +"xd21e3594">104</a>]</span></p> +<p>No attention was paid to General Anderson’s request that the +Insurgent troops should not enter Manila without permission. They +crowded forward with and after the American forces. Coming out on +Bagumbayan drive, they found American and Spanish troops confronting +each other but not firing, the former on the drive, the latter on the +neighbouring city wall. A flag of truce was waving from the south +bastion, nevertheless the Insurgents fired on the Spanish forces, +provoking a return fire which killed and wounded American soldiers. Of +this incident General Greene has said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“At this point the California regiment a short +time before had met some insurgents who had fired at the Spaniards on +the walls, and the latter, in returning the fire, had caused a loss in +the California regiment of 1 killed and 2 wounded.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3600src" href="#xd21e3600" name= +"xd21e3600src">84</a></p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e3605width" id="p015"><img src="images/p015.jpg" +alt="The Philippine Supreme Court" width="720" height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">The Philippine Supreme Court</p> +<p class="first">From left to right, Justice Moreland, Justice Johnson, +Justice Torres, Chief-Justice Arlleano, Justice Mapa, Justice Carson, +and Justice Trent.</p> +</div> +<p>Some of these matters must have come to the attention of General +Anderson, for he sent Aguinaldo a telegram, received by the latter at +6.35 P.M., as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Dated Ermita Headquarters 2nd Division 13 to +Gen. Aguinaldo. Commanding Filipino Forces.—Manila, taken. +Serious trouble threatened between our forces. Try and prevent it. Your +troops should not force themselves in the city until we have received +the full surrender then we will negotiate with you.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Anderson</span>, commanding.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3621src" href="#xd21e3621" name= +"xd21e3621src">85</a></p> +</div> +<p>It appears that the Insurgent troops took the suburb of Santa Ana, +and captured Spanish and Filipino officers and men.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e3626src" href="#xd21e3626" name="xd21e3626src">86</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3635" href="#xd21e3635" name= +"xd21e3635">105</a>]</span></p> +<p>In view of the known facts, how absurd becomes the following +contention of Aguinaldo, advanced in his “Reseña +Verídica:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Our own forces could see the American forces +land on the beach of the Luneta and of the Paseo de Santa Lucía. +The Spanish soldiers, who were on the walls of the city, drew the +attention of every one because they did not fire on the former, a +mystery which was explained at nightfall of that day, by the news of +the capitulation of the place by General Señor +Jáudenes<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3641src" href="#xd21e3641" +name="xd21e3641src">87</a> to the American General, Mr. Merritt, a +capitulation which the American Generals claimed for themselves, an +infraction of what had been agreed upon with Admiral Dewey, in regard +to the formation of plans for the attack and taking of Manila by the +two armies, American and Filipino, together and in combination.</p> +<p>“This inexplicable line of conduct on the part of the American +officers was made clearer by the telegrams, which General Anderson +addressed to me, from Maytubig on the said 13th day, requesting that I +should order our troops not to enter Manila, which request was refused, +inasmuch as it was contrary to what was agreed upon, and to the high +ends of the Revolutionary Government, which, on taking upon itself the +immense work of besieging Manila, during the two months and a half, +sacrificing thousands of lives and millions in material interests, +could not surely have done so with any object other than that of +capturing Manila and the Spanish garrison which with firmness and +tenacity defended that place.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3646src" href="#xd21e3646" name="xd21e3646src">88</a></p> +</div> +<p>On August 14 Aguinaldo telegraphed General Anderson as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“My troops, who have been for so long besieging +Manila, have always been promised that they could appear in it, as you +know and cannot deny, and for this reason, and on account of the many +sacrifices made of money, and lives, I do not consider it prudent to +issue orders to the contrary, as they might be disobeyed against my +authority. Besides, I hope that you will allow the troops to enter +because we have given proofs many <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3654" href="#xd21e3654" name="xd21e3654">106</a>]</span>times of +our friendship, ceding our positions at Parañaque, Pasay, +Singálon and Maytubig. Nevertheless, if it seems best to you, +and in order to enter into a frank and friendly understanding and avoid +any disagreeable conflict before the eyes of the Spaniards, I will +commission Don Felipe Buencamino and others, who will to-day go out +from our lines and hold a conference with you, and that they will be +safe during the conference.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3656src" +href="#xd21e3656" name="xd21e3656src">89</a></p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo and his associates pressed the demand for joint +occupation. On August 13 Admiral Dewey and General Merritt informed the +government that since the occupation of Manila and its suburbs the +Insurgents outside had been insisting on this, and asked how far they +might proceed in enforcing obedience in the matter.</p> +<p>They were informed by a telegram dated August 17 that the President +of the United States had directed:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“That there must be no joint occupation with the +Insurgents. The United States in the possession of Manila city, Manila +bay and harbor must preserve the peace and protect persons and property +within the territory occupied by their military and naval forces. The +insurgents and all others must recognize the military occupation and +authority of the United States and the cessation of hostilities +proclaimed by the President. Use whatever means in your judgment are +necessary to this end.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3666src" href= +"#xd21e3666" name="xd21e3666src">90</a></p> +</div> +<p>This left the military and naval commanders no option in the +premises, and in any event dual occupation was out of the question +because of the lawlessness of the Insurgent troops.</p> +<p>At this very time they were looting the portions of the city which +they occupied, and as is abundantly shown by their own records were not +confining their attacks to Spaniards, but were assaulting their own +people and raiding the property of foreigners as well.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3675src" href="#xd21e3675" name= +"xd21e3675src">91</a> The continuation of such a condition of affairs +was manifestly impossible.</p> +<p>The Insurgents promptly demanded their share in the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3683" href="#xd21e3683" name= +"xd21e3683">107</a>]</span>“war booty,” and asked certain +other extraordinary concessions as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“(4) Our sacrifices in coöperating in the +siege and taking of Manila being well known, it is just that we should +share in the war booty.</p> +<p>“(5) We demand for our use the palace of Malacañang and +the Convents of Malate, Ermita and Paco or San Fernando de Dilao.</p> +<p>“(6) We demand that the civil offices of Manila be filled by +North Americans and never by Spaniards; but if General Merritt should +require some Filipinos we should be pleased if he will grant our +President, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, the favour of recommending select and +skilled Filipinos. The jurisdiction of the authorities of Manila shall +not be recognized beyond the municipal radius.</p> +<p>“(7) The American forces shall not approach nor penetrate our +military positions without permission of the respective commanders +thereof and shall evacuate all the positions which they occupy at the +present time beyond the municipal radius; Spaniards who pass our lines +without permission of the commander will be considered as spies.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“(10) Lastly we state clearly that our concessions and +petitions do not signify on our part that we recognize the sovereignty +of North America in these islands, as they are made necessary by the +present war.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3698src" href= +"#xd21e3698" name="xd21e3698src">92</a></p> +</div> +<p>Under the instructions of the President these demands could not be +acceded to. Nor could they have been acceded to had there been no such +instructions. In this connection the following extract from General +Jáudenes’s cablegram for June 8th to his home government +is highly significant:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Population of suburbs have taken refuge in +walled city from fear of outrages of insurgents, preferring to run +risks of bombardment, which has not yet begun.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e3706src" href="#xd21e3706" name="xd21e3706src">93</a></p> +</div> +<p>It would seem that the population of the suburbs did not have a high +idea of Insurgent discipline. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3712" +href="#xd21e3712" name="xd21e3712">108</a>]</span></p> +<p>That their apprehensions were not groundless is shown by a passage +in a letter sent the following day to Governor-General Augustin by +Buencamino:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Manila being surrounded by land and by sea, +without hope of assistance from anywhere, and Señor Aguinaldo +being disposed to make use of the fleet in order to bombard, if Your +Excellency should prolong the struggle with tenacity, I do not know, +frankly, what else to do other than to succumb dying, but Your +Excellency knows that the entrance of 100,000 Indians,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3718src" href="#xd21e3718" name= +"xd21e3718src">94</a> inflamed with battle, drunk with triumph and with +blood, will produce the hecatomb from which there will not be allowed +to escape either women, children, or Peninsular +friars,—especially the friars; and, I believe that the rights of +humanity, imperilled in such a serious way, should be well considered +by Your Excellency, for however dear glory and military duty may be, +although worth as much or more than existence itself there is no right +by which they should be won at the cost of the rights of humanity, and +the latter outweigh every consideration and all duty.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3724src" href="#xd21e3724" name= +"xd21e3724src">95</a></p> +</div> +<p>Don Felipe knew his own people. He also knew, none better, what they +had in mind at this time.</p> +<p>As it was the Insurgent forces made the most of such opportunity as +they had, and their own records show it.</p> +<p>In the suburbs of Manila they sacked and committed outrages, +threatening people with their arms, and this was still going on a week +after the fall of Manila.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3733src" href= +"#xd21e3733" name="xd21e3733src">96</a></p> +<p>General Pío del Pilar was believed to be responsible for much +of this misconduct, and Mabini proposed that as it was necessary for +him to leave the vicinity of Manila, and they could not remove him by +force, he be promoted.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3741src" href= +"#xd21e3741" name="xd21e3741src">97</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3755" href="#xd21e3755" name="xd21e3755">109</a>]</span></p> +<p>Some time during this month Sandico wrote Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The Americans have already heard of the +frequent cases of kidnapping (<i>dukut</i>) occurring in Tondo, San +Sebastián and San Miguel. Last night some of ours were surprised +in the act of kidnapping a person. I have also heard that many persons +are asking for contributions of war. I tell them<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3764src" href="#xd21e3764" name="xd21e3764src">98</a> that you +know nothing of all this and that if some persons are kidnapped it is +due to the hate of the natives for the Spanish spies and secret police, +which is great.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3769src" href= +"#xd21e3769" name="xd21e3769src">99</a></p> +</div> +<p>Evidently Sandico continued to interest himself in the matter of +preventing disorder, for on September 24, 1898, he wrote Aguinaldo from +Manila as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“By authority of General Don Pío del +Pilar and accompanied by the War Auditor, Señor Urbano, we +entered a prison where the individuals Mariano de la Cruz and Mariano +Crisóstomo were kept. They were almost prostrated. They had +lately been released from Bilibid where they had been confined for +political crimes. On being asked the reason for their imprisonment they +began by showing us their bodies from which blood still issued as the +result of the barbarous treatment received from Major Carmona who, by +the way, is the same person of whom I spoke to you in one of my +previous letters; I declared to you then that he had assaulted, +revolver in hand, a man in the middle of one of the most frequented +streets of the suburb of Paco on pure suspicion.</p> +<p>“The prisoners in question stated that if they admitted the +accusations made against them it was for fear of greater punishments +promised by said Major. The officer of the guard took <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3779" href="#xd21e3779" name= +"xd21e3779">110</a>]</span>the liberty of striking with his fist the +one who dared to express himself so.</p> +<p>“Before such a spectacle Major Bell found himself forced to +tell them that brutal acts are not precisely a recommendation for a +country that wished to be free and that they, the Americans, do not +arrest any one without just cause.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3783src" +href="#xd21e3783" name="xd21e3783src">100</a></p> +<p>“I take the liberty of calling your attention to the matter in +question and other abuses in order that the measures you may think fit +be adopted to remedy this evil. In fact, we are making a target of +ourselves in the sight of all nations, especially so in that of the +Americans who note any act of ours and judge us secretly now in order +to do so later in public. To make light of this is to plant a seed of +future injury to us, because many will desire to place themselves under +the protection of the American flag, seeing that ours refuses to defend +the citizens’ individual rights.</p> +<p>“I, for my part, ask that Major Carmona be arrested together +with his accomplices in the matter so that it may serve as a lesson not +only for him but also for those who think like him.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e3790src" href="#xd21e3790" name= +"xd21e3790src">101</a></p> +</div> +<p>Obviously Sandico’s protest of September 24 did not produce +the desired result, for on September 28 he wrote Aguinaldo a long +letter complaining that in Manila personal security did not exist, +people were being tortured and murdered, kidnapping and theft were very +frequent, and these abuses were being committed by Filipino officers +and men. Some of the things which had come to his knowledge were of +such a nature that he preferred to speak to Aguinaldo privately about +them.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3795src" href="#xd21e3795" name= +"xd21e3795src">102</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3817" href= +"#xd21e3817" name="xd21e3817">111</a>]</span></p> +<p>Murder, pillaging, torture of prisoners, kidnapping, +theft—these are not pleasant things, but they continued to occur, +and Aguinaldo, who apparently desired to prevent them, was powerless to +do so. He did not dare discipline General Pío del Pilar, nor +remove him from the vicinity of Manila, and the soldiers of that +officer continued to work their will on their own unfortunate and +helpless people.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo at first flatly refused to direct the disorderly Insurgent +forces to leave Manila. The American commander showed great forbearance +and negotiations continued.</p> +<p>On August 16, 1898, the Diplomatic Commission (Buencamino and +Gregorio Araneta) telegraphed Aguinaldo <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3825" href="#xd21e3825" name="xd21e3825">112</a>]</span>that a +clause in a proposed agreement requiring prior permission of Insurgent +officers before American troops could pass or approach their lines had +greatly displeased General Anderson who declined to treat until after +the withdrawal of Noriel’s troops from Manila.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e3827src" href="#xd21e3827" name="xd21e3827src">103</a></p> +<div class="figure xd21e3831width" id="p016-1"><img src= +"images/p016-1.jpg" alt="An Unsanitary Well" width="551" height="392"> +<p class="figureHead">An Unsanitary Well</p> +<p class="first">This is a typical old-style well, with the family +washing going on beside it. Under such circumstances infection of the +well water invariably resulted.</p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e3838width" id="p016-2"><img src= +"images/p016-2.jpg" alt="A Flowing Artesian Well" width="554" height= +"391"> +<p class="figureHead">A Flowing Artesian Well</p> +<p class="first">There is no way in which the water from such a well +can become infected. More than eight hundred fifty have been sunk, and +the death rate in some towns fortunate enough to possess them has +fallen off fifty per cent, as a result.</p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo’s reply, sent on August 17, 1898, shows that he had +already made up his mind to fight the Americans, for it contains the +following significant words: “The conflict is coming sooner or +later and we shall gain nothing by asking as favours of them what are +really our rights.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3846src" href= +"#xd21e3846" name="xd21e3846src">104</a></p> +<p>While negotiations were pending General Merritt sent Major J. F. +Bell to Aguinaldo with a letter and also with a memorandum in which +were the words:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In case you find Aguinaldo inclined to be +generous in his arrangements with us, you may communicate to him as +follows: ...”</p> +</div> +<p>There follow six paragraphs, of which the third is of special +importance. It reads as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“(3) That I have every disposition to represent +liberally the Government at Washington, which I know is inclined to +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3860" href="#xd21e3860" name= +"xd21e3860">113</a>]</span>deal fairly with him and his people; but not +knowing what the policy of that Government will be, I am not prepared +to make any promises, except that in the event of the United States +withdrawing from these islands care will be taken to leave him <i>in as +good condition as he was found by the forces of the +Government</i>.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3865src" href="#xd21e3865" +name="xd21e3865src">105</a></p> +</div> +<p>Relative to the italicized portion of this statement Major Bell +says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I was pressed to explain further just what +meaning General M. meant to convey by the underscored portion of this +remark, but I replied that I had repeated the language General M. had +used to me, and I preferred they should seek any further explanation +from him, lest I might unwittingly fall into error if I undertook to +explain his meaning myself. Their lack of definiteness and my +unwillingness to comment upon the language seemed to arouse their +apprehensions and suspicions. They have been trying ever since to +obtain in writing some definite promise on this +subject.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3873src" href="#xd21e3873" +name="xd21e3873src">106</a></p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo ordered that the machinery of the water works be started +up at once, a thing which was very necessary as Manila was suffering +from lack of water. I should be glad if I could leave this matter here, +but I cannot, for Major Bell elsewhere makes the further +statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Attention is invited to General Merritt’s +promise made known to Aguinaldo by me verbally, namely, that in the +event of the United States withdrawing from these islands, care would +be taken to leave Aguinaldo in as good condition as he was found by the +forces of the Government. From a remark the General made to me I +inferred he intended to interpret the expression ‘forces of the +Government’ to mean the naval forces, should future contingencies +necessitate such an interpretation.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3883src" href="#xd21e3883" name="xd21e3883src">107</a></p> +</div> +<p>Let us hope that Major Bell misunderstood General Merritt’s +intention. If this is not the case, I must say in all frankness that in +my opinion it was General Merritt’s intention to indulge in sharp +practice. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3890" href="#xd21e3890" +name="xd21e3890">114</a>]</span></p> +<p>Obviously, the American naval forces did not find Aguinaldo in any +“condition,” in the sense in which General Merritt uses the +term. On the contrary, they brought him from Hongkong and assisted him +in starting a revolution. The negotiations in question were relative to +the positions held by the Insurgents at the time the negotiations took +place, and General Merritt’s promise could not legitimately be +interpreted to refer to anything else.</p> +<p>Had Aguinaldo accepted his offer, a most embarrassing situation +would have resulted. General Merritt was obviously not authorized to +make such a proposition in the first instance, and the only honourable +course left open to him would have been to advise Washington of his +improper action and beg the Government to support him in it and thus +save the honour of the country.</p> +<p>Fortunately, Aguinaldo did not act upon the promise nor accept the +offer. On the contrary, he promptly and indignantly denied that he was +committed to anything, and sought to impose new conditions which were +not acceded to.</p> +<p>Meanwhile some one doubtless got hold of General Merritt and called +his attention to the fact that in making this offer he had grossly +exceeded his authority, for in his reply to Aguinaldo’s protest +General Merritt says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“So far as any promises as to what should be +done in the event of a conclusion of a treaty between the United States +and Spain are concerned, it is utterly impossible for me as the +military representative only of the United States to make any promises +such as you request. As you have already been informed, you may depend +upon the good will of the Americans out here and the Government, of +which you already know the beneficence, to determine these matters in +the future.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e3903src" href= +"#xd21e3903" name="xd21e3903src">108</a></p> +</div> +<p>Coming, as this statement did, after the offer made in the +memorandum hereinbefore referred to, it must have aroused the +suspicions of Aguinaldo and his associates, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3908" href="#xd21e3908" name= +"xd21e3908">115</a>]</span>and in my opinion Merritt’s conduct in +making such a proposal in the first instance was inexcusable.</p> +<p>Before he could terminate the negotiations which followed he was +called away, and turned this matter, together with other unfinished +business, over to his successor, General E. S. Otis.</p> +<p>On August 31, 1898, the latter official wrote to Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">General Aguinaldo, +Bacoor</span>:</p> +<p>“Referring to promise made by General Merritt to reply to your +letter of August 27 within four days, I desire to state that he was +unexpectedly ordered away and had not opportunity to reply. Being +unacquainted with the situation, I must take time to inform myself +before answering, which I will do at the earliest opportunity.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Otis</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p>On September 8 General Otis wrote Aguinaldo a long letter fully +discussing the whole situation in the light of the complete information +which he had meanwhile obtained. Since so much has been made of this +incident by Blount and others, I invite attention to the following +extracts from General Otis’s letter, which embody a fair and +judicial statement of the conditions which existed:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“You designate certain lines within the suburbs +of the city of Manila, to which you promise to retire your troops, and +name as conditions precedent: First, protection to your shipping by the +United States Navy, and the free navigation of your vessels within the +waters in United States occupation; second, restitution to your forces +of all positions which are now occupied by your troops, in the event +that treaty stipulations between the United States and Spain surrender +to the last-named government the territory occupied by the former; and +thirdly, that United States troops now occupying positions beyond the +lines you name shall retire within the same.</p> +<p>“A discussion of your proposition to hold, jointly, with the +United States Government, the city of Manila, involves consideration of +some of the other concessions you desire to be made, and to that I will +at once refer. I wish to present the matter, in the first instance, in +its legal aspect, although, from remarks contained in former +correspondence, I am of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3935" +href="#xd21e3935" name="xd21e3935">116</a>]</span>opinion that you are +fully aware how untenable the proposition is. The United States and +Spain were and are belligerent parties to a war, and were so recognized +by the civilized world. In the course of events the entire city of +Manila, then in full possession of Spanish forces, was surrendered to +the first-named belligerent power. The articles of agreement and +capitulation gave the United States Government full occupancy of the +city and defences of Manila, and that Government obligated itself to +insure the safety of the lives and property of the inhabitants of the +city to the best of its ability. By all the laws of war and all +international precedents the United States authority over Manila and +its defences is full and supreme, and it cannot escape the obligations +which it has assumed.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“But conceding, as you do, the strictly legal right of my +Government to hold and administer the affairs of the city of Manila and +its suburbs (I thus conclude from expressions contained in former +correspondence and from my appreciation of your intellectual +attainments), you base your proposition—a joint +occupation—upon supposed equitable grounds, referring to the +sacrifices your troops have made and the assistance they have rendered +the American forces in the capture of Manila. It is well known they +have made personal sacrifices, endured great hardships, and have +rendered aid. But is it forgotten that my Government has swept the +Spanish navy from the seas of both hemispheres; sent back to Spain the +Spanish army and navy forces, recently embarked for your destruction, +and the secure holding of the Philippine possessions; that since May 1 +last its navy has held the city of Manila at its mercy, but out of +consideration of humanity refused to bombard it, preferring to send +troops to demand surrender, and thereby preserve the lives and property +of the inhabitants? Is it forgotten that the destruction of the Spanish +navy and the retention of Spanish armed men in its European possessions +has opened up to you the ports of the Island of Luzon and held Spain +helpless to meet its refractory subjects?</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“Apart from all legal and equitable considerations, and those +having their origin in personally conceived ideas of justice, I wish +respectfully to call your attention to the impracticability of +maintaining a joint occupation of Manila and its suburbs, and in this I +know that I shall have the approval of your excellent judgment. It +would be extremely difficult to prevent friction between our respective +forces, which might <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3945" href= +"#xd21e3945" name="xd21e3945">117</a>]</span>result in unfortunate +consequences, labor as we may for continued harmonious relations. +Located in close proximity, irresponsible members of our organizations, +by careless or impertinent action, might be the means of inciting grave +disturbances; and in this connection I call to your attention the +recent shooting affair at Cavite, which still requires investigation. +There might also arise conflict of authority between our subordinate +officers. Even now, within precincts in entire actual possession of our +troops, I find that permits are given to citizens, who are styled local +presidents, to make arrests, to carry arms, etc., in violation of our +instructions and authority, and that several cases of kidnapping have +taken place. In pursuance of our obligations to maintain, in so far as +we can, domestic tranquillity, our officers have arrested suspected +parties, and they have asserted (with what element of truth I know not) +that the insurgent forces are the offenders. I have declined to accept +their statements, as I prefer to believe the contrary, although it +would appear that officers connected with those forces have issued the +permits to which I allude. Such interference with our administration of +civil affairs must eventually result in conflict.</p> +<p>“... And here permit me to remark upon a view of the subject +you have advocated in support of the plea for dual occupation of the +city’s suburbs. Your forces, you say in substance, should have a +share in the booty resulting from the conquest of the city, on account +of hardships endured and assistance rendered. The facts on which you +base your conclusion granted, your conclusion, under the rules of war +which are binding on my Government, does not follow, for it has never +recognized the existence of spoils of war, denominated +‘booty,’ as have many European governments. No +enemy’s property of any kind, public or private, can be seized, +claimed by, or awarded to, any of its officers or men, and should they +attempt to appropriate any of it for their individual benefit, they +would be very severely punished through military tribunals, on which +have been conferred by law very sweeping jurisdiction. The +enemy’s money and property (all that is not necessary to be +expended in administering local affairs in the enemy’s territory) +must be preserved for final arbitrament or settlement by and between +the supreme authorities of the nations concerned. My troops cannot +acquire booty nor any individual benefit by reason of the capture of an +enemy’s territory. I make this comment, believing that you hold +erroneous opinions in respect to individual advantages which occupation +bestows. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3949" href="#xd21e3949" +name="xd21e3949">118</a>]</span></p> +<p>“I request your indulgence while I briefly consider the +concessions you ask us to make as conditions precedent to the +retirement of your forces to the lines indicated by your note of the +27th ultimo.</p> +<p>“The first is: Protection to your shipping and free navigation +to your vessels. Neither the extent of protection nor the limit of free +navigation you request is understood. Certainly you could not mean +protection on the high seas, or in the ports not in the rightful +possession of the United States. That, as you are fully aware, could +only be effected by treaty, or guarantee, following international +recognition of the belligerent rights of the Philippine revolutionary +government. While the existing armistice continues, the United States +are in rightful possession, in so far as the navigable waters of the +Philippine Islands are concerned, only of the bay of Manila and its +navigable tributaries. Within the same all vessels of trade and +commerce and the war vessels of recognized national powers sail freely +as long as the sovereignty of my Government is not assailed nor the +peace of the locality threatened. In this respect, whatever concessions +are extended by way of relaxation of trade restrictions, incident to +war, to the citizens of these islands will be extended to all alike, +and discrimination in this regard is neither intended nor permitted. +Admiral Dewey exercises supervision over all naval matters, and they +are in no way related to the duties conferred upon me by law. Nor would +it avail should I seek his consent for greater latitude of action, for +even if disposed to grant special concessions he could not do so, and I +doubt if the supreme authority of my Government could now, under the +prevailing truce with Spain, invest him with the requisite powers to do +so and at the same time preserve its international obligations.</p> +<p>“The second concession named by you is restitution of +positions in the city of Manila to your forces, in case the treaty of +peace remands to Spain the territory surrendered under the late +capitulatory articles; and the third and last is a promise to retire +our troops within the lines indicated by you, as the lines on which you +desire your troops to remain permanently. These propositions, having a +kindred nature, may be considered together, and, indeed, have already +been impliedly answered. From previous statements of facts and logical +conclusions made and stated in this communication, concerning the +nature of the obligations resting on the United States with regard to +the territory to which they have the legal right of possession under +contracting articles with Spain, it is evident that neither +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3956" href="#xd21e3956" name= +"xd21e3956">119</a>]</span>in law or morals can the concessions be +made. I would be powerless to grant them in any aspect of the case, +being nothing more than an agent to carry out the instructions of the +executive head of my Government and not being vested with discretionary +power to determine matters of such moment. In the present instance I am +not only powerless to accede to your request, but have been strictly +enjoined by my Government, mindful of its international promises and +national honour, which it has never broken nor sacrificed, not to +accede joint occupation of the city and suburbs of Manila and am +directed specially to preserve the peace and protect persons and +property within the territory surrendered under the terms of the +Spanish capitulation. These mandates must be obeyed.</p> +<p>“Thus have I endeavoured with all candor and sincerity, +holding nothing in reserve, to place before you the situation as +understood by me, and I doubt not by the Republic which I represent. I +have not been instructed as to what policy the United States intends to +pursue in regard to its legitimate holdings here, and hence I am unable +to give you any information on the subject. That it will have a care +and labor conscientiously for the welfare of your people I sincerely +believe. It remains for you, beneficiaries of its sacrifices, to adopt +a course of action which will manifest your good intentions and show to +the world the principles which actuate your proceedings.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“It only remains for me to respectfully notify you that I am +compelled by my instructions to direct that your armed forces evacuate +the entire city of Manila, including its suburbs and defences, and that +I shall be obliged to take action with that end in view within a very +short space of time should you decline to comply with my +Government’s demands; and I hereby serve notice on you that +unless your troops are withdrawn beyond the line of the city’s +defences before Thursday, the 15th instant, I shall be obliged to +resort to forcible action, and that my Government will hold you +responsible for any unfortunate consequences which may ensue.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“In conclusion, I beg to inform you that I have conferred +freely with Admiral Dewey upon the contents of this communication and +am delegated by him to state that he fully approves of the same in all +respects; that the commands of our Government compel us to act as +herein indicated, and that between our respective forces there will be +unanimity and complete concert of action.”</p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e3970width" id="p017"><img src="images/p017.jpg" +alt="An Unimproved Street in the Filipino Quarter of Manila" width= +"720" height="426"> +<p class="figureHead">An Unimproved Street in the Filipino Quarter of +Manila</p> +<p class="first">The condition of the streets formerly made it +impossible to remove night-soil and garbage from this district, and +cholera was rampant there when this photograph was taken.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3976" href="#xd21e3976" name= +"xd21e3976">120</a>]</span></p> +<p>This calm and temperate discussion of the situation, coupled with +the firm statement of intention with which it closed, produced a +decided effect on Aguinaldo. Concerning the events to which it led, +General Otis has made this statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On September 13, a commission sent by Aguinaldo +and consisting of three members, one of whom was the treasurer and +another the attorney-general of the insurgent government, called for +the purpose of discussing the subject of my letter of the 8th. They +asked me to withdraw it and simply request in writing that the +insurgent troops retire to the line designated by General Merritt, +which I refused to do, stating that unless they withdrew as directed we +would be obliged to resort to force. They then asked that I withdraw +the letter and issue a request unaccompanied by any threat to use +force, as Aguinaldo was fearful that he would be unable to remove his +troops upon a demand. To which I replied that the letter of the 8th +instant would stand. They then said that as the demands of that letter +must remain unchanged, the insurgents would withdraw as directed +therein, but that if I would express in writing a simple request to +Aguinaldo to withdraw to the lines which I designated—something +which he could show to the troops and induce them to think that he was +simply acting upon a request from these headquarters—he would +probably be able to retire his men without much difficulty; that, of +course, they themselves understood the direction to withdraw, which +would be obeyed, and thereupon repeated their desire to obtain a note +of request, whereupon I furnished them with the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“‘<span class="sc">Office U. S. Military +Governor in the</span></p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">Philippine Islands</span>,</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">Manila</span>, P. I., September 13, +1898.</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">The Commanding General of the +Philippine Forces</span>:</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">Sir</span>: Referring to my +communication of September 8, I have the honour to inform you that I +have had a most agreeable conversation with certain gentlemen who are +in the interests of your revolutionary government upon the matters +therein contained. We have discussed at length the complications now +existing, which will exist, and will doubtless increase, while our +troops continue to occupy jointly certain districts of the city of +Manila. I have urged upon them the necessity of the withdrawal of your +troops in order that the friendly relations <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4008" href="#xd21e4008" name= +"xd21e4008">121</a>]</span>which have always been maintained by and +between them and the forces of the United States Government may be +perpetuated. I am sure that the gentlemen fully appreciate my +sentiments and will clearly report them to you. May I ask you to +patiently listen to their report of our conversation?</p> +<p>“‘It is my desire that our friendly intercourse and +mutual amicable relations be continued; that they be not jeopardized if +we can by consistent action avoid it, and such, I am certain, is the +desire of yourself and associates.</p> +<p>“‘May I ask, therefore, that you withdraw your troops +from Manila?</p> +<p>“‘Permit me to add in conclusion that I have that +confidence in your ability and patriotism which will lead you to accede +to this request.</p> +<p>“‘I am, with great respect, your most obedient +servant,</p> +<p>(Signed) “‘<span class="sc">E. S. Otis</span>,</p> +<p>“‘Major-General, U. S. V.,</p> +<p>“‘United States Military Governor in the +Philippines.’</p> +</div> +<p>“In reply to which, on the 16th, the following was +received:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“‘<span class="sc">Malolos, +Bulacan</span>, September 16, 1898.</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">The Commanding General of the +American Forces</span>:</p> +<p>“‘<span class="sc">My Dear Sir</span>: Referring to your +esteemed communication, dated the 13th instant, I have the honour to +inform you that I have given appropriate orders that my troops should +abandon their most advanced positions within some of the suburbs, and +that they should retire to points where contact with yours would be +more difficult, in order to avoid all occasion for conflict.</p> +<p>“‘I hope that by these presents you will be fully +convinced of my constant desire to preserve amicable relations with the +American forces, even at the risk of sacrificing a part of the +confidence placed in my government by the Philippine people.</p> +<p>“‘A consideration of my many occupations will serve to +excuse me for not having answered with the promptness desired.</p> +<p>“‘Your very respectful servant,</p> +<p>(Signed) “‘<span class="sc">Emilio +Aguinaldo</span>.’</p> +</div> +<p>“On the evening of the 15th the armed insurgent organizations +withdrew from the city and all of its suburbs, as acknowledged by their +leaders, excepting from one small outlying district. This certain +agents of Aguinaldo asked on the previous day to be permitted to retain +for a short time, on the plea that the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4061" href="#xd21e4061" name="xd21e4061">122</a>]</span>general +officer in command<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4063src" href= +"#xd21e4063" name="xd21e4063src">109</a> would not obey instructions, +and they proposed to remove his men gradually by organizations and +thereafter to punish him for his disobedience. The withdrawal was +effected adroitly, as the insurgents marched out in excellent spirits, +cheering the American troops.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4066src" href="#xd21e4066" name="xd21e4066src">110</a></p> +</div> +<p>I have given the facts thus fully for the reason that this is the +one instance I have found in which a promise was made, fortunately in +the form of an offer which was not accepted, and then withdrawn. It has +seemed to me that the reasons why General Merritt should never have +made it, and why General Otis could not possibly have renewed it, +should be fully set forth.</p> +<p>On September 7, 1898, General Otis had cabled to Washington that +Admiral Dewey and he considered conditions critical, and that the +number of armed Insurgents in the city was large and rapidly +increasing. He stated that on the 8th he would send a notification to +Aguinaldo that unless the latter’s troops were withdrawn beyond +the line of the suburbs of the cry before September 15 he would be +obliged to resort to forcible action and that the United States would +hold Aguinaldo responsible for any unfortunate consequences which might +ensue.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo still hoped to obtain recognition of his government by the +United States, but did not consider such recognition probable, and +pushed preparations to attack if a favorable opportunity should +offer.</p> +<p>Before occupying ourselves with these preparations, let us briefly +review the results of our investigations as to Insurgent +coöperation with the American forces up to this time.</p> +<p>Taylor has made the following excellent summary of the +case:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Up to this time Aguinaldo had continued a +desultory warfare with the Spanish troops in Manila. That none of his +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4083" href="#xd21e4083" name= +"xd21e4083">123</a>]</span>attacks were very serious is shown from the +Spanish reports of casualties; but although he had failed to secure the +surrender of the city to himself, he had kept its garrison occupied and +within their works. The American force on land was now strong enough to +begin offensive operations. So far the relations between the Americans +and Aguinaldo had not been really friendly. They were in his way, and +yet he could not break with them, for he hoped to use them for the +attainment of the designs which he had by this time frankly declared. +The Americans had listened to these declarations, and had not answered +them, nor was it possible to answer them. The American forces were +there under the instructions of the President to make war on Spain and +to establish a military government in the Philippines. Aguinaldo had +declared himself a dictator and the Philippines independent. To have +recognized him in his civil capacity, to have dealt with him in his +civil capacity, would have meant a recognition of his government by the +military commander in the field—a thing impossible and unlawful. +Officers of the United States forces are not empowered to recognize +governments; that function is reserved to the President of the United +States; and in this case he, in his orders to the Secretary of War, +dated May 19, copies of which were forwarded to General Merritt for his +guidance, informed him that the army of occupation was sent to the +Philippines ‘for the twofold purpose of completing the reduction +of the Spanish power in that quarter and of giving order and security +to the islands while in the possession of the United States.’ +These instructions contemplated the establishment of a military +government in the archipelago by military officials of the United +States.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“it is true that in spite of the date of these instructions +General Merritt in San Francisco had received no copy of them on August +28, three days after the departure of General Anderson, and what that +officer knew of them could only have been what General Merritt +remembered of the contents of an unsigned copy of them shown him at the +White House, but they were in accordance with the practice of the +United States Government in occupying conquered territory, that +practice General Anderson well knew, and his relations with Aguinaldo +were guided by it.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“It has been claimed that Aguinaldo and his followers received +the impression at this time from their conversation <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4093" href="#xd21e4093" name= +"xd21e4093">124</a>]</span>with American officers that the United +States would undoubtedly recognize the independence of the Philippines, +and that the cooperation of the insurgents was due to this impression. +There was no cooperation. That he attempted in vain to secure the +surrender of Manila to himself was not cooperation. That he refrained +from attacking the Americans and occasionally permitted them to be +furnished supplies, for which they paid, was not cooperation. The fact +that for a time their plans and his plans were parallel does not mean +cooperation. Aguinaldo was forced by the exigencies of the situation, +by the necessity of strengthening his hold upon the people, by the +necessities of his operations against the Spaniards, to make Spaniards +and natives alike believe that all that he did was with the aid of the +Americans by whom he would be supported in all his acts. He needed +their support, and if he could not obtain that he needed the appearance +of their support for the attainment of his ends; and this he was forced +to purchase by compliance, or apparent compliance, with their demands. +But his compliance with them, as all American officers serving there +well knew, was never willing, was never complete, and was never given +except under pressure. It is true that writers upon the subject, +speaking with the confidence which is born of insufficient and +incomplete information, assure their readers that any government but +that of the United States, any colonial administrators but Americans, +would have been able to obtain the hearty cooperation of Aguinaldo and +his followers by judicious concessions to them at this time. The only +concession which would have obtained that hearty cooperation would have +been the recognition of the independence of the Philippines under a +United States protectorate, of Aguinaldo clothed with the plenitude of +the powers of the Katipúnan as dictator, and a promise to +promptly withdraw from the islands. This promise the Government of the +United States could not make. Until the ratification of a treaty of +peace with Spain the insurgents of the Philippine Islands were +rebellious subjects of Spain, and with them, except as fighting men, no +relations could be had.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“No report of operations or returns of strength were rendered +by Aguinaldo at this or any other time to any American commander, and +no American commander ever rendered such returns to him. At the time of +General Merritt’s arrival, and until Manila was occupied by the +Americans, the insurgents and United States troops were united solely +by the fact that they had Manila as a common objective. Conditions were +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4099" href="#xd21e4099" name= +"xd21e4099">125</a>]</span>such that the Americans, in order to obtain +its surrender, had to avoid doing anything which might cause the +insurgents to attack them and perhaps make terms with Spain; while +Aguinaldo and his followers, in order to accomplish the surrender of +Manila to themselves, had to maintain such relations with the Americans +as would induce the Spaniards to believe that their fleet was at his +disposal,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4101src" href="#xd21e4101" name= +"xd21e4101src">111</a> and also such apparent harmony and cooperation +with them in the execution of their plans that the recalcitrant among +the Filipinos would be forced to believe that the Americans would in +all ways use their forces to support Aguinaldo in the attainment of his +desires.</p> +<p>“General Merritt saw this and the necessity for immediately +taking such steps as would lead to his occupation of Manila. With the +arrival of the third expedition he was able to pass through the +insurgent lines between Camp Dewey and Manila, for he had sufficient +force to accept no refusal from Aguinaldo.</p> +<p>“In his report he said that the insurgents had obtained +positions of investment opposite the Spanish lines along their full +extent, and that on the bay front their lines ran within 800 yards of +San Antonio Abad. The approaches to the beach and village of Pasay were +in their possession.</p> +<p>“‘This anomalous state of affairs, namely, having a line +of quasi-hostile native troops between our forces and the Spanish +position, was, of course, very objectionable, but it was difficult to +deal with owing to the peculiar conditions of our relations with the +insurgents.... As General Aguinaldo did not visit me on my arrival nor +offer his services as a subordinate military leader, and as my +instructions from the President fully contemplated the occupation of +the islands by the American land forces, and stated that “the +powers of the military occupant are absolute and supreme and +immediately operate upon the political condition of the +inhabitants,” I did not consider it wise to hold any direct +communication with the insurgent leader until I should be in possession +of the city of Manila, especially as I would not until then be in a +position to issue a proclamation and enforce my authority in the event +that his pretensions should clash with my designs. For these reasons +the preparations for the attack on the city were pressed and the +military operations conducted without reference to the situation of the +insurgent forces. The wisdom of this course was subsequently fully +established by the fact that when the troops at my command carried the +Spanish entrenchments, extending from the sea to the Pasay road on the +extreme Spanish right, we were <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4113" +href="#xd21e4113" name="xd21e4113">126</a>]</span>under no obligation, +by prearranged plans of the mutual attack, to turn to the right and +clear the front still held by the insurgents, but were able to move +forward at once and occupy the city and the +suburbs.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4115src" href= +"#xd21e4115" name="xd21e4115src">112</a></p> +</div> +<p>All that the Insurgents and the Americans ever had in common was an +enemy. They each fought that enemy in their own way. There was no +coöperation. On the part of the Insurgents there was treachery. I +will submit further evidence of this fact. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4123" href="#xd21e4123" name= +"xd21e4123">127</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2247" href="#xd21e2247src" name="xd21e2247">1</a></span> P. +39.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2255" href="#xd21e2255src" name="xd21e2255">2</a></span> For J. +M. Basa.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2274" href="#xd21e2274src" name="xd21e2274">3</a></span> P.I.R., +507–7.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2286" href="#xd21e2286src" name="xd21e2286">4</a></span> P.I.R., +477. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2291" href="#xd21e2291src" name="xd21e2291">5</a></span> +“Until the Philippine question is finally decided, you would do +well in not having any controversy with the Americans. After having +secured the extinction of Spanish control for good, you may then +liquidate accounts with the United States in the event that they wish +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2294" href="#xd21e2294" name= +"xd21e2294">69</a>]</span>to control in the interior; but in the +meantime, let what will occur, do not allow yourself to have any +controversy with them. Matters are in a very delicate state at the +present time.”—P.I.R., 398. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote">In a postscript to the same letter Bray +says:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“America is a great nation and does not wish +that conditions be dictated to her. I am more than ever convinced that +you must be patient and await what they propose, without opposing their +wishes and insanities, before the questions before the Paris Congress +are definitely settled and the islands ceded by Spain; then there would +still be time to show your teeth if they try to govern the country. I +would not object at present to them taking up their residence there and +acting in the capacity of guard for good government, placing our trust +for the future in Providence which will never abandon the +Philippines.”—P.I.R.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2303" href="#xd21e2303src" name="xd21e2303">6</a></span> Blount, +p. 283.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2306" href="#xd21e2306src" name="xd21e2306">7</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 283.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2314" href="#xd21e2314src" name="xd21e2314">8</a></span> See p. +74.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2322" href="#xd21e2322src" name="xd21e2322">9</a></span> +“Both Spanish fleets had been destroyed and Spain had but one +left to protect her own coast cities. The death knell of her once proud +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2324" href="#xd21e2324" name= +"xd21e2324">70n</a>]</span>colonial empire had sounded. Decrepit as she +was, she could not possibly have sent any reinforcements to the +Philippines. Besides, the Filipinos would have ‘eaten them +up.’”—Blount, p. 127.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2333" href="#xd21e2333src" name="xd21e2333">10</a></span> P.I.R., +471.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2341" href="#xd21e2341src" name="xd21e2341">11</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 471.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2351" href="#xd21e2351src" name="xd21e2351">12</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 450. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2364" href="#xd21e2364src" name="xd21e2364">13</a></span> P.I.R., +471.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2381" href="#xd21e2381src" name="xd21e2381">14</a></span> +“You should not forget what I have stated at the beginning of +this letter; because I am of the opinion that those questions should be +well considered by all of you. If our people desire independence under +the American protectorate, it is necessary that our representatives to +the United States be given instructions as to the conditions which we +should grant to the United States. The peace negotiations are in full +blast, and it is probable that we will be rather late in sending our +representatives. Therefore, if you agree to independence under a +protectorate, you should recommend it at once. I leave it, however, to +your care, as you are better qualified than myself concerning the +conditions of our country.”—P.I.R., 471.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2386" href="#xd21e2386src" name="xd21e2386">15</a></span> +“My Dear Friend: ... The last telegrams from Europe which Felipe +will send you by this mail are alarming for our future. The +preliminaries of peace are announced. The demand of America is, +annexation of Porto Rico and the Ladrone Islands, independence of +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e2388" href="#xd21e2388" name= +"xd21e2388">73n</a>]</span>Cuba under an American protectorate and an +American coaling station in the Philippines. That is, they will again +deliver us into the hands of Spain. On the other hand, all the powers +will unite to prevent the annexation of the Philippines, according to +the telegrams of Regidor; the American cabinet hesitates about +including us in the negotiations for peace from fear of a conflict with +us and the Filipinos in Europe advise us to send a message to America +giving our unconditional adhesion. If events will be what these +telegrams indicate, we have a dark and bloody future before us. To be +again in the hands of Spain will mean a long and bloody war, and it is +doubtful whether the end will be favourable to us. The treaty of peace +sanctioned by the other powers will assure the dominion of Spain. Spain +free from Cuba and her other colonies will employ all her energy to +crush us and will send here the 150,000 men she has in Cuba. I do not +think that the Filipinos will again submit to their tyrants and there +will be a long and bloody war. And on account of the treaty the other +powers will aid Spain to completely dominate us and place all possible +obstacles in our way to prevent shipment of arms and all kinds of +revolutionary labours. In view of all this and bearing in mind the +present urgency of the matter, it is necessary for that government to +establish and publish its policy. We believe that the best for us and +the only feasible one, if we want to establish negotiations with +America, is independence under an American +protectorate.”—P.I.R., 453.3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2395" href="#xd21e2395src" name="xd21e2395">16</a></span> +“The policy which you will pursue in the United States is the +following one:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Make them understand that whatever may be +their intention towards us, it is not possible for them to overrule the +sentiments of the people represented by the government, and they must +first recognize it if we are to come to an agreement. Still do not +accept any contracts or give any promises respecting protection or +annexation, because we will see first if we can obtain independence. +This is what we shall endeavour to secure; meanwhile, if it should be +possible to do so, still give them to understand in a way that you are +unable to bind yourself but that once we are independent, we will be +able to make arrangements with them.”—P.I.R., Books +C-1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2408" href="#xd21e2408src" name="xd21e2408">17</a></span> P.I.R., +5. 7.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2413" href="#xd21e2413src" name="xd21e2413">18</a></span> In a +letter written on that date to Agoncillo he says:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Notwithstanding, I enclose you the +credentials as requested; thereby you will see that in addition to your +representing us at Washington, you may assist the commission they have +formed for the purpose of determining the future condition of the +Philippines.</p> +<p class="footnote">“But you must act in such manner that they +may not be able to say that we have accepted the said commission, +because it is my wish to protect [protest? D. C. W.] at all times +against their being charged with determining our destiny. You must bear +in mind that the policy of the government is to obtain absolute +independence, and if perchance we should know by the course of events +that such cannot be the case, we will then think of protection or +annexation.”—P.I.R., Books C-1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2421" href="#xd21e2421src" name="xd21e2421">19</a></span> On +August 30, 1898, Aguinaldo wrote Agoncillo:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“It is said that General Merritt is going +away to take part in the work of the Commission. On this account it is +important that you proceed as quickly as possible to America, in order +to know what takes place. If perchance we should go back to Spanish +control, ask them to help us as the French helped them during their own +revolution and ask also the terms.”—P.I.R., Books +C—1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2436" href="#xd21e2436src" name="xd21e2436">20</a></span> Taylor, +18 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2441" href="#xd21e2441src" name="xd21e2441">21</a></span> See +<a href="#pb61">p. 61</a>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2447" href="#xd21e2447src" name="xd21e2447">22</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2454" href="#xd21e2454src" name="xd21e2454">23</a></span> Some +time during August, 1898, Sandico wrote a letter to Aguinaldo of which +the postscript reads as follows:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“P.S.—If you think of appointing me as +Delegate to Manila, please send me my credentials. There are also +annexationists here [<i>i.e.</i>, in Manila.—D. C. +W.].”—P.I.R., 416. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2468" href="#xd21e2468src" name="xd21e2468">24</a></span> Now +Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippine Islands. He is a +man of excellent character, high attainments and great ability. He held +important legal positions under the Spanish government. In October, +1898, he was appointed Secretary of Foreign Relations of the +“Philippine Republic,” but never served as such officer. He +was given the degree of Doctor of Law by Yale University in 1904.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2473" href="#xd21e2473src" name="xd21e2473">25</a></span> Dr. T. +H. Pardo de Tavera, one of the most brilliant living Filipinos. He had +spent many years in Paris, was a talented physician, and under American +rule served for more than seven years as a member of the Philippine +Commission.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2476" href="#xd21e2476src" name="xd21e2476">26</a></span> Taylor, +55 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2483" href="#xd21e2483src" name="xd21e2483">27</a></span> Taylor, +26 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2535" href="#xd21e2535src" name="xd21e2535">28</a></span> Senate +Documents, Vol. 25, Fifty-seventh Congress, First Session, p. 2969.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2675" href="#xd21e2675src" name="xd21e2675">29</a></span> Senate +Documents, Vol. 25, pp. 2931–2932.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2881" href="#xd21e2881src" name="xd21e2881">30</a></span> Senate +Documents, Vol. 25, p. 2956.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2917" href="#xd21e2917src" name="xd21e2917">31</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 2966.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2932" href="#xd21e2932src" name="xd21e2932">32</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 2966.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2950" href="#xd21e2950src" name="xd21e2950">33</a></span> Senate +Documents, Vol. 25, p. 2955.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2986" href="#xd21e2986src" name="xd21e2986">34</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 2952.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e2995" href="#xd21e2995src" name="xd21e2995">35</a></span> The +following passage is an extract from an unsigned order dated July 22, +1898:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“For the preservation of peace and good order +in the community and to put an end to the acts of those who within and +without the city of Manila and in the neighboring provinces not under +the control of the Spanish Government, are evading the orders issued by +these Headquarters, and in view of the large number of those who are +storing and monopolizing food and other most necessary articles, under +the pretence of desiring to sell them to the Americans, but whose real +intention is to ship them secretly to Manila where they receive higher +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3000" href="#xd21e3000" name= +"xd21e3000">85n</a>]</span>prices for their merchandise, without regard +for the injury they are doing the cause of our independence, I have +seen fit to decree the following: ...” P.I.R., 45.5 and +125.3.</p> +<p class="footnote">Relative to this matter, Taylor says:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“The defection of Buencamino and Pilar had +opened the road to Aguinaldo, but at first the blockade was not +effective. There were too many natives there with friends and relations +in Aguinaldo’s camp to make him desire to subject the city to the +hardships of an effective siege. And, furthermore, he did not have the +force, nor did his men have the necessary discipline, to prevent the +ingress of supplies. It was not until the first part of July that the +price of provisions increased. It was at no time found necessary by the +authorities to take over all the stores of provisions in the city. +Indeed, there seems to have been a fairly steady traffic in supplies +between Manila and the country to the north. It was a traffic in which +it has been charged that certain Spanish officers of rank made large +sums. Aguinaldo permitted it, and on July 26, 1898, signed an order +directing that food should be sent into Manila from the north to +prevent starvation in the city, and ordered the heads of the towns in +the vicinity not to interfere with this traffic (P.I.R., 1087–4). +The entrance of food supplies was confined to the northern line, for +then it would not be known to the Americans who, after July 30, +occupied the entrenchments in front of San Antonio Abad. It was not +expedient for them to see too much of Aguinaldo’s +methods.”—Taylor, 14 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3041" href="#xd21e3041src" name="xd21e3041">36</a></span> P.I.R., +398. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3049" href="#xd21e3049src" name="xd21e3049">37</a></span> Senate +Document 331, p. 2976, 1902.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3059" href="#xd21e3059src" name="xd21e3059">38</a></span> P.I.R., +102–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3068" href="#xd21e3068src" name="xd21e3068">39</a></span> P.I.R., +Books C-1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3086" href="#xd21e3086src" name="xd21e3086">40</a></span> P.I.R., +102–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3094" href="#xd21e3094src" name="xd21e3094">41</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3132" href="#xd21e3132src" name="xd21e3132">42</a></span> P.I.R., +102. 10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3146" href="#xd21e3146src" name="xd21e3146">43</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., Books C-1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3156" href="#xd21e3156src" name="xd21e3156">44</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 102–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3167" href="#xd21e3167src" name="xd21e3167">45</a></span> P.I.R., +102–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3172" href="#xd21e3172src" name="xd21e3172">46</a></span> Now a +major-general.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3175" href="#xd21e3175src" name="xd21e3175">47</a></span> P.I.R., +102–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3181" href="#xd21e3181src" name="xd21e3181">48</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3194" href="#xd21e3194src" name="xd21e3194">49</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3204" href="#xd21e3204src" name="xd21e3204">50</a></span> +“Debtor to the generosity of the North Americans, and to the +favors we have received through Admiral Dewey and (being) more desirous +than any other person of preventing any conflict which would have as a +result foreign intervention, which must be extremely prejudicial, not +alone to my nation, but also to that of Your Excellency, I consider it +my duty to advise you of the undesirability of disembarking North +American troops in the places conquered by tho Filipinos from the +Spanish, without previous notice to this government, because as no +formal agreement yet exists between the two nations the Philippine +people might consider the occupation of its territories by North +American troops as a violation of its rights.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I comprehend that without the destruction of +the Spanish squadron the Philippine revolution would not have advanced +so rapidly. Because of this I take the liberty of indicating to Your +Excellency the necessity that before disembarking, you should +communicate in writing to this government the places that are to be +occupied and also the object of the occupation, that the people may be +advised in due form and (thus) prevent the commission of any +transgression against friendship.”—P.I.R., Books C-1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3224" href="#xd21e3224src" name="xd21e3224">51</a></span> Blount, +p. 59.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3231" href="#xd21e3231src" name="xd21e3231">52</a></span> On July +15 General Noriel telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Urgent. Received a telegram from the captain +adjutant, who is in Parañaque, of the following tenor: ‘I +inform your excellency that two cascos of armed Americans have arrived +at this point. I await orders from Your Excellency.’ Which I +hasten to communicate to Your Excellency for the proper +action.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote">Later on the same day Arevalo telegraphed Aguinaldo +as follows:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Lieutenant-Colonel Duboce with three hundred +men waiting for more troops from Cavite, and also orders, but not to +attack.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3243" href="#xd21e3243src" name="xd21e3243">53</a></span> Captain +Torres telegraphed Aguinaldo on July 15 as follows:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“I have read all your telegrams and carried +out the same, and I incidentally questioned them about their purposes, +[they] replying that they will aid; let time demonstrate it. They also +intend to encamp over here at Parañaque. I will report to you +any occurrence.”—P.I.R., 69.6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3262" href="#xd21e3262src" name="xd21e3262">54</a></span> P.I.R., +69. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3278" href="#xd21e3278src" name="xd21e3278">55</a></span> Ibid., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3296" href="#xd21e3296src" name="xd21e3296">56</a></span> +“Admiral Dewey’s Aide was here to-day. I told him I was +ignorant of your whereabouts and, if he had no objection, he might talk +with me as I am your representative; but he said that he could not do +so, as he had orders to speak with you personally, about something very +important. He then departed.”—P.I.R., 1179. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3301" href="#xd21e3301src" name="xd21e3301">57</a></span> The +following telegram was addressed to the President or the Secretary of +War by Sulpicio at Bacoor, on August 8, 1898:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Last night I received a telegram from +General Noriel, asking for 100 cavanes of rice which he needs +immediately, since he has ordered to send him all the troops here on +account of the landing of Americans in Parañaque. General +Mascardo will send him the troops which are here. There are 56 bundles +[of rice.—TR.] deposited in this storehouse.”—P.I.R., +1179. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3309" href="#xd21e3309src" name="xd21e3309">58</a></span> This +man’s record is not known to me. Apparently he was an officer in +the Spanish army, for he is later reported as surrendering to the +Insurgents at Santa Ana on August 13, 1898. See footnote 4, p. 104.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3320" href="#xd21e3320src" name="xd21e3320">59</a></span> Taylor, +33 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3341" href="#xd21e3341src" name="xd21e3341">60</a></span> Artemio +Ricarte was one of the ranking Insurgent generals directing operations +against Manila.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3356" href="#xd21e3356src" name="xd21e3356">61</a></span> P.I.R., +1087. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3364" href="#xd21e3364src" name="xd21e3364">62</a></span> Taylor, +30 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3373" href="#xd21e3373src" name="xd21e3373">63</a></span> Taylor, +30 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3381" href="#xd21e3381src" name="xd21e3381">64</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3390" href="#xd21e3390src" name="xd21e3390">65</a></span> On +August 2, 1899, Agoncillo wrote Mabini:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“I send Don Emilio the information I have +been able to obtain here, in order that in view thereof you [plural] +may consider the best solution of our present political problem, which +is an exceptional case in history. In my opinion, the most critical +moment, which I call agonizing, whether correctly or not I know not, is +the capture of Manila, where General Merritt will constitute a +provisional government, in compliance with the instructions from his +Government. It is unnecessary to recommend that you observe great tact, +great prudence, when this event occurs. Ascertain the real wishes of +the people in this conflict and the war resources at our disposal and +those which you may count on during the struggle until its +termination.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 451.3.</p> +<p class="footnote">In his document entitled “Means for Attaining +Filipino Independence” Aguinaldo had written:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“VIII. Exterior attack. Above everything the +Revolutionists must occupy all Manila including the Walled City with +the object and purpose that the nation possessing the Philippines +according to the decision of the Powers will be forced to come to an +understanding with the Filipinos to avoid the shedding of +blood.”—P.I.R., 457. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3411" href="#xd21e3411src" name="xd21e3411">66</a></span> Taylor, +29 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3424" href="#xd21e3424src" name="xd21e3424">67</a></span> That +is, the surrender of Manila.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3452" href="#xd21e3452src" name="xd21e3452">68</a></span> Fort +San Antonio A′bad.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3457" href="#xd21e3457src" name="xd21e3457">69</a></span> Senate +Documents, Vol. 25, p. 2943.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3462" href="#xd21e3462src" name="xd21e3462">70</a></span> +“I must tell you that I feel as you should feel in regard to our +government not having officially participated in the capitulation of +Manila. Accordingly the war must be continued with Spain, because, if +we attack to-night, the Americans, acting upon the request of the +Spaniards and foreigners in addition to those who took part in the +capitulation, will have to ask us to suspend operations; hence we shall +be included in the negotiations and this will work to our +advantage.</p> +<p class="footnote">“To-night at 2 A.M. you will attack without +fail in order that we may be included in the capitulation which the +Americans made to-day. You must not stop the attacks because they do, +and this is also the opinion of our partisans among the +foreigners.”—P.I.R., 1179. 5 & 427. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3470" href="#xd21e3470src" name="xd21e3470">71</a></span> +“Our Rule in the Philippines,” The <i>North American +Review</i>, 1900, No. 170.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3479" href="#xd21e3479src" name="xd21e3479">72</a></span> General +Ricarte to Aguinaldo, August 12, 1898, 11.15 P.M.:</p> +<p class="footnote">“Have received the telegram from your +honourable person regarding attack at four o’clock in the +morning, although we will make the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3484" href="#xd21e3484" name="xd21e3484">101n</a>]</span>attack +anyway. I have directed Gen. Pío Del Pilar begin firing cannon +at the hour set. At the present time we are making preparations and +will also give orders to the chiefs of the +columns.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3489" href="#xd21e3489src" name="xd21e3489">73</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“August 13, 1898.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Dated. Camp Dewey 13. To General Aguinaldo. +Commanding Philippine Forces, Bacoor: Do not let your troops enter +Manila without the permission of the American commander on this side of +Pasig river. You will be under our fire.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Anderson</span>, Brig. +General.”</p> +</div> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 102–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3507" href="#xd21e3507src" name="xd21e3507">74</a></span> +“Copy: Gen. Riego, Cavite: Have just received a note from Gen. +Anderson saying to me he does not permit my troops to enter Manila +without permission from the American commander on this side of the +Pasig River. They will be under his fire. Go with Señor +Buencamino and ask for an explanation, in writing if possible, as to +the motive for said note, without losing a moment. August 13, +’98. E.A.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3515" href="#xd21e3515src" name="xd21e3515">75</a></span> +“I received a telegram. My interpreter is in Cavite. In +consequence of this I have not answered until now. My troops are forced +by yours, by means of threats of violence, to retire from positions +taken. It is necessary to avoid conflict, which I should lament, that +you order your troops that they avoid difficulty with mine, as until +now they have conducted themselves as brothers to take Manila. I have +given <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3517" href="#xd21e3517" name= +"xd21e3517">102n</a>]</span>strict orders to my chiefs that they +preserve strict respect to American forces and to aid them in ease they +are attacked by a common enemy.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3523" href="#xd21e3523src" name="xd21e3523">76</a></span> +Gregorio Araneta, later a member of the Philippine Commission and +Secretary of Finance and Justice. He was Secretary of Justice under the +Malolos government, and was also secretary of the Insurgent Congress. +He was at this time a bright young lawyer of good ability and +character.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3529" href="#xd21e3529src" name="xd21e3529">77</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3537" href="#xd21e3537src" name="xd21e3537">78</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3548" href="#xd21e3548src" name="xd21e3548">79</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3556" href="#xd21e3556src" name="xd21e3556">80</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3566" href="#xd21e3566src" name="xd21e3566">81</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 1179. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3576" href="#xd21e3576src" name="xd21e3576">82</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3589" href="#xd21e3589src" name="xd21e3589">83</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3600" href="#xd21e3600src" name="xd21e3600">84</a></span> Report +of War Dept., 1898, Vol. I, part 2, p. 69.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3621" href="#xd21e3621src" name="xd21e3621">85</a></span> Taylor, +Exhibit 739.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3626" href="#xd21e3626src" name="xd21e3626">86</a></span> The +following two telegrams were sent by General Pio del Pilar to Aguinaldo +at 9.30 P.M.:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“I inform you that the Bayambang troops who +have presented themselves before me when we entered Santa Ana this +afternoon, are: 4 lieutenants, 171 soldiers with their respective +rifles and ammunitions, Major Fernando Acevedo, Captain Licerio +Geronimo, 1 Spanish lieutenant, and 1 prisoner by the name of Enrique +Flores. All of them I put under your orders.”—P.I.R., +1179.5. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3631" href="#xd21e3631" +name="xd21e3631">105n</a>]</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“Very urgent. I inform you of the capture +made by my soldiers: 2 lieutenants of the Marine Corps, 2 lieutenants +of the Spanish Infantry, 52 soldiers. Rifles about 400. I put them +under your orders and await your instructions.”—P.I.R., +1179. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3641" href="#xd21e3641src" name="xd21e3641">87</a></span> The +Spanish Governor-General.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3646" href="#xd21e3646src" name="xd21e3646">88</a></span> P.I.R., +1300. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3656" href="#xd21e3656src" name="xd21e3656">89</a></span> Taylor, +58 HJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3666" href="#xd21e3666src" name="xd21e3666">90</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 59.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3675" href="#xd21e3675src" name="xd21e3675">91</a></span> See +footnote 2, p. 108.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3698" href="#xd21e3698src" name="xd21e3698">92</a></span> P.I.R., +Books C-1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3706" href="#xd21e3706src" name="xd21e3706">93</a></span> Taylor, +15 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3718" href="#xd21e3718src" name="xd21e3718">94</a></span> The +word Indios, here translated “Indians,” means Malayan +Filipinos of pure blood as distinguished from <i>mestizos</i> or people +of mixed blood.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3724" href="#xd21e3724src" name="xd21e3724">95</a></span> P.I.R., +918. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3733" href="#xd21e3733src" name="xd21e3733">96</a></span> The +following telegram was sent by Colonel José to +Aguinaldo:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Urgent. August 20, 1898: Colonel +López reports that our troops are still sacking and committing +outrages in Malate, Paco and Ermita, even menacing people with their +arms. Urge you to take proper measures to stop these +abuses.”—P.I.R., 1167. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3741" href="#xd21e3741src" name="xd21e3741">97</a></span> Extract +from a letter of August 20, 1899, from Mabini to Aguinaldo:</p> +<p class="footnote">“Señor López, your adjutant, +arrived and told me of many complaints regarding the behaviour of the +soldiers. He says that our officers <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e3746" href="#xd21e3746" name="xd21e3746">109n</a>]</span>carry +off many horses, some of them belonging to foreigners. If the +foreigners should enter a protest against such doings, I do not know +what will be thought of our government.</p> +<p class="footnote">“It is also absolutely necessary that a stop +should be put to the passes, and that the tax on merchandise entering +Manila, should no longer be exacted. It is absolutely necessary, if you +think well of it, for us to promote General Pío, and make him +your second in command. It is necessary for him to leave the vicinity +of Manila, as we cannot remove him by force; and do not reprimand +him.</p> +<p class="footnote">“If you approve, I will write a Decree, but I +reflect that nothing will succeed, if our commanders are not obliged to +comply.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 472. 13.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3764" href="#xd21e3764src" name="xd21e3764">98</a></span> +<i>I.e.</i> the Americans.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3769" href="#xd21e3769src" name="xd21e3769">99</a></span> P.I.R., +458. 8.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3783" href="#xd21e3783src" name="xd21e3783">100</a></span> Major +J. F. Bell accompanied Sandico on this trip.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3790" href="#xd21e3790src" name="xd21e3790">101</a></span> +P.I.R., 1166. 12.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3795" href="#xd21e3795src" name="xd21e3795">102</a></span> +“I regret very much to have to inform you that as long as +personal property is not respected here in Manila especially, by some +of our men, as long as personal security does not exist and as long as +prisoners are tortured, we cannot hope to deserve the confidence of the +other governments. Murders, thefts of carriages and horses, are very +frequent here, as is kidnapping, ...</p> +<p class="footnote">“Sergeant Barcena, of the Fifth Company of +the Second Zone, that is the zone of General Pío del Pilar, +informed me that the cruel officers of that Zone, were Major Carmona +and a lieutenant who was formerly a barber.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I know that the Government has ordered that +private persons and property be respected and has withdrawn from the +military the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e3802" href="#xd21e3802" +name="xd21e3802">111n</a>]</span>power of trying civilians; but in view +of the fact that notwithstanding this restriction some of them continue +to discharge powers of which they have been divested, I find it +necessary to call your attention thereto, in order that more energetic +measures may be adopted so that other nations may not be led to believe +that our government is very weak.</p> +<p class="footnote">“In the jurisdiction of the Americans, I have +surprised small groups of officers, who devote themselves to summoning +persons before them and arresting them. These groups can be found in +Binondo, Tondo and Trozo. I have used all friendly measures to secure +their dissolution, but if they continue their conduct, I shall be +obliged to turn them over to the American authorities, although I +inform you that I shall not make use of such measures, until diplomatic +means are exhausted.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I understand very well that in endeavouring +to stop the abuses committed by our officers and by the Filipinos who +claim to belong to us, in Manila, I expose myself to becoming a victim +of their vengeance; nevertheless, this does not terrify me, because my +duty to the country requires it.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I beg of you that if you take any steps +against Major Carmona and the barber lieutenant, to be very careful and +call General Pío del Pilar and come to an understanding with him +as to the mode of punishment of these officers ....</p> +<p class="footnote">“I have discovered grave cases which are +occurring in the Presidio of Manila, which I propose to relate to you +when I shall have the honor to see you personally. The Americans are +already aware of these cases, and are working in their own interest +untiringly.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I could tell you a good many other things, +but I do not do so on account of lack of time, and because I wish to +reserve them until I can speak to you privately. In the meantime, order +me as you will, etc.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 416. 7.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3827" href="#xd21e3827src" name="xd21e3827">103</a></span> +“General Anderson received us very well, but in the proposed +agreement the clauses requiring the prior permission of our commanders +before American troops could pass or approach our lines displeased him +very much. Gen. Anderson refuses to treat until after the withdrawal of +Noriel’s troops. I think it prudent to yield. This telegram is in +amplification of another which, at the request of Gen. Anderson, we +sent through his telegraph station to your +excellency.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3846" href="#xd21e3846src" name="xd21e3846">104</a></span> +“It is impossible to order General Noriel to fall back because if +we order it they will ask the same thing from General Pío and we +shall get nothing ourselves. And the worst is that after we have +evacuated Manila and its environs they will follow us up to our new +positions to take them too without our being able to obtain from them +any formal statement of the concession signed in duo form. Tho conflict +is coming sooner or later and we shall gain nothing by asking as +favours of them what are really our rights. We shall maintain them as +long as we are able, confiding in Providence and in Justice. I confirm +my last telegram. Tell General Anderson that we shall hold a meeting of +the council of Government in order to decide. Please return here soon +with your companions. I inclose the map which I hope you will +return.”—P.I.R., 427. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3865" href="#xd21e3865src" name="xd21e3865">105</a></span> Senate +Document No. 208, p. 22.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3873" href="#xd21e3873src" name="xd21e3873">106</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 23.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3883" href="#xd21e3883src" name="xd21e3883">107</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 26.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e3903" href="#xd21e3903src" name="xd21e3903">108</a></span> Senate +Document No. 208, p. 24.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4063" href="#xd21e4063src" name="xd21e4063">109</a></span> +Pío del Pilar.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4066" href="#xd21e4066src" name="xd21e4066">110</a></span> Report +of the War Department, 1899, Vol. I, part IV, pp. 5–10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4101" href="#xd21e4101src" name="xd21e4101">111</a></span> See +Buencamino’s letter to Jáudines, p. 108.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4115" href="#xd21e4115src" name="xd21e4115">112</a></span> Taylor +36 AJ. <i>et seq</i>.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch04" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e265">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter IV</h2> +<h2 class="main">The Premeditated Insurgent Attack</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">It will be remembered that the minutes of the session +of the Hong Kong junta at which Aguinaldo reported the result of his +negotiations with Pratt and received his instructions relative to the +trip to Manila, recorded the fact that there would be no better +occasion for the expeditionary forces “to arm themselves at the +expense of the Americans,” and that provided with arms the +Filipino people would be able to oppose themselves to the United States +and combat their demands if they attempted to colonize the +country.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4131src" href="#xd21e4131" name= +"xd21e4131src">1</a></p> +<p>The possible, if not the probable, desirability of attacking the +United States troops was, it is evident, clearly foreseen from the +beginning. Active preparations for doing this now soon began.</p> +<p>Although Insurgent officers in full uniform freely visited Manila at +all times, Aguinaldo wrote on October 1 to his commander in Laguna +Province that he must not permit Americans there without passes. He was +to get rid of them civilly, but he was to keep them out and inform all +authorities there of his instructions.</p> +<p>On August 24 an American soldier was killed and others were wounded +in Cavite by Insurgent troops who fired from behind. An Insurgent +officer in Cavite at the time reported on his record of services that +he—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“took part in the movement against the Americans +on the afternoon of the 24th of August, under the orders of the +commander of the troops and the adjutant of the post.”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4147" href="#xd21e4147" name= +"xd21e4147">128</a>]</span></p> +<p>This shows that the movement was ordered, but the Insurgents +promptly realized that it was ill advised.</p> +<p>On August 28 General Llanera was reported to be preparing for +operations against the Americans. He was ordered to suspend his +preparations. The same day General P. Mercado Rizal, commanding in +Laguna Province, wrote Mabini asking whether they were to consider the +Americans as their allies or their enemies. He wanted to know whether +the war was to stop or continue becoming more furious. This not because +he desired to ask questions about the secrets of the government, but +because he wished to prepare the minds of the people for the future. +Mabini’s answer has not been found.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e4153width" id="p018"><img src="images/p018.jpg" +alt="An Improved Street in the Filipino Quarter of Manila" width="720" +height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">An Improved Street in the Filipino Quarter of +Manila</p> +<p class="first">The construction of such streets and drains makes it +possible successfully to combat disease.</p> +</div> +<p>We have already noted that on August 8 Fernando Acevedo wrote +General Pío del Pilar recommending that he attack and annihilate +the American troops; that on August 10 Pilar wrote Aguinaldo suggesting +that the Americans be attacked, and that on August 17 Aguinaldo +stated” “The conflict is coming sooner or +later.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4161src" href="#xd21e4161" +name="xd21e4161src">2</a></p> +<p>At this time Sandico entered the service of the Americans as an +interpreter and acted as a spy, endeavouring to keep his people fully +informed relative to the plans and acts of his employers. Incidentally +he endeavoured to convince the latter that the barbarities really +committed by Insurgent officers and troops in Manila were perpetrated +by enemies of the Insurgent cause who wished to discredit it.</p> +<p>In a letter dated September 21, 1898, Apacible says that the +conflict will come sooner or later and asks Aguinaldo if it would not +be better for them to provoke it before the Americans concentrate their +troops.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4169src" href="#xd21e4169" name= +"xd21e4169src">3</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4174" href= +"#xd21e4174" name="xd21e4174">129</a>]</span></p> +<p>On September 10 General Garcia reported to Aguinaldo that on the +previous night the Americans had attempted to push back his line at San +Lazaro, and that morning had concentrated and penetrated the Insurgent +territory, making a reconnaissance through the fields about Sampaloc. +Aguinaldo put an endorsement on this communication saying that he had +long since ordered that the Insurgent line should not be passed. He +instructed Garcia to throw troops in front of the Americans at +Sampaloc, and order them to leave, and to warn the bolo men. Obviously, +little more was needed to provoke an Insurgent attack.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4177src" href="#xd21e4177" name= +"xd21e4177src">4</a></p> +<p>An unsigned draft of an order in Aguinaldo’s handwriting dated +Malolos, September 13 (?), 1898,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4182src" +href="#xd21e4182" name="xd21e4182src">5</a> shows how tense was the +situation while the question of withdrawal of the Insurgent forces from +the city of Manila was under consideration. It contains instructions +for General Pío del Pilar, General P. Garcia and General Noriel +or Colonel Cailles. Their purpose is hardly open to doubt.</p> +<p>General Pío del Pilar was directed:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“To have a detachment posted in the interval +from the branch of the river of Paco in a northerly direction to the +bridge and so on up to the Pasig river in the direction of Pandacan, +the river serving as a line until the suburb of Panque is reached which +will be under our jurisdiction. Proceed to execute <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4190" href="#xd21e4190" name= +"xd21e4190">130</a>]</span>this order on its receipt, posting +detachments where they are necessary and trenches will be made without +loss of time working day and night. Do not rest for by doing so we may +lose the opportunity; beg of the troops to assist in the formation of +intrenchments. Matters have a bad aspect, we especially expect +something Wednesday and Thursday, the 15th and 16th of this month. The +danger is imminent on the mentioned days, also in the time that +follows.</p> +<p>“Keep strict vigilance at all hours. In case you receive +orders to leave that place, do not do so on any account without my +orders, happen what may....</p> +<p>“Concentrate all your forces in Santa Ana before the day +arrives.</p> +<p>“Warn your soldiers against firing at random as the Spaniards +did, if possible have them calculate the number of their antagonists +and how much ammunition there is in comparison with the number of the +attacking force, in fact, there are occasions when each shot fired +kills as many as four men.</p> +<p>“I hope you will see to the execution of these instructions +and that you will maintain the honour of the Philippines by your +courage and in no way permit your rights to be trampled +underfoot.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4200src" href="#xd21e4200" +name="xd21e4200src">6</a></p> +</div> +<p>General Garcia was instructed as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On Wednesday, the 14th of this month, you will +post detachments in the points indicated by lines on the enclosed plan. +On receipt of this and as soon as you learn its contents, proceed +secretly to determine the most suitable places to post detachments and +immediately post our troops and have intrenchments made employing day +and night in this work. Beg this of our soldiers.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4208src" href="#xd21e4208" name= +"xd21e4208src">7</a></p> +</div> +<p>The instructions to Noriel or Cailles read as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“At eight o’clock in the morning of +Wednesday, the 14th, withdraw your command from the town of Malate as +indicated on the enclosed plan, from the bridge in Singalong and in a +straight line from there to the branch of the river in Paco will be the +line of our jurisdiction even though we may not be of one mind in the +matter. On receipt of this proceed to determine the most suitable +places to post our troops even if they are not supplied with batteries; +on posting the detachments give instructions to have intrenchments made +immediately without <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4217" href= +"#xd21e4217" name="xd21e4217">131</a>]</span>resting, especially on the +days of the 15th and 16th. Since affairs have a serious aspect, do not +lose vigilance and be on the alert at all times....</p> +<p>“Concentrate all the forces and have a call to arms in Cavite +so that all the troops may be in Pasay on Wednesday night.</p> +<p>“In case the Americans attempt to order you out do not leave +your posts, happen what may, but exercise prudence and be prepared +leaving them to give the provocation. Answer them that you have no +instructions given you with regard to what they ask.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4223src" href="#xd21e4223" name= +"xd21e4223src">8</a></p> +</div> +<p>Obviously the maintenance of peace at this time hung by a very +slender thread. On September 14 the governor of Cavite telegraphed +Aguinaldo as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Most urgent. I desire to know from you the +result of the ultimatum. Advise me if we must prepare our troops for +action to-morrow. I await a reply.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4231src" href="#xd21e4231" name="xd21e4231src">9</a></p> +</div> +<p>But war was not to begin at this time. On September 23 Bray wrote to +Aguinaldo advising him to maintain a defensive attitude until the +result of the negotiations at Paris should become known, giving way to +the Americans and not showing his teeth. He could take the offensive +later if advisable and should have little difficulty in settling +accounts with the American soldiers.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4238src" href="#xd21e4238" name="xd21e4238src">10</a></p> +<p>Bray suggested the possibility of an alliance between the American +and the Spanish soldiers if a conflict should arise before the +departure of the latter.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4243src" href= +"#xd21e4243" name="xd21e4243src">11</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4246" href="#xd21e4246" name="xd21e4246">132</a>]</span></p> +<p>Meanwhile preparations for the attack progressed. During September, +Sandico wrote Aguinaldo suggesting the urgent necessity of reorganizing +the “masons” and the Katipúnan,<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e4249src" href="#xd21e4249" name="xd21e4249src">12</a> and that +all be furnished with knives, to be kept hidden so that they might be +“ready for any event.”</p> +<p>In spite of efforts to keep the Insurgent soldiers in hand, feeling +among them ran high, and they wanted to fight.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4254src" href="#xd21e4254" name="xd21e4254src">13</a> On November +30, 1898, General Mascardo telegraphed from San Fernando to Aguinaldo +asking if he might begin firing in order to prevent the American troops +from disembarking, and Aguinaldo promptly answered in the +affirmative.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4257src" href="#xd21e4257" +name="xd21e4257src">14</a></p> +<p>On December 5 Malvar telegraphed from Lipa that according to a +despatch from Batangas, American divers were working unceasingly and +that a subordinate had ordered that they be fired on if they attempted +to land. Aguinaldo replied that he did not mind their working at sea, +but that they must not be allowed to land under any +circumstances.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4268src" href="#xd21e4268" +name="xd21e4268src">15</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4276" +href="#xd21e4276" name="xd21e4276">133</a>]</span></p> +<p>On December 6 Sandico telegraphed Aguinaldo as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The difficulty of last night at the San Juan +picket with the American troops has been adjusted without prejudice. +Our preparations ought to continue. Awaiting orders.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4282src" href="#xd21e4282" name= +"xd21e4282src">16</a></p> +</div> +<p>San Juan was where the firing commenced on February 4, 1899.</p> +<p>On December 9 Cailles wired Aguinaldo as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Report to you that there are 3000 Americans in +front of our position at Singalong. I do not know what they wish; if +they enter Pineda I open fire.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4292src" href="#xd21e4292" name="xd21e4292src">17</a></p> +</div> +<p>By this time the Insurgents had made up their minds that the +Americans, who had been bearing their insults in silence, were cowards. +Aguinaldo’s indorsement on this telegram reads:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Answered: Nevertheless the 3000 American +soldiers are few against my Colonel and his 300 soldiers, and I believe +you have more than that number. E.A., Dec. 12, 1898.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4302src" href="#xd21e4302" name= +"xd21e4302src">18</a></p> +</div> +<p>Relative to the insults which were at this time showered upon +Americans, Taylor has made the following statement:<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e4309src" href="#xd21e4309" name= +"xd21e4309src">19</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Fortune had been good to Aguinaldo and his +associates in the eight months during which the United States had +prevented Spain from relieving her beleaguered garrisons in the +Philippines, and she might still be kind. The men about Aguinaldo who +had risen farthest and fastest could not endure the thought of having +to accept subordinate positions in a government not directed by +themselves. The halberdiers at the door of the palace of the president +saluted them as the halberdiers at the doorway of his lordship the +governor-general in Manila had struck the marble steps with their +halberds at the coming of the Spanish generals. They swaggered down the +streets of Malolos, clashing their swords behind them, and they knew +that if they won, the Philippines would be divided into fiefs which +they, as dukes and marquises, would hold in feudal tenure from a Malay +potentate. They were confident. They <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4315" href="#xd21e4315" name="xd21e4315">134</a>]</span>held +Luzón. They held the people. They had no intention of returning +to office stools or to the life of outlaws and hunted men. The United +States force in Manila was small and America was far. It was true that +they might have to fight for the prize which they had seized, but the +military leaders about Aguinaldo were confident of winning in case they +fought. They believed the Americans were afraid of them and would be +easily beaten. American soldiers had been seized and had been insulted +by the followers of Aguinaldo and no resort had been made to force. The +Americans had been ordered to avoid bringing on an engagement and had +obeyed. It is also probable that many of the insults to which they had +been subjected were not appreciated by them. A tall soldier from +western America paid no attention to the insults hurled at him in a +language which he did not understand. And yet the small excited +Filipinos might retire feeling that the American had tamely submitted +to insult worse than a blow.”</p> +</div> +<p>By the middle of December, Aguinaldo had placed in position in the +vicinity of Manila all of the field guns in his possession.</p> +<p>The Treaty of Paris was signed on December 10. It provided for the +termination of Spanish sovereignty in the Philippines. This was what +the Insurgents had been waiting for, and thereafter things moved +rapidly. It is obvious that an attack was definitely planned for at +this time, for on December 21, Commandant F. E. Rey telegraphed +Aguinaldo that the second chief of the second zone of Manila had +directed him to assist by entering that city as soon as they opened +fire against the American troops.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4322src" +href="#xd21e4322" name="xd21e4322src">20</a></p> +<p>On the following day Cailles reported that he had occupied +blockhouse No. 12, which was within the American lines, and added the +following significant statement:— <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4327" href="#xd21e4327" name="xd21e4327">135</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The order of yesterday was, on hearing the +first shots from Santa Ana, for my whole force to hurl themselves on +the American line of trenches, and to follow the living to Manila. The +dead can lie with the dead. Yesterday we were content waiting for the +arming of the San Quintin.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4331src" +href="#xd21e4331" name="xd21e4331src">21</a></p> +</div> +<p>San Quintin’s Day was the anniversary of the Sicilian vespers, +the massacre of the French in Sicily in 1268. Obviously the Insurgents +were planning something similar for Manila.</p> +<p>For some reason the attack was not made as planned, but there was no +intention of abandoning it. Within fifteen days of January 1 some +40,000 Filipinos left Manila. Why? On January 7, Aguinaldo wrote to +Señor Benito Legarda at Manila, saying:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I beg you to leave Manila with your family and +come here to Malolos, but not because I wish to frighten you—I +merely wish to warn you for your satisfaction, although it is not yet +the day or the week.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4341src" href= +"#xd21e4341" name="xd21e4341src">22</a></p> +</div> +<p>Many details of the plan of attack have come into our possession. +Doctor Manuel Xeres Burgos wrote Aguinaldo during January relative to a +plan for an uprising of the prisoners in Bilibid Prison, saying that it +should by all means come “before the movement is begun anywhere +else,” and calling attention to the necessity of stationing men +to prevent the American soldiers near by in the Zorilla theatre from +coming to the rescue. On the back of this letter there is a sketch plan +showing where bolo men were to be stationed, ready to attack these +soldiers.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4347src" href="#xd21e4347" name= +"xd21e4347src">23</a></p> +<div class="figure xd21e4351width" id="p019"><img src="images/p019.jpg" +alt="Disinfecting by the Acre" width="720" height="430"> +<p class="figureHead">Disinfecting by the Acre</p> +<p class="first">During the last cholera epidemic chemical fire engines +were used to disinfect whole native sections of Manila.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4357" href="#xd21e4357" name= +"xd21e4357">136</a>]</span></p> +<p>In his message to Congress dated January 1, 1899, Aguinaldo +said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I consider arguments unnecessary in support of +the proposed amendments, every one knows that our newborn Republic now +has to fight for its existence against giants in ambition and in +power.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4363src" href="#xd21e4363" +name="xd21e4363src">24</a></p> +</div> +<p>An unsigned letter addressed to Apacible on January 4, 1899, +contains the following statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It appears that conflict with the Americans is +imminent and inevitable. Several of their vessels with thousands of +soldiers commanded by General Miller were sent to Iloilo on December +20th last to take that port together with the whole of Visayas and +Mindanao.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4371src" href="#xd21e4371" +name="xd21e4371src">25</a></p> +</div> +<p>On January 4 the following significant telegram was sent +out:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Circular Telegram from the Secretary of the +Interior to Provincial Presidents, wherever there may be Telegraphic +Service, to be communicated to the Local Chiefs of each Town.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Malolos</span>, January 4, 1899, 9.35 +A.M.</p> +<p>“To the Provincial President of the Province of +Pangasinán:</p> +<p>“Hasten the preparation of all the towns in order to oppose +the American invasion. See that all the inhabitants prepare their bolos +and daggers; also that in each street and barrio national militia is +organized, each six of whom should be commanded by a corporal, each +thirteen by a sergeant, each twenty-six by a second lieutenant, each +fifty-two by a first lieutenant, and each one hundred and four by a +captain, directing that the soldiers of the national militia elect +their own officers, informing all that upon our attitude depends our +salvation.</p> +<p><span class="sc">Lingayen</span>, January 4, 1899.”</p> +</div> +<p>There is a note thereon which reads:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Communicate this to all of the local chiefs, +and to the commanding general.”</p> +<p>(Signed by initials which are illegible, but evidently those of the +Provincial President.)<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4402src" href= +"#xd21e4402" name="xd21e4402src">26</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4407" href="#xd21e4407" name= +"xd21e4407">137</a>]</span></p> +<p>On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation which contains +the following statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The said generals accepted my concessions in +favor of peace and friendship as indications of weakness. Thus it is, +that with rising ambition, they ordered forces to Iloilo on December +26, with the purpose of acquiring for themselves the title of +conquerors of that portion of the Philippine Islands occupied by my +govermnent.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“My government cannot remain indifferent in view of such a +violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by a +nation which has arrogated to itself the title, ‘champion of +oppressed nations.’ Thus it is that my government is ready to +open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible +possession of the Visayan Islands. I announce these rights before the +world, in order that the conscience of mankind may pronounce its +infallible verdict as to who are the true oppressors of nations and the +tormentors of human kind.</p> +<p>“Upon their heads be all the blood which may be +shed.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4419src" href="#xd21e4419" +name="xd21e4419src">27</a></p> +</div> +<p>Three days later this proclamation, which was rather dangerously +like a declaration of war, was reissued with a significant change in +the last one of the passages quoted, the words “attempt to take +forcible possession of any part of the territory submitted to its +jurisdiction” being substituted for the words “attempt to +take forcible possession of the Visayan Islands.”</p> +<p>On January 8, 1899, at 9.40 P.M., Sandico telegraphed Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Note</span>.—In +consequence of the orders of General Rios to his officers, as soon as +the Filipino attack begins the Americans should be driven into the +Intramuros district and the Walled city should be set on +fire.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4432src" href="#xd21e4432" +name="xd21e4432src">28</a></p> +</div> +<p>Preparations for the attack, which was to begin inside the city of +Manila, were now rapidly pushed to conclusion. I quote Taylor’s +excellent summary of them:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“After Aguinaldo’s proclamation of January +5 the number of organizations charged with an attack within the city +increased <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4442" href="#xd21e4442" +name="xd21e4442">138</a>]</span>rapidly and it is possible that those +which had been formed during Spanish rule had never been disbanded. +Sandico’s clubs for athletic exercises and mutual improvement +formed a nucleus for these bodies and the directing boards of the +popular committees took up the work of recruiting, while some of the +members became officers of the militia or sandatahan. On January 6 the +commander of militia in Trozo, Manila, reported that 1130 soldiers had +been enrolled by the popular committee. On January 7 Bonifacio +Arévalo forwarded to the head of the central committee a list of +the officers of the battalion which had just been organized in Sampaloc +for the defence of their liberties. Apparently about the same time J. +Limjap submitted to Sandico a project for arming the prisoners in +Bilibid Prison with the arms of the American soldiers quartered in the +Zorrilla Theatre across the street. He said:—</p> +<p>“‘Jacinto Limjap having been proclaimed commander of the +volunteers of the penitentiary, I ask you to authorize the creation of +a disciplinary battalion and the provisional appointments of officers +for 600 sandatahan, or militia, ready to provide themselves by force +with the American rifles in the Zorrilla Theatre.’</p> +<p>“He followed by a statement of the officers desired. It was +not difficult for him to obtain volunteers there to rob, to burn, to +rape and to murder. These were the crimes for which they were serving +sentences. The political prisoners had been released....</p> +<p>“On January 18 Sandico approved of the officers for the first +battalion organized by the committees of Sampaloc; on January 27 he +approved those of the second battalion. By January 22 two battalions +had been organized in Quiapo. At least one regiment of eight companies +was raised in Binondo, for on January 23 its commander forwarded a roll +of the officers to Aguinaldo for his approval.... On January 25 T. +Sandico, at Malolos, submitted for approval the names of a number of +officers of the territorial militia in the city of Manila. On January +30, 1899, a roll of four companies just organized in Malate was +forwarded approved by T. Sandico, and on the same day the committee of +Trozo, Manila, applied to T. Sandico for permission to recruit a body +for the defence of the country. The regiment of ‘Armas +Blancas’ had already been raised in Tondo and Binondo. It was in +existence there in December, 1898, and may have been originally +organized to act against Spain. On February 2 all officers of the +territorial militia in Manila reported <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4450" href="#xd21e4450" name="xd21e4450">139</a>]</span>at +Caloocan, in accordance with orders of Sandico, for the purpose of +receiving their commissions and taking the oath to the flag. A man who +took part in this ceremony wrote that a multitude of men were present +in uniform, and that the oath was administered by Gen. Pantaleón +García. There is no reason for believing that this is a complete +statement of sandatahan organized in Manila by the end of January, and +yet this statement gives a force of at least 6330 men. General Otis +said that this force had been reported to him as being 10,000 men. It +is probably true that only a small number of them had rifles; but armed +with long knives and daggers they could have inflicted much damage in a +sudden night attack in the narrow and badly lighted streets of Manila. +On January 9, 1899, Aguinaldo wrote his instructions for the sandatahan +of Manila. Members of this body were to enter the houses of the +American officers on the pretext of bringing them presents. Once in +they were to kill. The sentinels at the gates of the barracks were to +be approached by men dressed as women and killed. The gates of the +barracks held and as many officers as possible treacherously murdered, +the sandatahan were to rise throughout the city, and by attacking in +the rear the United States troops on the outer line were to aid in +opening a way for Aguinaldo’s force. To further increase the +confusion and perhaps to punish the natives who had not joined them, +the sandatahan were to fire the city.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“It is a fair deduction from Luna’s orders for an +uprising in Manila, from Aguinaldo’s instructions for the +sandatahan, from other documents among the papers of the insurgents and +from what was done in Manila on February 22 that Aguinaldo and his +advisers about the middle of January, 1899, drew up a plan of attack +upon Manila which would, if carried out, have inflicted a severe blow +upon the Americans. It was not carried out, but that was not the fault +of Aguinaldo or of Luna.</p> +<p>“It is true that the instructions were general; but that +particular instructions were given by Aguinaldo himself for the murder +of General Otis is shown by his note on the back of a document +presented to him.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4458src" href="#xd21e4458" +name="xd21e4458src">29</a></p> +<p>“... And then there was nothing abhorrent to Aguinaldo and the +men about him in beginning a war by the murder of the commanding +general on the other side.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4468" href="#xd21e4468" name= +"xd21e4468">140</a>]</span></p> +<p>“... Aguinaldo and all his followers have declared that on +February 4 the Americans attacked the unsuspecting Filipinos who were +using their utmost efforts to avoid a war. And yet here in +Aguinaldo’s own handwriting is the record of the fact that on +January 10, 1899, he ordered the murder of the American commander.</p> +<p>“The attack which Aguinaldo was preparing to deliver upon and +in Manila was not to be a mere raid such as the bandits of Cavite were +in the habit of making upon the defenceless towns. The plan was a piece +of calculated savagery in which murder and outrage were considered +means to accomplish a purpose. The servants were to kill their +employers; organized bands, dressed in the dress of civilians, living +in the city of Manila under the government of the Americans, in many +cases employed by the Americans, were to suddenly fall upon the +barracks of the American soldiers and massacre the inmates; all +Americans in the streets were to be killed, the city was to be fired +and its loot was to be the reward of loyalty to Aguinaldo. If this plan +had been carried out no white man and no white woman would have +escaped. The reinforcements from the United States would have arrived +to find only the smoking ruins of Manila. Buencamino had warned General +Augustín what the fate of Manila would be if taken by a horde of +Indians drunk with victory. That fate was now deliberately planned for +the city. Aguinaldo planned to occupy the capital not as it had been +occupied by the Americans. He planned to take it as Count Tilly took +Magdeburg.</p> +<p>“The authors of this plan were not savages. Mabini, Sandico, +and Luna, Asiatics educated in European schools, were men of trained +and subtle minds. With them cruelty and assassination was not a matter +of savage impulse but of deliberate calculation; with them +assassination was employed as an effective addition to political +propaganda, and murder as an ultimate resource in political +manoeuvres.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4475src" href= +"#xd21e4475" name="xd21e4475src">30</a></p> +</div> +<p>Some portions of Aguinaldo’s instructions to the +<i>sandatahan</i> are particularly worthy of perpetuation, as they +illustrate his ideas as to the conduct which should be observed by +cultured, patriotic, honourable and very humane men, who were not +cruel:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 3. The chief of +those who go to attack the barracks should send in first four men with +a good present for the American <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4489" href="#xd21e4489" name= +"xd21e4489">141</a>]</span>commander. Immediately after will follow +four others who will make a pretence of looking for the same officer +for some reason and a larger group shall be concealed in the corners or +houses in order to aid the other groups at the first signal. This +wherever it is possible at the moment of attack.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 4. They should not, prior to the +attack, look at the Americans in a threatening manner. To the contrary, +the attack on the barracks by the sandatahan should be a complete +surprise and with decision and courage. One should go alone in advance +in order to kill the sentinel. In order to deceive the sentinel one of +them should dress as a woman and must take great care that the sentinel +is not able to discharge his piece, thus calling the attention of those +in the barracks. This will enable his companions who are approaching to +assist in the general attack.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 5. At the moment of the attack +the sandatahan should not attempt to secure rifles from their dead +enemies, but shall pursue, slashing right and left with bolos until the +Americans surrender, and after there remains no enemy who can injure +them, they may take the rifles in one hand and the ammunition in the +other.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 6. The officers shall take care +that on the tops of the houses along the streets where the American +forces shall pass there will be placed four to six men, who shall be +prepared with stones, timbers, red-hot iron, heavy furniture, as well +as boiling water, oil and molasses, rags soaked in coal oil ready to be +lighted and thrown down, and any other hard and heavy objects that they +can throw on the passing American troops. At the same time in the lower +parts of the houses will be concealed the sandatahan, who will attack +immediately. Great care should be taken not to throw glass in the +streets, as the greater part of our soldiers go barefooted. On these +houses there will, if possible, be arranged, in addition to the objects +to be thrown down, a number of the sandatahan, in order to cover a +retreat or to follow up a rout of the enemy’s column, so that we +may be sure of the destruction of all the opposing forces.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 7. All Filipinos, real defenders +of their country, should live on the alert to assist simultaneously the +inside attack at the very moment that they note the first movement in +whatever barrio or suburb, having assurance that all the troops that +surround Manila will proceed without delay to force the enemy’s +line and unite themselves with their brothers in the city. With such a +general movement, so firm and decided against the Americans, the combat +is sure to be a short one, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4511" +href="#xd21e4511" name="xd21e4511">142</a>]</span>I charge and order +that the persons and goods of all foreigners shall be respected and +that the American prisoners shall be treated well.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 9. In addition to the +instructions given in paragraph 6, there shall be in the houses vessels +filled with boiling water, tallow, molasses and other liquids, which +shall be thrown as bombs on the Americans who pass in front of their +houses, or they can make use of syringes or tubes of bamboo. In these +houses shall be the sandatahan who shall hurl the liquids that shall be +passed to them by the women and children.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 10. In place of bolos or +daggers, if they do not possess the same, the sandatahan can provide +themselves with lances and arrows with long sharp heads, and these +should be shot with great force in order that they may penetrate well +into the bodies of the enemy, and these should be so made that in +withdrawal from the body the head will remain in the flesh.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 12.... Neither will you forget +your sacred oath and immaculate banner; nor will you forget the +promises made by me to the civilized nations, whom I have assured that +we Filipinos are not savages, nor thieves, nor assassins, nor are we +cruel, but on the contrary, that we are men of culture and patriotism, +honourable and very humane.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4532src" +href="#xd21e4532" name="xd21e4532src">31</a></p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo enjoined order on his subordinates.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4538src" href="#xd21e4538" name="xd21e4538src">32</a></p> +<p>The Filipinos were now ready to assume the offensive, but desired, +if possible, to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. They +made no secret of their desire for conflict, but increased their +hostile demonstrations and pushed their lines forward into forbidden +territory. Their attitude is well illustrated by the following extract +from a telegram sent by Colonel Cailles to Aguinaldo on January 10, +1899:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Most urgent. An American interpreter has come +to tell me to withdraw our forces in Maytubig fifty paces. I shall +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4546" href="#xd21e4546" name= +"xd21e4546">143</a>]</span>not draw back a step, and in place of +withdrawing, I shall advance a little farther. He brings a letter from +his general, in which he speaks to me as a friend. I said that from the +day I knew that Maquinley (McKinley) opposed our independence I did not +want any dealings with any American. War, war, is what we want. The +Americans after this speech went off pale.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4548src" href="#xd21e4548" name="xd21e4548src">33</a></p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo approved the hostile attitude of Cailles, for there is a +reply in his handwriting which reads:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I approve and applaud what you have done with +the Americans, and zeal and valour always, also my beloved officers and +soldiers there. I believe that they are playing us until the arrival of +their reinforcements, but I shall send an ultimatum and remain always +on the alert.—E. A. Jan. 10, 1899.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4556src" href="#xd21e4556" name="xd21e4556src">34</a></p> +</div> +<p>On this same day Aguinaldo commissioned Feliciano Cruz and Severino +Quitiongco to assassinate General Otis.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4564src" href="#xd21e4564" name="xd21e4564src">35</a></p> +<p>On January 13 Noriel and Cailles telegraphed Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We desire to know results of ultimatum which +you mention in your telegram, and we also wish to know what reward our +Government is arranging for the forces that will be able first to enter +Manila.”</p> +</div> +<p>This telegram is endorsed in Aguinaldo’s handwriting:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“As to the contents of your telegram, those who +will be the heroes will have as their rewards a large quantity of +money, extraordinary rewards, promotions, crosses of +Biak-na-bató, Marquis of Malate, Ermita, Count of Manila, etc., +besides the congratulations of our idolizing country on account of +their being patriotic, and more, if they capture the regiments with +their generals, and, if possible, the chief of them all who represents +our future enemies in Manila, which (lot?) falls to you, or, better +said, to General Noriel and Colonel Cailles.</p> +<p>“The ultimatum has not been sent, but it will be within a few +days.</p> +<p>(Signed) “E. A.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Malolos</span>, Jan. 14, +1899.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4590src" href="#xd21e4590" +name="xd21e4590src">36</a></p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e4594width" id="p020"><img src="images/p020.jpg" +alt="An Old-style Provincial Jail" width="720" height="497"> +<p class="figureHead">An Old-style Provincial Jail</p> +<p class="first">Lieutenant Gilmore, of the United States Navy, and his +fellow prisoners were detained in this building for a time.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4600" href="#xd21e4600" name= +"xd21e4600">144</a>]</span></p> +<p>On January 14, 1899, the people at Aparri shouted: “Death to +the Americans,” and held a review to celebrate the rupture of +friendly relations with the United States.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4603src" href="#xd21e4603" name="xd21e4603src">37</a></p> +<p>At this time Aguinaldo had a dream about a victorious attack upon +Manila and telegraphed it to some of his officers. General +García replied from Caloocan on January 17 that the dream would +come true as soon as the conflict with the Americans began.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4608src" href="#xd21e4608" name= +"xd21e4608src">38</a></p> +<p>In January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo was still not quite ready, and +ordered that the Filipino soldiers in the walled city keep on good +terms with the Americans, in order to deceive them, “since the +hoped-for moment has not yet arrived.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4613src" href="#xd21e4613" name="xd21e4613src">39</a></p> +<p>The Insurgents grew surer and surer that the Americans were +cowards,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4623src" href="#xd21e4623" name= +"xd21e4623src">40</a> and openly boasted that when the attack began +they would drive them into the sea. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4629" href="#xd21e4629" name="xd21e4629">145</a>]</span></p> +<p>On January 21 General Otis wrote to Admiral Dewey that:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The insurgents will not now permit us to cross +their lines and have been very insulting to our officers, calling to +them that very shortly they will give us battle. My best information is +that they have fully determined to attack both outside and within the +city before our additional troops arrive, and the least spark may start +a conflagration.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4636src" href= +"#xd21e4636" name="xd21e4636src">41</a></p> +</div> +<p>As the date of the proposed attack drew near, the work of +strengthening the Insurgent positions around Manila was pushed with all +possible speed.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4641src" href="#xd21e4641" +name="xd21e4641src">42</a></p> +<p>About the middle of January General Otis stationed the First +Nebraska Regiment upon the high ground at Santa Mesa for sanitary +reasons. Of conditions at this time, and of the circumstances leading +to the actual outbreak of hostilities Taylor says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“During the latter part of January General Otis +was informed on good insurgent authority that the insurgents meditated +an attack upon those troops, and he was advised to remove them, as in +their exposed position they would kill them all. General MacArthur, +under whose command the regiment was, <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4658" href="#xd21e4658" name="xd21e4658">146</a>]</span>placed +two guns in position there, as it was fully expected that the +insurgents would direct their attack upon that point, as in fact they +did. On February 4, 1899, the tents of the regiment covered the ridge, +and its outposts extended along the San Juan River, a small stream +which formed part of the line of delimitation between the Americans and +the insurgents.</p> +<p>“For some days before the outbreak of hostilities the pressure +of the insurgents was constant along this position, so constant indeed +that in the light of subsequent events it indicated a premeditated +purpose on the part of some one in the insurgent army to force a +collision at that point. On February 2 General MacArthur, commanding +the Second Division of the Eighth Army Corps, wrote to the commanding +general of the Filipino troops in the third zone in front of him +that—</p> +<p>“‘An armed party from your command now occupies the +village in front of blockhouse No. 7, at a point considerably more than +a hundred yards on my side of the line, and is very active in +exhibiting hostile intentions. This party must be withdrawn to your +side of the line at once. From this date if the line is crossed by your +men with arms in their hands they must be regarded as subject to such +action as I may deem necessary.’</p> +<p>“Colonel San Miguel, who commanded at San Juan del Monte, +replied upon the receipt of this communication that the action of his +troops was foreign to his wishes and that he would give immediate +orders for them to retire. At about half past 8 on the night of +February 4 a small insurgent patrol entered the territory within the +American lines at blockhouse No. 7 and advanced to the little village +of Santol in front of an outpost of the Nebraska regiment. This was the +same point from which the insurgents had been compelled to retire on +February 2. An American outpost challenged, and then as the insurgent +patrol continued to advance the sentinel fired, whereupon the insurgent +patrol retired to blockhouse No. 7, from which fire was immediately +opened upon the Americans. This fire spread rapidly down the American +and insurgent lines and both forces at once sprang to +arms.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4666src" href="#xd21e4666" +name="xd21e4666src">43</a></p> +</div> +<p>General Otis’s account of the opening of active hostilities +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On the night of February 2 they sent in a +strong detachment to draw the fire of our outposts, which took up a +position <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4674" href="#xd21e4674" +name="xd21e4674">147</a>]</span>immediately in front and within a few +yards of the same. The outpost was strengthened by a few of our men, +who silently bore their taunts and abuse the entire night. This was +reported to me by General MacArthur, whom I directed to communicate +with the officer in command of the insurgent troops concerned. His +prepared letter was shown me and approved, and the reply received was +all that could be desired. However, the agreement was ignored by the +insurgents and on the evening of February 4 another demonstration was +made on one of our small outposts, which occupied a retired position at +least 150 yards within the line which had been mutually agreed upon, an +insurgent approaching the picket and refusing to halt or answer when +challenged. The result was that our picket discharged his piece, when +the insurgent troops near Santa Mesa opened a spirited fire on our +troops there stationed.</p> +<p>“The insurgents had thus succeeded in drawing the fire of a +small outpost, which they had evidently labored with all their +ingenuity to accomplish, in order to justify in some way their +premeditated attack. It is not believed that the chief insurgent +leaders wished to open hostilities at this time, as they were not +completely prepared to assume the initiative. They desired two or three +days more to perfect their arrangements, but the zeal of their army +brought on the crisis which anticipated their premeditated action. They +could not have delayed long, however, for it was their object to force +an issue before American troops, then en route, could arrive in +Manila.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4678src" href="#xd21e4678" +name="xd21e4678src">44</a></p> +</div> +<p>Thus began the Insurgent attack, so long and so carefully planned +for. We learn from the Insurgent records that the shot of the American +sentry missed its mark. There was no reason why it should have provoked +a hot return fire, but it did.</p> +<p>The result of the ensuing combat was not at all what the Insurgents +had anticipated. The Americans did not drive very well. It was but a +short time before they themselves were routed and driven from their +positions.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo of course promptly advanced the claim that his troops had +been wantonly attacked. The plain fact is that the Insurgent patrol in +question deliberately drew the fire of the American sentry, and this +was just as much <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4687" href= +"#xd21e4687" name="xd21e4687">148</a>]</span>an act of war as was the +firing of the shot. Whether the patrol was acting under proper orders +from higher authority is not definitely known.</p> +<p>In this connection the following telegram sent by Captain Zialcita +from Santa Ana on February 4, 1899, at 9.55 P.M., to Major Gray, San +Juan del Monte, is highly interesting:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I received the telegram forwarded from Malolos. +General Ricarte is not here. I believe (that if the) Americans open +fire we shall attack. Will ask instructions (of) +Malolos.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4694src" href="#xd21e4694" +name="xd21e4694src">45</a></p> +</div> +<p>This looks as if Zialcita at least knew that something was to be +done to draw the American fire.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo’s first statement relative to the opening of +hostilities is embodied in a general order dated Malolos, February 4, +1899, and reads in part as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Nine o’clock P.M., this date, I received +from Caloocan station a message communicated to me that the American +forces, without prior notification or any just motive, attacked our +camp at San Juan del Monte and our forces garrisoning the blockhouses +around the outskirts of Manila, causing losses among our soldiers, who +in view of this unexpected aggression and of the decided attack of the +aggressors, were obliged to defend themselves until the firing became +general all along the line.</p> +<p>“No one can deplore more than I this rupture of hostilities. I +have a clear conscience that I have endeavoured to avoid it at all +costs, using all my efforts to preserve friendship with the army of +occupation, even at the cost of not a few humiliations and many +sacrificed rights.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“... I order and command:—</p> +<p>“1. Peace and friendly relations between the Philippine forces +and the American forces of occupation are broken, and the latter will +be treated as enemies, with the limits prescribed by the laws of +war.</p> +<p>“2. American soldiers who may be captured by the Philippine +forces will be treated as prisoners of war.</p> +<p>“3. This proclamation shall be communicated to the accredited +consuls of Manila, and to congress, in order that it may accord the +suspension of the constitutional guarantees and the resulting +declaration of war.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4716src" href= +"#xd21e4716" name="xd21e4716src">46</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4721" href="#xd21e4721" name= +"xd21e4721">149</a>]</span></p> +<p>Aguinaldo’s protestations relative to his efforts to avoid +hostilities are absurd, in view of his own instructions concerning the +attack to be made simultaneously within and without the city of +Manila.</p> +<p>There is other correspondence which throws light on the situation +which existed immediately prior to the outbreak of hostilities. On +January 25, 1899, Agoncillo cabled from Washington to Apacible in +Hongkong: “Recommend you await beginning American aggression, +justifying our conduct nations.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4727src" href="#xd21e4727" name="xd21e4727src">47</a></p> +<p>Apacible apparently did not take this view of the matter, for on +January 31 he wrote to Aguinaldo that the Senate in Washington would +take final vote upon the treaty of peace between the United States and +Spain on February 6, and said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It is urgently necessary for America to answer +us immediately before the ratification of the treaty. A conflict after +the ratification of the treaty would be unfavorable to us in public +opinion.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4735src" href="#xd21e4735" +name="xd21e4735src">48</a></p> +</div> +<p>Obviously this letter might be interpreted as a recommendation that +hostilities begin before February 6 if America did not answer +meanwhile. It was evidently well understood in Hongkong that +Aguinaldo’s receipt of Apacible’s letter might cause war to +begin, for on February 3, 1899, Bray, anticipating the outbreak of +hostilities of the following day, cabled Senator Hoar at Washington as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Receive caution news hostilities Manila +discredited here denied Filipino circles supposed political move +influence vote Senate to-day any ease insignificant skirmish due +intentional provocation.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Bray</span>.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4748src" href="#xd21e4748" name="xd21e4748src">49</a></p> +</div> +<p>The extracts from the Insurgent records above quoted leave no escape +from the conclusion that the outbreak of hostilities which occurred on +February 4, 1899, had been <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4753" +href="#xd21e4753" name="xd21e4753">150</a>]</span>carefully prepared +for and was deliberately precipitated by the Filipinos themselves.</p> +<p>Blount says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It would be simply wooden-headed to affirm that +they ever expected to succeed in a war with us.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4760src" href="#xd21e4760" name= +"xd21e4760src">50</a></p> +</div> +<p>It may have been wooden-headed for the Filipinos to expect this, but +expect it they certainly did. We have seen how they held their soldiers +in check until after Spain had been ousted from the Philippines by the +Treaty of Paris as they had originally planned to do. It now only +remained to carry out the balance of their original plan to get rid of +the Americans in one way or another.</p> +<p>General Otis states that “when Aguinaldo had completed his +preparations for attack he prepared the outlines of his declaration of +war, the full text of which was published at Malolos on the evening, +and very shortly after, hostilities began. This declaration was +circulated in Manila on the morning of February 5.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4767src" href="#xd21e4767" name= +"xd21e4767src">51</a></p> +<p>The Insurgents brought down upon themselves the punishment which +they received on February 4 and 5.</p> +<p>Blount has stated<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4774src" href= +"#xd21e4774" name="xd21e4774src">52</a> that if the resolutions of +Senator Bacon introduced on January 11, 1899, had passed, we never +should have had any war with the Filipinos. The resolutions in question +concluded thus:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“That the United States hereby disclaim any +disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or +control over said islands except for the pacification thereof, and +assert their determination when an independent government shall have +been duly erected therein entitled to recognition as such, to transfer +to said government, upon terms which shall be reasonable and just, all +rights secured under the cession by Spain, and to thereupon leave the +government and control of the islands to their people.”</p> +</div> +<p>I must take issue with Blount as to the effect which these +resolutions might have had if passed. The Insurgents <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4783" href="#xd21e4783" name= +"xd21e4783">151</a>]</span>felt themselves to be fully competent to +bring about such pacification of the islands as they deemed necessary. +At the time the resolutions were presented in the Senate their soldiers +were straining at the leash, ready to attack their American opponents +upon the most slender excuse. Aguinaldo himself could not have held +them much longer, and it is not impossible that they got away from him +as it was. They would have interpreted the passage of the Bacon +resolutions as a further evidence of weakness, and hastened their +attack. As we have seen, “war, war, war” was what they +wanted.</p> +<p>Blount has endeavoured to shift the responsibility for the outbreak +of hostilities to the United States by claiming that certain words +italicized by him in what he calls the “Benevolent Assimilation +Proclamation” were necessarily, to the Insurgents, +“fighting words.” The expressions referred to have to do +with the establishment of United States sovereignty and the exercise of +governmental control in the Philippine Islands.</p> +<p>These words were not “fighting words,” the Insurgent +policy being, as I have shown by the records, to consider the +acceptance of a protectorate or of annexation in the event that it did +not prove possible to negotiate absolute independence, or probable that +the American troops could be driven from the islands.</p> +<p>The growing confidence of the Insurgents in their ability to whip +the cowardly Americans, rather than any fixed determination on their +part to push a struggle for independence to the bitter end, led to +their attack. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4792" href= +"#xd21e4792" name="xd21e4792">152</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4131" href="#xd21e4131src" name="xd21e4131">1</a></span> See p. +41.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4161" href="#xd21e4161src" name="xd21e4161">2</a></span> P.I.R., +427. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4169" href="#xd21e4169src" name="xd21e4169">3</a></span> +“The insolent commentary of the American Consul here, if it is +true, clearly shows the intention of America to impose her will upon us +by force. In this case, the conflict will come sooner or later. Would +it not be better for us to provoke the conflict while the Americans +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4171" href="#xd21e4171" name= +"xd21e4171">129n</a>]</span>have not as yet concentrated their troops +there? Or would it be better to wait for the results of the Congress of +Paris? This question should be answered immediately by the committee on +foreign relations of the Congress of representatives and the decision +should be sent at once to us so that we can proceed according to your +instructions.”—P.I.R., 453. 11.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4177" href="#xd21e4177src" name="xd21e4177">4</a></span> “I +gave an order long ago not to permit our line to be passed, and to say +frankly that it was by my order. To be prepared to defend our rights +you are ordered to place troops in front of American position at +Sampaloc and to tell them plainly to leave, to warn the Sandatahan +[bolo men.—D. C. W.] and get everything ready; you must warn the +commanders of the zones about Manila. Do not forget, whenever in +doubt.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4182" href="#xd21e4182src" name="xd21e4182">5</a></span> P.I.R., +88. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4200" href="#xd21e4200src" name="xd21e4200">6</a></span> P.I.R., +88. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4208" href="#xd21e4208src" name="xd21e4208">7</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4223" href="#xd21e4223src" name="xd21e4223">8</a></span> P.I.R., +88. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4231" href="#xd21e4231src" name="xd21e4231">9</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4238" href="#xd21e4238src" name="xd21e4238">10</a></span> +“Until the decision of the Paris Congress is known, all of us +here are of the opinion that you should maintain a defensive attitude +regarding the Americans, giving way to them with regard to Manila and +its suburbs or in anything they may wish, although apparently only, and +not show them your teeth. After the decision of the Congress is known, +you may take the offensive if advisable, and according to the +information we may have of the American soldiers it should not be +difficult for you and your army to settle accounts with +them.”—P.I.R., 398. 6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4243" href="#xd21e4243src" name="xd21e4243">11</a></span> +“If you and the Americans should happen to come in conflict +before the departure of the Spanish soldiers, it might happen that the +Yankees would enter into an alliance with them to combat the Filipinos. +Think well over this.”—P.I.R., 398. 6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4249" href="#xd21e4249src" name="xd21e4249">12</a></span> +“It is also of urgent necessity, Señor President, to +reëstablish committees in all the suburbs and that the masons and +the Katipúnan be reorganized, and it is advisable that all be +provided with knives ready for any event, but it is proper that these +arms be hidden.”—P.I.R., 466. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4254" href="#xd21e4254src" name="xd21e4254">13</a></span> +“Our soldiers are always desirous of fighting in order to bring +affairs to an end, as they are very resentful with regard to the +evacuation of the suburbs mentioned.”—P.I.R., Books +C–1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4257" href="#xd21e4257src" name="xd21e4257">14</a></span> +“Most urgent. Have received telegraphic order from War Dept., +which says: ‘Prevent American troops from disembarking.’ In +case they insist what am I to do? May I begin firing?”</p> +<p class="footnote">This telegram was indorsed by Aguinaldo:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Answered affirmatively December 1, +1898.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4268" href="#xd21e4268src" name="xd21e4268">15</a></span> +“Most urgent. According to despatch from Captain detached at +Batangas, American divers are working unceasingly. He says that he +ordered them to be fired on in case they try to land. Await your +reply.”</p> +<p class="footnote">Aguinaldo’s reply ran as follows:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“I do not mind their working at sea, but you +must under no conditions allow them to land troops; be brave for the +sake of your Tagálog heart. Approve your +action.”—P.I.R., 1179. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4282" href="#xd21e4282src" name="xd21e4282">16</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4292" href="#xd21e4292src" name="xd21e4292">17</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4302" href="#xd21e4302src" name="xd21e4302">18</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4309" href="#xd21e4309src" name="xd21e4309">19</a></span> 56 +AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4322" href="#xd21e4322src" name="xd21e4322">20</a></span> +“We are constantly alarmed here by American troops who wish to +come within the military line. To-day received word from second chief, +second zone, Manila, that as soon as they opened fire against the +American troops I assist by entering Manila. I have no orders in this +matter; I await your directions.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4331" href="#xd21e4331src" name="xd21e4331">21</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4341" href="#xd21e4341src" name="xd21e4341">22</a></span> Taylor, +70 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4347" href="#xd21e4347src" name="xd21e4347">23</a></span> +“It is absolutely necessary that an order be received here +permitting the uprising of those in prison before the movement is begun +anywhere else; in the prison the word shall be given at the moment the +bugle sounds retreat; it is indispensable that some of our party be +prepared in the vicinity of the Iris bridge, San Pedro street and +Dulumbrayan bridge, in order to prevent the Americans quartered in the +Pennsylvania barracks (Zorilla theatre) from aiding those in the +prison.”—P.I.R., 73. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4363" href="#xd21e4363src" name="xd21e4363">24</a></span> P.I.R., +40. 8.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4371" href="#xd21e4371src" name="xd21e4371">25</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., Books C–1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4402" href="#xd21e4402src" name="xd21e4402">26</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 1141. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4419" href="#xd21e4419src" name="xd21e4419">27</a></span> P.I.R., +1186. 10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4432" href="#xd21e4432src" name="xd21e4432">28</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4458" href="#xd21e4458src" name="xd21e4458">29</a></span> See p. +733.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4475" href="#xd21e4475src" name="xd21e4475">30</a></span> Taylor, +68–69 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4532" href="#xd21e4532src" name="xd21e4532">31</a></span> P.I.R., +206–207.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4538" href="#xd21e4538src" name="xd21e4538">32</a></span> +“Above all I expect that you will respect the persons and goods +of private persons of all nationalities, including the Chinese; that +you will treat well the prisoners and grant life to those of the enemy +who surrender. And that you be on the sharp lookout for those traitors +and enemies who, by robbery, will seek to mar our victory.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4548" href="#xd21e4548src" name="xd21e4548">33</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4556" href="#xd21e4556src" name="xd21e4556">34</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4564" href="#xd21e4564src" name="xd21e4564">35</a></span> For the +document on which this statement is based see p. 733.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4590" href="#xd21e4590src" name="xd21e4590">36</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4603" href="#xd21e4603src" name="xd21e4603">37</a></span> Taylor, +81 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4608" href="#xd21e4608src" name="xd21e4608">38</a></span> +“In reply to your telegram concerning your dream of entering +Manila after four hours of combat. I have the honour to inform you for +myself and the officers and soldiers under my command that your dream +will come true as soon as the conflict with the Americans begins, since +we shall advance at any cost.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4613" href="#xd21e4613src" name="xd21e4613">39</a></span> On +January 21, 1899, the commander of the fourth zone, Caloocan, wired +Aguinaldo that:</p> +<p class="footnote">“Julian Santo, commander of the territorial +militia of Trozo, informs me that 400 native soldiers of the Spanish +army to-day incorporated in his militia. He lives in the walled city, +and he wants to know your opinion upon the present situation, since the +Americans want to hold them as prisoners or confine them in Bilibid +prison.”</p> +<p class="footnote">(Indorsed, handwriting of Aguinaldo:) “Tell +the Filipino soldiers in the walled city affiliated to our cause that +they must keep on good terms with the Americans, in order to deceive +them, and prevent their confining them, since the hoped-for moment has +not yet arrived.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4623" href="#xd21e4623src" name="xd21e4623">40</a></span> On +January 20, 1899, a correspondent wrote to one of the Insurgents +abroad:</p> +<p class="footnote">“In some places (in Manila) there have been +fights with bolos between Filipinos and Americans who wanted to tear +down the proclamation of our president while the people defended it +with their bolos. They say that it amuses them to see the Americans run +when they draw their knives. It is said that some 10,000 servants have +gone on strike. Some Americans have already disappeared by the method +of ‘dukut’ but it will not be proper to publish this in my +opinion.”—P.I.R., 980. 82.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4636" href="#xd21e4636src" name="xd21e4636">41</a></span> Taylor, +AJ. 73.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4641" href="#xd21e4641src" name="xd21e4641">42</a></span> +(Telegram received by E. Aguinaldo:)</p> +<p class="footnote">“To the President of the Republic, Malolos, +from the Provincial Governor of Manila, San Juan del Monte, Jan. 29, +1899, 10.25 A.M.: I yesterday visited the military road in process of +construction, Santa Ana to Pineda. Tomorrow it will be sufficiently +completed to permit passage, and in two days after it will be finished. +Considering opening another military road direct from Caloocan to San +Juan. Desire authority.</p> +<p class="footnote">(Endorsed, handwriting of Aguinaldo:) +“Telegram received. I am very much satisfied, and in the name of +the government I congratulate you and the presidents of Santa Ana and +Pineda with their inhabitants for their efforts for the public good. +You are authorized to open another military road from Caloocan to San +Juan del Monte, and I want you to endeavor to finish it this week, as I +am certain you will.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote">(Telegram received by E. Aguinaldo:)</p> +<p class="footnote">“To the Secretary of the Interior, Malolos, +from Sah Juan del Monte—Received Feb. 3, 1899 from the Provincial +Governor Manila: Road marked out; work began Wednesday. I shall put +forth every effort to finish by middle of the coming +week.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4666" href="#xd21e4666src" name="xd21e4666">43</a></span> Taylor, +73 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4678" href="#xd21e4678src" name="xd21e4678">44</a></span> Taylor, +73 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4694" href="#xd21e4694src" name="xd21e4694">45</a></span> P.I.R., +2018.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4716" href="#xd21e4716src" name="xd21e4716">46</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 1090. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4727" href="#xd21e4727src" name="xd21e4727">47</a></span> P.I.R., +453. 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4735" href="#xd21e4735src" name="xd21e4735">48</a></span> P.I.R., +453. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4748" href="#xd21e4748src" name="xd21e4748">49</a></span> P.I.R., +493. 12.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4760" href="#xd21e4760src" name="xd21e4760">50</a></span> Blount, +p. 190.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4767" href="#xd21e4767src" name="xd21e4767">51</a></span> Taylor, +86 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4774" href="#xd21e4774src" name="xd21e4774">52</a></span> Blount, +p. 175.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch05" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e274">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter V</h2> +<h2 class="main">Insurgent Rule and the Wilcox-Sargent Report</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">The Good Book says, “By their fruits ye shall +know them, whether they be good or evil,” and it seems proper to +apply this test to the Insurgents and their government.</p> +<p>The extraordinary claim has been advanced that the United States +destroyed a republic in the Philippines and erected an oligarchy on its +ruins. Various writers and speakers who have not gone so far as this +have yet maintained that Aguinaldo and his associates established a +real, effective government throughout the archipelago during the +interim between his return and the outbreak of hostilities with the +United States.</p> +<p>In summarizing conditions on September 15, 1898, Judge Blount +says:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4804src" href="#xd21e4804" name= +"xd21e4804src">1</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Absolute master of all Luzon outside Manila at +this time, with complete machinery of government in each province for +all matters of justice, taxes, and police, an army of some 30,000 men +at his beck, and his whole people a unit at his back, Aguinaldo +formally inaugurated his permanent government—permanent as +opposed to the previous provisional government—with a +Constitution, Congress, and Cabinet, patterned after our own,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4810src" href="#xd21e4810" name="xd21e4810src">2</a> +just as the South American republics had done before him when they were +freed from Spain, at Malolos, the new capital.”</p> +</div> +<p>He refers to our utter failure to understand “what a +wonderfully complete ‘going concern’ Aguinaldo’s +government had become throughout the Philippine Archipelago before the +Treaty of Paris was signed.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4819src" +href="#xd21e4819" name="xd21e4819src">3</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4822" href="#xd21e4822" name= +"xd21e4822">153</a>]</span></p> +<p>He bases his claim as to the excellent state of public order in the +Insurgent territory at this time on a report of Paymaster W. E. Wilcox +and Naval Cadet L. R. Sargent of the United States Navy, who between +October 8 and November 20, 1898, made a long, rapid trip through +northern Luzon, traversing the provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, +Pangasinán, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, Cagayan, South +Ilocos and Union, in the order named, thence proceeding to Dagupan and +down the railroad through Pangasinán, Tarlac, Pampanga and +Bulacan to Manila.</p> +<p>He says that these gentlemen found the authority of +Aguinaldo’s government universally acknowledged, the country in a +state of perfect tranquillity and public order,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4827src" href="#xd21e4827" name="xd21e4827src">4</a> with +profound peace and freedom from brigandage and the like.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4830src" href="#xd21e4830" name= +"xd21e4830src">5</a></p> +<p>Now if it be true that Aguinaldo established complete machinery of +government throughout all of Luzon outside of Manila for all matters of +justice, taxes and police, so that life and property were safe and +peace, tranquillity and justice assured, we may well dispense with +quibbling as to whether the proper name was applied to such government. +But did he?</p> +<p>Let us examine with some care the history of the Wilcox-Sargent +trip, and see if we can gain further light from other sources relative +to the condition of public order in the territory which they +traversed.</p> +<p>I propose, for the most part, to let the captured Insurgent records +speak for themselves, as it is fair to assume that Insurgent officers +were at no pains to represent <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4839" +href="#xd21e4839" name="xd21e4839">154</a>]</span>conditions as worse +than they really were. In view of the fragmentary character of these +records, we may also assume that the complete story would be still more +interesting and instructive than the one which I have been able to +reconstruct.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e4843width" id="p021"><img src="images/p021.jpg" +alt="Retreat at Bilibid Prison, Manila" width="720" height="430"> +<p class="figureHead">Retreat at Bilibid Prison, Manila</p> +</div> +<p>Messrs. Sargent and Wilcox were almost everywhere hospitably +received, and were entertained with dinners and dances after the +inimitable fashion of the hospitable Filipino everywhere. They gained a +very favourable impression of the state of public order in the +provinces through which they passed for the reason that from the very +start their trip was strictly personally conducted. They saw exactly +what it was intended that they should see and very little more. Their +progress was several times interrupted for longer or shorter periods +without adequate explanation. We now know that on these occasions the +scenery so carefully prepared in advance for them had become a little +disarranged and needed to be straightened up. Facts which I will cite +show that most shocking and horrible events, of which they learned +nothing, were occurring in the territory through which they passed.</p> +<p>For a considerable time before their departure American visitors had +been carefully excluded from the Insurgent territory, but the Filipino +leaders decided to let these two men go through it to the end that they +might make as favourable a report as possible. How carefully the way +was prepared for American visitors is shown by the following +telegram:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">San Pedro, Macati</span>,</p> +<p>“July 30, 1898.</p> +<p>“To the Local Presidente of Pasig:</p> +<p>“You are hereby informed that the Americans are going to your +town and they will ask your opinion [of what the people +desire.—Tr.] You should answer them that we want a republican +government. The same answer must be given throughout your +jurisdiction.</p> +<p>(Signed) “Pío Del Pilar,</p> +<p>“General of the Second Zone.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4867src" href="#xd21e4867" name="xd21e4867src">6</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4870" href="#xd21e4870" name= +"xd21e4870">155</a>]</span></p> +<p>Now General Pilar had an uncomfortable way of killing people who did +not obey his orders, and under the rules of the Insurgent government he +was abundantly justified in so doing. His suggestions as to what +visiting Americans should be told or shown would be likely to be +acceded to. Certainly this seems to have been the case in the present +instance, for on the same day General Noriel reported as +follows:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4873src" href="#xd21e4873" name= +"xd21e4873src">7</a></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“President R. G., Bacoor, from Gen. Noriel, +Pineda, July 30, 12.10 P.M.: I inform your excellency that some +commissioners of the American admiral are making investigations in the +region around Pasay as to the wishes and opinion of the people as to +the government. To-day I received a statement from some, giving the +answer: ‘Free government under American protectorate [copy +mutilated, two or three words missing here] the +President.’”</p> +</div> +<p>Blount quotes with approval Admiral Dewey’s statement made +shortly after the return of Wilcox and Sargent that in his opinion +their report “contains the most complete and reliable information +obtainable in regard to the present state of the northern part of Luzon +Island.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4882src" href="#xd21e4882" +name="xd21e4882src">8</a> This was true.</p> +<p>The admiral might have gone further and said that it contained +practically the only information then obtainable in regard to +conditions in the territory in question, but as I shall conclusively +show it was neither complete nor reliable.</p> +<p>Judge Blount in describing the experiences of Messrs. Wilcox and +Sargent naïvely makes the statement that:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The tourists were provided at Rosales by order +of Aguinaldo with a military escort, ‘which was continued by +relays all the way to Aparri.’”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4892src" href="#xd21e4892" name="xd21e4892src">9</a></p> +</div> +<p>It certainly was!</p> +<p>Very little Spanish was then spoken in Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela or +Cagayan. What opportunity had these two <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e4901" href="#xd21e4901" name="xd21e4901">156</a>]</span>men, +ignorant as they were of the native dialects, to learn the sinister +facts as to what had been and was occurring in the territory which they +visited?</p> +<p>No one can fail to be delighted with Filipino hospitality, which was +lavishly bestowed upon them everywhere, and it is only natural that +they should have reported favourably upon what they saw. It was about +this time that an order was issued<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4905src" +href="#xd21e4905" name="xd21e4905src">10</a> that fronts of buildings +should be whitewashed, streets cleaned and fences repaired with a view +to showing every one, and especially travellers through the territory +of the Insurgents, that they were “not opposed to a good such as +a refined and civilized people should have.” Doubtless the report +of the two men from Dewey’s fleet was made in the best of faith. +I will now endeavour to show what were some of the actual conditions in +the territory through which they passed.</p> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Bulacan</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">They first visited Bulacan. They do not mention +hearing of the activities of a Chinaman named Ignacio Paua, who had +been given the rank of colonel by Aguinaldo and assigned the task of +extorting contributions for the revolution from his countrymen. In a +letter to Aguinaldo written on July 6, 1898, Paua states that he has +collected more than $1,000 from the Chinese of these small towns, but +asks for an order “prohibiting the outrages that are being +committed against such merchants as are not our enemies.” He +further says, “When the contributions from the Chinamen of all +the pueblos shall have been completed I wish to publish a proclamation +forbidding any injury to the Chinamen and any interference with their +small business enterprises,” and adds that “the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4913" href="#xd21e4913" name= +"xd21e4913">157</a>]</span>natives hereabouts themselves are the people +who are committing said abuses.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4915src" href="#xd21e4915" name="xd21e4915src">11</a></p> +<p>Apparently Paua had no objection to the committing of outrages +against merchants that were the enemies of the cause, nor does he seem +to have objected to injury to Chinamen before contributions were +completed. His own methods were none too mild. On August 27, 1898, +General Pío del Pilar telegraphed Aguinaldo that five Insurgent +soldiers, under a leader supposed to be Paua, had entered the store of +a Chinaman, and tried to kidnap his wife, but had left on the payment +of $10 and a promise to pay $50 later, saying that they would return +and hang their fellow countryman if the latter amount was not +forthcoming.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4923src" href="#xd21e4923" +name="xd21e4923src">12</a></p> +<p>Paua was later made a general in consideration of his valuable +services! <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4928" href="#xd21e4928" +name="xd21e4928">158</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Pampanga</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Our travellers next visited Pampanga. Here they +apparently overlooked the fact that Aguinaldo did not have “his +whole people a unit at his back.” The citizens of Macabebe seem +not to have approved of the Aguinaldo regime, for the Insurgent records +show that:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Representatives of the towns of Pampanga +assembled in San Fernando on June 26, 1898, and under the presidency of +General Maximino Hizon agreed to yield him complete ‘obedience as +military governor of the province and representative of the illustrious +dictator of these Philippine Islands.’ The town of Macabebe +refused to send any delegates to this gathering.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4938src" href="#xd21e4938" name= +"xd21e4938src">13</a></p> +</div> +<p>It may be incidentally mentioned that Blount has passed somewhat +lightly over the fact that he himself during his army days commanded an +aggregation of sturdy citizens from this town, known as Macabebe +scouts, who diligently shot the Insurgents full of holes whenever they +got a chance. He incorrectly refers to them as a “tribe or +clan.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4943src" href="#xd21e4943" +name="xd21e4943src">14</a> It is absurd to call them a tribe. They are +merely the inhabitants of a town which has long been at odds with the +neighbouring towns of the province.</p> +<p>Things had come to a bad pass in Pampanga when its head wrote that +the punishment of beating people in the plaza and tying them up so that +they would be exposed to the full rays of the sun should be stopped. He +argued that such methods would not lead the people of other +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4948" href="#xd21e4948" name= +"xd21e4948">159</a>]</span>nations to believe that the reign of +liberty, equality and fraternity had begun in the Philippines.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e4950src" href="#xd21e4950" name= +"xd21e4950src">15</a></p> +<p>When it is remembered that persons tied up and exposed to the full +rays of the sun in the Philippine lowlands soon die, in a most +uncomfortable manner, we shall agree with the head of this province +that this custom has its objectionable features!</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Tarlac</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">While the failure of Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent to +learn of the relations between the Tagalogs of Macabebe and their +neighbours, or of the fact that people were being publicly tortured in +Pampanga, is perhaps not to be wondered at under the circumstances, it +is hard to see how they could have failed to hear something of the +seriously disturbed conditions in Tarlac if they so much as got off the +train there.</p> +<p>On August 24 the commissioner in charge of elections in that +province asked for troops to protect him, in holding them in the town +of Urdaneta, against a party of two thousand men of the place, who were +going to prevent them.</p> +<p>On September 22 the secretary of the interior ordered that the +requirements of the decree of June 18, establishing municipal +governments, should be strictly complied with, as in many of the towns +“the inhabitants continue to follow the ancient methods by which +the friars exploited us at their pleasure and which showed their great +contempt for the law.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4964src" href= +"#xd21e4964" name="xd21e4964src">16</a></p> +<div class="figure xd21e4968width" id="p022"><img src="images/p022.jpg" +alt="Bilibid Prison Hospital" width="720" height="371"> +<p class="figureHead">Bilibid Prison Hospital</p> +<p class="first">The Philippine Government has been charged with the +neglect of prisoners. The truth is that it has made the prisons of the +Philippines the most sanitary structures of their kind in the tropics, +and gives its sick prisoners the best of care.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4974" href="#xd21e4974" name= +"xd21e4974">160</a>]</span></p> +<p>The following letter to Aguinaldo, from Juan Nepomuceno, +Representative from Tarlac, speaks for itself as to conditions in that +province on December 27, 1898, shortly after the American travellers +passed through it on their return:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I regret exceedingly being compelled to report +to you that since Sunday the 25th instant scandalous acts have been +going on in the Province of Tarlac, which I represent. On the night of +the Sunday mentioned the entire family of the Local Chief of Bamban was +murdered, and his house and warehouse were burned. Also the Tax +Commissioner and the Secretary, Fabian Ignacio, have been murdered. +Last night Señor Jacinto Vega was kidnapped at the town of +Gerona; and seven travellers were murdered at O’Donnel, which +town was pillaged, as well as the barrio of Matayumtayum of the town of +La Paz. On that day various suspicious parties were seen in the town of +Pañique and in the same barrio, according to reliable reports +which I have just received.</p> +<p>“All this general demoralization of the province, according to +the information which I have obtained, is due to the fact that the +province is dissatisfied with the Provincial Chief, Señor +Alfonso Ramos, and with Major Manuel de León; for this is +substantiated by the fact that all the events described occurred since +last Sunday, when Señor Alfonso Ramos returned, to take charge +of the Office of Provincial President, after having been detained for +several days in this town. Wherefore, I believe that in order to +restore tranquillity in the province, consideration be given to various +documents that have been presented to the Government and to the +standing Committee of Justice; and that there be removed from office +Señor Alfonso Ramos, as well as said Señor Manuel de +León, who has no prestige whatever in this province. Moreover on +the day when fifty-four soldiers of the command deserted, he himself +left for San Fernando, Pampanga.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4982src" href="#xd21e4982" name="xd21e4982src">17</a></p> +</div> +<p>On November 30, 1898, General Macabulos sent Aguinaldo a +telegram<a class="noteref" id="xd21e4987src" href="#xd21e4987" name= +"xd21e4987src">18</a> from which it evidently appears <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4995" href="#xd21e4995" name= +"xd21e4995">161</a>]</span>that there was an armed uprising in Tarlac +which he was endeavouring to quell and that he hoped for early success. +Apparently, however, his efforts to secure tranquillity were not +entirely successful, for on December 18 he telegraphed Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In a telegram dated to-day Lieut. Paraso, +commanding a detachment at Camilin, informs me that last night his +detachment was attacked by Tulisanes (robbers). The fire lasted four +hours without any casualties among our men. This afternoon received +another from the captain commanding said detachment, informing me of +the same, and that nothing new has occurred. The people of the town +await with anxiety the result of the charges they have made, especially +against the local president and the justice of the peace, the original +of which I sent to your high authority.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5000src" href="#xd21e5000" name="xd21e5000src">19</a></p> +</div> +<p>Obviously the police machinery was not working quite smoothly when a +detachment of Insurgent troops could be kept under fire for four hours +by a robber band, and perhaps the attacking party were not all +“robbers.” Soldiers do not ordinarily carry much to +steal.</p> +<p>We obtain some further information from the following telegram of +December 27, 1898, sent by the secretary of the interior to the +President of the Revolutionary Government:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Most urgent. According to reports no excitement +except in Bangbang, Tarlac, which at 12 A.M., 25th, was attacked by +Tulisanes [bandits or robbers,—D.C.W.]. The local presidente with +his patrols arrested six of them. On continuing the pursuit he met in +Talacon a party too large to attack. At 7 A.M. of the 26th the town was +again attacked by criminals, who killed the tax collector, and others +who burnt some houses, among them that of the local presidente, and his +stables, in which he lost two horses. I report this for your +information.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5010src" href= +"#xd21e5010" name="xd21e5010src">20</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5014" href="#xd21e5014" name= +"xd21e5014">162</a>]</span></p> +<p>Evidently tax collectors were not popular in Tarlac.</p> +<p>Still further light is shed on the situation by a telegram from the +secretary of the interior to Aguinaldo, dated December 28, +1898:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“According to my information the excitement in +Tarlac increases. I do not think that the people of the province would +have committed such barbarities by themselves. For this reason the +silence of General Macabulos is suspicious; to speak frankly, it +encourages the rebels. Some seven hundred of them, with one hundred and +fifty rifles, entered Pañique, seized the arms of the police, +the town funds, and attacked the houses of the people. I report this +for your information. All necessary measures will be +taken.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5022src" href="#xd21e5022" +name="xd21e5022src">21</a></p> +</div> +<p>Note also the following from the secretary of the interior, under +date of December 27, 1898, to Aguinaldo:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I have just learned that not only in Bangbang, +but also in Gerona, Onell, and other places in Tarlac, men have been +assaulted by numerous Tulisanes, armed with rifles and bolos, who are +killing and capturing the inhabitants and attacking travellers, robbing +them of everything they have. The President should declare at once that +that province is in state of siege, applying martial law to the +criminals. That—(remainder missing).”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5031src" href="#xd21e5031" name="xd21e5031src">22</a></p> +</div> +<p>The secretary of agriculture took a more cheerful view of the +situation. Under date of December 28 he telegraphed Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The events in Bangbang, Tarlac Province, +according to a witness here worthy of credit, have arisen from an +attempt to procure vengeance on the local presidente, and robbery of +Chinese shops. Hence they are without political importance. The tax +collector killed, and a countryman servant of the local presidente +wounded. They burnt two houses of the local presidente, a stable, and a +warehouse for sugar-cane.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5040src" +href="#xd21e5040" name="xd21e5040src">23</a></p> +</div> +<p>Obviously the robbery of Chinese shops and the killing of a few +individuals was at first considered by the secretary of agriculture to +be without political importance. Evidently <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5046" href="#xd21e5046" name= +"xd21e5046">163</a>]</span>he changed his mind, however, for on the +same day, December 28, 1898, he telegraphed Aguinaldo as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I think it necessary to send Aglipay<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5051src" href="#xd21e5051" name= +"xd21e5051src">24</a> to quiet Tarlac. Send for him. If you desire, I +will go to Tarlac to investigate the causes of the disorders, in order +to find a remedy for them.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5054src" +href="#xd21e5054" name="xd21e5054src">25</a></p> +</div> +<p>At this stage of events Aguinaldo was summoned to Malolos by a +telegram from Mabini under date of December 29, which reads as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Most urgent. You must come here immediately. +Trías is sick. We can come to no decision in regard to the +Tarlac matter. Cannot constitute a government without +you.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5062src" href="#xd21e5062" name= +"xd21e5062src">26</a></p> +</div> +<p>The measures which were actually taken are set forth in another +telegram of the same date from the secretaries of war and interior to +Aguinaldo, which reads as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We have sent civil and military commissioners +to Tarlac; among them the Director of War and persons of much moral +influence, in order to stifle the disturbances. The necessary +instructions have been given them and full powers for the purpose, and +as far as possible to satisfy the people. Have also sent there six +companies of soldiers with explicit instructions to their commander to +guard only the towns, and make the people return to a peaceful life, +using a policy of attraction for the purpose.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e5071src" href="#xd21e5071" name="xd21e5071src">27</a></p> +</div> +<p>Let us hope that the commander was able to attract the people with +his six companies of soldiers, and make them return to a peaceful +life.</p> +<p>Still further light is thrown on the situation in Tarlac by the +following extract from “<span lang="es">Episodios de la +Revolucion Filipina</span>” by Padre Joaquin D. Duran, an +Augustinian priest, Manila, 1901, page 71:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“At that period the Filipinos, loving order, +having been deceived of the emancipation promise, changed by the +Katipúnan into crimes and attacks on the municipality of the +pueblos, discontent <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5085" href= +"#xd21e5085" name="xd21e5085">164</a>]</span>broke out in all parts, +and, although latent in some provinces, in that of Tarlac was +materialized in an ex-sergeant of the late Spanish civil guard. A +valorous and determined man, he lifted up his flag against that of +Aguinaldo. One hundred rifles were sufficient to terrorize the +inhabitants of said province, crushing the enthusiastic members of the +revolutionary party.... Having taken possession of four towns, Pecheche +would have been everywhere successful if ambition and pride had not +directed his footsteps. In January, 1899, the Aguinaldista commander of +Tarlac province, afraid that his whole province would espouse the cause +of the sergeant, attempted by every means in his power to interrupt his +career, not hesitating to avail himself of crime to destroy the +influence of Pecheche with the many people who had been incensed by the +Katipúnan and had in turn become firm partisans of the Guards of +Honour.</p> +<p>“The Ilocano Tranquilino Pagarigan, local presidente at that +time of Camiling, served as an admirable instrument for this +purpose.... Pecheche was invited to a solemn festivity organized by +Tranquilino, who pretended to recognize him as his chief, and rendering +himself a vassal by taking an oath to his flag. He accepted the +invitation, and after the mass which was celebrated went to a meal at +the convent, where, after the meal was over, the members of the K.K.K. +surrounded Pecheche and 10 of his officers and killed them with bolos +or tied them and threw them out of the windows and down the staircase. +Some priests were held captive in the building where this took place +and were informed of what had taken place immediately +afterwards.”</p> +</div> +<p>This extract shows how easy it then was for any man of determination +to acquire a following, especially if he could dispose of a few rifles. +It also gives an excellent idea of the methods employed by the +Insurgents in dealing with those who opposed their rule.</p> +<p>General Fred D. Grant once told me, with much amusement, of an +interesting experience during a fight on Mt. Arayat in Pampanga. His +men took a trench and captured some of its occupants. Several of these +were impressed as guides and required to show the attacking forces the +locations of other trenches. At first they served unwillingly, but +presently became enthusiastic <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5094" +href="#xd21e5094" name="xd21e5094">165</a>]</span>and rushed the works +of their quondam fellow-soldiers in the van of the American attack. +Finally they begged for guns. Grant added that he could start from +Bacolor for San Fernando any morning with a supply of rifles and pick +up volunteers enough to capture the place, and that on the return trip +he could get enough more to attack Bacolor!</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Pangasinán</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">And now we come to Pangasinán, the most +populous province of Luzon, and the third in the Philippines in number +of inhabitants.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In July, 1898, the officer in Dagupan wrote to +the commanding general of Tarlac Province that he would like to know +whom he was required to obey, as there were so many officials of all +ranks who gave him orders that it was impossible for him to know where +he stood.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5104src" href="#xd21e5104" +name="xd21e5104src">28</a></p> +</div> +<p>In a letter dated August 17, 1898, to Aguinaldo, Benito Legarda +complained that a bad impression had been produced by the news from +Dagupan that when the Insurgents entered there, after many outrages +committed upon the inmates of a girls’ school, every officer had +carried off those who suited him.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5109src" +href="#xd21e5109" name="xd21e5109src">29</a></p> +<p>What should we say if United States troops entered the town of +Wellesley and raped numerous students at the college, the officers +subsequently taking away with them the young ladies who happened to +suit them? Yet things of this sort hardly caused a ripple in the +country then under the Insurgent flag, and I learned of this particular +incident by accident, although I have known Legarda for years.</p> +<p>I quote the following general description of conditions in +Pangasinán from a letter addressed by Cecilio Apóstol to +General Aguinaldo on July 6, 1898:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“You probably know that in the Province of +Pangasinán, of one of the towns in which your humble servant is +a resident, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5119" href="#xd21e5119" +name="xd21e5119">166</a>]</span>the Spanish flag through our good +fortune has not flown here for the past few months, since the few +Spaniards who lived here have concentrated in Dagupan, a place not +difficult of attack, as is said.</p> +<p>“But this is what is going on in this Province” There +exist here two Departmental Governments, one calling itself that of +Northern Luzón and of which Don Vicente del Prado is the +President, and the other which calls itself that of Northern and +Central Luzón, presided over by Don Juliano Paraiso. Besides +these two gentlemen, there are two governors in the province(!) one +Civil Political Military, living in Lingayen, named Don Felipe J. +Bartolomé, and another living in Real Guerrero, a town of Tayug, +named Don Vicente Estrella. And in addition there are a large number of +Administrators, Inspectors, Military Judges, Generals, ... they cannot +be counted. It is a pandemonium of which even Christ, who permits it, +cannot make anything. Indeed, the situation is insupportable. It +reminds me of the schism in the middle ages when there were two Popes, +both legitimate, neither true. Things are as clear as thick chocolate, +as the Spaniards say. In my poor opinion, good administration is the +mother-in-law of disorder, since disorder is chaos and chaos produces +nothing but confusion, that is to say, death.</p> +<p>“I have had an opportunity, through the kindness of a friend, +to read the decree of that Government, dated June 18th, of the present +year, and the accompanying ‘Instructions for the government of +towns and provinces.’ Article 9 of the said decree says that the +Superior Government will name a commissioner for each province with the +special duty of establishing there the organization set forth in the +decree. Very well so far: which of the so-called Presidents of Northern +or of Northern and Central Luzón is the commissioner appointed +by that government to establish the new organization in that province? +Are military commanders named by you for Pangasinán? I would be +very much surprised if either of them could show his credentials. Aside +from these, the fact remains that in those instructions no mention is +made of Presidents of Departments, there is a manifest contradiction in +their jurisdictions, since while one calls himself president of a +Departmental Government, of Northern Luzón, the other governs +the Northern and Central portion of the Island, according to the seals +which they use.</p> +<p>“And, nevertheless, a person calling himself the General +Administrator of the Treasury and the said Governor of the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5127" href="#xd21e5127" name= +"xd21e5127">167</a>]</span>Province, both of whom live in Tayug, came +to this town when the Spaniards voluntarily abandoned it and gathered +all the people of means, and drew up an act of election, a copy of +which is attached. From it you will see how this organization violates +the provisions of the decree of the 18th of June.</p> +<p>“Another item: They got up a contract with the people of means +of this town, and did the same thing in the other towns, in which +contract they exact from us $1250 which they call contributions of war +(see document No. 2 attached). Among the doubtful powers of these +gentlemen is the one to exact these sums included?</p> +<p>“Have they express orders from that Government?</p> +<p>“Perhaps these blessed gentlemen—they are high flyers +there is no doubt about that,—have struck the clever idea of +calling themselves generals, governors, etc., in order to enjoy a +certain prestige and to give a certain color of legality to their +acts—this, although they don’t know an iota of what they +are doing. But what I am sure of, and many other men also, is that +there is no order, that here there is not a single person in authority +whom to obey. This superfluity of rulers will finally lead to strained +relations between them and the towns of this province will end by +paying the piper.</p> +<p>“But we poor ignorant creatures in so far as the republican +form of government is concerned, in order to avoid worse evils took +them at their word, obeyed them like automatons, hypnotized by the +title of ‘Insurgents’ which they applied to themselves. But +when I had an opportunity to read the said decree, doubts were forced +upon me, I began to suspect—may God and they pardon me—that +they were trying to impose upon us nicely, that, shielded by the motto, +‘have faith in and submit to the will of the country’ they +came to these towns ‘for business.’</p> +<p>“In order to dissipate this doubt, in order to do away with +abuses, if there are abuses, I made up my mind to send you this account +of the condition of things here. I flatter myself that when you learn +of the lamentable situation of this province, you will soon deign to +take steps to establish order, because thereon depends the tranquillity +of Pangasinan and in the end a strict compliance with your superior +orders.</p> +<p>“There will be no limit to the thanks of the people of this +province if their petitions secure favourable consideration and an +immediate response from the high patriotism and honourable standpoint +of the Supreme Dictator of the Philippines.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e5141src" href="#xd21e5141" name="xd21e5141src">30</a></p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e5145width" id="p023"><img src="images/p023.jpg" +alt="Modern Contagious Disease Ward, San Lazaro Hospital" width="720" +height="425"> +<p class="figureHead">Modern Contagious Disease Ward, San Lazaro +Hospital</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5149" href="#xd21e5149" name= +"xd21e5149">168</a>]</span></p> +<p>It will be noted that the picture thus drawn by Señor +Apóstol differs in certain important particulars from that +painted in such engaging colours by Judge Blount.</p> +<p>In September, 1898, the civil governor of Pangasinán had to +have an escort of troops in passing through his province.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5154src" href="#xd21e5154" name= +"xd21e5154src">31</a></p> +<p>On November 20, 1898, the head of the town of San Manuel wrote the +provincial governor that his people could no longer support the troops +quartered on them, as the adherents of the Katipúnan had burned +or stolen all of their property.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5159src" +href="#xd21e5159" name="xd21e5159src">32</a></p> +<p>The sum total of Blount’s description of affairs in this, the +most populous province of Luzón, is derived from the narrative +of Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent and reads as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In Pangasinán ‘the people were all +very respectful and polite and offered the hospitality of their +homes.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5169src" href= +"#xd21e5169" name="xd21e5169src">33</a></p> +</div> +<p>Doubtless true, but as a summary of conditions perhaps a trifle +sketchy.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Nueva Ecija</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Nueva Ecija was the next province visited by Wilcox +and Sargent. They have failed to inform us that:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In December, 1899, certain men charged with +being members of this society [Guards of Honour] were interrogated in +Nueva Ecija as to their purposes. One of those questioned +said:—</p> +<p>“‘That their purpose was one day, the date being unknown +to the deponent, when the Ilocanos of Batac came, to rise up in arms +and kill the Tagálos, both private individuals and public +employees, excepting those who agreed to the former, for the reason +that honours were granted only to the Tagálos, and but few to +the Ilocanos.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5184src" href= +"#xd21e5184" name="xd21e5184src">34</a></p> +</div> +<p>Blount has assured us that the Filipinos were a unit at +Aguinaldo’s back and were and are an united people, and +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5189" href="#xd21e5189" name= +"xd21e5189">169</a>]</span>here are the Ilocanos of Nueva Ecija +spoiling his theory by remembering that they are Ilocanos and proposing +to kill whom? Not certain individual Filipinos, who might have offended +them, but the Tagálogs!</p> +<p>That there were other troubles in Nueva Ecija is shown by the +following statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On January 7, 1899, the commissioner of +Aguinaldo’s treasury sent to collect contributions of war in +Nueva Ecija Province reported that the company stationed in San Isidro +had become guerillas under command of its officers and opposed his +collections, stating that they were acting in compliance with orders +from higher authority.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5196src" href= +"#xd21e5196" name="xd21e5196src">35</a></p> +</div> +<p>And now, in following the route taken by our tourist friends, we +reach Nueva Vizcaya and the Cagayan valley. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5201" href="#xd21e5201" name= +"xd21e5201">170</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4804" href="#xd21e4804src" name="xd21e4804">1</a></span> Blount, +p. 98.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4810" href="#xd21e4810src" name="xd21e4810">2</a></span> The +constitution used was most certainly not patterned after our own. See +p. 265.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4819" href="#xd21e4819src" name="xd21e4819">3</a></span> Blount, +p. 111.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4827" href="#xd21e4827src" name="xd21e4827">4</a></span> +“The light Messrs. Sargent and Wilcox throw on the then universal +acknowledgment of the authority of the Aguinaldo government and the +perfect tranquillity and public order maintained under it, in the +Cagayan valley.”—Blount, pp. 114–115.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4830" href="#xd21e4830src" name="xd21e4830">5</a></span> +“The country in fact, as Aguinaldo always claimed in his +proclamations of that period seeking recognition of his government by +the Powers, in a state of profound peace and tranquillity—free +from brigandage and the like.”—Blount, p. 115.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4867" href="#xd21e4867src" name="xd21e4867">6</a></span> P.I.R., +958. 11.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4873" href="#xd21e4873src" name="xd21e4873">7</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4882" href="#xd21e4882src" name="xd21e4882">8</a></span> Blount, +p. 108.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4892" href="#xd21e4892src" name="xd21e4892">9</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 109.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4905" href="#xd21e4905src" name="xd21e4905">10</a></span> +“With a view to showing every one and especially foreigners +travelling through the territory of the Republic, that we are not +opposed to a good such as a refined and civilized people should have, +the fronts of buildings should be whitewashed, streets should be +cleaned and fences repaired.”—P.I.R., 292. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4915" href="#xd21e4915src" name="xd21e4915">11</a></span> +“It would be a great satisfaction to me to aid you with all my +strength; and the only thing that I see to object to is that the +Commanders and Generals in this province are getting pretty abusive +toward our brethren and allow themselves to be bribed by the +Tagálog merchants so as to allow them to enter Manila with their +goods, which is of great assistance to our enemies.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Concerning the contributions which I have +collected from the Chinamen, it amounts to more than ₱2,000 here +in Tambobong, Meycauayan and Polo alone; and those from the other +pueblos have not yet come to see me. Furthermore, I would like an order +from you prohibiting the outrages that are being committed against such +merchants as are not our enemies; and when the contributions from the +Chinamen of all the pueblos shall have been completed, I wish to +publish a proclamation forbidding any injury to the Chinamen and any +interference with their small business enterprises; since this is a +disgrace to our government and to your name; for the natives of +hereabouts themselves are the people who are committing said abuses, +and in hopes of putting a stop to them, I await your decision at the +earliest possible moment concerning the proclamation referred +to.”—P.I.R., 355. 11.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4923" href="#xd21e4923src" name="xd21e4923">12</a></span> +“Last night in the place known as Santo Cristo (Manila?) the +store of J. Ricafort, a Chinaman, was entered by five soldiers of our +army under an unknown commander supposed to be Colonel Paua. They tried +to kidnap the wife of Ricafort. At the request of P. García they +desisted upon payment of 20 pesos and the agreement that 100 pesos +would be paid later. If this was not done they would return and hang +them. To quiet these people I gave them a pass to assure their personal +safety, and exacted at the same time a promise that they should not +report the matter to the Americans. Pauline García is now at +Pedro Macati.”—P.I.R., 1187.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4938" href="#xd21e4938src" name="xd21e4938">13</a></span> P.I.R., +223.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4943" href="#xd21e4943src" name="xd21e4943">14</a></span> +“Early in the war we had availed ourselves of a certain tribe, or +clan, known as the Maccabebes, who look nowise different from all other +Filipinos, but who had, under the Spanish government, by reason of +long-standing feuds with their more rebellious neighbours, come to be +absolutely loyal to the Spanish authorities. When we came they had +transferred that loyalty to us, and had now become a recognized and +valuable part of our military force.”—Blount, pp. +333–334.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4950" href="#xd21e4950src" name="xd21e4950">15</a></span> +“On July 28, 1898, the head of the province of Pampanga wrote +that the punishment of beating people in the plaza and tying them up so +that they would be exposed to the full rays of the sun should be +stopped. He complained that these methods had been carried so far that +even people of good social position had been so punished. It was +especially undesirable to employ such punishments, as the people of +other nations weeing them would not believe that the reign of liberty, +equality, and fraternity had begun in the +Philippines.”—P.I.R., 196.3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4964" href="#xd21e4964src" name="xd21e4964">16</a></span> Taylor, +47 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4982" href="#xd21e4982src" name="xd21e4982">17</a></span> P.I.R., +944.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e4987" href="#xd21e4987src" name="xd21e4987">18</a></span> +“I have the honour to inform you that I have been in this town +since yesterday afternoon issuing, in a proclamation, conciliatory +orders to the populace that the people comprised in the uprising must +present themselves and express aversion and repudiation of it, +promising them consideration and pardon as long as they lay aside arms. +In <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e4989" href="#xd21e4989" name= +"xd21e4989">161n</a>]</span>compliance with and following the earlier +published proclamation, they presented two guns and innumerable bolos. +I hope soon for tranquillity among the people there through these +efforts. I ask dispense with assembly of the Junta. <span class= +"sc">Camilin</span>, November 30, 1898.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5000" href="#xd21e5000src" name="xd21e5000">19</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5010" href="#xd21e5010src" name="xd21e5010">20</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5022" href="#xd21e5022src" name="xd21e5022">21</a></span> P.I.R. +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5031" href="#xd21e5031src" name="xd21e5031">22</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5040" href="#xd21e5040src" name="xd21e5040">23</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5051" href="#xd21e5051src" name="xd21e5051">24</a></span> +Gregorio Aglipay, an Ilocano Catholic priest who became an active +Insurgent leader. Later he abandoned the Catholic faith and set up a +new church which gained many adherents in the Philippines.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5054" href="#xd21e5054src" name="xd21e5054">25</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5062" href="#xd21e5062src" name="xd21e5062">26</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5071" href="#xd21e5071src" name="xd21e5071">27</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5104" href="#xd21e5104src" name="xd21e5104">28</a></span> P.I.R., +1231. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5109" href="#xd21e5109src" name="xd21e5109">29</a></span> Taylor, +62 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5141" href="#xd21e5141src" name="xd21e5141">30</a></span> P.I.R., +77.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5154" href="#xd21e5154src" name="xd21e5154">31</a></span> P.I.R., +47.7.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5159" href="#xd21e5159src" name="xd21e5159">32</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 951.3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5169" href="#xd21e5169src" name="xd21e5169">33</a></span> Blount, +p. 109.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5184" href="#xd21e5184src" name="xd21e5184">34</a></span> P.I.R., +1006.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5196" href="#xd21e5196src" name="xd21e5196">35</a></span> P.I.R., +870. 4.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch06" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e283">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter VI</h2> +<h2 class="main">Insurgent Rule in the Cagayan Valley</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Nueva Vizcaya is drained by the Magát River, a +branch of the Cagayan. While the provinces of Isabela and Cagayan +constitute the Cagayan valley proper, Blount includes Nueva Vizcaya in +the territory covered by this designation, and for the purpose of this +discussion I will follow his example.</p> +<p>Especial interest attaches to the history of Insurgent rule, in the +Cagayan valley, as above defined, for the reason that Blount himself +served there as a judge of the court of first instance. He +says:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5211src" href="#xd21e5211" name= +"xd21e5211src">1</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The writer is perhaps as familiar with the +history of that Cagayan valley as almost any other American.”</p> +</div> +<p>He was. For his action in concealing the horrible conditions which +arose there under Insurgent rule, with which he was perfectly familiar, +and in foisting on the public the account of Messrs. Wilcox and +Sargent, as portraying the conditions which actually existed there, I +propose to arraign him before the bar of public opinion. In so doing I +shall consider these conditions at some length. We have much +documentary evidence concerning them in addition to that furnished by +the Insurgent records, although the latter quite sufficiently +demonstrate many of the more essential facts.</p> +<p>In describing the adventures of Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent in this +region, Judge Blount says:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5222src" href= +"#xd21e5222" name="xd21e5222src">2</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“There<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5230src" href= +"#xd21e5230" name="xd21e5230src">3</a> they were met by Simeon Villa, +military commander of Isabela province, the man who was chief of staff +to Aguinaldo <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5233" href="#xd21e5233" +name="xd21e5233">171</a>]</span>afterwards, and was captured by General +Funston along with Aguinaldo in the spring of 1901.”</p> +</div> +<p>The facts as to Villa’s career in the Cagayan valley are +especially worthy of note as they seem to have entitled him, in the +opinion of his superiors, to the promotion which was afterward accorded +him. He was an intimate friend of Aguinaldo and later accompanied him +on his long flight through northern Luzon.</p> +<p>On August 10, 1898, Colonel Daniel Tirona, a native of Cavite +Province and one of the intimates of Aguinaldo, was ordered to proceed +to Aparri in the Insurgent steamer <i>Filipinas</i> and establish the +revolutionary government in northern Luzon. In doing this he was to +hold elections for office-holders under Aguinaldo’s government +and was authorized to approve or disapprove the results, his action +being subject to subsequent revision by Aguinaldo. His forces were +composed of four companies armed with rifles.</p> +<p>Tirona reached Aparri on August 25 and promptly secured the +surrender of the Spaniards there.</p> +<p>He was accompanied by Simeon Villa, the man under discussion, and by +Colonel Leyba, who was also very close to Aguinaldo.</p> +<p>Abuse of the Spanish prisoners began at once. It is claimed that the +governor of North Ilocos, who was among those captured, was grossly +mistreated.</p> +<p>Taylor briefly summarizes subsequent events as follows:<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5252src" href="#xd21e5252" name= +"xd21e5252src">4</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Whatever the treatment of the Spanish governor +of Ilocos may really have been, there is testimony to show that some of +the other prisoners, especially the priests, were abused and outraged +under the direction of S. Villa and Colonel Leyba, both of whom were +very close to Aguinaldo. Some of the Spanish civil officials were put +in stocks and beaten, and one of the officers who had surrendered at +Aparri was tortured to death. This was done with the purpose of +extorting money from them, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5258" +href="#xd21e5258" name="xd21e5258">172</a>]</span>for it was believed +that they had hidden funds in place of turning them over. All the +Spaniards were immediately stripped of everything they had. The priests +were subjected to a systematic series of insults and abuse under the +direction of Villa in order to destroy their influence over the people +by degrading them in their eyes. It was for this that they were beaten +and exposed naked in the sun; and other torture, such as pouring tile +wax of burning candles into their eyes, was used to make them disclose +where they had hidden church vessels and church funds. The testimony of +a friar who suffered these outrages is that the great mass of the +people saw such treatment of their parish priests with horror, and were +present at it only through fear of the organized force of the +Katipúnan.”</p> +</div> +<p>Taylor’s statement is mildness itself in view of the +well-established facts.</p> +<p>The question of killing the Spanish prisoners, including the friars, +had previously been seriously considered,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5265src" href="#xd21e5265" name="xd21e5265src">5</a> but it was +deemed wiser to keep most of the friars alive, extort money from them +by torture, and offer to liberate them in return for a large cash +indemnity, or for political concessions. Day after day and week after +week Villa presided at, or himself conducted, the torture of ill-fated +priests and other Spaniards who fell into his hands. Even Filipinos +whom he suspected of knowing the where-abouts of hidden friar money did +not escape.</p> +<p>The following information relative to the conduct of the Insurgents +in the Cagayan valley is chiefly taken from manuscript copy of <i lang= +"es">“Historia de la Conquista de Cagayan por los Tagalos +Revolucionarios,”</i> in which the narratives of certain captured +friars are transcribed and compiled by Father Julian Malumbres of the +Dominican Order.</p> +<p>The formal surrender of Aparri occurred on August 26. Tirona, his +officers and his soldiers, promptly pillaged the +<i>convento</i>.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5281src" href="#xd21e5281" +name="xd21e5281src">6</a> The officers left the Bishop of Vigan ten +pesos, but the soldiers subsequently took them away from him. Wardrobes +and trunks were broken <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5284" href= +"#xd21e5284" name="xd21e5284">173</a>]</span>open; clocks, shoes, +money, everything was carried off. Even personal papers and +prayer-books were taken from some of the priests, many of whom were +left with absolutely nothing save the few remaining clothes in which +they stood.</p> +<p>On the same day Villa, accompanied by Victa and Rafael +Perea,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5288src" href="#xd21e5288" name= +"xd21e5288src">7</a> went to the <i>convento</i> and told the priests +who were imprisoned there that their last hour had come. He shut all of +them except the bishop and five priests in a room near the church, then +separated the Augustinians, Juan Zallo, Gabino Olaso, Fidel Franco, +Mariano Rodriguez, and Clemente Hidalgo, from the others and took them +into the lower part of the <i>convento</i> where he told them that he +intended to kill them if they did not give him more money. The priests +told him that they had given all they had, whereupon he had their arms +tied behind their backs, kicked them, struck them and whipped them with +rattans.</p> +<p>Father Zallo was thrown on his face and savagely beaten. Meanwhile +two shots were fired over the heads of the others and a soldier called +out “One has fallen,” badly frightening the priests who had +remained shut in the room. Villa then returned with soldiers to this +room, ordered his men to load, and directed that one priest step +forward to be shot. Father Mariano Ortiz complied with this request, +asking that he be the first victim. Villa, however, contented himself +with threatening him with a revolver and kicking and striking him until +he fell to the floor. He was then beaten with the butts of guns.</p> +<p>Father José Vazquez, an old man of sixty years, who had +thrown some money into a privy to keep it from falling into the hands +of the Insurgents, was stripped and compelled to recover it with his +bare hands, after which he was kicked, and beaten with rattans.</p> +<p>Father Aquilino García was unmercifully kicked and beaten to +make him give up money, and this sort of <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5303" href="#xd21e5303" name="xd21e5303">174</a>]</span>thing +continued until Villa, tired out with the physical exertion involved in +assaulting these defenceless men, departed, leaving his uncompleted +task to others, who continued it for some time.</p> +<p>The net result to the Insurgents of the sacking of the +<i>convento</i> and of the tortures thus inflicted was approximately +$20,000 gold in addition to the silver, bank notes, letters of credit, +jewels, etc., which they obtained.</p> +<p>On September 5 Villa had Fathers Juan Recio and Buenaventura Macia +given fifty blows each, although Father Juan was ill.</p> +<p>Villa then went to Lalloc, where other priests were imprisoned. On +September 6 he demanded money of them, causing them to be kicked and +beaten. Father Angel was beaten in an especially cruel manner for the +apparent purpose of killing him, after which he was thrust into a +privy. Father Isidro Fernandez was also fearfully abused. Stripped of +his habit, and stretched face down on the floor, he was horribly +beaten, and was then kicked, and struck with the butt of a revolver on +the forehead.</p> +<p>A little later the priests were offered their liberty for a million +dollars, which they were of course unable to furnish. Meanwhile the +torture continued from time to time.</p> +<p>On August 30 Tuguegarao was taken by the Insurgents without +resistance. Colonel Leyba promptly proceeded to the <i>convento</i> and +demanded the money of the friars as spoil of war. He found only eight +hundred pesos in the safe. Father Corujedo was threatened with death if +he did not give more. Other priests were threatened but not tortured at +this time. The prisoners in the jail were liberated, but many of them +had promptly to be put back again because of the disorder which +resulted, and that same evening Leyba was obliged to publish a notice +threatening robbers with death.</p> +<p>At midnight on September 3 Father Corujedo was taken from the +<i>convento</i> by Captain Diego and was again <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5327" href="#xd21e5327" name= +"xd21e5327">175</a>]</span>asked for money. Replying that he had no +more to give, he was beaten with the hilt of a sabre and stripped of +his habit, preparatory to being executed. A mock sentence of death was +pronounced on him and he was placed facing to the west to be shot in +the back. Diego ordered his soldiers to load, adding, “When I +count three all fire,” but the fatal count was not completed. +Three priests from Alcala were given similar treatment.</p> +<p>The troubles of the priests imprisoned at Tuguegarao were +sufficiently great, but they were augmented a thousand fold when Villa +arrived on September 11. He came to the building where they were +imprisoned, bearing a revolver, a sabre and a great quantity of +rattans. He ordered the priests into the corner of the room in which +they were confined, and beat those who did not move quickly enough to +suit him. He threatened them with a very rigorous examination, at the +same time assuring them that at Aparri he had hung up the bishop until +blood flowed from his mouth and his ears, and that he would do the same +with them if they did not tell him where they had their money hidden. +There followed the usual rain of kicks and blows, a number of the +priests being obliged to take off their habits in order that they might +be punished more effectively.</p> +<p>Fathers Calixto Prieto and Daniel Gonzales, professors in +educational institutions, he ordered beaten because they were +friars.</p> +<p>Fathers Corujedo and Caddedila were beaten, kicked and insulted. +Both were gray-haired old men and the latter was at the time very weak, +and suffering from a severe attack of asthma. Father Pedro Vincente was +also brutally beaten.</p> +<p>The following is the description given by an eye-witness of +conditions at Tuguegarao:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Even the Indios of Cagayan complained and were +the victims of looting and robbery on the part of the soldiery. So +lacking in discipline and so demoralized was that army that +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5340" href="#xd21e5340" name= +"xd21e5340">176</a>]</span>according to the confession of a prominent +Filipino it was of imperative necessity to disarm them.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5342src" href="#xd21e5342" name="xd21e5342src">8</a> +On the other hand we saw with real astonishment that instead of warlike +soldiers accustomed to battle they were nearly all raw recruits and +apprentices. From an army lacking in discipline, and lawless, only +outrages, looting and all sorts of savagery and injustice were to be +expected. Witnesses to their demoralization are, aside from the natives +themselves who were the first to acknowledge it, the Chinese merchants +whose losses were incalculable; not a single store or commercial +establishment remained that was not looted repeatedly. As to the +Spaniards it goes without saying because it is publicly known, that +between soldiers and officers they despoiled them to their +heart’s content, without any right except that of brute force, of +everything that struck their fancy, and it was of no avail to complain +to the officers and ask for justice, as they turned a deaf ear to such +complaints. At Tuguegarao they looted in a manner never seen before, +like Vandals, and it was not without reason that a prominent Filipino +said, in speaking to a priest: ‘Vandalism has taken possession of +the place.’ These acts of robbery were generally accompanied by +the most savage insults; it was anarchy, as we heard an eye-witness +affirm, who also stated that no law was recognized except that of +danger, and the vanquished were granted nothing but the inevitable duty +of bowing with resignation to the iniquitous demands of that soulless +rabble, skilled in crime.”</p> +</div> +<p>Villa now set forth for Isabela. Meanwhile the jailer of the priests +proceeded to steal their clothes, including shirts, shoes and even +handkerchiefs. Isabela was taken without resistance on September 12. +Dimas Guzman<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5351src" href="#xd21e5351" +name="xd21e5351src">9</a> swore to the priests on his life that he +would work without rest to the end that all friars and all Spaniards +might be respected, but he perjured himself.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e5355width" id="p024"><img src="images/p024.jpg" +alt="Filipina Trained Nurses" width="453" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead">Filipina Trained Nurses</p> +<p class="first">This photograph shows the members of the first class +to graduate from the government training school.</p> +</div> +<p>On September 12 Villa and others entered the town of Cabagan Viejo, +where Villa promptly assaulted Father Segundo Rodriguez, threatening +him with a revolver, beating him unmercifully, insulting him in every +possible way and robbing him of his last cent. After the bloody +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5363" href="#xd21e5363" name= +"xd21e5363">177</a>]</span>scene was over he sacked the +<i>convento</i>, even taking away the priests’ clothes.</p> +<p>Villa also cruelly beat a Filipino, Quintin Agansi, who was taking +care of money for masses which the priests wished to save from the +Insurgents.</p> +<p>After Father Segundo had suffered torture and abuse for two hours he +was obliged to start at once on a journey to Auitan. The suffering +priest, after being compelled to march through the street shouting +“Vivas!” for the Republic and Aguinaldo, spent the night +without a mouthful of food or a drink of water.</p> +<p>Father Deogracias García, a priest of Cabagan Nuevo, was +subjected to torture because he had sent to Hongkong during May a +letter of credit for $5000 which belonged to the Church. Villa and +Leyba entered his <i>convento</i> and after beating him ordered his +hands and feet to be tied together, then passed a pole between them and +had him lifted from the ground, after which two great jars of water +were poured down his nose and throat without interruption.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5378src" href="#xd21e5378" name= +"xd21e5378src">10</a> In order to make the water flow through his nose +better, they thrust a piece of wood into the nasal passages until it +came out in his throat. From time to time the torture was suspended +while they asked him whether he would tell the truth as to where he had +concealed his money. This unfortunate priest was so sure he was going +to die that while the torture was in progress he received absolution +from a fellow priest. After the torture with water there followed a +long and cruel beating, and the unhappy victim was finally thrust into +a filthy privy.</p> +<p>Meanwhile Father Calzada was assaulted by a group of soldiers and +badly beaten, after which he was let down into the filth of a privy, +first by the feet and afterwards by the head.</p> +<p>On the 14th a lieutenant with soldiers entered the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5385" href="#xd21e5385" name= +"xd21e5385">178</a>]</span><i>convento</i> of Tumauini and as usual +demanded money of the occupants, who gave him $80, all they had at the +time. This quantity not being satisfactory, a rope was sent for and the +hands of the two priests were tied while they were whipped, kicked and +beaten. They were, however, released when Father Bonet promised to get +additional money. They had a short respite until the arrival of Villa, +who still demanded more money of Father Blanco, and failing to get it +for the reason that the father had no more, leaped upon him and gave +him a dreadful beating, his companions joining in with whips, rattans +and the butts of guns. They at last left their victim stretched on the +ground almost dead. This priest showed the marks of his ill treatment +six months afterward. Not satisfied with this, Villa gave him the +so-called “water cure.”</p> +<p>Meanwhile his followers had also beaten Father Bonet. Villa started +to do likewise but was too tired, having exhausted his energies on +Father Blanco. While the tortures were going on, the <i>convento</i> +was completely sacked. Father Blanco’s library was thrown out of +the window.</p> +<p>Villa entered Ilagan on the 15th of September at 8 o’clock at +night. Hastening to the <i>convento</i>, with a company of well-armed +soldiers, he had his men surround the three priests who awaited him +there, then summoned the local priest to a separate room and demanded +money. The priest gave him all he had. Not satisfied, Villa leaped upon +him, kicking him, beating him and pounding him with the butt of a gun. +Many of his associates joined in the disgraceful attack. The +unfortunate victim was then stripped of his habit, obliged to lie down +and received more than a hundred lashes. When he was nearly senseless +he was subjected to torture by water, being repeatedly lifted up when +filled with water, and allowed to fall on the floor. While some were +pouring water down his nose and throat, others spilled hot wax +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5399" href="#xd21e5399" name= +"xd21e5399">179</a>]</span>on his face and head. The torment repeatedly +rendered the priest senseless, but he was allowed to recover from time +to time so that he might suffer when it was renewed.</p> +<p>The torturing of this unhappy man lasted for three hours, and the +horrible scene was immediately succeeded by another quite as bad. Villa +called Father Domingo Campo and, after taking from him the little money +that he had, ordered him stripped. He was then given numberless kicks +and blows from the butts of rifles and 150 lashes, after which he was +unable to rise. There followed the torture with water, on the pretext +that he had money hidden away.</p> +<p>Meanwhile the houses of Spaniards and the shops of the Chinese were +completely sacked, and the men who objected were knocked down or cut +down with bolos. Numerous girls and women were raped.</p> +<p>On September 15 Leyba received notice of the surrender of Nueva +Vizcaya. I quote the following from the narrative above referred +to:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Delfin’s soldiers<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5410src" href="#xd21e5410" name="xd21e5410src">11</a> were the +most depraved ever seen: their thieving instincts had no bounds; so +they had hardly entered Nueva Vizcaya when they started to give +themselves up furiously to robbery, looking upon all things as loot; in +the very shadow of these soldiers the province was invaded by a mob of +adventurous and ragged persons from Nueva Ecija; between the two they +picked Nueva Vizcaya clean. When they had grown tired of completely +shearing the unfortunate Vizcayan people, leaving them +poverty-stricken, they flew in small bands to the pueblos of Isabela, +going as far as Angadanan, giving themselves up to unbridled pillage of +the most unjust and disorderly kind. Some of these highwaymen demanded +money and arms from the priest of Angadanan, but Father Marciano +informed them ‘that it could not be, as Leyba already knew what +he had and would be angry.’</p> +<p>“To this very day the people of Nueva Vizcaya have been unable +to recover from the stupendous losses suffered by them <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5415" href="#xd21e5415" name= +"xd21e5415">180</a>]</span>as regards their wealth and industries. How +many curses did they pour forth and still continue to level against the +Katipúnan that brought them naught but tribulations!”</p> +</div> +<p>Confirmation of these statements is found in the following brief but +significant passage from the Insurgent records:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“At the end of December, 1898, when the military +commander of Nueva Vizcaya called upon the Governor of that province to +order the police of the towns to report to him as volunteers to be +incorporated in the army which was being prepared for the defence of +the country, the Governor protested against it and informed the +government that his attempt to obtain volunteers was in fact only a +means of disarming the towns and leaving them without protection +against the soldiers who did what they wanted and took what they wished +and committed every outrage without being punished for it by their +officers.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5423src" href="#xd21e5423" +name="xd21e5423src">12</a></p> +</div> +<p>The effect of the surrender of Nueva Vizcaya on Leyba and Villa is +thus described by Father Malumbres:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Mad with joy and swollen with pride Leyba and +company were like men who travelled flower-strewn paths, crowned with +laurels, and were acclaimed as victors in all the towns on their road, +their intoxication of joy taking a sudden rise when they came to +believe themselves kings of the valley. It was then that their delirium +reached its brimful measure and their treatment of those whom they had +vanquished began to be daily more cruel and inhuman. In Cagayan their +fear of the forces in Nueva Vizcaya kept them from showing such +unqualifiable excesses of cruelty and nameless barbarities, but the +triumph of the Katipúnan arms in Nueva Vizcaya completely broke +down the wall of restraint which somewhat repressed those sanguinary +executioners thirsting to fatten untrammelled on the innocent blood of +unarmed and defenceless men. From that melancholy time there began an +era of unheard of outrages and barbarous scenes, unbelievable were they +not proved by evidence of every description. The savage acts committed +in Isabela by the inhuman Leyba and Villa cannot possibly be painted +true to life and in all their tragic details. The blackest hues, the +most heartrending accents, the most vigorous language and the most +fulminating anathemas would be <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5432" +href="#xd21e5432" name="xd21e5432">181</a>]</span>a pale image of the +truth, and our pen cannot express with true ardour the terrifying +scenes and cruel torments brought about by such fierce chieftains on +such indefensive religious. It seems impossible that a fleshly heart +could hold so much wickedness, for these petty chiefs were veritable +monsters of cruelty who surpassed a Nero; men who were entire strangers +to noble and humane sentiments and who in appearance having the figure +of a man were in reality tigers roaring in desperation, or mad dogs who +gnashed their teeth in fury.”</p> +</div> +<p>On September 18 Leyba continued his march, while Villa remained +behind at Ilagan to torture the prisoners who might be brought in from +Isabela.</p> +<p>On arrival at Gamut, Leyba at once entered the <i>convento</i> and +as usual immediately demanded money from the priests. Father Venancio +gave him all he had. He was nevertheless given a frightful whipping, +six persons holding him while others rained blows upon him. A +determined effort was made to force the priest to recant, and when this +failed Leyba leaped upon him, kicking and beating him. He then ordered +him thrown down face uppermost, and asked for a knife with the apparent +intention of mutilating him. He did not use the knife, however, but +instead, assisted by his followers, gave the unhappy priest another +terrific beating, even standing upon him and leaping up and down. The +priest was left unable to speak, and did not recover for months.</p> +<p>Later Leyba had torture by water applied to Father Gregorio Cabrero +and lay brother Venancio Aguinaco, while Father Sabanda was savagely +beaten.</p> +<p>On the 19th of September Father Miguel Garcia of Reina Mercedes was +horribly beaten in his <i>convento</i> by a captain sent there to get +what money he had.</p> +<p>In Cauayan, on September 20, Fathers Perez and Aguirrezabal were +beaten and compelled to give up money by five emissaries of Leyba, and +the latter priest was cut in the face with a sabre. The <i>convento</i> +was sacked. On the 25th Leyba arrived and after kicking and beating +Father Garcia compelled him to give up <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5454" href="#xd21e5454" name="xd21e5454">182</a>]</span>$1700. He +then informed the priests that if it were not for Aguinaldo’s +orders he would kill all the Spaniards.</p> +<p>On the afternoon of the 24th three priests and a Spaniard named Soto +arrived at Ilagan. The following is the statement of an eye-witness as +to what happened:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“They led the priests to the headquarters of the +commanding officer where the tyrant Villa, always eager to inflict +suffering on humanity, awaited them. The scene witnessed by the priests +obeisant to the cruel judge was horrifying in the extreme. Four lions +whose thirst for vengeance was extreme in all, threw themselves, blind +with fury, without a word and with the look of a basilisk, upon poor +Señor Soto giving him such innumerable and furious blows on head +and face that weary as he was from his past journey, the ill-treatment +received at Angadanan and weighted down by years, he was soon thrown +down by his executioners under the lintel of the door getting a +terrible blow on the head as he fell; even this did not satisfy nor +tame down those fierce-hearted men, who on the contrary continued with +their infamous work more furious than before, and their cruelty did not +flag on seeing their victim at their feet. They could have done no +worse had they been Silípan savages dancing in triumph around +the palpitating head cut from the body of some enemy.</p> +<p>“The priests who witnessed this blood-curdling scene trembled +like the weak reed before the gale, waiting their turn to be tortured, +but God willed that cruel Villa should be content with the butchery +perpetrated upon unhappy Sr. Soto. Villa dismissed the priests after +despoiling them of their bags and clothes telling them, to torment +them: ‘Go to the <i>convento</i> until the missing ones turn up +so that I may shoot you all together.’”</p> +</div> +<p>Leyba entered Echague on September 22, promptly going to the +<i>convento</i> as usual and demanding money of the priest, Father +Mata. When the latter had given him all he had, he received three +terrific beatings at the hands of some twelve men armed with whips and +sticks, after which Leyba himself struck him with his fist and his +sabre. He was finally knocked down by a blow with the sabre and left +disabled. It took six months for him to recover. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5472" href="#xd21e5472" name= +"xd21e5472">183</a>]</span></p> +<p>Shortly after Leyba’s arrival in Nueva Vizcaya on the +afternoon of the 25th, five priests were summoned to Solano and there +abused in the usual fashion in an effort to extort money from them. +Only one escaped ill treatment and one was nearly killed.</p> +<p>Leyba now went to Bayombong to carry out the established programme +with the priests. There he found Governor Perez of Isabela, who had +taken with him certain government moneys and employed them to pay +salaries of soldiers and other employees. He insisted on the return of +the total amount and threatened to shoot Perez if it was not +forthcoming. The Spaniards of the vicinity subscribed $700 which they +themselves badly needed and saved him from being shot. The priests of +the place were then summoned to Leyba’s quarters and were beaten +and tortured. One of them was thrown on the floor and beaten nearly to +death, Leyba standing meanwhile with his foot on the unfortunate +man’s neck. Another was given six hundred lashes and countless +blows and kicks. Leyba stood on this man’s neck also. When the +victim’s back ceased to have any feeling, his legs were beaten. +Leyba terminated this period of diversion by kicking Father Diez in the +solar plexus and then mocking him as he lay gasping on the floor. That +afternoon one of the priests, so badly injured that he could not rise +unaided, was put on a horse and compelled to ride in the hot sun to +Solano.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e5478width" id="p025"><img src="images/p025.jpg" +alt="Staff of the Bontoc Hospital" width="720" height="505"> +<p class="figureHead">Staff of the Bontoc Hospital</p> +<p class="first">This photograph shows the doctors, nurses, and some of +the servants. The man in the doorway is Dr. Rembe of the Philippine +General Hospital, who accompanied the author on his northern inspection +trip in 1912, in order to study eye troubles among the wild men.</p> +</div> +<p>Villa and Leyba had their able imitators, as is shown by the +following description of the torturing of Father Ceferino by Major +Delfin at Solano, Nueva Vizcaya, on September 27:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“They wished to give brave evidence of their +hate for the friar before Leyba left, and show him that they were as +brave as he when it came to oppressing and torturing the friar. This +tragedy began by Jimenez again asking Father Ceferino for the money. +The priest answered as he had done before. Then Jimenez started to talk +in Tagalog to the commanding <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5490" +href="#xd21e5490" name="xd21e5490">184</a>]</span>officer and surely it +was nothing good that he told him, for suddenly Delfin left the bench +and darting fire from his eyes, fell in blind fury upon the defenceless +priest; what harsh words he uttered in Tagalog while he vented his fury +on his victim, striking him with his clenched fist, slapping him and +kicking him, I do not know, but the religious man fell at the feet of +his furious executioner who, being now the prey of the most stupendous +rage, could scarcely get his tongue to stutter and continued to kick +the priest, without seeing where he kicked him. Getting deeper and +deeper in the abyss and perhaps not knowing what he was about, this +petty chief made straight for a sabre lying on a table to continue his +bloody work. In the meantime the priest had risen to his feet and +awaited with resignation new torments which certainly were even worse +than the first, for he gave him so many and such hard blows with the +sabre that the blade was broken close to the hilt. This accident so +infuriated Delfin that he again threw himself upon the priest, kicking +him furiously and striking him repeatedly until he again threw him to +the ground, and not yet satisfied, his vengefulness led him to throw +himself upon his victim with the fury of a tiger after his prey, +beating him on the head with the hilt of the saber until the blood ran +in streams and formed pools upon the pavement. The priest, more dead +than alive, shuddered from head to foot, and appeared to be struggling +in a tremendous fight between life and death; he had hardly enough +strength to get his tongue to ask for God’s mercy. At this most +critical juncture, and when it seemed as if death were inevitable, the +martyr received absolution from Father Diez, who witnessed the +blood-curdling picture with his heart pierced with grief at the sight +of the sufferings of his innocent brother, feeling as must the +condemned man preparing for death who sees the hours fly by with +vertiginous rapidity. The blood flowing from the wounds on the +priest’s head appeared to infuriate and blind the heart of Delfin +who, rising from his victim’s body, sped away to the armory in +the court house, seized a rifle, and came back furious to brain him +with the butt and finish killing the priest; but God willed to free his +servant from death at the hands of those cannibals, so that generous +Lieutenant Navarro interfered, took the rifle away from him and caught +Delfin by the arm, threatening him with some words spoken in Tagalog. +Then Navarro, to appease Delfin’s anger, turned the priest over +with his face to the ground and gave him a few strokes with the bamboo, +and feigning anger and indignation, ordered him away. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5492" href="#xd21e5492" name= +"xd21e5492">185</a>]</span></p> +<p>“Those who witnessed the horrible tragedy, the brutality of +the tyrant and the prostration of the friar were persuaded that the +latter would never survive his martyrdom. The religious man himself +holds it as a veritable portent that he outlived such a terrible trial; +but even this did not satisfy them as subsequently the Secretary again +called Father Ceferino to subject him to a further scrutiny, as +ridiculous as it was malicious, though it did not go beyond words or +insults.”</p> +</div> +<p>Señor Perez, the governor of Isabela, and Father Diez were +compelled to go to Ilagan. After they had arrived there on October 2d, +Villa proceeded to torture them. At the outset ten soldiers, +undoubtedly instructed beforehand, beat the governor down to the earth, +with the butts of their guns. Villa himself struck him three times in +the chest with the butt of a gun and Father Diez gave him absolution, +thinking he was dying. Father Diez was then knocked down repeatedly +with the butts of guns, being made to stand up promptly each time in +order that he might be knocked down again. Not satisfied with this, +Villa compelled the suffering priest to kneel before him and kicked him +in the nose, repeating the operation until he left him stretched on the +floor half-senseless with his nose broken. He next had both victims put +in stocks with their weight supported by their feet alone. While in +this position soldiers beat them and jumped onto them and one set the +governor’s beard on fire with matches. Father Diez was kept in +the stocks four days. He was then sent to Tuguegarao in order that +personal enemies there might take vengeance on him, Villa bidding him +good-by with the following words: “Go now to Tuguegarao and see +if they will finish killing you there.” Señor Perez was +kept in the stocks eight days and it is a wonder that he did not +die.</p> +<p>Upon the 25th of September Villa went to the <i>convento</i> in +Ilagan prepared to torture the priests, but he succeeded in compelling +a number of them to sign indorsements in his favour on various letters +of credit payable by the Tabacalera Company and departed again in +fairly good <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5503" href="#xd21e5503" +name="xd21e5503">186</a>]</span>humour, having done nothing worse than +strike one of them.</p> +<p>Later, however, on the pretext that Fathers Aguado and Labanda had +money hidden away, he determined to torture them with water. The first +to be tortured was Father Labanda. Villa had him taken to the prison +where the priest found his two faithful Filipino servants who had been +beaten cruelly and were then hanging from a beam, this having been done +in order to make them tell where his money was.</p> +<p>He was tied after the usual fashion and water poured down his nose +and throat. During the brief respites necessary in order to prevent his +dying outright he was cruelly beaten. They finally dragged him out of +the prison by the feet, his head leaving a bloody trail on the stones. +After he had been taken back to his companions, one of the men who had +tortured him came to beg his pardon, saying that he had been compelled +to do it by Villa.</p> +<p>Father Aguado was next tortured in one of the rooms of the +<i>convento</i>. Villa finished the day’s work by announcing to +the band of priests that he would have them all shot the next day on +the plaza, and ordering them to get ready.</p> +<p>On the 29th the barbarities practised by this inhuman fiend reached +their climax in the torturing to death of Lieutenant Piera. The +following description gives some faint idea of one of the most +diabolical crimes ever committed in the Philippines:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Villa’s cruelty and sanguinary jeering +grew without let or hindrance from day to day; it seemed that this +hyena continually cudgelled his brains to invent new kinds of torture +and to jeer at the friars. On the night of the 29th of September the +diabolical idea occurred to him of giving the <i lang="fr">coup de +grace</i> to the prestige of the friars by making them pass through the +streets of Ilagan conducting and playing a band of music. He carried +out his nonsensical purpose by calling upon Father Diogracias to play +the big drum, and when this priest had <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5522" href="#xd21e5522" name="xd21e5522">187</a>]</span>started +playing Villa learned that Father Primo was a musician and could +therefore play the drum and lead the band with all skill, so he called +upon Father Primo to come forward, and with one thing and another this +ridiculous function was carried on until the late hours of the +night.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“While these two priests were serenading Villa and his gang, +the most dreadful shrieks were heard from the jail, accompanied by +pitiful cries that would melt the coldest heart. The priests hearing +these echoes of sorrow and pain, and who did not know for what purpose +Fathers Deogracias and Primo had been separated from them, seemed to +recognize the voices of these two priests among the groans, believing +them to be cruelly tortured; for this reason they began to say the +rosary in order that the Most Holy Virgin might imbue them with +patience and fortitude in their martyrdom. Great was their surprise +when these priests returned saying that they had contented themselves +with merely making fun of them by obliging them to play the big drum +and lead the band.</p> +<p>“Although this somewhat tempered their sorrow, a thorn +remained in their hearts, fearing that the moving lamentations and the +mortal groans came from the lips of some hapless Spaniard. This +fatidical presentiment turned out unfortunately to be a fact. The +victim sacrificed that melancholy night, still remembered with a +shudder by the priests, was Lieutenant Salvador Piera. This brave +soldier, who had made up his mind to die in the breach rather than +surrender the town of Aparri, was persuaded to capitulate only by the +prayers and tears of certain Spanish ladies who had been instructed to +do so by a man who should have been the first one to shoulder a rifle. +After having been harassed in Aparri he was taken to Tuguegarao at the +request of Esteban Quinta or Isidoro Maquigat, two artful filibusters +thirsting to revenge themselves on the Lieutenant, who during the time +of the Spanish government had justly laid his heavy hand upon them. In +the latter part of September they conducted him on foot and without any +consideration whatever to the capital of Isabela. In this town he was +at once placed in solitary confinement in one of the rooms of the +<i>convento</i> and allowed no intercourse with any one. The sin for +which they recriminated Piera was his having charged Dimas<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5533src" href="#xd21e5533" name= +"xd21e5533src">13</a> with being a filibuster, and their revengefulness +reached an incredible limit. The heartrending <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5536" href="#xd21e5536" name= +"xd21e5536">188</a>]</span>moans of this martyr to his duty still +resound in that <i>convento</i> converted into the scene of an orgy of +blood. The unfortunate man was heard to shout: ‘For God’s +sake, for God’s sake, have pity,’ and trustworthy persons +tell that under the strain of torture he would challenge them to fight +in a fair field by saying: ‘I will fight alone against twenty of +you;’ but the cowardly torturers, a reproach to the Filipino +race, looked upon it as an amusement to glut their spite on a +defenceless man whose hands were tied. They had him strung up all night +with but insignificant refreshment and rest, sometimes being suspended +by his arms which finally became disjointed and useless, and at others +he was hung up by his feet, the blood rushing to his head and placing +him in imminent danger of sudden death. It was the intention of these +brutes to torture him as much as possible before killing him, just as a +member of the feline race plays with, tosses in the air and pirouettes +around the victim which falls into his claws. If to the torture of the +rope are added the blows with cudgels and the butts of rifles which +were frequently rained upon the victim it will be no surprise that +early on the morning of the 30th he was in the throes of death in the +midst of which the sufferer had just enough strength to say that he was +hungry and thirsty; then those cannibals (the heart is filled with fury +in setting forth such cruelty) cut a piece of flesh from the calf of +the dying man’s leg and conveyed it to his mouth and instead of +water they gave him to drink some of his own urine. What savagery!</p> +<p>“The blood from the wound finished the killing of the fainting +Piera. The blood shed served to infuriate more the barbarous +executioners who in order to give the finishing stroke to the martyr, +as an unrivalled expression of their savage ferocity, thrust a red-hot +iron into his mouth and eyes. That same night these treacherous and +ferocious tyrants whose sin made them hate the light, buried the body +in the darkness of the night in a patch of cogon grass adjoining the +<i>convento</i>.”</p> +</div> +<p>Piera’s torture was by no means confined to this last night of +his life, as the following account of it shows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In the first days of this accursed month, while +the padres were bemoaning their fate in jail, a dark drama was being +enacted in the <i>convento</i>, whose hair-raising scenes would have +inspired terror to Montepiu himself.</p> +<p>“Lieutenant Salvador Piera of the Guardia Civil, commanding +officer at Aparri, who, realizing that all resistance was useless, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5557" href="#xd21e5557" name= +"xd21e5557">189</a>]</span>gave way to the persistent solicitations of +Spaniards and natives and surrendered that town on honourable terms, +which the Katipúnan forces did not respect after the +capitulation had been signed, was sent for by Villa, the military +authority of Isabela. Something terrible was going to happen as Piera +himself felt confident, for it is said that before leaving Aparri he +went to confession where he settled the important business of his +conscience in a Christian manner with a representative of God.</p> +<p>“And so it turned out, for as soon as he arrived in Ilagan he +was taken to the <i>convento</i> and placed incomunicado in one of its +apartments. Soon after, three or four vile fiends,—for they do +not deserve the name of men,—bound him with strong cords and +hanged him to a beam. Then they began to charge him with having +prosecuted a certain Mason, and inflicted upon him the most frightful +tortures. The pen refuses to set forth so many atrocities. For three +days they had him in that position while his vile assassins made a +martyr of him. Our hair stands on end to think of such crimes. The +heart-rending cries of this unfortunate man while prey to such +barbarous torments could be heard in every part of the town and carried +panic to the homes of all the inhabitants.</p> +<p>“The late hours of the night were always chosen by those +treacherous fiends to give Piera the <i>trato de cuerda</i> (this form +of torture consists in tying the hands of the victim behind his back +and hanging him by them by a rope passed through a pulley attached to a +beam; his body is lifted as high as it will go and then allowed to fall +by its own weight without reaching the ground); but this torture was +administered to him in a form so terrible that all the pictures of this +kind of torment found in the dreadful narratives of the calumniators of +the Holy Office, pale into insignificance in comparison with the +atrocious details of the tortures here recited; at each violent jerk +the unhappy victim feeling that his limbs were being torn asunder would +cry out ‘My God! My God!’ This terrifying cry reverberating +through the jail would freeze the very blood of the poor priests +therein incarcerated.</p> +<p>“On the third day, when those infuriated hyenas appeared to +have spent their diabolical rage; after they had thrust a red-hot iron +into his eyes and left him with sightless sockets; the poor martyr, the +prey of delirium, cried out that he was hungry, and one of those +<i>sicarii</i> cut a piece of flesh from Piera’s thigh and was +infamous enough to carry it to his mouth. On the night of the seventh +of the month very late a number <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5574" href="#xd21e5574" name="xd21e5574">190</a>]</span>of +wretches buried in the <i>convento</i> garden a body still dripping +warm blood from the lips of which there escaped the feeble plaints of +anguish of a dying man.”</p> +</div> +<p>The feeling of the Spaniards relative to this matter is well shown +by the following statement of Father Malumbres:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“This horrible crime cannot be pardoned by God +or man, and is still uninvestigated, crying to Heaven for vengeance +with greater reason than the blood of the innocent Abel. So long as the +criminals remain unpunished it will be a black and indelible stigma and +an ugly stain on the race harbouring in its midst the perpetrators of +this unheard-of sin. Words of reprobation are not enough, justice +demands exemplary and complete reparation, and if the powers of earth +do not take justice into their own hands, God will send fire from +Heaven and will cause to disappear from the face of the earth the +criminals and even their descendants. A murder so cruel and +premeditated can be punished in no other way.</p> +<p>“If the courts here should wish to punish the guilty persons +it would not be a difficult task; the public points its finger at those +who dyed their hands in the blood of the heroic soldier, and we shall +set them forth here echoing the voice of the people. The soulless +instigator was Dimas Guzman. The executioners were a certain +José Guzman (alias Pepin, a nephew of Dimas) and Cayetano +Pérez.”</p> +</div> +<p>The matter was duly taken up in the courts, and Judge Blount himself +tried the cases.</p> +<p>The judge takes a very mild and liberal view of the occurrence. He +says of it:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5592src" href="#xd21e5592" name= +"xd21e5592src">14</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Villa was accompanied by his aide, Lieutenant +Ventura Guzman. The latter is an old acquaintance of the author of the +present volume, who tried him afterwards, in 1901, for playing a minor +part in the murder of an officer of the Spanish army committed under +Villa’s orders just prior to, or about the time of, the +Wilcox-Sargent visit. He was found guilty, and sentenced, but later +liberated under President Roosevelt’s amnesty of 1902. He was +guilty, but the deceased, so the people in the Cagayan Valley used to +say, in being tortured to death, <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5598" href="#xd21e5598" name="xd21e5598">191</a>]</span>got only +the same sort of medicine he had often administered thereabouts. At any +rate, that was the broad theory of the amnesty in wiping out all these +old cases.”</p> +</div> +<p>He adds:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I sentenced both Dimas and Ventura to life +imprisonment for being accessory to the murder of the Spanish officer +above named, Lieutenant Piera. Villa officiated as arch-fiend on the +grewsome occasion. I am quite sure I would have hung Villa without any +compunction at that time, if I could have gotten hold of him. I tried +to get hold of him, but Governor Taft’s attorney-general, Mr. +Wilfley, wrote me that Villa was somewhere over on the mainland of Asia +on British territory, and extradition would involve application to the +London Foreign Office. The intimation was that we had trouble enough of +our own without borrowing any from feuds that had existed under our +predecessors in sovereignty. I have understood that Villa is now +practising medicine in Manila. More than one officer of the American +army that I know afterwards did things to the Filipinos almost as cruel +as Villa did to that unhappy Spanish officer, Lieutenant Piera. On the +whole, I think President Roosevelt acted wisely and humanely in wiping +the slate. We had new problems to deal with, and were not bound to +handicap ourselves with the old ones left over from the Spanish +régime.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5607src" href= +"#xd21e5607" name="xd21e5607src">15</a></p> +</div> +<p>But it happens that this was the Filipino régime. +Piera’s torture occurred at the very time when, according to +Blount, Aguinaldo had “a wonderfully complete ‘going +concern’ throughout the Philippine archipelago.”</p> +<p>Furthermore, it occurred in the Cagayan valley where Blount says +“perfect tranquillity and public order” were then being +maintained by “the authority of the Aguinaldo government” +in a country which Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent, who arrived on the scene +of this barbarous murder by torture four weeks later, found so +“quiet and orderly.”</p> +<div class="figure xd21e5615width" id="p026"><img src="images/p026.jpg" +alt="A Victim of Yaws before and after Treatment with Salvarsan" width= +"720" height="426"> +<p class="figureHead">A Victim of Yaws before and after Treatment with +Salvarsan</p> +<p class="first">The discovery that salvarsan was a specific for the +disfiguring disease known as yaws was made by Dr. R.P. Strong of the +Bureau of Science. The effect of this drug is almost miraculous. A +single injection usually cures completely.</p> +</div> +<p>Not only was Blount perfectly familiar with every detail of this +damnable crime, but he must of necessity <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5623" href="#xd21e5623" name="xd21e5623">192</a>]</span>have +known of the torturing of friars to extort money, which preceded and +followed it.</p> +<p>The following statement seems to sum up his view of the whole +matter:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It is true there were cruelties practised by +the Filipinos on the Spaniards. But they were ebullitions of revenge +for three centuries of tyranny. They do not prove unfitness for +self-government. I, for one, prefer to follow the example set by the +Roosevelt amnesty of 1902, and draw the veil over all those +matters.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5630src" href="#xd21e5630" +name="xd21e5630src">16</a></p> +</div> +<p>The judge drew the veil not only over this, but, as we have seen, +over numerous other pertinent matters which occurred in this land of +“profound peace and tranquillity” just at the time Wilcox +and Sargent were making their trip. My apologies to him for withdrawing +the veil and for maintaining that such occurrences as those in question +demonstrate complete and utter unfitness for self-government on the +part of those who brought them about!</p> +<p>If it be true that Blount knew more than one officer of the American +army who did things to the Filipinos almost as cruel as Villa did to +Lieutenant Piera, why did he not report them and have the criminals +brought to justice?</p> +<p>Such an attack on the army, in the course of which there is not +given a name or a fact which could serve as a basis for an +investigation, is cowardly and despicable.</p> +<p>I do not for a moment believe that Blount speaks the truth, but if +he does, then his failure to attempt to bring to justice the human +fiends concerned brands him!</p> +<p>It has been the fashion in certain quarters to make vile allegations +of this sort against officers of the United States army, couching them +in discreetly general terms. This is a contemptible procedure, for it +frees those who make reckless charges from danger of the criminal +proceedings which would otherwise doubtless be brought against them. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5643" href="#xd21e5643" name= +"xd21e5643">193</a>]</span></p> +<p>On arrival at Ilagan, the town where Piera was tortured to death, +Blount says<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5647src" href="#xd21e5647" name= +"xd21e5647src">17</a> that Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent were</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“given a grand <i>baile</i> [ball] and +<i>fiesta</i> [feast], a kind of dinner-dance, we would call it.... +From Ilagan they proceeded to Aparri, cordially received everywhere, +and finding the country in fact, as Aguinaldo always claimed in his +proclamations of that period, seeking recognition of his government by +the Powers, in a state of profound peace and tranquillity—free +from brigandage and the like.”</p> +</div> +<p>Within sight of the banquet hall, within hearing of the music, lay a +lighter on which were huddled eighty-four priests of the Catholic +Church, many of them gray-haired old men, innocent of any evil conduct, +who for weeks had suffered, mentally and physically, the tortures of +the damned.</p> +<p>Of the events of this evening and the following day Father Malumbres +says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“From the river the <i>convento</i> could be +seen profusely illuminated and the strains of music could be heard, an +evident sign that they were engaged in revelry. This gave us a bad +start, as we came to fear that Villa had returned from the expedition +undertaken to come up with two Americans who had crossed the Caraballo +range and were thinking of coming down as far as Aparri. It was late to +announce to Villa our arrival at Ilagan, so that we were obliged to +pass the night on the lighter. In the morning our boat was anchored in +front of the pueblo of Ilagan, where we were credibly informed that +Villa had returned. This accursed news made us begin to fear some +disagreeable incident.</p> +<p>“Our Matias went ashore and delivered the official +communication regarding our transfer to Villa, while we waited +impatiently for his decision. Sergeant Matias at length returned with +orders for our disembarkation; we put on the best clothes we had and +the rowers placed a broad plank between the lighter and the arsenal and +we left our floating prison two abreast. Matias called the roll and the +order to march, we were eighty-four friars in a long column climbing +the steep ascent to Ilagan. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5672" +href="#xd21e5672" name="xd21e5672">194</a>]</span></p> +<p>“When we had arrived in front of the building used for +headquarters, we faced about in front thereof, and the first thing we +saw in one of the windows were the sinister features of Falaris, who +with a thundering brow and black look was delighting himself in the +contemplation of so many priests surrounded by bayonets and filled with +misery. Any other person but Villa would have melted on seeing such a +spectacle, which could but incite compassion. The two American tourists +were also looking on at this horrible scene as if stupefied, but they +soon withdrew in order, perhaps, not to look upon such a painful +picture. It was, indeed, heartrending to contemplate therein old +gray-haired men who had passed their lives in apostolic work side by +side with young men who had just arrived in this ungrateful land, and +many sick who rather than men seemed to be marble statues, who had no +recourse but to stand in line, without one word of consolation; therein +figured some who wore religious garb, others in secular dress limited +to a pair of rumpled trousers and a cast-off coat, the lack of this +luxurious garment being replaced in some instances by a native +shirt.</p> +<p>“For two long hours we were detained in the middle of the +street under the rays of a burning sun and to the scandal of the +immense crowd which had been gathered together to witness the +denouement of the tragedy. The priests had hardly come into the +presence of Villa when Fathers Isidro and Florentino were called out +for the purpose of having heaped upon them a flood of insults and +affronts. Father Isidro was ordered by Villa to interview Sr. Sabas +Orros, who, Villa supposed, would wreak his revenge blindly upon him, +but he was greatly mistaken, as said gentleman treated the priest with +great respect; the tyrant remained talking to Father Florentino in the +reception room of the headquarters building, and when it appeared that +such talk would come to blows, the elder of the Americans left one of +the rooms toward the reception room, and the scene suddenly changing, +Villa arose and addressing the priest said: ‘I am pleased to +introduce to you an American Brigadier-General, Mr. N.’ The +latter returned a cordial greeting in Spanish to the priest who made a +courteous acknowledgment; after this exchange of courtesies, Villa +resumed his defamatory work, pouring out a string of absurdities and +infamous insults upon the friars, going so far as to say in so many +words: ‘from the bishop down you are all thieves and +depraved’ he added another word which it would be shameful to +write down, and so he went on from one abyss to another without regard +to reputations or the respect due to venerated persons. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5677" href="#xd21e5677" name= +"xd21e5677">195</a>]</span></p> +<p>“The American let his disgust be seen while Villa was talking, +and the latter understood these protests and ordered the priest to +withdraw, the comedy coming to an end by the American shaking hands +with the priest and offering him assistance. Villa would not shake +hands with him, as was natural, but the priest was able to see that he +was confused when he saw the distinction and courtesy with which an +American general had treated a helpless friar. What a narrow idea did +the Americans form of the government of Aguinaldo, represented by men +as savage and inhuman as Villa!</p> +<p>“The natives averred that the Americans referred to were spies +who had come to explore those provinces and were making maps of the +strategic points and principal roads, so that a very careful watch was +kept upon them and Villa took measures to have them go down the river +without landing at any place between Echague and Ilagan. At Ilagan they +were given an entertainment and dance, Villa being a skilled hand in +this sort of thing, and a few days later he accompanied them to +Aparri<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5682src" href="#xd21e5682" name= +"xd21e5682src">18</a> without allowing them to set foot on land. The +government of Aguinaldo no longer had everything its own way, and +secret orders had been given to have every step of the explorers +followed. The commanding and other leading officers of the Valley, +supporting the orders of the government, circulated an order throughout +the towns which read as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“‘<span class="sc">To All Local +Officers</span>:</p> +<p>“‘You will not permit any maps to be made or notes to be +taken of strategic points by Americans or foreigners; nor will you +allow them to become acquainted with the points of defence; you will +endeavour to report immediately to this Government any suspicious +persons; you will make your investigations secretly, accompanying +suspected persons and feigning that their investigations are approved, +and finally when it shall seem to you that such suspected persons have +finished their work, you will advise without loss of time, in order +that their notes may be seized.’</p> +<p>“Despite this order the Americans were able to inform +themselves very thoroughly of the forces in the Valley and its state of +defence, and Filipinos were not lacking who for a few pesos would put +them abreast of all information regarding the plans and projects of +Aguinaldo’s government.”</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>Relative to this Wilcox-Sargent trip Taylor says:— +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5698" href="#xd21e5698" name= +"xd21e5698">196</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In October and November, 1898, Paymaster W. B. +Wilcox, U.S.N., and Naval Cadet L. R. Sargent, U.S.N., travelled +through Northern Luzon from which they returned with a favourable +impression of the government which had been set up by Aguinaldo’s +agents.</p> +<p>“It was realized by the subtle men whom they met that it was +highly expedient that they should make a favourable report and +accordingly they were well received, and although constant obstacles +were thrown in the way of their seeing what it was not considered well +for them to see yet the real reasons for the delays in their journey +were carefully kept from them. At least some of their letters to the +fleet were taken, translated, and sent to Aguinaldo, who kept them, and +constant reports upon them and their movements were made.”</p> +</div> +<p>Blount refers to the fact that Mr. Sargent tells a characteristic +story of Villa,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5707src" href="#xd21e5707" +name="xd21e5707src">19</a> whose vengeful feeling toward the Spaniards +showed on all occasions.</p> +<p>It would doubtless have interested the travellers to know that the +“robbery” consisted in taking the funds out of the province +to save them from falling into Villa’s hands, and in paying them +to soldiers in Nueva Vizcaya to whom money was due. It would further +have interested them to know that this unfortunate Spaniard had been +twice tortured within an inch of his life by Villa.</p> +<p>But let us continue our interrupted narrative:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The presence of the Americans in Ilagan soon +freed us from certain forms of savagery and barbarous intentions on the +part of Villa. There can be no doubt that the tyrant was constantly +cudgelling his brains to invent new methods of showing his contempt for +the friars; at the unlucky time we write of he conceived the infamous +plan of ordering a circular enclosure of cane to be made, put a pig +into it—we trust the reader will pardon the details—with a +bell hung to his neck, blindfolded the priests and compelled them to +enter the enclosure with sticks in their hands, and in this ridiculous +attitude, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5717" href="#xd21e5717" +name="xd21e5717">197</a>]</span>obliged them to strike about when the +sound of the bell appraised them of the animal’s proximity; it is +obvious that the principal purpose of the fiendish Villa was to have +the priests lay about them in such a way as to deal each other the +blows instead of the pig. The tyrant also had the idea of making us and +the other priests in Ilagan parade the streets of that town dancing and +playing the band. The wish to consummate his plan was not lacking but +he was deterred by the presence of the Americans and the arguments of +Sr. Sabas Orros to whom we also owed the signal favour that Villa did +not take us to our prisons at Tumauini and Gamut on foot and with our +clothing in a bundle at our backs.”</p> +</div> +<p>On October 2 a banquet was given in Villa’s honour at Ilagan +and the pleasant idea occurred to him to have four of the friars dance +at it for his amusement. The people of the town put their handkerchiefs +before their faces to shut out the sight, and some wept. Father Campo, +one of the priests who was obliged to dance, had great ulcers on his +legs from the wounds caused by the cords with which he had been bound +when he was tortured with water, and was at first unable to raise his +feet from the floor; but Villa threatened him with a rattan until he +finally did so. This caused the sores on his legs to burst open so that +the bones showed.</p> +<p>On the 3d of October a number of the friars were compelled to get up +a band and go out and meet Leyba with music on his arrival. The people +of the towns closed their windows in disgust at the sight. A great +crowd had gathered to receive Leyba, and the priests were compelled to +dance in the middle of the street, but this again only caused disgust. +A couple of priests were then beaten in the usual fashion in a private +house. This caused murmuring even among those of the soldiers who were +natives of the Cagayan valley. At the same time two other priests were +horribly whipped in the prison.</p> +<p>This has been a long story, but the half has not been told. Those +who escaped torture had their feelings <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5726" href="#xd21e5726" name="xd21e5726">198</a>]</span>harrowed +by the sight of the sufferings of their fellows. They were constantly +and grossly insulted; were often confined in the most unsanitary +quarters; given poor and insufficient food and bad water, or none at +all; robbed of their clothing; compelled to march long distances under +a tropical sun when sick, wounded and suffering; obliged to do +servants’ work publicly; forced to make a ridiculous spectacle of +themselves in the public streets; ordered to recant, and heaven knows +what not!</p> +<p>The torments practised on them had two principal objects: to compel +them to give up money, and to discredit them with the common people. +They failed to accomplish this latter result. There is abundant +evidence that the natives of the Cagayan valley clothed and fed them +when they could, and wept over the painful humiliations and the +dreadful sufferings which they were powerless to prevent or +relieve.</p> +<p>The tormentors were men from distant provinces, with no possible +personal grievances against the priests whom they martyrized. Their +action was the result, not of an “ebullition of revenge for three +centuries of tyranny” as stated by Blount, but of insensate greed +of gold and damnable viciousness. I believe the American people will +hold that such cruelities brand those who practise them as unfit to +govern their fellows, or themselves.</p> +<p>Lest I be accused of basing my conclusions on <i>ex parte</i> +statements I will now return to the Insurgent record of events in the +Cagayan valley.</p> +<p>At the outset the Spanish officers of the Tabacalera +Company<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5740src" href="#xd21e5740" name= +"xd21e5740src">20</a> fared comparatively well. In a letter dated +September 27, 1898, and addressed to the secretary of war of the +revolutionary government, Leyba says of the taking of Tuguegarao that +the only terms of the surrender were to respect life. He therefore felt +at liberty <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5745" href="#xd21e5745" +name="xd21e5745">199</a>]</span>to seize all the money that the friars +had hidden, “which was accomplished by applying the stick.” +He adds that they did nothing to the agents of the great Tabacalera +Company, then the most powerful commercial organization in the Islands, +for the significant reason that they had found that its stock was +largely held by Frenchmen and feared trouble.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5747src" href="#xd21e5747" name="xd21e5747src">21</a></p> +<p>On December 4, 1898, Leyba, concerning whose ideas as to public +order we are already informed, wrote a most illuminating letter setting +forth the conditions which had existed there. He does not claim that +there had been Octavian peace!</p> +<p>It should be borne in mind that this letter covers the very time +during which Messrs. Wilcox and Sargent passed through the Cagayan +valley. It paints a vivid picture of conditions, and as the painter was +the ranking Insurgent officer in the valley during this entire period, +he cannot be accused of hostile prejudice. I therefore give the letter +in full’—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Aparri</span>, December 4, +1898.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Don Baldomero Aguinaldo</span>,</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">The Secretary of War</span>:</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Dear Sir and of My Greatest Esteem</span>: I +take the liberty of addressing this to you in order to state that owing +to the lack of discipline in the soldiers whom we have brought, since +they are all volunteers and whom I am not able to reduce <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5778" href="#xd21e5778" name= +"xd21e5778">200</a>]</span>to rigorous subordination, for the +revolution would find itself without soldiers with whom to win triumph, +they committed many abuses and misdeed which, for the lack of evidence, +I was not able to punish, although I knew of these abuses but had no +proof, and as a lover of my country and of the prestige of the +Revolutionary Army, I took care not to disclose the secret to any one, +in this way avoiding the formation of an atmosphere against the cause +of our Independence to the grave injury of us all. But it happened +that, in spite of the good advice which I have given them and the +punishments which I have given to some of the 3d Company of Cauit, they +did not improve their conduct but have gone to the extreme of +committing a scandalous robbery of 20,800 pesos which sum the German, +Otto Weber, was taking to the capital, which deed has caused me to work +without ceasing, without sleeping entire nights, for I understood what +a serious matter it was to take money from a foreigner. After making +many inquiries, it was discovered that a very large part of the money +which reached the sum of $10,000, a little more or less, was buried +under the quarters which the said company occupied, this with the +sanction of all the officers, it appears to me, because it is +impossible that such a sum could be brought into a house where so many +soldiers are living without the knowledge of the officers.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e5781width" id="p027"><img src="images/p027.jpg" +alt="The Culion Leper Colony" width="720" height="479"> +<p class="figureHead">The Culion Leper Colony</p> +<p class="first">Here all known Philippine lepers have been isolated +and humanely cared for. As a result, leprosy is rapidly disappearing +from the Islands.</p> +</div> +<p>“Indignant at such shameful behaviour, I reprimanded the +officers and preferred charges against the ones I deemed to blame in +the matter.</p> +<p>“Afterwards I found out that they had attempted to murder me +for trying to find out the originators of the crime. On account of +this, and in order to prevent a civil war which would have broken out +against the said soldiers if precautions had not been taken, I decided +to disarm them, to the great displeasure of the Colonel who was not +aware of my motives.</p> +<p>“This bad conduct has been copied by the soldiers of the 4th +Company stationed in Ilagan, and I believe the Colonel, guided by my +warning, will take the same measures in regard to them.</p> +<p>“As the officers are the first ones to commit abuses and +misdeeds, it is easily seen that the soldiers under their orders, +guided by them, will commit worse ones than the chiefs, and as these +seem to lack the moral strength to control and reprimand them, I +propose to you, if it meets your approval, that all these soldiers and +some of the officers be returned to their homes by the steamer +<i>Luzon</i>, if there should be sufficient coal, or in another if you +order it, since they tell me themselves that <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5798" href="#xd21e5798" name= +"xd21e5798">201</a>]</span>because they are far away from their homes +they do not wish to continue in the service in this province. This is +easily arranged as there are now men stationed in this province for +instructing the native volunteers, many of whom have been students, and +will therefore make good officers and non-commissioned officers, and in +this way a battalion could be formed, well disciplined from the +beginning and disgraceful things would be avoided not only towards the +natives of this province but also towards foreigners, which is the most +important. Having stated my case, I place myself always at your +disposal, requesting you will attend to this affair.</p> +<p>“With reference to the 4th Company stationed in the Province +of Isabela, whose captain is Don Antonio Monzon of Panamitan, there are +many complaints of thefts and assaults committed by the soldiers, and +in answer to my questions, Don Simeón Adriano y Villa, Major and +Sanitary Inspector and doctor of this battalion, whom I have stationed +there for lack of a competent person, tells me that he has always +punished and offered advice to officers and soldiers in order to +prevent the recurrence of thefts and assaults, but he has never been +able to suppress them completely, because the soldiers are abandoned by +their officers, and because of lack of example on the part of the +latter; they do not understand that it is a great blot when they commit +these abuses, since when they discover the goods or house of a Spaniard +they believe they have a right to appropriate everything which they +encounter.</p> +<p>“I have learned lately, that some foreigners, residents in +that province, among them some employees of the Tobacco Factory, +‘El Oriente’ and of the firm of Baer Senior & Co., who +have Spanish employees in various pueblos of that province, have some +very serious complaints to make of assaults committed against them +prejudicial to their interests; however, I hope that now with the +arrival of General Tirona he will regulate matters, although I believe +that this gentleman is not sufficiently energetic in proceeding against +the officers and soldiers, as I have seen when I reprimanded and +punished them for faults committed he has pardoned them, and it appears +that he censures energetic acts which we must use in order to subject +them to rigorous discipline. The same thing happened when Major Sr. +Victa wished to discipline them; it appears that the Colonel +reprimanded him when he punished some soldiers for gambling in their +quarters, since, as you know, that gentleman believes that he who is +right is the one who comes to him first, and who is best able to +flatter him. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5804" href="#xd21e5804" +name="xd21e5804">202</a>]</span></p> +<p>“The Colonel has agreed with me that his first act on arrival +at the province of Isabela should be to disarm and take all the money +he finds among the soldiers of the 4th Company (Panamitan) in order to +serve as indemnity for the property of the foreigners in case they +should make any claim.</p> +<p>“I request that you send some leader or officer in order to +superintend our actions, and to lift the doubt which hangs over the +person who has worked faithfully and honourably in the sacred cause of +our Independence.</p> +<p>“I am filling the position of First Chief in the Port of +Aparri temporarily on account of the absence of the Colonel who has +conferred on me all his duties and power. After the military operations +which were carried on as far as the last town in Isabela, being tired +and somewhat sick, I was put in charge of these military headquarters, +which I found to be very much mixed up, the town, moreover, being +desperate on account of the assaults committed by my predecessor, +Rafael Perca, who was appointed by the Colonel, and who was formerly 2d +Captain of the steamer <i>Filipinas.</i> After arriving and taking +charge, having received numerous complaints against him, I had him +arrested and I found that he had been guilty of robbery, unlawful use +of insignia, illegal marriage, rape and attempted rape. I hold him in +custody only awaiting the arrival of the Colonel in order to convene a +court-martial for his trial, in which the Colonel will act as President +and I as Judge Advocate.</p> +<p>“With nothing more to communicate, I hope you will attend to +my just claim and send a special delegate to investigate our acts and +see the truth, for perhaps if a statement comes direct from me you will +not believe it.</p> +<p>“I am your affectionate and faithful subordinate, who kisses +your hand,</p> +<p>(Signed) “<span class="sc">J. N. Leyba</span>.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5824src" href="#xd21e5824" name= +"xd21e5824src">22</a></p> +</div> +<p>Blount states that conditions existed “just like this, all +over Luzon and the Visayan Islands.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5829src" href="#xd21e5829" name="xd21e5829src">23</a> +Unfortunately this was only too true!</p> +<p>The troops complained of by Leyba were made up of Aguinaldo’s +fellow townsmen. They never obeyed any <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5834" href="#xd21e5834" name="xd21e5834">203</a>]</span>one else, +and left a trail of murder and rapine behind them. Aguinaldo never +punished them, and from the time when one of them tried to murder their +commander until a guard composed of them murdered General Antonio Luna +in June, 1899, they are mentioned only with fear and execration.</p> +<p>Blount describes with enthusiasm the establishment of civil +government in Cagayan.</p> +<p>Perhaps Americans will be interested in knowing who was its head and +how it worked. The “elections” were held on December 9, +1898, and Dimas Guzman was chosen head of the province. He was the man +subsequently sentenced to life-imprisonment by Blount, for complicity +in the murder of Lieutenant Piera. In describing his method of +conducting his government he says that the people doubted the legality +of attempts to collect taxes; that the abuses of heads of towns caused +rioting in the towns, in which only Ilocanos took part; and that he not +only did not report these things but contrived to conceal them from +foreigners in the province.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5840src" href= +"#xd21e5840" name="xd21e5840src">24</a></p> +<p>His failure to report these troubles and disorders to his government +is of interest, as Blount alleges<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5845src" +href="#xd21e5845" name="xd21e5845src">25</a> that differences +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5850" href="#xd21e5850" name= +"xd21e5850">204</a>]</span>between the local authorities were in a +number of cases referred to the Malolos government for settlement.</p> +<p>Blount says<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5854src" href="#xd21e5854" +name="xd21e5854src">26</a> that General Otis’s reports were full +of inexcusable blunders about the Tagálogs taking possession of +provinces and making the people do things, and cites the relations +between Villa and Dimas Guzman to illustrate the error of these +allegations.</p> +<p>He has elsewhere<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5860src" href= +"#xd21e5860" name="xd21e5860src">27</a> referred to Villa as the +“arch-fiend” in the matter of torturing the unhappy +Spaniards as well as the Filipinos who incurred his ill-will. We have +seen that Guzman proved an apt pupil and did credit to his instructor +in connection with the torturing of Lieutenant Piera, but it +nevertheless appears from Guzman’s own statements that his +relations with the Insurgent officers and their subordinates involved +some rather grave difficulties. Of Major Canoy, for instance, he +says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I must add that the said Major Canoy is such a +remarkable character that he saw fit to give my cook a beating for not +taking off his hat when he met him. He insulted the delegate of rents +of Cabagan Viejo for the same reason. He struck the head man of the +town of Bagabag in the face. He put some of the members of the town +council of Echague in the stocks, and he had others +whipped.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5866src" href="#xd21e5866" +name="xd21e5866src">28</a></p> +</div> +<p>It was really incautious for Governor Guzman to complain of these +conditions because Major Canoy and his party won, and the Governor had +to resign.</p> +<p>But the day of reckoning came. It was in consequence <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5873" href="#xd21e5873" name= +"xd21e5873">205</a>]</span>of the atrocities committed by the +Tagálog soldiers in the Cagayan valley that Captain Batchelder +was able a little later to march practically unopposed through the +provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela and Cagayan with one battalion of +American negro troops, for whom he had neither food nor extra +ammunition, and that Tirona surrendered the Insurgent forces in the +valley without attempting resistance! <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5875" href="#xd21e5875" name="xd21e5875">206</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5211" href="#xd21e5211src" name="xd21e5211">1</a></span> Blount, +p. 113.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5222" href="#xd21e5222src" name="xd21e5222">2</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 111</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5230" href="#xd21e5230src" name="xd21e5230">3</a></span> At +Carig, Isabela.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5252" href="#xd21e5252src" name="xd21e5252">4</a></span> Taylor, +43 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5265" href="#xd21e5265src" name="xd21e5265">5</a></span> See p. +731.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5281" href="#xd21e5281src" name="xd21e5281">6</a></span> The +parsonage, or residence of the priest.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5288" href="#xd21e5288src" name="xd21e5288">7</a></span> +Insurgent officers.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5342" href="#xd21e5342src" name="xd21e5342">8</a></span> Their on +commander so reported. See p. 202.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5351" href="#xd21e5351src" name="xd21e5351">9</a></span> Shortly +afterward “elected” governor.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5378" href="#xd21e5378src" name="xd21e5378">10</a></span> This +form of torture is commonly referred to in the Philippines as the +“water cure.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5410" href="#xd21e5410src" name="xd21e5410">11</a></span> Major +Delfin commanded the expedition which took Nueva Vizcaya.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5423" href="#xd21e5423src" name="xd21e5423">12</a></span> P.I.R., +246. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5533" href="#xd21e5533src" name="xd21e5533">13</a></span> Dimas +Guzman.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5592" href="#xd21e5592src" name="xd21e5592">14</a></span> Blount, +p. 112.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5607" href="#xd21e5607src" name="xd21e5607">15</a></span> Blount, +p. 114.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5630" href="#xd21e5630src" name="xd21e5630">16</a></span> Blount, +p. 113</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5647" href="#xd21e5647src" name="xd21e5647">17</a></span> Blount, +p. 114.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5682" href="#xd21e5682src" name="xd21e5682">18</a></span> A +distance of 120 miles.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5707" href="#xd21e5707src" name="xd21e5707">19</a></span> +“The former Spanish Governor of the Province was of course a +prisoner in Villa’s custody. Villa had the ex-Governor brought +in, for the travellers to see him, and remarked, in his presence to +them, ‘This is the man who robbed this province of twenty-five +thousand dollars during the last year of his +office.’”—Blount, p. 115.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5740" href="#xd21e5740src" name="xd21e5740">20</a></span> +<i lang="es">La Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas</i>, a +very strong commercial organization.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5747" href="#xd21e5747src" name="xd21e5747">21</a></span> +“I call your attention to the fact that the only terms to the +surrender were to respect life, and it was for this reason that I +seized all the money they [i.e. the friars,—D.C.W.] had hidden +away, which was accomplished by applying the stick. In this capital I +found thirty-four thousand dollars in silver and a draft on the +Compañia General de Tabacos for twenty thousand dollars which +can be collected here...</p> +<p class="footnote">“The bearer can give you more details +concerning the abuses committed in this province of Vizcayana by the +forces of Mayor Duflin Esquizel. Also, I wish to inform you that we +have done nothing to the Compañia General de Tabacos, for we +have learned from their records that much of their stock is held by +Frenchmen, and consequently we fear a conflict. For this reason we +await your orders on this matter. We took all the arms we found in +their possession, however.”—P.I.R., 271.2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5824" href="#xd21e5824src" name="xd21e5824">22</a></span> P.I.R. +192.4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5829" href="#xd21e5829src" name="xd21e5829">23</a></span> +“I was in that town, for a similar purpose, with Governor Taft in +1901, after a bloody war which almost certainly would not have occurred +had the Paris Peace Commission known the conditions then existing, just +like this, all over Luzon and the Visayan Islands.”—Blount, +p. 116.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5840" href="#xd21e5840src" name="xd21e5840">24</a></span> +“On account of this the vulgar people doubted the legality of our +actions in the collection of taxes, and accordingly it became +difficult; and this, coupled with the inveterate abuses of the heads of +the towns, which the head of the province was not able to perceive in +time to check, caused a tumult in Echague, which, owing to wise +councils and efforts at pacification, was appeased without it being +followed by serious consequences; but I have no doubt that this tumult +was due only to the suggestions of ungovernable and passionate persons +animated by the spirit of faction, since those who took part in it were +all Ilocanos, no native of Echague having any hand in it. The same +thing occurred in Naguilian, where the disorders were also quieted. Not +only did I make no report of all this to the government of the republic +on account of the abnormality of the present conditions, but I also +succeeded in concealing them from the foreigners here so that they +should not succeed in discovering the truth, which would be to the +prejudice of our cause.”—Taylor, 42 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5845" href="#xd21e5845src" name="xd21e5845">25</a></span> +“I may add that as judge of that district in 1901–2 there +came before me a number of cases in the trial of which the fact would +be brought out of this or that difference among the local authorities +having <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5847" href="#xd21e5847" name= +"xd21e5847">204n</a>]</span>been referred to the Malolos Government for +settlement. And they always awaited until they heard from +it,”—Blount, p 112.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5854" href="#xd21e5854src" name="xd21e5854">26</a></span> +“General Otis’s reports are full of the most inexcusable +blounders about how ‘the Tagals’ took possession of the +various provinces and just about those of a New Yorker or a Bostonian +sent up to Vermont in the days of the American Revolution to help +organize the resistance there, in conjunction with one of the local +leaders of the patriot cause in the Green Mountain +State.”—Blount, p. 112.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5860" href="#xd21e5860src" name="xd21e5860">27</a></span> Blount, +p. 114.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5866" href="#xd21e5866src" name="xd21e5866">28</a></span> Taylor, +42 AJ.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch07" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e292">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter VII</h2> +<h2 class="main">Insurgent Rule in the Visayas and Elsewhere</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Referring to the conditions alleged to have been found +by Sargent and Wilcox in the Cagayan valley, Blount says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Had another Sargent and another Wilcox made a +similar trip through the provinces of southern Luzón about this +same time, under similar friendly auspices, before we turned friendship +to hate and fear and misery, in the name of Benevolent Assimilation, +they would, we now know, have found similar conditions.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5886src" href="#xd21e5886" name= +"xd21e5886src">1</a></p> +</div> +<p>So far as concerns the provinces of Mindoro and Palawan, and the +great island of Mindanao, he dodges the issue, alleging the +unimportance of Mindoro and Palawan, and claiming that +“Mohammedan Mindanao” presents a problem by itself. Under +such generalities he hides the truth as to what happened in these +regions.</p> +<p>I agree with him that there was essential identity between actual +conditions in the Cagayan valley and those which prevailed under +Insurgent rule elsewhere in Luzón and in the Visayas. I will go +further and say that conditions in the Cagayan valley did not differ +essentially from those which prevailed throughout all portions of the +archipelago which fell under Insurgent control, except that in several +provinces captured friars and other Spaniards were quickly murdered +whereas in the Cagayan valley no friar was quite killed outright by +torture. Those who ultimately died of their injuries lived for some +time.</p> +<p>Let us now consider some of the actual occurrences in <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5895" href="#xd21e5895" name= +"xd21e5895">207</a>]</span>these other provinces, continuing to follow +the route of our tourists until it brings us back to Manila.</p> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">South Ilocos</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">The first province visited by Messrs. Wilcox and +Sargent after leaving Aparri was South Ilocos. The conditions which had +prevailed at Vigan, the capital of the province, shortly before their +arrival, are described in a letter signed “Mariano” and +addressed under date of September 25, 1898, to Señor Don Mena +Crisólogo, from which I quote extracts:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Dear Mena</span>: I read with +a happy heart your letter of the 3rd instant, and in answer I have to +say:—</p> +<p>“On the 22nd of August a mass meeting was held for the +election of the local presidente of this town, and I was elected to the +office; and on the 1st instant the Colonel appointed me Provisional +Provincial President of this province, so that you can imagine the +position I am in and the responsibilities which weigh on me.</p> +<p>“Your house is occupied by the Colonel, in view of the fact +that it is not rented.</p> +<p>“I have here eleven friar prisoners and the damned priests who +escaped from here have not as yet been returned, but it is known that +they are prisoners in Cagayan, and as soon as they arrive here I will +treat them as they deserve.</p> +<p>“It is with great regret that I have to relate the events and +misfortunes which we have been suffering here since the arrival of the +troops, as all the detachments are supported by the towns, and here in +the capital where the commissary is established, our resources are +exhausted, owing to the unreasonable demands of the commissary, because +he never asks what is only just and necessary, but if he needs +provisions for 200 men, he always asks enough for 1000. And +notwithstanding this, the most lamentable and sad occurrences are +taking place almost daily in the different barrios, and often in the +town itself; the soldiers are guilty of many abuses and disorderly +acts, such as rapes and murders, which usually remain unpunished by +reason of the real authors thereof not being found, and when they are +found and reported to their commanders, the latter do nothing. One +night the house and estate of Sario Tinon in Anannam was sacked by six +armed men, who <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5916" href= +"#xd21e5916" name="xd21e5916">208</a>]</span>threatened him and took +his money, his wife’s jewels and the best horses he had. Thank +God that his family was at the time in the capital, and it appears that +now the authors of this act are being discovered.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e5919width" id="p028"><img src="images/p028.jpg" +alt="Building the Benguet Road" width="450" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead">Building the Benguet Road</p> +<p class="first">In this, as in many other places, it proved necessary +to blast the road out of the solid rock.</p> +</div> +<p>“I am at the present time working with Father Aglipay to have +the forces stationed here replaced by our volunteers which I am +recruiting, in order to prevent in so far as possible the frequent acts +of barbarity which the former are committing in the province.</p> +<p>“When the friars from Lepanto arrived here, they were made to +publish the following proclamation:—</p> +<p>“‘<i>Proclamation</i>.—We, the friars, declare +that all the acts committed by us against the honest Filipinos when we +discharged our respective offices, were false and in contravention of +the rights of the Holy Church, because we only wished to deceive and +prejudice the honest inhabitants of the Philippines; for which reason +we now suffer what we are suffering, as you see, according to the old +adage that “he who owes must pay.” And now we inform all +you honest Filipinos that we repent for the acts above referred to, +which are in contravention of the laws and good customs, and ask your +pardon.—<span class="sc">Vigan</span>, September 13, +1898.’</p> +<p>“All of which I communicate to you in order that you may form +an idea of what is taking place here, and take such steps as may be +proper for the common good, and especially for the good of this town, +hoping that with the aid of your valuable protection the abuses and +disorders suffered by the residents will be stopped.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e5939src" href="#xd21e5939" name= +"xd21e5939src">2</a></p> +</div> +<p>The province of Abra, now a subprovince of South Ilocos, was +evidently no exception to the general rule, for there is on file a +letter to Aguinaldo with twenty-six signatures, protesting bitterly +against the oppression of the poor, in the effort to compel them to +contribute war taxes, complaining against the misuse of supplies +gathered ostensibly for the soldiers, and stating that the petitioners +will be obliged to take refuge with the Igorots and Negritos, if not +granted relief.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e5944src" href="#xd21e5944" +name="xd21e5944src">3</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e5994" +href="#xd21e5994" name="xd21e5994">209</a>]</span></p> +<p>Apparently the trouble grew, for on December 27, 1898, the +“Director of Diplomacy” telegraphed to Aguinaldo concerning +it, saying:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Most urgent. The discontent in the provinces of +Pangasinán, Tarlac and Yloco (Ilocos) is increasing. The town of +Bangbang rose in revolt the 25th and 26th of this month, and killed all +of the civil officials. It is impossible to describe the abuses +committed by the military and civil authorities of the said provinces. +I urge you to send a force of 100 men and a diplomatic officer to +reëstablish order. The matter is urgent.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e6000src" href="#xd21e6000" name="xd21e6000src">4</a></p> +</div> +<p>I find nothing important in the Insurgent records concerning +conditions in La Union at this time. Pangasinán, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6005" href="#xd21e6005" name= +"xd21e6005">210</a>]</span>Tarlac, Pampanga and Bulacan, which were now +revisited by our tourists, have already been discussed.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">The Province of Manila</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Conditions in Manila Province, as distinguished from +Manila City, left much to be desired.</p> +<p>Admiral Dewey made a statement applicable to the territory adjacent +to the city and bay of Manila in a cablegram to Washington dated +October 14, 1898, which reads as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It is important that the disposition of the +Philippine Islands should be decided as soon as possible. . . . General +anarchy prevails without the limits of the city and bay of Manila. +Natives appear unable to govern.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6017src" href="#xd21e6017" name="xd21e6017src">5</a></p> +</div> +<p>Of it Blount says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In this cablegram the Admiral most +unfortunately repeated as true some wild rumours then currently +accepted by the Europeans and Americans at Manila which, of course, +were impossible of verification. I say ‘unfortunately’ with +some earnestness, because it does not appear on the face of his message +that they were mere rumours. And, that they were wholly erroneous, in +point of fact, has already been cleared up in previous chapters, +wherein the real state of peace, order, and tranquillity which +prevailed throughout Luzón at that time has been, it is +believed, put beyond all doubt.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6025src" href="#xd21e6025" name="xd21e6025src">6</a></p> +</div> +<p>Blount seems here to have overlooked the fact that the admiral +himself was in Manila Bay and in Manila City at the time he sent this +cablegram. The statements in question were not rumours, they were +deliberate expressions of opinion on the part of a man who had +first-hand information and knew what he was saying.</p> +<p>They were not the Admiral’s only allegations on this subject. +When testifying before the Senate committee he said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>Admiral Dewey</i>. I knew that there was no +government in the whole of the Philippines. Our fleet had destroyed the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6040" href="#xd21e6040" name= +"xd21e6040">211</a>]</span>only government there was, and there was no +other government; there was a reign of terror throughout the +Philippines, looting, robbing, murdering; a reign of terror throughout +the islands.”</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">La Laguna</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Having brought our tourist friends safely back to +Manila, we must now leave them there and strike out by ourselves if we +are to see other provinces.</p> +<p>La Laguna lies just east of Manila. Of it we learn that:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Laguna Province was so overrun by bands of +robbers that the head of the pueblo of San Pablo ordered the people to +concentrate in the town to avoid their attacks.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6053src" href="#xd21e6053" name= +"xd21e6053src">7</a></p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Bataan</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">The province of Bataan lies just across the bay from +Manila.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On January 10, 1899, the secretary of the +interior directed the governor of Bataan Province to ascertain the +whereabouts of a number of men who had just deserted with their rifles +from the commands there. He was to appeal to their patriotism and tell +them that if they would but return to their companies their complaints +would be attended to and they would be pardoned.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6064src" href="#xd21e6064" name= +"xd21e6064src">8</a></p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Zambales</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Zambales joins Bataan on the west and north. On +November 13, 1898, Wenceslao Vinvegra wrote to Aguinaldo describing the +state of affairs in this province. From his letter we learn that two +brothers named Teodoro and Doroteo Pansacula, claiming to be governor +and brigadier general respectively, who are charged with abandonment of +their posts in the field, disobedience and attempts against the union +of the Insurgents, had been committing all manner of abuses. They had +organized a band of cut-throats, armed with rifles and bolos, and +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6075" href="#xd21e6075" name= +"xd21e6075">212</a>]</span>were terrorizing the towns, committing +robberies and murders and ordering that money be furnished for +themselves and food for their men.</p> +<p>They were also encouraging the people to disobey the local +authorities and refuse to pay taxes, and were promulgating a theory, +popular with the masses, that the time had come for the rich to be poor +and the poor rich.</p> +<p>They had furthermore induced regular Insurgent troops to rise up in +arms.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6081src" href="#xd21e6081" name= +"xd21e6081src">9</a></p> +<p>From this communication it would appear that the Insurgent +government had not been entirely effective in Zambales up to November +13th, 1898.</p> +<p>From other communications we learn that the soldiers at Alaminos +were about to desert on November 30th, 1898;<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6088src" href="#xd21e6088" name="xd21e6088src">10</a> that it was +deemed necessary to restrict travel between Tarlac, Pampanga, Bataan +and Zambales in order to prevent robberies;<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6091src" href="#xd21e6091" name="xd21e6091src">11</a> and that on +January 9, 1899, the governor of the province found it impossible to +continue the inspection of a number of towns, as many of their +officials had fled to escape the abuses of the military.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6094src" href="#xd21e6094" name= +"xd21e6094src">12</a> Conditions were obviously very serious in +Zambales at this time. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6097" href= +"#xd21e6097" name="xd21e6097">213</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Cavite</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Cavite province lies immediately south of Manila +province as the latter was then constituted. On August 24, 1898, the +secretary of war wired Aguinaldo that two drunken Americans had been +killed by Insurgent soldiers.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6104src" href= +"#xd21e6104" name="xd21e6104src">13</a> On the same day General +Anderson advised the governor of Cavite that one American soldier had +been killed and three wounded by his people, and demanded his immediate +withdrawal, with his guard, from the town.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6107src" href="#xd21e6107" name="xd21e6107src">14</a> The +governor asked Aguinaldo for instructions. Aguinaldo replied +instructing the governor to deny that the American had been killed by +Insurgent soldiers and to claim that he had met death at the hands of +his own companions. The governor was further directed to give up his +life before leaving the place.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6110src" +href="#xd21e6110" name="xd21e6110src">15</a></p> +<p>In view of the definite statement from one of his own officers that +the soldier in question was killed by Filipino soldiers, +Aguinaldo’s instructions to say that he was killed by Americans +are interesting as showing his methods.</p> +<p>Not only were the Insurgents obviously unable to control their own +soldiers in Cavite town sufficiently to prevent them from committing +murder, but conditions in the province of the same name left much to be +desired. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6120" href="#xd21e6120" +name="xd21e6120">214</a>]</span>On December 29, 1898, the governor +wired Aguinaldo that the town of Marigondong had risen in +arms.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6122src" href="#xd21e6122" name= +"xd21e6122src">16</a></p> +<p>It is a well-known fact that land records were destroyed in Cavite. +Of this matter Taylor says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In Cavite, in Cavite Province, and probably in +most of the other provinces, one of the first acts of the insurgents +who gathered about Aguinaldo was to destroy all the land titles which +had been recorded and filed in the Spanish administrative bureaus. In +case the independence of the Philippines was won, the land of the +friars, the land of the Spaniards and of those who still stood by +Spain, would be in the gift of Aguinaldo or of any strong man who could +impose his will upon the people. And the men who joined this leader +would be rich in the chief riches of the country, and those who refused +to do so would be ruined men.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6130src" href="#xd21e6130" name="xd21e6130src">17</a></p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Sorsogón</h3> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The native civil officials who took charge of +the government of Sorsogón Province when the Spaniards abandoned +it did not think it worth while to hoist the insurgent flag until a +force of four companies arrived there to take station early in +November, 1898. The officer in command promptly ordered the Chinamen in +the town of Sorsogón, who are prosperous people, to contribute +to the support of his troops. They at once gave him cloth for uniforms, +provisions, and 10,000 pesos. This was not sufficient, for on November +8 Gen. Ignacio Paua, who seems to have been the insurgent agent in +dealing with the Chinese, complained that the troops in Sorsogón +were pillaging the Chinamen there. They had killed 13, wounded 19, and +ruined a number of others.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6139src" +href="#xd21e6139" name="xd21e6139src">18</a></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">In January, 1899, a correspondent wrote Aguinaldo that +it was very difficult to collect taxes as every one was taking what he +could lay his hands on.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6143src" href= +"#xd21e6143" name="xd21e6143src">19</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6146" href="#xd21e6146" name="xd21e6146">215</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Ambos Camarines</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">On September 18, 1898, Elias Angeles, a corporal of +the <i lang="es">guardia civil</i>, headed an uprising against the +Spaniards. The Spanish officer in command, and all of his family, were +killed by shooting up through the floor of the room which they +occupied. Angeles then assumed the title of +Politico-Military-Governor.</p> +<p>When the Tagálog Vicente Lucban arrived on his way to Samar, +he ordered Angeles to meet him at Magarao, with all his troops and +arms, disarmed the troops, giving their rifles to his own followers, +marched into Nueva Caceres and took possession of the entire +government. Aguinaldo subsequently made Lucban a general, and sent him +on his way to Samar.</p> +<p>Lucban was succeeded by another Tagálog, +“General” Guevara, a very ignorant man, who displayed +special ability in making collections, and is reported to have kept a +large part of the funds which came into his possession.</p> +<p>Colonel Peña, who called himself “General,” was +one of the worst of the Tagálog invaders, for they were +practically that. He threatened all who opposed him with death, and +summarily shot at least one man in Tigaon. That town subsequently rose +against him, and he was badly cut up by the Bicols.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e6161src" href="#xd21e6161" name="xd21e6161src">20</a> On +getting out of the hospital he was sent away.</p> +<p>The daughters of prominent families suffered at the hands of these +villains. Peña abducted one, a son of Guevara another. Her +brother followed young Guevara and killed him. If girls of the best +families were so treated, how must those of the common people have +fared?</p> +<p>Braganza ordered the killing of all Spaniards and Chinese at +Minalabag. Some forty-eight Spaniards were murdered.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e6169width" id="p029"><img src="images/p029.jpg" +alt="Freight Autos on the Benguet Road" width="720" height="431"> +<p class="figureHead">Freight Autos on the Benguet Road</p> +<p class="first">This road has been correctly described as “an +automobile boulevard,” but the autos in use on it are not all +pleasure machines.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6175" href="#xd21e6175" name= +"xd21e6175">216</a>]</span></p> +<p>Many Chinese were killed at Pasacao; about thirty at Libmanan by +order of Vicente Ursua a Tagálog; more than twenty at +Calabanga.</p> +<p>Conditions became so unbearable that Faustino Santa Ana gathered +around him all Bicols who were willing to fight the Tag£logs, but +the troubles were finally patched up.</p> +<p>American troops had little difficulty in occupying Ambos Camarines +and other Bicol provinces, owing to the hatred in which the +Tagálogs were held.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Mindoro</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Conditions in the important island of Mindoro may be +inferred from the fact that it became necessary for its governor to +issue a decree on November 10, 1898, which contained the following +provisions among others:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“2nd. The local presidentes of the pueblos will +not permit any one belonging to their jurisdiction to pass from one +pueblo to another nor to another province without the corresponding +pass, with a certificate upon its back that the taxes of its holder +have been paid.</p> +<p>“3rd. That from this date no one will be allowed to absent +himself from his pueblo without previously informing its head who will +give him an authorization on which will be noted the approval of the +presidente of the pueblo....</p> +<p>“5th. Persons arriving from a neighboring town or province in +any pueblo of this province will immediately present themselves before +the presidente of said pueblo with their passes. He will without +charge, stamp them with his official seal.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6194src" href="#xd21e6194" name="xd21e6194src">21</a></p> +</div> +<p>These are peculiar regulations for a province which is at peace, and +as Major Taylor has truly remarked:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The form of liberty contemplated by the +founders of the Philippine Republic was not considered incompatible +with a very considerable absence of personal freedom.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6202src" href="#xd21e6202" name= +"xd21e6202src">22</a></p> +</div> +<p>Later, when travelling through Mindoro, I was told how an +unfortunate legless Spaniard, who had been running a small shop in one +of the towns and who was on good terms with his Filipino neighbors, was +carried out into <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6207" href= +"#xd21e6207" name="xd21e6207">217</a>]</span>the plaza, seated in a +chair, and then cut to pieces with bolos in the presence of his wife +and children who were compelled to witness the horrible spectacle!</p> +<p>On this same trip Captain R.G. Offley, then the American Governor of +Mindoro, told me while I was at Pinamalayan that the people there were +greatly alarmed because a murderer, liberated under the amnesty, had +returned and was prowling about in that vicinity. This man had a rather +unique record. He had captured one of his enemies, and after stripping +him completely had caused the top of an immense ant-hill to be dug off. +The unfortunate victim was then tied, laid on it, and the earth and +ants which had been removed were shovelled back over his body until +only his head projected. The ants did the rest! Another rather unusual +achievement of this interesting individual was to tie the feet of one +of his enemies to a tree, fasten a rope around his neck, hitch a +carabao to the rope, and start up the carabao, thus pulling off the +head of his victim. Yet this man and others like him were set at +liberty under the amnesty proclamation, in spite of the vigorous +protests of the Philippine Commission, who thought that murderers of +this type ought to be hanged.</p> +<p>And now I wish to discuss briefly an interesting and highly +characteristic statement of Judge Blount. In referring to conditions in +the Visayan Islands, he says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Of course the Southern Islands were a little +slower. But as Luzón goes, so go the rest. The rest of the +archipelago is but the tail to the Luzón kite. Luzón +contains 4,000,000 of the 8,000,000 people out there, and Manila is to +the Filipino people what Paris is to the French and to France. +Luzón is about the size of Ohio, and the other six islands that +really matter, are in size mere little Connecticuts and Rhode Islands, +and in population mere Arizonas or New Mexicos.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6216src" href="#xd21e6216" name= +"xd21e6216src">23</a></p> +</div> +<p>This paragraph is no exception to the general rule that the +statements of this author will not bear analysis. One <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6221" href="#xd21e6221" name= +"xd21e6221">218</a>]</span>of the other six islands that he says really +matters is Samar. Its area is 5031 square miles. The area of Rhode +Island is 1250 square miles. The smallest of the six islands named is +Bohol, with an area of 1411 square miles. It cannot be called a little +Rhode Island.</p> +<p>As regards population, Arizona has 122,931. It is hardly proper to +call either Panay with a population of 743,646, Cebu with 592,247, +Negros with 460,776, Leyte with 357,641, Bohol with 243,148 or even +Samar with only 222,690, a mere Arizona, and New Mexico with 195,310 is +also a bit behind.</p> +<p>Luzón really has an area of 40,969 square miles and a +population of 3,798,507.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6227src" href= +"#xd21e6227" name="xd21e6227src">24</a> What Blount is pleased to call +“the tail to the Luzón kite,” is made up as +follows:—</p> +<div class="table"> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Island</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Area (Square +Miles)</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> +Population</td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Samar</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">5,031</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">222,690</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Negros</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">4,881</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">460,776</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Panay</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">4,611</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">743,646</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Leyte</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">2,722</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">357,641</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Cebu</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">1,762</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">592,247</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Bohol</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">1,411</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">243,148</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Totals</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellBottom"><span class="sum">20,419</span></td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight cellBottom"><span class= +"sum">2,620,148</span></td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p>Even so, the tail is a trifle long and heavy for the kite, but if we +are going to compare Luzón with “the Southern +Islands,” by which Blount can presumably only mean the rest of +the archipelago, why not really do it? The process involves nothing +more complicated than the subtraction of its area and population from +those of the archipelago as a whole.</p> +<div class="table"> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"></td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Area (Square +Miles)</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> +Population</td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Philippines</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">115,026</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">7,635,426</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Luzón</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">40,969</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">3,798,507</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Difference</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellBottom"><span class="sum">74,057</span></td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight cellBottom"><span class= +"sum">3,836,919</span></td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6326" href="#xd21e6326" name= +"xd21e6326">219</a>]</span></p> +<p>Performing this operation, we discover that the tail would fly away +with the kite, as Luzón has less than half of the total +population and only a little more than a third of the total area.</p> +<p>To compare the area or the population of one large island with those +of individual small ones, in determining the relative importance of the +former in the country of which it makes up a part, is like comparing +the area and population of a great state with those of the individual +counties going to make up other states.</p> +<p>Blount resorts to a similar questionable procedure in trying to show +the insignificance of Mindoro and Palawan. There are an island of +Mindoro and a province of Mindoro; an island of Palawan and a province +of Palawan. In each case the province, which includes numerous small +islands, as well as the large one from which it takes its name, is much +larger and more populous than is the main island, and obviously it is +the province with which we are concerned.</p> +<p>Even if Blount wished to limit discussion to the Christian natives +commonly called Filipinos, his procedure is still wholly unfair. Of +these there are 3,575,001 in Luzón and 3,412,685 in the other +islands. In other words, the Filipino population is almost equally +divided between the two regions.</p> +<p>As he would not have found it convenient to discuss the conditions +which arose in Mindanao under Insurgent rule, he attempts to show that +no political importance attaches to them. In the passage above quoted +he does not so much as mention either Mindoro or Palawan (Paragua). +Elsewhere, however, he attempts to justify his action by making the +following statements:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The political or governmental problem being now +reduced from 3141 islands to eleven, the last three<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e6341src" href="#xd21e6341" name="xd21e6341src">25</a> of the +nine <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6344" href="#xd21e6344" name= +"xd21e6344">220</a>]</span>contained in the above table may also be +eliminated as follows:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6346src" href= +"#xd21e6346" name="xd21e6346src">26</a>—</p> +<p>“Mindoro, the large island just south of the main bulk of +Luzón, pierced by the 121st meridian of longitude east of +Greenwich, is thick with densely wooded mountains and jungle over a +large part of its area, has a reputation of being very unhealthy +(malarious), is also very sparsely settled, and does not now, nor has +it ever, cut any figure politically as a disturbing +factor.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6351src" href="#xd21e6351" +name="xd21e6351src">27</a></p> +</div> +<p>Apart from the fact that the political problem involved in the +government of the important islands which Blount would thus leave out +of consideration, is not solved by ignoring it, certain of his further +statements cannot be allowed to go uncorrected.</p> +<p>The allegation that the island has never “cut any figure +politically as a disturbing factor” is absurd. In the Spanish +days its forests furnished a safe refuge for evildoers who were from +time to time driven out of Cavite and Batangas. A large proportion of +its Filipino inhabitants were criminals who not infrequently organized +regular piratical expeditions and raided towns in Masbate, Romblon and +Palawan. The people of the Cuyos and Calamianes groups lived in +constant terror of the Mindoro pirates, and <i>tulisanes</i>,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6363src" href="#xd21e6363" name= +"xd21e6363src">28</a> who paid them frequent visits. I myself have been +at Calapan, the capital of the province, when the Spanish officials did +not dare to go without armed escort as far as the outskirts of the town +for fear of being captured and held for ransom. During considerable +periods they did not really pretend to exercise control over the +criminal Filipinos inhabiting the west coast of the island. Conditions +as to public order were worse in Mindoro than anywhere else in the +archipelago north of Mindanao and Joló.</p> +<p>No less absurd are Blount’s suggestions as to the general +worthlessness of the island. There are high mountains in its interior, +and there are great stretches of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6368" href="#xd21e6368" name="xd21e6368">221</a>]</span>most +fertile land in the world along its coast. Its northern and eastern +portions have a very heavy and evenly distributed rainfall, and are +admirably suited to the growing of cocoanuts, hemp, cacao, rubber and +similar tropical products. In this region rice flourishes wonderfully +without irrigation. There was a time in the past when Mindoro was known +as “the granary of the Philippines.” Later its population +was decimated by constant Moro attacks, and cattle disease destroyed +its draft animals, with the result that the cultivated lands were +abandoned to a considerable extent and again grew up to jungle, from +which, however, it is easy to redeem them. The west coast has strongly +marked wet and dry seasons similar to those at Manila. There is +abundant water available for irrigation, furnished by streams which +never run dry. Much of the soil is rich, and will grow the best of +sugar in large quantity. The forests, which now cover extensive areas, +abound in fine woods, and produce rubber and other valuable gums. There +are outcroppings of lignite at numerous points on the island, and in +the vicinity of Mt. Halcon is found the finest marble yet discovered in +this part of the world. Gold is also present in some quantity at +various places. In short, Mindoro is naturally one of the richest +islands in the Archipelago. If its tillable lands were under high +cultivation, it would support half the population of the +Philippines.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Palawan</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">In endeavouring to show that Palawan is without +political importance Blount has followed precisely the procedure which +he adopted in the case of Mindoro. First, he gives the area and the +population of the island, when he should concern himself with the +province. The area of the island is 4027 square miles; that of the +province, 5238 square miles. According to the 1903 census, the +population of the island was 10,918, while that of the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6375" href="#xd21e6375" name= +"xd21e6375">222</a>]</span>province, which contains such thickly +settled and fertile islands as Cuyo and Agutaya, was 39,582. Of course, +if one wishes to emphasize the unimportance of Palawan, it is more +convenient to take the figures for the island.</p> +<p>Blount says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Paragua,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6382src" +href="#xd21e6382" name="xd21e6382src">29</a> the long narrow island +seen at the extreme lower left of any map of the archipelago, extending +northeast-southwest at an angle of about 45°, is practically +worthless, being fit for nothing much except a penal colony, for which +purpose it is in fact now used.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6385src" href="#xd21e6385" name="xd21e6385src">30</a></p> +</div> +<p>I must deny the truthfulness of his statements, even if we limit our +consideration to the island of Palawan. Only 159 of its 4027 square +miles are utilized for a penal colony. Its natural wealth is simply +enormous. It is covered throughout the greater part of its extent with +virgin forest containing magnificent stands of the best timber. Damar, +a very valuable varnish gum, is abundant in its mountains. Much of the +so-called “Singapore cane,” so highly prized by makers of +rattan and wicker furniture, comes from its west coast. It is a +well-watered island, and its level plains, which receive the wash from +its heavily forested mountains, have a soil of unsurpassed fertility in +which cocoanuts come to bearing in five years or even less. +Incidentally, the greater part of the island lies south of the typhoon +belt. Malampaya Sound, situated near its northwestern extremity, is one +of the world’s great harbors. But should we wish to rid ourselves +of this wonderful island, I may say, without violating any official +confidences, that there was a time when Germany would have been more +than pleased to take it off our hands; and indeed our British friends, +who were sufficiently interested in it to survey it some decades ago, +might possibly be prevailed upon to accept it!</p> +<p>There are good reasons why Blount thought it convenient to make it +appear that Palawan was politically unimportant. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6392" href="#xd21e6392" name= +"xd21e6392">223</a>]</span>Shortly after the outbreak of hostilities +with Spain the Filipino garrison at Puerto Princesa mutinied, and the +things which they did were not nice. Among others, they liberated the +convicts, Puerto Princesa being at the time a penal colony, and the +latter, together with some of the soldiers, started up the east coast +of the island, leaving a trail of devastation in their wake. The +prosperous town of Tinitian was abandoned as they approached it, and +was so thoroughly cleaned out by them that it has never since been +reoccupied except by a few stragglers. Other towns, including Tay-Tay, +were raided.</p> +<p>On November 27, 1899, Aguinaldo’s representative in this +province wrote him that the inhabitants were preparing to kill all the +Tagálogs and revolt against Insurgent rule.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e6396src" href="#xd21e6396" name="xd21e6396src">31</a> Later +when some of the latter were anxious to get the people of one of the +northern settlements to take them on a short boat journey, these +Visayans consented to give them a lift only on condition that they +first allow themselves to be bound, and then took them out to sea and +threw them overboard.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e6400width" id="p030"><img src="images/p030.jpg" +alt="The Famous Zig-zag on the Benguet Road" width="720" height="430"> +<p class="figureHead">The Famous Zig-zag on the Benguet Road</p> +</div> +<p>Another thing which Blount would have found it inconvenient to +discuss is the conduct of the people of Cuyo, at one time the capital +of the province. On this island, which contains but twenty-one square +miles, there were in 1903 no less than 7545 inhabitants. They hated and +feared the people of Mindoro and sent messengers to Iloilo, after the +Americans had occupied that place, to beg for a garrison of American +troops, and to say that if furnished with an American flag they +themselves would defend it. For some reason they were not given the +flag, and the sending of a garrison was long delayed. Having grown +weary of waiting, they made an American flag of their own, hoisted it, +and when the Insurgents from Mindoro came intrenched themselves and +defended it. They were actually being besieged when the American +garrison finally arrived. Here is one more fact inconsistent with +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6406" href="#xd21e6406" name= +"xd21e6406">224</a>]</span>the theory that the Filipino people were a +unit at Aguinaldo’s back, and of course the easiest way to get +around such an occurrence is to forget to mention it!</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Mindanao</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">And now we come to the great island of Mindanao, which +all but equals Luzón in size, having an area of 36,292 square +miles as against the 40,969 of Luzón. Blount’s first +mention of it is peculiar.</p> +<p>In connection with the words “the other six islands that +really matter,” in the passage above cited on page 116 of his +book, he has inserted a foot-note reading as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The six main Visayan Islands. Mohammedan +Mindanao is always dealt with in this book as a separate and distinct +problem.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6418src" href="#xd21e6418" +name="xd21e6418src">32</a></p> +</div> +<p>But it was hardly possible for him to dismiss this great island, +which is a little continent by itself, quite so cavalierly and I will +quote the more important of his further and later statements regarding +it:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“While the great Mohammedan island of Mindanao, +near Borneo, with its 36,000 square miles of area, requires that the +Philippine archipelago be described as stretching over more than one +thousand miles from north to south, still, inasmuch as Mindanao only +contains about 500,000 people all told, half of them semi-civilized, +the governmental problem it presents has no more to do with the main +problem of whether, if ever, we are to grant independence to the +7,000,000 Christians of the other islands, than the questions that have +to be passed on by our Commissioner of Indian Affairs have to do with +the tariff. Mindanao’s 36,000 square miles constitute nearly a +third of the total area of the Philippine archipelago, and more than +that fraction of the 97,500 square miles of territory to a +consideration of which our attention is reduced by the process of +elimination above indicated. Turning over Mindanao to those crudely +Mohammedan semi-civilized Moros would indeed be ‘like granting +self-government to an <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6426" href= +"#xd21e6426" name="xd21e6426">225</a>]</span>Apache reservation under +some local chief,’ as Mr. Roosevelt, in the campaign of 1900, +ignorantly declared it would be to grant self-government to +Luzón under Aguinaldo. Furthermore, the Moros, so far as they +can think, would prefer to owe allegiance to, and be entitled to +recognition as subjects of, some great nation. Again, because the +Filipinos have no moral right to control the Moros, and could not if +they would, the latter being fierce fighters and bitterly opposed to +the thought of possible ultimate domination by the Filipinos, the most +uncompromising advocate of the consent of the governed principles has +not a leg to stand on with regard to Mohammedan Mindanao. Hence I +affirm that as to it, we have a distinct separate problem, which cannot +be solved in the lifetime of anybody now living. But it is a problem +which need not in the least delay the advent of independence for the +other fourteen fifteenths of the inhabitants of the +archipelago—all Christians living on islands north of Mindanao. +It is true that there are some Christian Filipinos on Mindanao, but in +policing the Moros, our government would of course protect them from +the Moros. If they did not like our government, they could move to such +parts of the islands as we might permit to be incorporated in an +ultimate Philippine republic. Inasmuch as the 300,000 or so Moros of +the Mohammedan island of Mindanao and the adjacent islets called Jolo +(the ‘Sulu archipelago,’ so called, ‘reigned +over’ by the sultan of comic opera fame) originally presented, as +they will always present, a distinct and separate problem, and never +did have anything more to do with the Philippine insurrection against +us than their cousins and co-religionists over in near-by Borneo, the +task which confronted Mr. Root in the fall of 1899, to wit, the +suppression of the Philippine insurrection, meant practically the +subjugation of one big island, Luzón, containing half the +population and one third of the total area of the archipelago, and six +neighbouring small ones, the Visayan Islands.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e6428src" href="#xd21e6428" name="xd21e6428src">33</a></p> +</div> +<p>Now as a matter of fact Mindanao is by no means Mohammedan. The +Mohammedan Malays, called Moros, are found here and there along the +western coast of the Zamboanga peninsula and along the southern coast +of the island as far as Davao. They also extend far up the Cotabato +River and occupy the Lake Lanao region, but that <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6433" href="#xd21e6433" name= +"xd21e6433">226</a>]</span>is all. The interior of the island is for +the most part occupied by the members of a number of non-Christian, +non-Mohammedan tribes, while its northern and eastern coasts are +inhabited by Visayan Filipinos, of whom there are many in Zamboanga +itself.</p> +<p>While, as Blount says, the Moros took no part in the insurrection +against the United States, the Visayans of Mindanao did, and we had +some lively tussles with them in Misamis and in Surigao.</p> +<p>It is indeed unthinkable that we should turn Mindanao over to the +Moros. Abandonment of it by us would in the end result in this, as they +would take possession of the entire island in the course of time. +Neither the other wild tribes nor the Filipinos could stand against +them. I heartily agree with the conclusion that we must retain this +island for many years before we can settle the problems which it +presents. It is further true that we might retain it and still grant +independence to the remainder of the Philippine Archipelago, but if we +are to eliminate Mindanao from consideration because the Filipinos have +no right to control the Moros, of whom there are in reality only about +a hundred and fifty-four thousand<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6439src" +href="#xd21e6439" name="xd21e6439src">34</a> on the island, and could +not if they would, what about Luzón, where there are in reality +no less than four hundred and sixty thousand non-Christians,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6442src" href="#xd21e6442" name= +"xd21e6442src">35</a> many of whom, like the Ifugaos, Bontoc Igorots, +Kalingas and wild Tingians, are fierce fighters and practically all of +whom are bitterly opposed to the thought of possible ultimate +domination by Filipinos, while most of them welcome American rule?</p> +<p>Have the Filipinos any more moral right to control them than they +have to control the Moros? Could they control them if they would? And +has the most uncompromising advocate of the consent of the governed +principle “a leg to stand on” in the one case if he lacks +it in the other?</p> +<p>The Filipino politicians are not ready to admit that <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6452" href="#xd21e6452" name= +"xd21e6452">227</a>]</span>Filipinos could not satisfactorily govern +Moros and have even alleged that they did so govern them during the +period now under discussion. Let us examine the facts.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo attempted to enter into negotiations with the Sultan of +Joló, addressing him as his “great and powerful +brother,”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6456src" href="#xd21e6456" +name="xd21e6456src">36</a> but this brother does not seem to have +received his advances with enthusiasm, and the other brothers proceeded +to do things to the Filipinos at the first opportunity.</p> +<p>José Roa in writing Aguinaldo on January 26, 1899, of +conditions in the province of Misamis says:<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6479src" href="#xd21e6479" name="xd21e6479src">37</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Hardly had said evacuation of Iligan taken +place on the 28th of last month, when the Moros or Mohammedans of the +interior, our mortal enemies since times immemorial on account of their +religious fanaticism which they carry to extremes, as do their +co-religionists in Europe and Asia, and on account of their objection +to leading a civilized life, began to harry the town of Iligan which is +the nearest town to the lake around which is the densest Moro +population. Due to the prestige of the local president of that town, +Señor Carloto Sariol, and the energy that he showed, after some +days of constant firing against groups who descended upon the suburbs +of the town, he was successful in having them abandon their hostile +attitude and promise to live in peace and harmony with said +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6485" href="#xd21e6485" name= +"xd21e6485">228</a>]</span>towns, this verbal agreement being +participated in by the Dattos of some settlements who did not wish to +treat with the Spanish Government.</p> +<p>“Being acquainted nevertheless with these people, we know by +experience that the more friendly they appear, the more we must watch +against them, because as soon as they find a good opportunity they do +not fail to take advantage of it to enter the towns for the purpose of +sacking them and kidnapping as many of their inhabitants as possible in +order to reduce them to slavery.”</p> +</div> +<p>Immediately after the abandonment of Cotabato by the Spaniards the +Filipino residents set up a government there. A few days later the Moro +datos, Piang, Ali and Djimbangan, dropped in with their followers, cut +off the head of the Filipino <i>presidente</i>, served a few other +leading officials and citizens in the same manner, and proceeded to set +up a government of their own which was the only government that the +place had prior to the arrival of the American troops.</p> +<p>Dato Djimbangan promptly caused the Filipina women of the place to +be stripped and compelled to march before him on the public plaza in a +state of nudity.</p> +<p>At Zamboanga the Moros could have taken the town at any time after +the Spaniards left had they desired to do so. On the arrival of the +Americans Dato Mandi offered to take it and turn it over to them, but +his proposition was declined.</p> +<p>He subsequently swore to an affidavit relative to conditions under +Insurgent rule. It reads as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We always had peace in Zamboanga District; +except during the revolution of the Filipinos in the year 1899, when +for seven or eight months there was in existence the so-called Filipino +Republic. During that time there was much robbing and killing; the life +of a man was worth no more than that of a chicken; men killed one +another for personal gain; enemies fought one another with the bolo +instead of settling their differences before the law. It was a time of +bloodshed and terror. There was no justice. Because of this the Moros +were opposed to the Filipinos. There was conflict between the better +class <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6505" href="#xd21e6505" name= +"xd21e6505">229</a>]</span>of Filipinos and the revolutionists, who had +gained control of the local government.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6507src" href="#xd21e6507" name="xd21e6507src">38</a></p> +</div> +<p>Elsewhere throughout the Moro territory those Filipinos who did not +promptly make their escape were murdered or enslaved. In short, the +lion and the lamb lay down together, with the lamb inside as usual.</p> +<p>Thus it will be seen that this first and last attempt of Filipinos +to govern Moros did not result in complete success.</p> +<p>Baldomero Aguinaldo made a subsequent attempt to open communication +with the Sultan of Joló, authorizing him to establish in all the +<i>rancherias</i> of Mindanao and Joló a government in +accordance with a decree duly transmitted. The Sultan was requested to +report the result of his efforts and to give the number of his forces +with their arms, and was advised that, “if in this war, which I +consider to be the last, we secure our independence and with the +opposition of our brothers in that region, with yourself at their head, +we are successful in preventing the enemy from gaining a foothold, the +grateful country will always render a tribute of homage and gratitude +to your memory.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6519src" href= +"#xd21e6519" name="xd21e6519src">39</a> Curiously, the Sultan seems to +have remained unmoved by the appeal. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6544" href="#xd21e6544" name="xd21e6544">230</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">Masbate</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">This tight little island of 1236 square miles had in +1903 a Visayan population of 29,451. Its people are all Filipinos, and +are on the whole rather an unusually orderly and worthy set. There is +no reason why it should have been excluded in considering “the +human problem in its broader governmental aspect,” whatever that +may be, nor can I understand why Blount should have desired to exclude +it except that he seems to have been endeavouring to exclude everything +possible outside of Luzón, in order to increase the apparent +importance of the Christian provinces of that island. Masbate should of +course be taken into account in connection with the Visayan Islands, of +which it is one.</p> +<p>The islands ordinarily included in the group known as “The +Visayas” from the ancient tribal name of the civilized Filipino +people who inhabit them, who are called Visayans, are Samar, Panay, +Negros, Leyte, Cebú, Bohol, Masbate, Tablas, Romblon, Ticao, +Burias, Siquijor and numerous smaller islands adjacent to those named. +Although their inhabitants are all rated as one people, they speak a +number of more or less distinct dialects. Only Panay, Negros, Samar, +Tablas and Sibuyan have non-Christian inhabitants, and in the three +islands last named their number is so small as to be negligible. In the +mountains of Panay and Negros, however, Negritos are to be found in +considerable numbers, as are the representatives of a tribe sometimes +called <i>Monteses</i><a class="noteref" id="xd21e6554src" href= +"#xd21e6554" name="xd21e6554src">40</a> and sometimes <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6557" href="#xd21e6557" name= +"xd21e6557">231</a>]</span>Bukidnon. The latter tribal designation I +have thought it best to reserve for certain inhabitants of northern +Mindanao.</p> +<p>In the Visayas, Palawan and Mindanao the government of Aguinaldo was +established at various places and different times, without consulting +or considering the will of the people. The men who went as his +delegates were supported by armed forces, hence their authority was not +at first questioned, but soon there arose murmurings which might easily +have grown into a war cry.</p> +<p>The attitude of the Visayan Filipinos is clearly foreshadowed in the +following extract from a letter dated January 14, 1899, in which Mabini +discussed the advisability of putting the constitution in +force:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“And even if this change is made, I fear that +Negros and Iloílo will form a federal Republic and not one in +conformity with the centralized Republic provided for by the +Constitution.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6566src" href= +"#xd21e6566" name="xd21e6566src">41</a></p> +</div> +<p>The action later taken by Negros shows that there was abundant +reason for this fear.</p> +<p>As late as February 26, 1899, the Insurgent government was still +ignorant as to the real conditions in Negros and Mindanao.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6573src" href="#xd21e6573" name= +"xd21e6573src">42</a></p> +<p>From a letter written on March 18, 1899, to Apacible at Hongkong, we +learn that Aguinaldo and his followers were even then still uninformed +as to events in the Visayan <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6583" +href="#xd21e6583" name="xd21e6583">232</a>]</span>Islands.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6585src" href="#xd21e6585" name= +"xd21e6585src">43</a> In view of these facts, how ridiculous become the +contentions of those who claim that the Malolos government represented +the archipelago as a whole. And what shall we say of the following +statement, remembering that the Treaty of Paris was signed December 10, +1899?</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“When the Treaty of Paris was signed, General +Otis was in possession of Cavite and Manila, with less than twenty +thousand men under his command, and Aguinaldo was in possession of +practically all of the rest of the archipelago with between 35,000 and +40,000 men under his command, armed with guns, and the whole Filipino +population were in sympathy with the army of their +country.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6591src" href="#xd21e6591" +name="xd21e6591src">44</a></p> +</div> +<p>Ultimately, by one means or another, and chiefly by the use of armed +emissaries, the Visayan Islands, with the exception of Negros, were +brought into the Insurgent fold.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e6597width" id="p031"><img src="images/p031.jpg" +alt="A Typical Baguio Road" width="720" height="426"> +<p class="figureHead">A Typical Baguio Road</p> +<p class="first">The roads in Baguio were originally built with money +obtained from the sale of lots. Some insular government funds have been +expended in surfacing them.</p> +</div> +<p>Mabini’s fear that Negros and Iloilo would form a federal +republic was not realized, but Negros set up its own government, +applied to the local commander of the United States forces for help, +endeavoured with almost complete success to keep out Tagálog +invaders, and presently settled down contentedly under American rule, +facts of which Blount makes no mention. On the contrary, without just +cause, he includes this great island, with its 4881 square miles of +territory and its 560,776 inhabitants, in the area over which he claims +that Aguinaldo exercised complete control.</p> +<p>At Iloilo the American troops encountered opposition when they +planned to land. Negotiations had been entered <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6608" href="#xd21e6608" name= +"xd21e6608">233</a>]</span>into with the local Filipino officers, but +the latter, under the influence of representatives whom Aguinaldo had +sent from Luzón, announced themselves as adherents of his +government, and when the American troops finally disembarked fired the +town ahead of them. It has been claimed that in doing this they were +inspired by pure patriotism, but the facts shown by their own records +present a very different picture.</p> +<p>In writing to Aguinaldo on April 8, 1899, Mabini says:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We have received a communication forwarded from +Iloílo, from General Martin Delgado and Francisco Soriano, your +commissioner. Soriano states that the troops of Diocno have done +nothing except commit excesses and steal money during the attack by the +Americans upon the town of Iloílo, even going so far as to break +their guns by using them as poles to carry the stolen money which they +took to Cápiz. It is said that these forces, besides being +unwilling to fight the Americans, refuse to give their guns to those +who do wish to fight and do not want Cápiz to aid the people of +Iloílo, who are the ones who support the entire forces, +including the troops of Diocno who went there.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e6615src" href="#xd21e6615" name="xd21e6615src">45</a></p> +</div> +<p>This same letter contains the following brief reference to +conditions in Cebu and Leyte:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Also a native priest, Señor Pascual +Reyes, has arrived here from Cebú, and says that in Leyte +General Lucban is committing many abuses and that Colonel Mójica +is only a mere figurehead. In Cebú, he says, things are also in +a chaotic condition, because the military chief, Magsilum +[Maxilom,—TR.], and the people are not in harmony.”</p> +</div> +<p>Further details as to conditions in Cebu are given in a letter to +Aguinaldo from the commissioner whom he put in charge of elections in +that island, who on February 19, 1899, writes:<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6626src" href="#xd21e6626" name="xd21e6626src">46</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Having arrived in this province the 8th of last +month, I left on the 11th for the northern pueblos of this Island to +hold the elections for the offices ordered by the Superior Decree of +June 18, last.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6636" href="#xd21e6636" name= +"xd21e6636">234</a>]</span></p> +<p>“The news spread like an electric spark, as in all the pueblos +I visited later I found that almost all of the residents were in their +homes, so that when the elections were held in the town hall, all the +principal residents attended, requesting me to inform you that they +were disposed to sacrifice even their dearest affections whenever +necessary for our sacred cause; they only asked me to inform those who +hold the reins of government at the present time in this province, that +some steps be taken to put a stop to the arbitrary acts which had been +and still are being committed by the so-called Captains, Majors, +Colonels, Generals and Captains General, who abusing in the most +barefaced manner the positions they claimed to hold, were depriving +them of their horses and their carabaos, or cattle. I promised them +that I would do this, as I do now, by sending a communication at once +to Sres. Flores and Maxilom, who are at the head of the provincial +government, impressing upon them the fact that if they continue to +grant ranks and titles to persons of this character, as they have done, +it would end in the utter ruin of this wealthy province.”</p> +</div> +<p>He adds that these men did not remedy the evils complained of. It +would be possible to cover in detail all of this and the remaining +Insurgent territory, and to show that Judge Blount was quite right in +stating that conditions similar to those encountered in Luzón +arose there, but the limitations of time and space forbid, and I must +ask my readers to accept on faith the statements of Blount and myself +that such was the case!</p> +<p>Taylor thus summarizes the conditions which ultimately +arose:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The Insurgent soldiers lived in their own land +as they would have lived in a conquered country. They were quartered on +the towns and the towns had to feed them whether they would or not.</p> +<p>“Peace there was where Aguinaldo’s soldiers had not +penetrated, but there does not seem to have been progress. Life went +very well in a long siesta in the shady villages under the palm trees, +but not only the structure of the State, its very foundations were +falling apart. When Aguinaldo’s soldiers came they brought +cruelty and license with them. Proud of their victories and confident +in themselves they felt that the labourers in the fields, the merchants +in the towns, were for the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6649" +href="#xd21e6649" name="xd21e6649">235</a>]</span>purpose of +administering to their necessities and their desires. Aguinaldo, having +seen this force gather about him, was forced to entreat it, to appeal +to it; he was never strong enough to enforce discipline, even if he +cared to do it.”</p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo himself finally became disheartened over his inability to +maintain a decent state of public order in the territory which he +claimed to govern, and in December, 1898, tendered his resignation, +giving among other reasons odious favouritism on the part of some of +the military chiefs, together with a desire to enrich themselves by +improper means, such as accepting bribes, making prisoners a source of +gain, and decreasing the allowance of the soldiers. He said that many +soldiers had received sums of money as their share of booty, and +intimated that officers must have done the same. He made charges +against civil as well as military officers and ended by saying that he +retained the evidence for presentation when called on.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6654src" href="#xd21e6654" name= +"xd21e6654src">47</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6666" href= +"#xd21e6666" name="xd21e6666">236</a>]</span></p> +<p>Aguinaldo was later persuaded to withdraw his resignation. No wonder +that he wished to tender it!</p> +<p>In referring to the report of Wilcox and Sargent, Blount has +said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“This report was submitted by them to Admiral +Dewey under date of November 23, 1898, and by him forwarded to the Navy +Department for its information, with the comment that it ‘in my +opinion contains the most complete and reliable information obtainable +in regard to the present state of the northern part of Luzon +Island.’ The Admiral’s indorsement was not sent to the +Senate along with the report.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6674src" href="#xd21e6674" name="xd21e6674src">48</a></p> +</div> +<p>He thus gives it to be understood that the admiral believed that the +report truthfully set forth the conditions which actually existed in +these provinces, and that his indorsement was suppressed. Not only was +it true that this report when rendered contained the most complete and +reliable information then available in regard to the existing state of +the northern part of Luzon Island, but it contained the only first-hand +information available. The facts ultimately leaked out and led the +admiral radically to change his opinion as to the conditions which +arose under Insurgent rule. Of them he later said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“There was a sort of a reign of terror; there +was no government. These people had got power for the first time in +their lives and they were riding roughshod over the community. The acts +of cruelty which were brought to my notice were hardly credible. I sent +word to Aguinaldo that he must treat his prisoners kindly, and he said +he would.”</p> +</div> +<p>I believe that I have fully demonstrated the truth of these +statements. Blount was thoroughly familiar with <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6685" href="#xd21e6685" name= +"xd21e6685">237</a>]</span>Dewey’s testimony before the Senate +Committee, in which they occur, but he did not mention them.</p> +<p>I cannot close this discussion of Insurgent rule without quoting +extracts from a remarkable document written by Isabelo Artacho in +October,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6690src" href="#xd21e6690" name= +"xd21e6690src">49</a> 1899. It was entitled “Declaration Letter +and Proclamation” and was addressed to the Filipino people. While +it is probable that Artacho was impelled to tell the truth by his +hatred for Aguinaldo, tell the truth he did, and his rank and standing +entitle his statements to consideration:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Study the work of the insurrection; see if it +is, as is said, the faithful interpretation of your wishes and +desires.</p> +<p>“Go through your towns, fields, and mountains. Wherever you +see an insurgent gun or bolo you will find girls and faithful wives +violated, parents and brothers crying for the murder of a son or of a +brother; honest families robbed and in misery; villages burned and +plundered for the benefit of a chief or a General; you will see fresh +and living signs yet of those horrible crimes perpetrated with the +greatest cynicism by those who call themselves your liberators! +Liberators because they wear red pants, or a red shirt, or carry on +their hats a piece of red cloth or a triangular figure!</p> +<p>“Here, a president stabs a man, perhaps the most honest of the +village, simply for having implored mercy for a creature arbitrarily +inflicted with the <i>cepo</i> [an oblong square piece of heavy wood +divided into two parts, with a lock at each end and six or more holes +in the middle to confine the feet of prisoners]; there, a dying man, +suspended by the feet in a <i>cepo</i>, raised from the level of the +ground, by another president who has charged him with an unproved +crime; there a poor woman falsely charged and driven by petty officers +with their bayonets for having objected to their invasion into her +house, or shop, they being supposed to be, each, Justice itself, +‘<i>Justicia</i>,’ and to be obeyed as images of the Gods; +there, generals who murder without fear, for an insignificant motive, +creatures whose members are being mutilated, or their flesh cut in +slices and afterwards roasted and given them to eat; there, officers +braining a girl who has refused to accede to their sensual wishes, the +lifeless body of the victim, pierced with shots, after having been made +use of, is thrown into the river. It is <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6709" href="#xd21e6709" name="xd21e6709">238</a>]</span>not +unusual to witness officers burying people alive in a tomb prepared by +the victim, by order of the murderer; it is not unusual to see a +<i>Puisne</i>-Judge pointing a revolver at a man who is about to give +evidence, and threatening to brain him for having dared to ask: +‘Why and to whom am I to declare?’ And finally, on his +tottering throne, you will see the Magistrate of the Philippines, so +called by his worshippers, with his mephistophelian smile, disposing +and directing the execution of a murder, of a plunder, of a robbery, or +the execution of some other crimes against those who are indifferent or +do not care to worship him, such indifference being considered a +crime.</p> +<p>“Putting aside the many other murders, I may mention that one +recently committed on the person of the renowned and by many called the +worthy General, Antonio Luna, which took place just at the entrance of +the palace of the Republic Presidency, and also the assassination at +Kavite of the ever remembered martyr, Andrés Bonifacio, the +founder of the ‘Katipúnan’ Society, and the one who +initiated the Revolution of 1896; against the memory of whom it has +been committed, in the proclamation of that falsely called Republic, +the criminal and unjust omission to render the smallest manifestation +of Filipinos’ feelings towards him, to prevent that same might +dislike his murderers!</p> +<p>“Study the ordinances and constitution of this so-called +democratic Government of the Republic, that grand work of the wise +Filipinos; admire with me that beautiful monument erected on a sheet of +paper and consecrated to the conquest of reason and labour, especially +in connection with human rights and property, the basis for the +well-being of social life; but, lament and deplore with me its palpable +nullity when brought to practice and you will again see that the laws +were made for the people and not the people for the laws!</p> +<p>“Under this republic called democratic it is a crime to think, +to wish, to say, anything which does not agree with what the said Gods +think, wish and say. Nobody and nothing is attended to, whilst those +who have your lives in their hands must be respected.</p> +<p>“Under this Goverment there cannot be the slightest notice +taken of family, property, morality and justice, but confusion and +disorder appear everywhere like a dreadful shadow, produced by the +ignorance of the subordinate officers, and of the powers that be in the +villages and provinces, who are supported by a special committee, or +special commissioners empowered to impoverish and to ruin all and with +the right of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6722" href="#xd21e6722" +name="xd21e6722">239</a>]</span>disposing, at their own accord, life, +family and individual property without responsibility whatsoever on +their part.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“Let the peaceful annexation of the whole of the Southern +Islands of Joló, Mindanao, Iloílo, Negros, Cebú +and others where now the American flag is hoisted and under whose +shadow tranquillity and well-being are experienced, speak for +itself.</p> +<p>“Let it speak for itself, the proceeding observed by the whole +people of Imus, who were asking protection when the American troops +took possession of the town of Bacoor, whilst the insurgent troops +there located were hostile.</p> +<p>“Let them speak for themselves, the protests against the war +made by the numerous persons of S. Francisco de Malabón, Sta. +Cruz de Malabón, Perez Dasmariñias and other towns, +before the Worthy Chief Mariano Trías, who ultimately refused, +with dignity, the high position of Secretary of War, for which rank he +was promoted for reasons which are not worth publishing here. In fine, +let it speak for itself, the non-resistance shown by the people of Old +Kavite [Kawit], Noveleta, and Rozario of the heroic province of Kavite, +notwithstanding the many intrenchments and troops there located, as +well as the identical behaviour observed by other towns of Luzon +provinces who are ready to follow when the American troops are in +them.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“In fact no one would believe it, and the Philippine people +are tired of waiting for the day when Haring Gavino will shake a napkin +to produce suddenly horses vomiting fire and lightning and troops of +dangerous insects; that day in which they will witness the realization +of that famous telegraphed dream to the effect that two hours after the +commencement of the war the insurgents will take their breakfast in the +Palace of ‘Malacañang,’ their tiffin in the Senate +House, and their dinner on board the <i>Olympia</i> or in Kavite; that +day in which the celebrated <i>Pequenines</i> army, with their +invisible Chief-leader, will exterminate the American troops by means +of handfuls of dust and sand thrown at them, which process, it is said, +has caused the smallpox to the Americans; that day in which the +<i>Colorum</i> army will capture the American fleet with the cords +their troops are provided with, in combination with a grand +intrenchment of Tayabas made of husks of paddy, by a Nazarene, who will +then, by merely touching, convert each <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6745" href="#xd21e6745" name="xd21e6745">240</a>]</span>husk into +a Bee with a deadly sting; that day in which the insurgents, like their +leaders, provided with hosts of flour, or of paper, pieces of candles +of the holy-week matins, holy water, pieces of consecrated stones; of +vestments belonging to a miraculous Saint or with some other +Anting-Anting or talisman or <i>amuletos</i>, will make themselves +invulnerable to bullets; also have power to convert into any of the +four elements, like those personages of the Philippine legends and +comedies,—Ygmidio, Teñoso, Florante, Barnardo, Carpio, +etc.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e6752width" id="p032"><img src="images/p032.jpg" +alt="One of the First Benguet Government Cottages" width="720" height= +"475"> +<p class="figureHead">One of the First Benguet Government Cottages</p> +</div> +<p>“Yes, the people of the Philippines are quite tired of waiting +for the predicted European conflict, which it is said would give them +their independence; if not, perhaps, divide the Islands as they are now +amongst cousins, brothers, nephews, uncles and godfathers.</p> +<p>“In the near future, when we have acquired the necessary +political and social education and the habit of behaving justly towards +ourselves and towards our fellow-brothers; when free from all +superstition, healthy, strong and vigorous, we find ourselves capable +of governing ourselves, without there being the possibility of the +preponderance of our passions in the consideration, direction, and +administration of the interests of our country, then, and only then, we +will be free! we will be independent!<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6760src" href="#xd21e6760" name="xd21e6760src">50</a></p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Hongkong</span>, 1st October, +1899.”</p> +</div> +<p>Most of the men who perpetrated the outrages I have detailed are +alive to-day, and are powers in their respective communities. Simeon +Villa was recently elected a member of the municipal board from the +south district of Manila, but fortunately an American governor-general +prevented him from taking his seat. Just prior to my departure from +Manila he was appointed, by Speaker Osmeña, a member of a +committee on reception for Governor-General Harrison.</p> +<p>The kind of independent “government” these men +established is the kind that they would again establish if they had the +chance,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6773src" href="#xd21e6773" name= +"xd21e6773src">51</a> but among the persons to be tortured <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6781" href="#xd21e6781" name= +"xd21e6781">241</a>]</span>and murdered would now be those Americans +who failed to escape seasonably. I do not mean to say that such a state +of affairs would come about immediately, but it would certainly arise +within a comparatively short time. Sooner yet “the united +Filipino people” would split up on old tribal lines, and fly at +each other’s throats. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6783" +href="#xd21e6783" name="xd21e6783">242</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5886" href="#xd21e5886src" name="xd21e5886">1</a></span> Blount, +p. 111.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5939" href="#xd21e5939src" name="xd21e5939">2</a></span> P.I.R., +974. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e5944" href="#xd21e5944src" name="xd21e5944">3</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“December 20, 1898.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">To the Honorable President +of the Revolutionary Government</span>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The undersigned residents of the +<i>barangay</i> of D. Francisco Querubín and D. Melchor Balueg, +of Bucay, of the province of Abra, appeal <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e5959" href="#xd21e5959" name="xd21e5959">209n</a>]</span>to you +with the utmost subjection from their place of residence and state: +That their heads or representatives, D. Francisco Querubín and +Melchor Balueg, respectively, force them to pay two <i>pesos</i> each +as a war tax, your humble vassals above cited being hardly able to earn +their own livelihood and support their families, and, notwithstanding +their labor, some of them cannot get anything to eat without appealing +to the charity of their richer neighbours; but notwithstanding this sad +situation, they offer a <i>peseta</i> each as a mark of gratitude to +the mother country, Filipinas, but said gentlemen, the representatives +mentioned, have not the slightest pity and worry us to the extent of +having kept us in our houses a day and a night without anything to eat, +not even permitting us to go out to get a drink.</p> +<p class="footnote">“We must inform you that the head of the +<i>barangay</i>, D. Melchor Balueg, when he gathers the supplies for +the troops stationed in his town, said supplies consisting of rice, +pigs, chickens and eggs, uses one-half of what is gathered, and then +again orders his assistants to save.”</p> +<p class="footnote">“In fact, the undersigned request you to +direct that the <i>peseta</i> which they offer be accepted and that the +said Don Francisco Querubín and Don Melchor Balueg be relieved +of their duties, in order to put a stop to the abuses constantly +committed by them; and if this be not done, the petitioners will be +obliged to leave their homes and property in the town and take up their +residences in the mountains with the Negritos and Igorots, in order +that the others may remain in the town and live tranquilly.</p> +<p class="footnote">“This is a grace which we do not doubt we +will receive from you, whose life may God preserve for many years.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Bucay</span>, November 12, +1898.” (26 signatures)</p> +<p class="footnote">(In blue pencil in the handwriting of Aguinaldo:) +“It will be approved.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Dec. 20, 1898.</p> +<p class="footnote">“E. A.”</p> +</div> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 991. 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6000" href="#xd21e6000src" name="xd21e6000">4</a></span> P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6017" href="#xd21e6017src" name="xd21e6017">5</a></span> Blount, +p. 130.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6025" href="#xd21e6025src" name="xd21e6025">6</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., pp. 130–131.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6053" href="#xd21e6053src" name="xd21e6053">7</a></span> P.I.R., +1142. 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6064" href="#xd21e6064src" name="xd21e6064">8</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 2002. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6081" href="#xd21e6081src" name="xd21e6081">9</a></span> P.I.R., +964. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6088" href="#xd21e6088src" name="xd21e6088">10</a></span> On +November 30, 1898, the commander in Alaminos, Zambales Province, +telegraphed that his soldiers were all about to desert as the head of +the town would not furnish rations or pay without orders from the +governor.”—P.I.R., 2002.3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6091" href="#xd21e6091src" name="xd21e6091">11</a></span> +“On December 22, Aguinaldo, in accordance with a request from the +governor of Zambales Province, ordered the heads of the provinces of +Pangasinán, Tarlac, Bataan, and Pampanga to prohibit the people +of their provinces from going to Zambales without passports signed by +them, stating the route they were to take in going and returning and +the length of time to be spent in the journey. The governor of Zambales +had asked for this regulation in order to prevent the commission of +robberies in Zambales and to distinguish persons justly subject to +suspicion from those of good conduct.”—P.I.R., 266. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6094" href="#xd21e6094src" name="xd21e6094">12</a></span> +“On January 9, the governor of Zambales found it impossible to +continue the inspection of certain towns of his province and to +continue holding elections, as many of the officials had fled to escape +the exactions and abuses of the military +commanders.”—P.I.R., 988. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6104" href="#xd21e6104src" name="xd21e6104">13</a></span> +“The Governor of Cavite reports two drunken Americans have been +killed by our soldiers. I tell him to have an investigation immediately +and report the fact to the American commander.”—P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6107" href="#xd21e6107src" name="xd21e6107">14</a></span> +“Most urgent. Gen. Anderson informs me in a letter that, +‘in order to avoid the very serious misfortune of an encounter +between our troops, I demand your immediate withdrawal with your guard +from Cavite. One of my men has been killed and three wounded by your +people.’ This is positive and does not admit of explanation or +delay. I ask you to inform me of your decision.”—P.I.R., +849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6110" href="#xd21e6110src" name="xd21e6110">15</a></span> +“<span class="sc">Gen. Riego de Dios, Cavite</span>: Telegram +received. Do not leave the post, and say that you cannot abandon the +city without my orders, and say that he was not killed by our soldiers, +but by them themselves [the Americans.—D. C. W.], since they were +drunk, according to your telegram. Give up your life before abandoning +that place, and investigate matters.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6122" href="#xd21e6122src" name="xd21e6122">16</a></span> +“Urgent. Gen. Alvarez telegraphed that Riego de Dios informed him +that the town of Maragondong had risen in arms on account of abuses +committed by the local President against Salvador Riego. This is the +reason the town took up arms. Will go there +to-morrow.”—P.I.R., 849.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6130" href="#xd21e6130src" name="xd21e6130">17</a></span> Taylor, +19 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6139" href="#xd21e6139src" name="xd21e6139">18</a></span> P.I.R., +1057. 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6143" href="#xd21e6143src" name="xd21e6143">19</a></span> Taylor, +95 HS.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6161" href="#xd21e6161src" name="xd21e6161">20</a></span> The +name applied to the Filipinos of Ambos Camarines, Albay and +Sorsogón.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6194" href="#xd21e6194src" name="xd21e6194">21</a></span> P.I.R., +262. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6202" href="#xd21e6202src" name="xd21e6202">22</a></span> Taylor, +48 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6216" href="#xd21e6216src" name="xd21e6216">23</a></span> Blount, +p. 116.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6227" href="#xd21e6227src" name="xd21e6227">24</a></span> +Accepting the 1903 census figures.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6341" href="#xd21e6341src" name="xd21e6341">25</a></span> +Aguinaldo considered Mindanao important enough to form one of the three +federal states into which he proposed to divide the Philippines.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6346" href="#xd21e6346src" name="xd21e6346">26</a></span> Blount, +p. 228.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6351" href="#xd21e6351src" name="xd21e6351">27</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 229.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6363" href="#xd21e6363src" name="xd21e6363">28</a></span> +Bandits, or organized robbers.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6382" href="#xd21e6382src" name="xd21e6382">29</a></span> The old +Spanish name for Palawan.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6385" href="#xd21e6385src" name="xd21e6385">30</a></span> Blount, +p. 228.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6396" href="#xd21e6396src" name="xd21e6396">31</a></span> P.I.R., +944. 10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6418" href="#xd21e6418src" name="xd21e6418">32</a></span> Blount, +p. 116.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6428" href="#xd21e6428src" name="xd21e6428">33</a></span> Blount, +p. 229.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6439" href="#xd21e6439src" name="xd21e6439">34</a></span> +According to the census of 1903, 154,706.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6442" href="#xd21e6442src" name="xd21e6442">35</a></span> See +table on p. 651.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6456" href="#xd21e6456src" name="xd21e6456">36</a></span> +(Contemporary copy in Spanish.—P.I.R., Books C-L:)</p> +<p class="footnote">“January 19, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The President of the Philippine Republic +very cordially greets his great and powerful brother, the Sultan of +Jolo, and makes known:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“That the Filipinos, after having thrown off +the yoke of foreign domination cannot forget their brothers of Jolo to +whom they are bound by the ties of race, interests, security and +defense in this region of the Far East.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The Philippine Republic has resolved to +respect absolutely the beliefs and traditions of each island in order +to establish on solid bases the bonds of fraternal unity demanded by +our mutual interests.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I therefore in the name of all the Filipinos +very gladly offer to the powerful Sultan of Jolo and to all brothers +who acknowledge his great authority, the highest assurance of +friendship, consideration and esteem.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Malolos</span>, January 18, +1899.”</p> +<p class="footnote">(No signature.)</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6479" href="#xd21e6479src" name="xd21e6479">37</a></span> P.I.R., +76. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6507" href="#xd21e6507src" name="xd21e6507">38</a></span> From an +official document on file at Manila.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6519" href="#xd21e6519src" name="xd21e6519">39</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“Being brothers, the descendants of the +same race and of one soul, the same sun shines upon us and we breathe +the same air, so that our sentiments are also one, and we aspire to the +independence and liberty of our country in order to secure its progress +and place it on a level with other civilized nations; and with this +assurance I have taken the liberty to address you this letter, begging +of you to accept the commission which in the name of our government I +have the honour to confer upon you. You are authorized thereunder to +establish in all the ‘Rancherias’ of Mindanao and Jolo, a +civil and military economic-administrative organization, in accordance +with the decrees which I enclose herewith, and after having established +the same, I request that you make a report to our Honourable President +of the Philippine Republic, Sr. Emilio Aguinaldo, of the result thereof +and of the number of the force with their arms and ammunition, in order +to ascertain whether they would be sufficient to prevent the invasion +of the enemy and whether there is any necessity of sending +reinforcements of arms to said Islands for this purpose. If in this +war, which I consider to be <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6524" +href="#xd21e6524" name="xd21e6524">230n</a>]</span>the last, we secure +our independence, and with the opposition of our brothers in that +region, with yourself at their head, we are successful in preventing +the enemy from gaining a foothold, the grateful country will always +render a tribute of homage and gratitude to your memory.</p> +<p class="footnote">“God preserve you many years.</p> +<p class="footnote">“May 31, 1899. “<span class= +"sc">Baldomero Aguinaldo</span>,</p> +<p class="footnote">“Lieut. Gen. Superior P. M. Commander of +Southern Region.</p> +<p class="footnote">“To <span class="sc">The Honourable Sultan +Raha Halon</span>”</p> +</div> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 810–4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6554" href="#xd21e6554src" name="xd21e6554">40</a></span> Spanish +for “mountain people.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6566" href="#xd21e6566src" name="xd21e6566">41</a></span> P.I.R., +512. A 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6573" href="#xd21e6573src" name="xd21e6573">42</a></span> Extract +from a letter to Apacible of the Hongkong junta dated February 26, +1899:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“It is also said that the Cantonal Government +of Negros has wished to make a treaty with the Americans, some members +of that government having come in American transports to confer with +General Otis. We are not aware of the conditions of the arrangement, +because the Negros people have thus far not wished to put themselves in +communication with us; we only know by news more or loss reliable that +the capital of that island has been occupied by the American forces +without opposition.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Of Mindanao we know absolutely nothing; we +also are ignorant of what has been the lot of our agents in +America.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6585" href="#xd21e6585src" name="xd21e6585">43</a></span> +“Of the Visayas and Mindanao we know nothing positive as yet, it +is whispered that the Americans have succeeded in occupying Negros and +Cebú against the will of the inhabitants. Iloílo +continues the struggle energetically. It does not matter that they +occupy temporarily those beautiful islands, because Luzón will +know how to fight for herself and the rest of the islands, and will not +lay down arms without the independence of the Philippine +Archipelago.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6591" href="#xd21e6591src" name="xd21e6591">44</a></span> Blount, +p. 140.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6615" href="#xd21e6615src" name="xd21e6615">45</a></span> P.I.R., +62. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6626" href="#xd21e6626src" name="xd21e6626">46</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 144. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6654" href="#xd21e6654src" name="xd21e6654">47</a></span> +“The second reason for my resignation is the pain caused me by +having still to read among the reports of our military associates that +in some of the chiefs, besides odious favouritism, is clearly seen a +desire to enrich themselves, accepting bribes, making even prisoners a +means of gain, and others there are, above all the commissaries, who +dare to decrease the allowance of the soldier, little enough +already;—I throw the blame of all this upon those who taught us +such a custom; consequently I have reason to hope that they will change +their methods.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The same cause of complaint I have +concerning some companions who are discharging civil offices, +especially those who are far from the oversight of the government, who +put their own welfare before the common good, and devise a thousand +means to further their own ends, even to the extent of gambling. Where +are the police? Are they, perchance, also bribed? Pity money is so ill +spent! However, every one is obliged to know that falsehood will never +prevail against truth, and as evidence hereof many soldiers have +confessed to the government as to having received certain sums in the +share of the booty, and if we consider that the latter who receive +their share have told the truth, why should those who are present +during the partition of the money and receive nothing, not do so? In +this way the eyes of some that were blinded are gradually opened; I +confess, moreover, that the latter are to be blamed less than those in +authority who are so <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6659" href= +"#xd21e6659" name="xd21e6659">236n</a>]</span>attached to the methods +of the past administration, who, we may hope, will change their mode of +conduct and exhibit true patriotism.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">“I certify to the truth of all the +above-mentioned evils, which must be eradicated. I retain the evidence +for presentation when called on, so that if any of the readers hereof +should consider themselves referred to and should resent it, I am ready +to beg their pardon.”—P.I.R., 8.2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6674" href="#xd21e6674src" name="xd21e6674">48</a></span> Blount, +p. 108.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6690" href="#xd21e6690src" name="xd21e6690">49</a></span> Senate +Documents, Vol. 25, pp. 2928–2941.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6760" href="#xd21e6760src" name="xd21e6760">50</a></span> P.I.R., +838–2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6773" href="#xd21e6773src" name="xd21e6773">51</a></span> In this +connection note Blount’s statement:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“But we are considering how much of a +government the Filipinos had in 1898, because the answer is pertinent +to what sort of a government <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6778" +href="#xd21e6778" name="xd21e6778">241n</a>]</span>they could run if +permitted now or at any time in the future.”—Blount, p. +73.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch08" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e301">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter VIII</h2> +<h2 class="main">Did We Destroy a Republic?</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">The claim has frequently been made that the United +States government destroyed a republic in the Philippine +Islands,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6791src" href="#xd21e6791" name= +"xd21e6791src">1</a> but some of the critics seem to entertain peculiar +ideas as to what a republic is. Blount states<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6801src" href="#xd21e6801" name="xd21e6801src">2</a> that +Aguinaldo declined to hear our declaration of independence read +“because we would not recognize his right to assert the same +truths,” and then apparently forgetting the Insurgent +chief’s alleged adherence to the principles of this document, he +lets the cat out of the bag by saying that “the war satisfied us +all that Aguinaldo would have been a small edition of Porfirio +Diaz,” and would himself have been “The +Republic.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6804src" href="#xd21e6804" +name="xd21e6804src">3</a></p> +<p>He would doubtless have set up just this sort of a government, if +not assassinated too soon, but it would <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6809" href="#xd21e6809" name="xd21e6809">243</a>]</span>hardly +have accorded with the principles of the declaration of independence, +nor would it have been exactly “a government of the people, by +the people, for the people.”</p> +<p>Blount truly says<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6813src" href= +"#xd21e6813" name="xd21e6813src">4</a> that the educated Filipinos, +admittedly very few in number, absolutely control the masses. He +adds<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6816src" href="#xd21e6816" name= +"xd21e6816src">5</a> that <i>presidentes</i> of pueblos are as absolute +bosses as is Murphy in Tammany Hall, and that the towns taken +collectively constitute the provinces. The first statement is true, and +the second, which is tantamount to a declaration that the +<i>presidentes</i> control every square foot of the provinces and every +man in them, is not so far from the truth as it might be. I have been +old-fashioned enough to retain the idea that a republic is “a +state in which the sovereign power resides in the whole body of the +people, and is exercised by representatives elected by them.”</p> +<p>Blount labored under no delusion as to the fitness of the common +people to govern.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6827src" href="#xd21e6827" +name="xd21e6827src">6</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6846" +href="#xd21e6846" name="xd21e6846">244</a>]</span></p> +<p>Not only did the Filipinos themselves understand perfectly well that +they had no republic, but there were many of them who were fully aware +of the fact that they could establish none. Fernando Acevedo, in +writing to General Pío del Pilar on August 8, 1898, +said:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6849src" href="#xd21e6849" name= +"xd21e6849src">7</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“There could be no republic here, even though +the Americans should consent, because, according to the treaties, the +Filipinos are not in condition for a republic. Besides this, all Europe +will oppose it, and if it should be that they divide our country as +though it were a round cake, what would become of us and what would +belong to us?”</p> +</div> +<p>I will now trace the evolution of the government which Aguinaldo did +set up. In doing so I follow Taylor’s argument very closely, +drawing on his unpublished Ms., not only for ideas, but in some +instances for the words in which they are clothed. I change his words +in many cases, and do not mean to unload on him any responsibility for +my statements, but do wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to him and at +the same time to avoid the necessity for the continual use of quotation +marks.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo’s methods in establishing his republic are shown by +his order<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6860src" href="#xd21e6860" name= +"xd21e6860src">8</a> that “any person who fights for his country +has absolute power to kill any one not friendly to our cause” and +the further order<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6863src" href="#xd21e6863" +name="xd21e6863src">9</a> prescribing that twelve lashes should be +given to a soldier who lost even a single cartridge, while if he +continued to waste ammunition he should be severely punished. In March, +1899, workmen who had abandoned their work in the arsenal at Malolos +were arrested, returned, given twenty-five lashes each and then ordered +to work.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6866src" href="#xd21e6866" name= +"xd21e6866src">10</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6869" href= +"#xd21e6869" name="xd21e6869">245</a>]</span></p> +<p>The news that an American expedition was about to sail for the +Philippines made him realize that he had not much more than a month in +which to place himself in a position in which he would have to be +consulted and assisted, and this he tried to do. The arms he received +from Hongkong on May 23 enabled him to begin an insurrection, not as an +ally of the United States, but on his own account. From May 21 to May +24 he issued orders for the uprising against Spain. On May 24 he +declared himself Dictator of the Philippines in a proclamation in which +he promised to resign his power into the hands of a president and +cabinet, to be appointed when a constitutional assembly was convened, +which would be as soon as the islands had passed into his control. He +further announced that the North American nation had given its +disinterested protection in order that the liberty of the Philippines +should be gained.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6872src" href="#xd21e6872" +name="xd21e6872src">11</a> On May 25, 1898, the first American troops +sailed from San Francisco for the Philippines.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo still had a month in which to seize enough Spanish +territory to erect thereon what would appear to the Americans on their +arrival to be a government of Luzón, of which he was the head. +The Hongkong junta and Aguinaldo himself intended to ask for the +recognition of their government, but they had first to create it. To +obtain recognition it was necessary that the American commander on land +should be able to report that wherever he or his troops had gone the +country was ruled by Aguinaldo according to laws which showed that the +people were capable of governing themselves.</p> +<p>As the United States is a republic it was natural that the directing +group of insurgent leaders should decide upon a republican form of +government. That form would appeal to the people of the United States; +the first “Christian Asiatic Republic” was a description +which would inevitably awaken sympathy in that mother of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6880" href="#xd21e6880" name= +"xd21e6880">246</a>]</span>republics. The idea was a wise and subtle +one; but Aguinaldo’s republic was merely an elaborate +stage-setting, arranged for the contemplation of the people of the +United States.</p> +<p>By June 5, 1898, the success of the insurgent arms had been such +that Aguinaldo felt that he could throw down the mask. He would still +be glad of American assistance, but he felt himself strong enough to do +without it. He saw that “there can now be proclaimed before the +Filipino people and the civilized nations its only aspiration, namely, +the independence of this country, which proclamation should not be +delayed for any ulterior object of this government”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6884src" href="#xd21e6884" name= +"xd21e6884src">12</a> and ordered that the independence of the +Philippines should be proclaimed at his birthplace, Cavite Viejo, on +June 12, 1898. On that date he formally proclaimed it. The provinces of +Cavite, Bataan, Pampanga, Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna and Morong were +about to fall into his hands, the Spanish troops in them being +besieged, and about to surrender.</p> +<p>From the same place on June 18, 1898, Aguinaldo promulgated his +decree for the creation and administration of municipalities.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e6889src" href="#xd21e6889" name= +"xd21e6889src">13</a> In brief, this provided that as soon as the +territory of the archipelago, or any portion thereof, had passed from +the possession of Spanish forces, the people in the towns who were most +conspicuous for their intelligence, social position and upright conduct +were to meet and elect a town government. The heads of the towns in +every province were to elect a head for the province and his three +counsellors. The provincial council, composed of these four officials, +with the presidente of the capital of the province, were to see to the +execution in that province of the decrees of the central government and +to advise and suggest.</p> +<p>This provincial council was to elect representatives for the +revolutionary congress, which was to be charged with submitting +suggestions to the central government <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6896" href="#xd21e6896" name="xd21e6896">247</a>]</span>upon +interior and exterior affairs, and was to be heard by the government +upon serious matters which admitted of delay and discussion.</p> +<p>Before any person elected to office was permitted to discharge his +functions, his election was to be approved by the central government. +The military commanders, except in time of war, were to have no +jurisdiction over the civil authorities. They could, however, demand +such supplies as they might need, and these could not be refused. The +government was to appoint commissioners to carry these regulations into +effect.</p> +<p>On June 20 Aguinaldo issued his regulations for the government of +provinces and municipalities<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6902src" href= +"#xd21e6902" name="xd21e6902src">14</a> as supplemental to the decree +of two days before. It went into the details of government, under the +following heads: police, justice, taxation and registration of +property.</p> +<p>On June 23 he proclaimed the establishment of a revolutionary +government, with himself as “president.” In this capacity +he had all the powers of the Spanish governor-general, unhampered by +any orders from Spain. It is true that the scheme provided for the +eventual formation of a republic, but it is doubtful if the people who +drew it up really knew what that word meant. What was provided for in +practice was a strong and highly centralized military dictatorship, in +which, under the form of election, provision was made for the filling +of all offices by men devoted to the group which had seized +control.</p> +<p>According to this decree the dictatorial government was in future to +be entitled the revolutionary government. Its duty was to struggle for +the independence of the Philippines in order to establish a true +republic. The dictator was to be known as the president of the +revolutionary government. There were to be four secretaries—one +of foreign affairs, commerce and marine; one of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6909" href="#xd21e6909" name= +"xd21e6909">248</a>]</span>war and public works; one of police and +interior order, justice, education and hygiene; one of the treasury, +agriculture and manufactures. The government could increase the number +of secretaries if necessary. They were to assist the president in the +despatch of business coming under their departments.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e6912width" id="p033"><img src="images/p033.jpg" +alt="Typical Cottages at Baguio" width="720" height="428"> +<p class="figureHead">Typical Cottages at Baguio</p> +<p class="first">Cottages of this type are used by officers of the +government.</p> +</div> +<p>In addition to the president and his secretaries, there was to be a +revolutionary congress composed of representatives from the provinces +of the Philippine Archipelago, elected as provided by the decree of +June 18. In case a province was not able to elect representatives, the +government would appoint them for such province. The congress was to +discuss and advise, to approve treaties and loans, and to examine and +approve the accounts of the secretary of the treasury. If important +matters admitted of delay, the congress would be heard concerning them; +but if they did not admit of delay, the president of the government was +to act at once. Projects of law could be presented by any +representative, and by the secretaries of the government.</p> +<p>A permanent committee of congress presided over by the +vice-president was to be chosen by that body. This was to serve as a +court of appeal in criminal cases and as a court of final jurisdiction +in cases arising between the secretaries of the government and +provincial officials. The acts of congress were not to go into effect +until the president of the government ordered their execution. He was +also to have the right of veto.</p> +<p>This was a well-devised plan to secure control for the central group +about Aguinaldo. His commissioners, under a form of election in which +the electors were carefully selected men, established municipal +governments devoted to the cause of the revolution. These were to +choose provincial officials and members of the congress. All elections +were subject to Aguinaldo’s approval, and every province was +under the command of a military representative of his, who could and +did call upon the civil authorities for <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6925" href="#xd21e6925" name="xd21e6925">249</a>]</span>such +supplies as he deemed fit. All real power was vested in the central +group, and the central group was composed of Emilio Aguinaldo and his +public and private advisers. By this time he had gathered about him men +who were trained in the law, some of whom had served the Spanish +government in various capacities. They were accustomed to the methods +that had previously prevailed under the Spanish régime, and were +now ready to draw up constitutions and regulations for the new +government. Mabini wrote the three organic decrees. Copies of them were +sent to the foreign consuls in Manila, and on July 15, 1898 to Admiral +Dewey.</p> +<p>Although the title of “president” was assumed by +Aguinaldo, as more likely to be favourably considered in the United +States than “dictator,” the tendency of his followers who +had not been educated in Europe was to speak of and to regard him not +as a president, but as an overlord holding all power in his hands. The +people did not feel themselves citizens of a republic, copartners in an +estate; they considered themselves subject to a ruler who sometimes +called himself president, and sometimes dictator. Indeed, there is much +to show that if Aguinaldo and his followers had succeeded in their +plans, even the name “republic” would not have been long +continued as the title of his government.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6929src" href="#xd21e6929" name="xd21e6929src">15</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6939" href="#xd21e6939" name= +"xd21e6939">250</a>]</span></p> +<p>Aguinaldo’s claim as to the effectiveness of his government on +August 6, 1898, was as follows:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6942src" +href="#xd21e6942" name="xd21e6942src">16</a> “The government of +the revolution actually rules in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas, +Mindoro, Tayabas, Laguna, Morong, Bulacan, Bataan, Pampanga, Infanta +and besieges the capital, Manila. The most perfect order and +tranquillity reign in these provinces, governed by authorities elected +by the inhabitants in conformity with the organic decrees dated June 18 +and 23 last. Moreover, the revolution has about nine thousand prisoners +of war who are treated humanely and according to the rules of civilized +warfare. We can muster more than thirty thousand men organized as a +regular army.”</p> +<p>It may have been that in the majority of these provinces municipal +governments, formed in accordance with the provisions of the decree of +June 18, had been established; but provincial governments had not been +established in all of them, and tranquillity did not reign in any of +them, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6947" href="#xd21e6947" name= +"xd21e6947">251</a>]</span>as they were the scene of operations against +the Spaniards. There could not well have been nine thousand prisoners +in his hands at this time, as that was claimed later when a large +additional number of Spaniards had surrendered. As for the thirty +thousand men organized as a regular army, there may be a certain +difference of opinion as to what constitutes a regular army; the men +who saw Aguinaldo’s force then, and who have read the papers of +its leaders, must be of the opinion that that force was not a regular +army. Probably only Manila Province had a provincial government on +August 6. Its local presidentes met at Cavite Viejo on August 3 and +elected three members of congress from the province, and also the +members of the provincial government. The election took place under the +supervision of Colonel Teodoro Gonzales, whom Aguinaldo had appointed +governor of Manila Province on August 1. He remained governor after the +election was held. Not until August 17 did the local presidentes of +Bulacan assemble under the presidency of the secretary of the interior +and proceed to elect two members to congress and the members of the +provincial government. Not until August 20 was there an election for +the members of the provincial government of Cavite Province. This was +held in the town of Cavite. Isaac Fernando Rios, who was afterwards a +member of the Filipino junta in Madrid, was chosen a representative of +the province; but as he wrote that he was in favour of coming to some +agreement with Spain which would permit the development of the +Philippines, without abandoning the sovereignty of that country, +Aguinaldo promptly disapproved his election<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6949src" href="#xd21e6949" name="xd21e6949src">17</a> and ordered +a new one held for the office thus left vacant. On October 2, 1899, +Aguinaldo approved the result of a new election held there because four +of the five high officials of the province had absented themselves, +while one of them had died. Of the men who had so absented themselves +one had gone abroad, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6952" href= +"#xd21e6952" name="xd21e6952">252</a>]</span>while the other three had +remained in Manila or Cavite under the government of the United +States.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6954src" href="#xd21e6954" name= +"xd21e6954src">18</a></p> +<p>The people of the provinces obeyed the men who had arms in their +hands. It is not probable that many of them had any conviction +concerning the form of government which would be best for the +Philippines. There were no signs of a spontaneous desire for a +republic. Orders came from the group about Aguinaldo, and the people +accepted a dictator and a republic as they accepted a president and a +republic, without knowing, and probably without caring very much, what +it all meant, except that they hoped that taxes would cease with the +departure of the friars. A determined and well-organized minority had +succeeded in imposing its will upon an unorganized, heterogeneous, and +leaderless majority.</p> +<p>As soon as a province was occupied by the Insurgents it was divided +into territorial zones within which command was exerted by military +officers. On July 20, 1898, Cavite had been divided into four zones, +and next day Brigadier-General Artemio Ricarte was placed in command of +the province and the first zone.</p> +<p>By July 7 Bulacan Province had been divided into six zones, and +Nueva Ecija into four zones, with a separate commander for each zone. +These men established the government prescribed by Aguinaldo’s +decrees of the middle of June. Probably by the end of July +Aguinaldo’s municipal governments had been established in the +greater part of the towns of Luzón. These governments were not +established by the mass of the people. The mass of the people were not +consulted, but they were not in the habit of being consulted in such +matters and probably saw no necessity for it in this case. As an +evidence of this we have the fact that from the beginning the acts of +election were almost always drawn up in Spanish, although by far the +greater portion of the people of the archipelago spoke only the native +dialects. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6963" href="#xd21e6963" +name="xd21e6963">253</a>]</span></p> +<p>The method of establishing these municipal governments employed in +Cavite in June, 1898, was continued to the end of Aguinaldo’s +rule. It was the same in different places and at different times. Data +obtained from reports and documents written in towns far removed from +each other follow. They must be considered together in order to obtain +an idea of what this method really was.</p> +<p>When the Insurgent movement had progressed sufficiently far, the +leaders collected their adherents and obtained recognition as the heads +of their provinces or districts. For example, representatives of the +towns of Pampanga assembled at San Fernando on June 26, 1898, and under +the presidency of General Maximo Hizon agreed to yield him +“complete obedience as military governor of the province and +representative of the illustrious dictator of these Philippine +Islands.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6968src" href="#xd21e6968" +name="xd21e6968src">19</a> The town of Macabebe refused to send any +delegates to this gathering. Commissioners, in almost every case +officers of Aguinaldo’s army, were empowered by him to establish +the so-called republican government. They appointed delegates who +proceeded to the smaller towns and held elections; but whenever +possible the commissioner of Aguinaldo presided. In many cases these +delegates were lieutenants of the army. The commissioners selected the +electors, for they had all to be “marked out by their good +conduct, their wealth, and their social position,” and they had +all to be in favour of independence. They then presided at the +elections, which were <i>viva voce</i>. They apparently selected the +people to be elected, and forwarded a record of the proceedings to the +central government. The election had to be approved by the dictator or +president before the successful candidates could assume the duties of +their offices. Later on, the military commanders remote from the seat +of government were authorized to approve elections and install the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6974" href="#xd21e6974" name= +"xd21e6974">254</a>]</span>successful candidates, but the records of +election had even then to be forwarded to the capital for approval, the +action of the commissioner not being final.</p> +<p>The commissioners do not seem to have been able to find many men who +had the necessary requisites for electors. In the town of Lipa, +Batangas Province, with a population of forty thousand seven hundred +forty-three, at the election held July 3, 1898, a presidente was chosen +for whom twenty-five votes were cast. On November 23, 1898, an election +was held at Vigan, Ilocos Sur, for a presidente to succeed one who had +been elected representative in congress. One hundred and sixteen votes +were cast. The population of Vigan is nineteen thousand. On October 5, +1898, at Echague, Isabela Province, a presidente was elected for whom +fifty-four votes were cast. The population of Echague is fifty-four +thousand. On October 2, 1898, at Cabagan Nuevo, Isabela, one hundred +and eleven men voted out of a population of sixty-two hundred and +forty. On January 29, 1899, the town of Hernani, in Samar, elected its +municipal officials under the supervision of V. Lukban. Fifty-four men +voted. The town has a population of twenty-five hundred and +fifty-five.</p> +<p>The elections, so-called, were not always held without protest. For +example, the town of San José, Batangas, protested unavailingly +to Aguinaldo against the result of an election held at 10 P.M., in a +storm of rain. Men who had been on friendly terms with the Spaniards +were usually excluded from all participation. If in spite of the +precautions taken men were elected who were disliked by the +commissioner or his supporters, the election could be set aside on the +ground that the person elected was not an adherent of the +revolution.</p> +<p>The elections were often held in a singular manner, as in the +following case:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6983src" href="#xd21e6983" +name="xd21e6983src">20</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On August 20, 1898, four men of Tondo appeared +before <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6989" href="#xd21e6989" name= +"xd21e6989">255</a>]</span>Aguinaldo on Bacoor and announced that they +were representatives of the people of the district, who loved liberty. +Then in accordance with the directions of the president of the republic +under the supervision of the secretary of the interior, they drew lots +from a hat to decide how the offices of the head of the district, +delegate of police, delegate of the treasury and delegate of justice +were to be distributed. The decision having been made in this simple +fashion, Aguinaldo gravely approved the election as expressing the will +of the people. Perhaps it did, for they seem to have continued, at +least for a time, to obey them. On November 14, 1898, Aguinaldo again +approved an election for local officials in Tondo which since August 13 +had been within the American lines.”</p> +</div> +<p>On August 23 San Carlos, in Pangasinán Province, a town of +twenty-three thousand people, elected its officials under the new form +of government. The presidente chosen was a well-known member of the +Katipúnan, and before the election was held announced his +intention of killing any one who was chosen for the position for which +he was a candidate.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6994src" href= +"#xd21e6994" name="xd21e6994src">21</a> He was accordingly elected. In +spite of this grave informality, an informality which formed one ground +for a protest on the part of some of the people of the town, Aguinaldo +approved the election.</p> +<p>On October 21, 1898, an election was held under the supervision of +the military commander in Camarines for the municipal officials of the +town of Yriga.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e6999src" href="#xd21e6999" +name="xd21e6999src">22</a> The voting was oral, and a secretary wrote +down the votes for the two candidates under direction of the +commissioner, who finally announced that the candidate whose friend he +was had been elected, but without stating how many votes he had +received. This newly elected head of the town had the town crier on the +following night publish through the streets an address to the people, +in which he thanked those who had voted for him and warned those who +had not that it would be well for them to beware. The Spanish law known +as the Maura Law, which regulated the elections in the municipalities +under the Spanish government, provided for a limited electoral body, +composed <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7004" href="#xd21e7004" +name="xd21e7004">256</a>]</span>largely of ex-officials of the +municipalities. The choosing of an electoral body by the military +commander of a district probably did not seem strange to the people. +The provincial and municipal officials were established in office by +armed men, and they were obeyed because they had been installed by +armed men; but it was a form of election to which people, as a rule, +saw no reason to object. There were, however, in many cases bitter +complaints of the abuses committed by the officers thus +“elected.”</p> +<div class="figure xd21e7007width" id="p034"><img src="images/p034.jpg" +alt="A Baguio Home" width="720" height="432"> +<p class="figureHead">A Baguio Home</p> +<p class="first">This is the residence of the author. Note the rose +buses climbing up to the second story.</p> +</div> +<p>This form of government spread with the advance of Aguinaldo’s +arms. Municipal elections were held in Tarlac in July, in Ilocos Norte +and Tayabas in August, in Benguet and the Batanes Islands in September, +1898, in Panay in December, 1898, and in Leyte and Samar in January, +1899.</p> +<p>On December 27 Antonio Luna wrote that all the provinces of +Luzón, Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate, and Ticao, Romblón, +part of Panay, the Batanes, and Babuyanes Islands were under the +jurisdiction of the insurgent government.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7017src" href="#xd21e7017" name="xd21e7017src">23</a></p> +<p>By October 7, 1898, 14 of the 36 provinces and districts into which +Luzón had been divided by the Spanish government had civil +governors.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7022src" href="#xd21e7022" name= +"xd21e7022src">24</a> These 14 were Tagálog provinces or +provinces which the Tagálogs controlled. The other provinces +were still under military rule, and, indeed, even the provinces under +civilians were dominated by their military commanders. With the manner +of holding elections which prevailed, the governors must have been men +who were in favour of the military party in force, for otherwise they +would not have been elected.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7027src" href= +"#xd21e7027" name="xd21e7027src">25</a></p> +<p>It is not probable that the number of provinces under civil +governors much increased. If in Pangasinán Province, where there +are many Tagálogs, organizations opposed to the rule of +Aguinaldo could cause serious disorders, as was the case, it must have +been considered <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7034" href= +"#xd21e7034" name="xd21e7034">257</a>]</span>expedient for the success +of the attempt of the Tagálogs, who form only a fifth of the +population, to dominate the archipelago, that all provinces in which an +effective majority of the people were not of that tribe, should be kept +under military rule. The municipal governments which had been +established in Luzón were in the hands of Aguinaldo’s +adherents, or of men who it was hoped would prove loyal to him. They +were men of the Spanish-speaking group, which has always dominated the +people of the islands. They were probably not as a rule men of means. +Many of them, perhaps most of them, had been clerks and employees under +the Spanish government, and they saw no reason for changing the methods +of town administration which had then been followed. The municipal +taxes, the estimates for expenditures, and the regulations for town +government, were but little modified from those they found in force. In +many ways such changes as were made were for the worse.</p> +<p>Once installed in power, Aguinaldo’s officials were required +to exercise over the mass of the people about the same control that had +always been exercised over them. The governing group considered that +they were perfectly capable of providing for the welfare of the +islands, and that it was the duty of the people to obey them without +question.</p> +<p>When the insurgent force was increased in preparation for war with +the Americans a large number of municipal officials resigned, or +attempted to do so. It was not easy for a municipal official under +Aguinaldo’s government to resign. A resignation, to be accepted, +had to be accompanied by the certificate of a physician that the person +concerned was unfit to perform the duties of his office. Judging by the +record,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7040src" href="#xd21e7040" name= +"xd21e7040src">26</a> an epidemic seems to have attacked the municipal +officials in January, 1899. It is probable that they saw that war was +inevitable and that they did not wish to remain in charge of the towns +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7043" href="#xd21e7043" name= +"xd21e7043">258</a>]</span>and be responsible for providing for the +necessities of “the liberating army.” In Pangasinán +in that month men could not leave their barrios without obtaining the +permission of the headman, and in one town men who had attempted to +sell their property for the purpose of going to Manila were, on January +17, ordered to be arrested and their conduct investigated.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e7045src" href="#xd21e7045" name= +"xd21e7045src">27</a></p> +<p>Aguinaldo, having established himself at Malolos, ordered the +congress provided for in his decree of June 23, 1898, to assemble at +the capital on September 15,1898, and appointed a number of provisional +representatives for provinces and islands not under his +control.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7050src" href="#xd21e7050" name= +"xd21e7050src">28</a> It has often been claimed that Aguinaldo’s +government controlled at this time the whole archipelago, except the +bay and city of Manila and the town of Cavite.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7053src" href="#xd21e7053" name="xd21e7053src">29</a></p> +<p>Blount quotes the following statement from the report of the First +Philippine Commission:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“While the Spanish troops now remained quietly +in Manila, the Filipino forces made themselves masters of the entire +island except that city.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7067src" +href="#xd21e7067" name="xd21e7067src">30</a></p> +</div> +<p>I signed that statement, and signed it in good faith; nevertheless, +it is untrue. The Filipino forces never controlled <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7072" href="#xd21e7072" name= +"xd21e7072">259</a>]</span>the territory now known as Ifugao, Bontoc, +Kalinga or Apayao, much less that occupied by the Negritos on the east +coast of Luzón, but this is not all. There exists among the +Insurgent records a very important document, prepared by Mabini, +showing that when the call for the first session of the Filipino +congress was issued, there were no less than sixty-one provinces and +<i>commandancias</i>, which the Insurgents, when talking among +themselves, did not even claim to control, and twenty-one of these were +in or immediately adjacent to Luzón.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7077src" href="#xd21e7077" name="xd21e7077src">31</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7516" href="#xd21e7516" name= +"xd21e7516">260</a>]</span></p> +<p>The men who composed this congress were among the ablest natives of +the archipelago; but representative <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e7519" href="#xd21e7519" name= +"xd21e7519">261</a>]</span>institutions mean nothing unless they +represent the people; if they do not, they are a conscious lie devised +either to deceive the people of the country or foreign nations, and it +is not possible for any system founded upon a lie to endure. A real +republic must be founded not upon a few brilliant men to compose the +governing group but upon a people trained in self-restraint and +accustomed to govern by compromise and concession, not <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7521" href="#xd21e7521" name= +"xd21e7521">262</a>]</span>by force. To endure it must be based upon a +solid foundation of self-control, of self-respect and of respect for +the rights of others upon the part of the great majority of the common +people. If it is not, the government which follows a period of tumult, +confusion and civil war will be a government of the sword. The record +the Philippine republic has left behind it contains nothing to confirm +the belief that it would have endured, even in name, if the destinies +of the islands had been left in the hands of the men who set it up.</p> +<p>The national assembly met on the appointed day in the parish church +of Barasoain, Malolos, which had been set aside for the meetings of +congress. This body probably had then more elected members than at its +subsequent meetings, but even so it contained a large number of men who +were appointed by Aguinaldo after consultation with his council to +represent provinces which they had never even seen.</p> +<p>From a “list of representatives of the provinces and +districts, selected by election and appointment by the government up to +July 7, 1899, with incomplete list of October 6, 1899”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e7527src" href="#xd21e7527" name= +"xd21e7527src">32</a> I find that there were 193 members, of whom +forty-two were elected and one hundred fifty-one were appointed. This +congress was therefore not an elective body. Was it in any sense +representative? The following table, showing the distribution of +delegates between the several peoples, will enable us to answer this +question.</p> +<p>In considering this table it must be remembered that the +relationship given between the number of delegates assigned to a given +people and the number of individuals composing it is only approximate, +as no one of these peoples is strictly limited to the provinces where +it predominates.</p> +<p>I have classified the provinces as Tagálog, Visayan, etc., +according to census returns showing the people who form a majority of +their inhabitants in each case.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7534src" +href="#xd21e7534" name="xd21e7534src">33</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7537" href="#xd21e7537" name= +"xd21e7537">263</a>]</span></p> +<div class="table"> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">People</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Number</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Elected Delegates</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> +Appointed Delegates</td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Visayans</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">3,219,030</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">0</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">68</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Tagálogs</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">1,460,695</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">18</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">19</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Ilocanos</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">803,942</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">7</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">11</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Bicols</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">566,365</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">4</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">7</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Pangasináns</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">343,686</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">2</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Pampangans</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">280,984</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">2</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Cagayans</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">159,648</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">4</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Zambalans</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">48,823</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">1</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Non-Christians</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">647,740</td> +<td class="xd21e6232">4</td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight">34</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"></td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellBottom"></td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellBottom"><span class="sum">42</span></td> +<td class="xd21e6232 cellRight cellBottom"><span class= +"sum">151</span></td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p>It will be noted that the Tagálog provinces had eighteen out +of a total of forty-two elected delegates. The Visayans, by far the +most numerous people in the islands, did not have one. The +non-Christian provinces had a very disproportionately large total of +delegates, of whom four are put down as elected, but on examination we +find that one of these is from Lepanto, the capital of which was an +Ilocano town; one is from Nueva Vizcaya, where there is a considerable +Cagayan-Ilocano population; one is from Benguet, the capital of which +was an Ilocano town, and one from Tiagan, which was an Iloeano +settlement. These delegates should therefore really be credited to the +Ilocanos.</p> +<p>If the individual relationships of the several members are +considered, the result is even more striking. Of the thirty-eight +delegates assigned to the non-Christian provinces, one only, good old +Lino Abaya of Tiagan, was a non-Christian. Many of the non-Christian +<i>comandancias</i> were given a number of delegates wholly +disproportionate to their population, and in this way the congress was +stuffed full of Tagálogs.</p> +<p>Think of Filipe Buencamino, of Aguinaldo’s cabinet, +representing the Moros of Zamboanga; of the mild, scholarly botanist +Leon Guerrero representing the Moros, <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e7654" href="#xd21e7654" name="xd21e7654">264</a>]</span>Bagobos, +Mandayas and Manobos of Davao; of José M. Lerma, the +unscrupulous politician of the province of Bataan, just across the bay +from Manila, representing the wild Moros of Cotabato; of Juan Tuason, a +timid Chinese <i>mestizo</i> Manila business man, representing the +Yacan and Samal Moros of Basilan; of my good friend Benito Legarda, +since a member of the Philippine Commission, and a resident delegate +from the Philippines to the congress of the United States, representing +the bloody Moros of Jolo! Yet they appear as representatives of these +several regions.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e7661width" id="p035"><img src="images/p035.jpg" +alt="The Baguio Hospital" width="720" height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">The Baguio Hospital</p> +<p class="first">This hospital, built on a picturesque site in the +midst of imposing mountain scenery, where it gets the full sweep of the +cool pine-scented breezes, has done wonderful work. Note the +tuberculosis cottages on the crest of the ridge.</p> +</div> +<p>Few, indeed, of the delegates from non-Christian territory had ever +set foot in the provinces or <i>comandancias</i> from which they were +appointed, or would have been able to so much as name the wild tribe or +tribes inhabiting them.</p> +<p>I have been furnished a list, made up with all possible care by +competent persons, from which it appears that there were eighty-five +delegates actually present at the opening of congress, of whom +fifty-nine were Tagálogs, five Bicols, three Pampangans, two +Visayans, and one a Zambalan. For the others there are no data +available. Yet it has been claimed that this was a representative body! +It was a Tagálog body, without enough representatives of any +other one of the numerous Philippine peoples to be worth +mentioning.</p> +<p>With a congress thus organized, Aguinaldo should have had no +difficulty in obtaining any legislation he desired.</p> +<p>The committee of congress appointed to draw up a constitution set to +work promptly, and by October 16,1898, had proceeded so far with their +work that Buencamino was able to write to Aguinaldo that while he had +been of the opinion that it would have been best for him to continue as +a dictator aided by a committee of able men, yet it would now be a blow +to the prestige of congress to suspend its sessions. Aguinaldo noted +upon this letter the fact that he did not approve of a +constitution.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7678src" href="#xd21e7678" +name="xd21e7678src">34</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7681" +href="#xd21e7681" name="xd21e7681">265</a>]</span></p> +<p>Apparently early in December the committee submitted their project. +In presenting it to congress they said<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7684src" href="#xd21e7684" name="xd21e7684src">35</a> +that—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The work whose results the commission has the +honour to present for the consideration of congress has been largely a +matter of selection; in executing it not only has the French +constitution been used, but also those of Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, +Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala, as we have considered those +nations as most resembling the Filipino people.”</p> +</div> +<p>The most important difference between this project and the actual +constitution adopted was that, although the project provided that the +Dominican, Recollect, Franciscan and Augustinian friars should be +expelled from the country and that their estates should become the +property of the state, yet it recognized the Catholic religion as that +of the state and forbade state contribution to the support of any +other, although it permitted the practice in private of any religion +not opposed to morality, which did not threaten the safety of the +country. The government was authorized to negotiate a concordat with +the Pope for the regulation of the relations between church and state. +A strong party was in favour of this recognition, but it finally failed +of adoption, and the constitution as promulgated provided for the +freedom and equality of religion and for free and compulsory education +which had not been provided for in the original project. The +constitution as approved forbade the granting of titles of nobility, +decorations or honorary titles by the state to any Filipino. This +paragraph did not exist in the original project, which merely forbade +any Filipino to accept them without the consent of the government.</p> +<p>Mabini, the ablest of all Aguinaldo’s advisers, did not +approve of the constitution. He himself had drawn up a project for a +constitution during June, 1898, but it was not accepted by the +committee, the greater part of whom were Catholics and for that reason +opposed to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7695" href="#xd21e7695" +name="xd21e7695">266</a>]</span>Mabini, who was a bitter antagonist of +that church. And yet when separation of church and state was finally +provided for it did not please Mabini, who, although he was opposed to +church control, wrote to Aguinaldo<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7697src" +href="#xd21e7697" name="xd21e7697src">36</a> that the constitution as +passed by congress was not acceptable and should not be promulgated +because the constitutional guarantees of individual liberty could not +be maintained, as the army had to be in control for the time being, and +furthermore it was not expedient to separate church and state, as this +separation would alienate many of their adherents. Indeed, there was +not much in the constitution which he thought ought to take immediate +effect,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7700src" href="#xd21e7700" name= +"xd21e7700src">37</a> and he wrote that congress was ill-disposed +toward him because he had refused to agree to its promulgation. +Existing conditions were such that he believed that all powers should +be vested in one person. He warned Aguinaldo that if the constitution +were put in force, he would be at the mercy of his secretaries. On +January 1, 1899, Aguinaldo, probably at the suggestion of Mabini, +proposed certain changes in it.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7705src" +href="#xd21e7705" name="xd21e7705src">38</a></p> +<p>Evidently the provisions of the constitution did not worry Aguinaldo +much, as is shown by his reply to the request by some of his officers +for information as to what reward those who were first in the attack on +Manila should receive. He promised them such titles as marquis, duke, +etc.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7712src" href="#xd21e7712" name= +"xd21e7712src">39</a></p> +<p>On January 2, 1899, Aguinaldo announced the formation of a new +cabinet made up as follows: Apolinario Mabini president and secretary +of foreign affairs; Teodoro Sandico, secretary of the interior; Mariano +Trias, secretary of the treasury; Baldomero Aguinaldo, secretary of war +and navy, and Gracio Gonzaga, secretary of <i lang= +"es">fomento</i>.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7725src" href="#xd21e7725" +name="xd21e7725src">40</a> On January 4 Mabini took the oath of office +as the president <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7728" href= +"#xd21e7728" name="xd21e7728">267</a>]</span>of the council of +government. This body met twice a week at Malolos on set days, and at +the close of its deliberations forwarded to Aguinaldo a statement of +the subjects discussed and the conclusions reached for his decision. +The president of the republic did not preside at, or take part in, its +deliberations.</p> +<p>On January 4, 1899, General Otis issued a proclamation in which he +announced that the United States had obtained possession of the +Philippines and that its government would be extended over the islands +of the archipelago. Aguinaldo replied next day with one which, if not +intended to be a declaration of war, was at least a warning that +hostilities were imminent. This proclamation was carried into Manila by +his emissaries and posted up over the one issued by the American +commander. It was a challenge to a trial of strength, and Aguinaldo and +his advisers hastened their preparations for the coming combat.</p> +<p>The secretary of the interior on the same day sent an order to the +heads of all provinces directing the organization of territorial +militia to resist the American invasion, and ordering the heads of the +towns to hold meetings of the people to protest against the aggression +of the United States. They were held in accordance with these orders, +and records of the proceedings were sent to Malolos and published in +the official organ of the government as evidence of the feeling of the +people. It was, however, not considered necessary in publishing them to +mention the fact that they had been held in compliance with orders.</p> +<p>On January 14, 1899, Mabini wrote to Aguinaldo<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7737src" href="#xd21e7737" name="xd21e7737src">41</a> +recommending changes in the proposed constitution, which he still liked +as little as ever. He was afraid that Negros and Panay would refuse to +accept the form of government it prescribed. The worst thing about it +was that the Americans would be less disposed to recognize +Aguinaldo’s government; for when they saw the constitution they +would know, as it made no mention of them, that the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7740" href="#xd21e7740" name= +"xd21e7740">268</a>]</span>Filipinos wanted independence. Mabini +thought that it was possible that the wording of the constitution might +have been deliberately planned by members of the congress in favour of +annexation to the United States, so that that country would be warned, +would become more mistrustful, and would refuse to recognize +Aguinaldo’s government. Whatever the president of the council may +have thought about the theoretical advisability of a congress to +represent the people, he found one much in the way when he had obtained +it.</p> +<p>Buencamino advised that the constitution should be approved and +promulgated; one argument was that the congress had been consulted in +the matter of a national loan, and if it was dissolved, there could be +no loan. This was apparently the only matter upon which it had been +consulted.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7744src" href="#xd21e7744" name= +"xd21e7744src">42</a></p> +<p>The constitution of the Philippine Republic was ratified at a +session of the congress on January 20, 1899.</p> +<p>On January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo sanctioned it and ordered that it +should be “kept, complied with and executed in all its parts +because it is the sovereign will of the Philippine +people.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7751src" href="#xd21e7751" +name="xd21e7751src">43</a> The constitution provided for a government +of three coördinate powers, executive, legislative and judicial. +Whether it provided for a form of government which would have succeeded +in the Philippines was not determined by actual experience. It was +never really put in force for war with the United States began in two +weeks and the constitution must stand as the expression of the ideas of +a certain group of educated natives rather than as the working formula +for the actual conduct of the political life of a nation. One proof of +this is the fact that not until June 8, 1899, were Aguinaldo’s +decrees upon the registration of marriages and upon civil marriage, +dated June 20,1898, revoked, and the provisions of the constitution +concerning marriage put in effect.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7754src" +href="#xd21e7754" name="xd21e7754src">44</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7757" href="#xd21e7757" name= +"xd21e7757">269</a>]</span></p> +<p>Aguinaldo had approved the constitution; he had informed the foreign +consuls and General Otis that it had been promulgated and become the +law of the land. It was not promulgated. It had not become the law of +the land. It served one important purpose. It passed into the hands of +the Americans and showed them the ability and the aspirations of +certain individuals of the archipelago, but Mabini and his followers +did not believe in its form or in its provisions, and Mabini at least +was emphatic in his declarations that the time had not yet come for it +to be put into effect. On January 24, 1899, he wrote to Aguinaldo that +if it should be promulgated it would be absolutely necessary to give +the president the veto power, and replace the elected representatives +by others appointed by the government. If this were not done the +president would be at the mercy of congress, and the people, seeing +that disagreement between the executive government and the congress was +the cause of its misfortunes, would start another revolutionary +movement to destroy both of them.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7760src" +href="#xd21e7760" name="xd21e7760src">45</a></p> +<p>As long as Mabini remained in power the constitution was mere paper. +Its adoption was not indicative of the capacity of the people to +maintain self-government. It expressed only the academic aspirations of +the men who drafted it. There is not the slightest evidence from any +previous or subsequent experience of the people that it would have +worked in practice. It was enacted for the misleading of Americans +rather than for the benefit of the Filipinos.</p> +<p>While the government of Aguinaldo was called a republic, it was in +fact a Tagálog military oligarchy in which the great mass of the +people had no share. Their duty was only to give soldiers for the army +and labourers for the fields, and to obey without question the orders +they received from the military heads of their provinces.</p> +<p>There is no cause for vain regrets. We did not destroy a republic in +the Philippines. There never was anything there to destroy which even +remotely resembled a republic. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7769" +href="#xd21e7769" name="xd21e7769">270</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6791" href="#xd21e6791src" name="xd21e6791">1</a></span> Blount +refers to</p> +<p class="footnote">“The death-warrant of the Philippine republic +signed by Mr. McKinley on September 16th.”—Blount, p. +99.</p> +<p class="footnote">Speaking of Mr. Roosevelt’s opinion of the +practicability of granting independence to the Filipinos, he +says—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Yet it represented then one of the many +current misapprehensions about the Filipinos which moved this great +nation to destroy a young republic set up in a spirit of intelligent +and generous emulation of our own.”—Blount, p. 230.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6801" href="#xd21e6801src" name="xd21e6801">2</a></span> +“Here was a man claiming to be President of a newly established +republic based on the principles set forth in our Declaration of +Independence, which republic had just issued a like Declaration, and he +was invited to come and hear our declaration read, and declined because +we would not recognize his right to assert the same +truths.”—Blount, p. 59.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6804" href="#xd21e6804src" name="xd21e6804">3</a></span> +“The war satisfied us all that Aguinaldo would have been a small +edition of Porfirio Diaz, and that the Filipino +republic-that-might-have-been would have been, very decidedly, ‘a +going concern,’ although Aguinaldo probably would have been able +to say with a degree of accuracy, as Diaz might have said in Mexico for +so many years, ‘The Republic? I am the +Republic.’”—Blount, p. 292.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6813" href="#xd21e6813src" name="xd21e6813">4</a></span> +“The war demonstrated to the army, to a Q. E. D., that the +Filipinos are ‘capable of self-government,’ unless the kind +which happens to suit the genius of the American people is the only +kind of government on earth that is respectable, and the one panacea +for all the ills of government among men without regard to their +temperament or historical antecedents. The educated patriotic Filipinos +can control the masses of the people in their several districts as +completely as a captain ever controlled a company.”—Blount, +p. 292.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6816" href="#xd21e6816src" name="xd21e6816">5</a></span> +“Even to-day the presidente of a pueblo is as absolute boss of +his town as Charles F. Murphy is in Tammany Hall. And a town or pueblo +in the Philippines is more than an area covered by more or less +contiguous buildings and grounds. It is more like a township in +Massachusetts, so that when you account governmentally for the pueblos +of a given province, you account for every square foot of that province +and for every man in it.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6827" href="#xd21e6827src" name="xd21e6827">6</a></span> +“In there reviewing the Samar and other insurrections of 1905 in +the Philippines, you find him (<i>i.e.</i> Roosevelt) dealing with the +real root of the evil with perfect honesty, though adopting the view +that the Filipino people were to blame therefor, because we had placed +too much power in the hands of an ignorant electorate, which had +elected rascally officials.”—Blount, p. 297.</p> +<p class="footnote">Also:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“But we proceeded to ram down their throats a +preconceived theory that the only road to self-government was for an +alien people to step in and make the ignorant masses the <i>sine qua +non</i>.”—Blount, p. 546. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e6840" href="#xd21e6840" name="xd21e6840">244n</a>]</span></p> +<p class="footnote">Also:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Of course the ignorant elecorate we +perpetrated on Samar as an ‘expression of our theoretical +views’ proved that we had ‘gone too fast’ in +conferring self-government, or to quote Mr. Roosevelt, had been +‘reposing too much confidence in the self-governing power of a +people,’ if to begin with the rankest material for constructing a +government that there was at hand was to offer a fair test of capacity +for self-government.”—Blount, p. 546.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6849" href="#xd21e6849src" name="xd21e6849">7</a></span> P.I.R., +499. 1 Ex. 134.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6860" href="#xd21e6860src" name="xd21e6860">8</a></span> Ibid., +206. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6863" href="#xd21e6863src" name="xd21e6863">9</a></span> Ibid., +1124. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6866" href="#xd21e6866src" name="xd21e6866">10</a></span> Ibid., +204. 6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6872" href="#xd21e6872src" name="xd21e6872">11</a></span> P.I.R., +206. 6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6884" href="#xd21e6884src" name="xd21e6884">12</a></span> P.I.R., +674. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6889" href="#xd21e6889src" name="xd21e6889">13</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i>, 206. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6902" href="#xd21e6902src" name="xd21e6902">14</a></span> P.I.R., +206. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6929" href="#xd21e6929src" name="xd21e6929">15</a></span> On July +7, 1898, the secretary of the revolutionary junta in Mindanao, in +writing to Aguinaldo, closed his letter with the following formula: +“Command this, your vassal, at all hours at the orders of his +respected chief, on whom he will never turn his back, and whom he will +never forswear. God preserve you, Captain General, many years.” +P.I.R., 1080. 1. Every now and then we find a queer use of the term +“royal family.” This seems to have been common among the +mass of the people. Heads of towns and men of position often used the +expression “royal orders” in speaking of the orders and +decrees issued by Aguinaldo. For example, the officials of Tayug, a +town of 19,000 people in Pangasinán Province, certified, on +October 9, 1898, that they had carried out the instructions for +“the establishment of the popular government in accordance with +the royal decree of June 18, 1898.”—P.I.R., 1188. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote">In October certain of Aguinaldo’s adherents +in Tondo wrote to him <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e6934" href= +"#xd21e6934" name="xd21e6934">250n</a>]</span>and protested against the +acts of the local presidente, who, they held, had not been duly elected +in accordance with the provisions of the “royal order” of +June 18, 1898. They closed their respectful protest by requesting that +said royal order should be obeyed.—Taylor, AJ., 63.</p> +<p class="footnote">In 1899 an officer of the army in Union Province +wrote: “In accordance with the orders of the secretary of war of +our republican government of these islands, issued in compliance with +royal decree, article 5, published on March 8.” On September 1, +1898, the local presidente of the town of Mangatarem, writing to the +head of the province, said that he had not furnished the estimates +required because the elections provided for in “article 7 of the +royal decree of the superior government, dated June 18 last,” had +not been approved. A young son of a member of Aguinaldo’s +cabinet, writing to his father in September, 1899, spoke of the +“royal decree of June 18, 1898.”—P.I.R., 1188. 3. In +Romblon, in August, 1898, elections were held in compliance with the +prescription of the “royal decree of June 18, 1898,” and +Aguinaldo approved them, apparently without considering that this was +an anomalous way of describing a decree of the dictator of the +so-called republic. On March 7, 1899, a general in the revolutionary +service stated that an officer had been released from arrest by a +“royal order.” The attitude of mind which made men speak of +Aguinaldo’s “royal orders” in 1898 did not change +when he fled before the advance of the United States army. His orders +remained royal orders. They were again and again referred to in this +way.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6942" href="#xd21e6942src" name="xd21e6942">16</a></span> P.I.R., +Books C-1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6949" href="#xd21e6949src" name="xd21e6949">17</a></span> P.I.R., +1216. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6954" href="#xd21e6954src" name="xd21e6954">18</a></span> P.I.R., +1216. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6968" href="#xd21e6968src" name="xd21e6968">19</a></span> P.I.R., +223.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6983" href="#xd21e6983src" name="xd21e6983">20</a></span> P.I.R. +1133. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6994" href="#xd21e6994src" name="xd21e6994">21</a></span> P.I.R., +1137. 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e6999" href="#xd21e6999src" name="xd21e6999">22</a></span> +<i>Ibid.,</i> R., 1165. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7017" href="#xd21e7017src" name="xd21e7017">23</a></span> P.I.R., +319. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7022" href="#xd21e7022src" name="xd21e7022">24</a></span> +<i>Ibid.,</i> 3. 33.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7027" href="#xd21e7027src" name="xd21e7027">25</a></span> +<i>Ibid.,</i> 1022. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7040" href="#xd21e7040src" name="xd21e7040">26</a></span> P.I.R., +1200.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7045" href="#xd21e7045src" name="xd21e7045">27</a></span> P.I.R., +907. 6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7050" href="#xd21e7050src" name="xd21e7050">28</a></span> P.I.R., +39. 7.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7053" href="#xd21e7053src" name="xd21e7053">29</a></span> The +following memorandum to accompany a letter from Señor Don Sixto +Lopez, Secretary of Señor Don Felipe Agoncillo, to the Honorable +the Secretary of State, written January 5, 1899, clearly sets forth +this claim:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“Pursuant to the action of said congress a +detailed system of government has been provided for and is actually +maintained in all the portions of the Philippine Islands, except so +much of the provinces of Manila and Cavite as is now in the actual +possession of the American Army, such excepted part containing only +about 3 per cent. of the population of the entire islands and an +infinitely smaller proportion of their area.</p> +<p class="footnote">“From the foregoing it will appear that the +Philippine government is now, as it has been practically ever since the +16th of June, 1898, in substantially full possession of the territory +of the people it represents.”—Taylor Ex. 530 57 KU., +Congressional Record, June 3, 1902, Vol. 35, part 6, p. 6217.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7067" href="#xd21e7067src" name="xd21e7067">30</a></span> Blount, +p. 70.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7077" href="#xd21e7077src" name="xd21e7077">31</a></span> +“September, 1898.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Decree</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“Although article 11, Chapter 2, of the +Organic Decree of June 23 (1898) last, prescribes that the appointment +of provisional representatives of Congress be given to persons who have +been born or have resided in the provinces which they are to represent; +taking into consideration the urgent necessity that said body enter +upon its functions immediately, I hereby decree the +following:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“1. The following are appointed provisional +Representatives ...</p> +<p class="footnote">“2. A meeting of Congress is called for the +15th instant, to be held in the town of Malolos, province of +Bulacán.</p> +<p class="footnote">“3. The Secretary of the Interior shall take +steps to notify the persons appointed and those elected by the popular +commanders in the provinces already occupied by the Revolution, of the +call as soon as possible.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Giv ....”</p> +<p class="footnote">(Attached hereto is the following, with the names +written in Mabini’s handwriting:)</p> +<p class="footnote">“September, 1898.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Provinces not subject to the Revolutionary +Government of the Philippines.</p> +<div class="table"> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Names</td> +<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Classes</td> +<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"></td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Albay</td> +<td>Highest class</td> +<td class="cellRight">2. Salvador V. del Rosario and Felipe +Buencamino</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Ilocos Norte</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">2. José, Antonio Luna</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Ilocos Sur</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">2. Ignacio Villamor, José Aleji</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Isabela de Luzón</td> +<td>Third class</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Aristón Bautista</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Sorsogón</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. José Albert</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Cagayán</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Pablo Tecson<span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e7150" href="#xd21e7150" name="xd21e7150">260n</a>]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Abra</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Govt.</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Isidro Paredes</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Nueva Viscaya</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Enrique Mendiola</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Corregidor</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Catanduanes</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Batanes</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Masbate and Ticao</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Comandancia</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Alberto Barreto</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Amburayan</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Apayaos</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Benguet</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Joaquín Luna</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Binatanga</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Bontoc</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Fernando Canon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Burias</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Cayapa</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Itaves</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Lepanto</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. León Apacible</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Príncipe</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Mariano Ocampo</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Quiangan</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Tiagan</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Cabugauan</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Island of Cebú</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Govt. of highest class</td> +<td class="cellRight">2. Cayetano Arellano and Pardo de Tavera</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Iloilo, Panay</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">2. Gregorio Araneta and Melecio Figueroa</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Island of Leyte</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. León Guerrero</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Negros Occidental</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. José María de la +Viña</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Island of Samar</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">Pablo Ocampo</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Antique, Island of Panay</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Hipólito Magsalin</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Cápiz</td> +<td>Lowest class</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Miguel Zaragoza</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Negros Oriental</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Aguedo Velarde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Island of Bohol</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Juan Manday Gabriel</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Romblón</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Comandancia</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Vicente González Maninang</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Concepción</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Mariano V. del Rosario</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Zamboanga</td> +<td>1st Dist. Pol.-Mil. Govt.</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Pedro A. Paterno</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Misamis</td> +<td>2d Dist. do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Maximino Paterno</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Surigao</td> +<td>3d Dist. do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Benito Valdés</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Davao</td> +<td>4th Dist. do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Telesforo Chuidian</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Cotabato</td> +<td>5th Dist. do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Enrique Mercaida</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Basilan</td> +<td>6th Dist. do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Juan Tuason<span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e7394" href="#xd21e7394" name="xd21e7394">261n</a>]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Lanao</td> +<td>7th Dist. do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Gonzalo Tuason</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Dapitan</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Comandancia</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Gonzalo Tuason</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Butúan</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3" class="cellLeft cellRight">Barás is under +Pol.-Mil. Govt. of Bahia Illana</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3" class="cellLeft cellRight">Levac is under Pol.-Mil. +Comandancia of Cottabatto</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Matti</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Comandancia</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3" class="cellLeft cellRight">Malabang. This Comandancia +is under the Military Comandancia of Bahia Illana.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3" class="cellLeft cellRight">Reina Regente. This +Comandancia is under the Pol.-Mil. Govt. of Cottabato</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Bay of Sarangani and adjacent islands</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Comandancia</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Tucuran</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Govt.</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Island of Joló</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Benito Legarda</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Siassi</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Com.</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Tataan</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Bongao</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Island of Paragua</td> +<td>Pol.-Mil. Govt.</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Felipe Calderón.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Balabac</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Manuel Jérez</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Calamianes</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight">1. Manuel Genato</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Marianas Islands</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Oriental Carolines</td> +<td>do</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Camarines, North and South</td> +<td class="cellBottom"></td> +<td class="cellRight cellBottom">Don Tomás del Rosario and Don +Cecilio Hilario</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p class="footnote">Exhibit 226, 76 MG, E, Extract from original in +Spanish, A. L. S., P.I.R., 416. 1.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7527" href="#xd21e7527src" name="xd21e7527">32</a></span> P.I.R., +38. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7534" href="#xd21e7534src" name="xd21e7534">33</a></span> The +1903 census returns are here used for each of the several peoples.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7678" href="#xd21e7678src" name="xd21e7678">34</a></span> P.I.R., +485. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7684" href="#xd21e7684src" name="xd21e7684">35</a></span> P.I.R., +40. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7697" href="#xd21e7697src" name="xd21e7697">36</a></span> P.I.R., +377. 13.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7700" href="#xd21e7700src" name="xd21e7700">37</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 472. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7705" href="#xd21e7705src" name="xd21e7705">38</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 40. 8.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7712" href="#xd21e7712src" name="xd21e7712">39</a></span> +<i>Ibid</i>., 849. See p. 143.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7725" href="#xd21e7725src" name="xd21e7725">40</a></span> A +general term covering education, public works, agriculture and +commerce.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7737" href="#xd21e7737src" name="xd21e7737">41</a></span> P.I.R., +512. A 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7744" href="#xd21e7744src" name="xd21e7744">42</a></span> P.I.R., +485. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7751" href="#xd21e7751src" name="xd21e7751">43</a></span> Senate +Document 138, Fifty-sixth Congress, First Session.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7754" href="#xd21e7754src" name="xd21e7754">44</a></span> P.I.R., +Books B-6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7760" href="#xd21e7760src" name="xd21e7760">45</a></span> P.I.R., +472. 8.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch09" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e310">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter IX</h2> +<h2 class="main">The Conduct of the War</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">It is not my intention to attempt to write a history +of the war which began on February 4, 1899, nor to discuss any one of +its several campaigns. I propose to limit myself to a statement of the +conditions under which it was conducted, and a description of the two +periods into which it may be divided.</p> +<p>From the outset the Insurgent soldiers were treated with marked +severity by their leaders. On June 17, 1898, Aguinaldo issued an order +to the military chiefs of certain towns in Cavite providing that a +soldier wasting ammunition should be punished with twelve lashes for a +first offence, twenty-four for a second, and court-martialled and +“severely punished” for a third.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7779src" href="#xd21e7779" name="xd21e7779src">1</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7823" href="#xd21e7823" name= +"xd21e7823">271</a>]</span></p> +<p>On November 16, 1900, General Lacuna ordered that any officer +allowing his soldiers to load their rifles when not before the enemy +should be liable to capital punishment,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7826src" href="#xd21e7826" name="xd21e7826src">2</a> which in +practice was frequently inflicted on soldiers for very minor +offences.</p> +<p>Men of means were drafted into the ranks and then excused from +service on the payment of cash.</p> +<p>The soldiery, quartered on the towns, committed endless abuses. +Conditions were bad enough before the outbreak of hostilities, as I +have shown in the chapters dealing with Insurgent rule. They grew +rapidly worse thereafter, and human life became cheap indeed.</p> +<p>“The documents of this period show that the insurgent troops +driven from the front of Manila fell upon the people of the +neighbouring towns and burnt, robbed, and murdered. Either their +officers lost all control over them, or else they directed these +outrages. It was not for some days that control was +regained.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7859src" href="#xd21e7859" +name="xd21e7859src">3</a></p> +<div class="figure xd21e7863width" id="p036"><img src="images/p036.jpg" +alt="Government Centre at Baguio" width="720" height="428"> +<p class="figureHead">Government Centre at Baguio</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7867" href="#xd21e7867" name= +"xd21e7867">272</a>]</span></p> +<p>Endless orders were issued by Aguinaldo and other high Insurgent +officers, prohibiting rape, brigandage and robbery, and there was grave +need of them. Unfortunately they could not be enforced. Indeed it was +often impossible to distinguish between Insurgent soldiers, who removed +their uniforms or had none, and brigands pure and simple.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e7870src" href="#xd21e7870" name= +"xd21e7870src">4</a></p> +<p>Many men were soldiers at one time and brigands at another. +Unquestionably soldiers and brigands sometimes coöperated. +Garrisons were withdrawn from towns which did not promptly and fully +comply with the demands of Insurgent commanders,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7911src" href="#xd21e7911" name="xd21e7911src">5</a> and armed +bandits appeared and plundered them. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e7921" href="#xd21e7921" name="xd21e7921">273</a>]</span></p> +<p>There were some Insurgent leaders, like Cailles, who suppressed +brigandage with a heavy hand,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7925src" href= +"#xd21e7925" name="xd21e7925src">6</a> but many of them were +indifferent, even if not in alliance with the evil doers.</p> +<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h3 class="main">The Visayas</h3> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Feeling between Tagálog soldiers and Visayan +people grew constantly more bitter, and before many months had passed +they fell to killing each other. The highest officers of the +“Regional Revolutionary Government of the Visayas” +protested vigorously to Aguinaldo,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e7956src" +href="#xd21e7956" name="xd21e7956src">7</a> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8024" href="#xd21e8024" name= +"xd21e8024">274</a>]</span>but without result. The situation was +entirely beyond his control.</p> +<p>On April 20, 1899, General Delgado issued an order which tells a +significant story of conditions, and of his own weakness in dealing +with them.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8028src" href="#xd21e8028" name= +"xd21e8028src">8</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8058" href= +"#xd21e8058" name="xd21e8058">275</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Luzón General Trias of Cavite accused the soldiers and +citizens of his province of committing “robberies, assaults, +kidnappings and crimes which are committed only by barbarous and savage +tribes.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8061src" href="#xd21e8061" +name="xd21e8061src">9</a></p> +<p>That very serious conditions promptly became general is conclusively +shown by the record of Aguinaldo’s government for February 24, +1899, when it decided—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“that the president of the council shall study +such measures as will put an end to the continual discord and friction +between the civil and military authorities of every province, in order +that fatal consequences may be avoided.”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8092" href="#xd21e8092" name= +"xd21e8092">276</a>]</span></p> +<p>With such conditions prevailing among the Filipinos themselves, it +was to be expected that the laws of civilized warfare would be violated +and that American soldiers taken prisoners would sometimes be treated +with barbarity. Flags of truce were deliberately violated.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8095src" href="#xd21e8095" name= +"xd21e8095src">10</a> American soldiers were trapped, poisoned<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8101src" href="#xd21e8101" name= +"xd21e8101src">11</a> and murdered in other ways.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8110src" href="#xd21e8110" name="xd21e8110src">12</a></p> +<p>It was promptly charged in the United States that American soldiers +were committing barbarities, and Blount has revived these old +tales.</p> +<p>I know personally that during the early days of the war Insurgent +prisoners and wounded were treated with the greatest humanity and +kindness.</p> +<p>A part of the Insurgent plan of campaign was the circulation of the +most shocking statements concerning the abuses committed by American +soldiers. I have <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8119" href= +"#xd21e8119" name="xd21e8119">277</a>]</span>elsewhere +described<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8121src" href="#xd21e8121" name= +"xd21e8121src">13</a> the fate that overtook Colonel Arguelles, in part +because he told the truth as to the humane treatment by the Americans +of prisoners and wounded.</p> +<p>Not only did some of those who did this forfeit their lives, but +newspaper articles, military orders, and proclamations issued by civil +officers informed the people that the American soldiers stole, burned, +robbed, raped and murdered. Especial stress was laid on their alleged +wholesale violations of women, partly to turn the powerful influence of +the women as a whole against them, and partly to show that they were no +better than the Insurgents themselves, who frequently committed +rape.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8129src" href="#xd21e8129" name= +"xd21e8129src">14</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8171" href= +"#xd21e8171" name="xd21e8171">278</a>]</span></p> +<p>These horrible tales were at first believed even by some of the +responsible Insurgent officers in remote regions,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8174src" href="#xd21e8174" name="xd21e8174src">15</a> but all +such men soon learned the truth, which was known to most of them from +the start.</p> +<p>In official correspondence between them, not intended for the +public, orders were given to use women as bearers of despatches for the +reason that Americans did not search them.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8183src" href="#xd21e8183" name="xd21e8183src">16</a> More +significant yet, when conditions <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8191" href="#xd21e8191" name="xd21e8191">279</a>]</span>became +bad in the provinces, Insurgent officers sent their women and children +to seek American protection in Manila or elsewhere. Cartload after +cartload of them came in at Angeles, shortly after General Jacob H. +Smith took that place. Aguinaldo himself followed this procedure, as is +shown by the following extracts from Villa’s famous +diary:<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8193src" href="#xd21e8193" name= +"xd21e8193src">17</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>December 22.</i>—It was 7 A.M. when we +arrived in Ambayuan. Here we found the women worn out from the painful +journey they had suffered. They were seated on the ground. In their +faces were observed indications of the ravages of hunger; but they are +always smiling, saying they would prefer suffering in these mountains +to being under the dominion of the Americans, and that such sacrifices +are the duties of every patriot who loves his country.</p> +<p>“We secured some camotes in this settlement, cooked them +immediately, and everybody had breakfast. Our appetites were +satisfied.</p> +<p>“The honorable president had already decided some days before +to send all the women to Manila, including his family, and this was his +motive in hurrying his family forward with him.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“<i>December 24.</i>—We find ourselves still in Talubin. +About 8 o’clock this morning a report came saying the Americans +had arrived at Bontoc, the provincial capital, the nearest town to +Talubin, and distant from it two hours by the road. An immediate +decision was made. The honourable president told his family and the +other women that they should remain in the settlement and allow +themselves to be caught by the Americans, and he named Señors +Sytiar and Paez to remain also, with the obligation of conducting the +women to Manila. As soon as the arrangement was effected, the +honourable president prepared himself for the march. The parting was a +very sad one for himself and for his family. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8213" href="#xd21e8213" name= +"xd21e8213">280</a>]</span>“The honourable president left Talubin +at 11 o’clock in the morning, his family and the other women +remaining behind with two gentlemen charged with conducting them to +Manila.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8215src" href="#xd21e8215" +name="xd21e8215src">18</a></p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e8219width" id="p037"><img src="images/p037.jpg" +alt="A Scene in the Baguio Teachers’ Camp" width="720" height= +"428"> +<p class="figureHead">A Scene in the Baguio Teachers’ Camp</p> +<p class="first">The houses are for visiting lecturers and persons of +similar rank. The tents are for the teachers.</p> +</div> +<p>In this, as in all other similar cases, the women were kindly +treated and safely conducted to their destination. Aguinaldo and his +fellows knew the happy fate of the members of his own family, as is +shown by a later entry:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<i>February 6.</i>—We have been informed +that the mother and son of the honourable president are at Manila, +living in the house of Don Benito Legarda, and that they reached that +capital long before the wife and sister of the honourable president. We +have also learned that Señor Buencamino, and Tirona, and +Concepcion are prisoners of the American authorities in Manila. With +reference to the wife and sister of the honourable president and the +two Leyba sisters, it is said that they went to Vigan and from there +went by steamer to Manila.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8233src" +href="#xd21e8233" name="xd21e8233src">19</a></p> +</div> +<p>The mother and son, accompanied by Buencamino, had allowed +themselves to be captured at an earlier date. What shall we say of a +leader who would turn his mother, wife, sister and son over to American +soldiers for safekeeping, and then continue to denounce the latter as +murderers, and violaters of women? Aguinaldo did just this. That the +Insurgent leaders were early and fully aware of the treatment accorded +their wounded is shown by the following extract from a letter to +General Moxica of Leyte, dated March 2, 1900, giving instructions as to +what should be done with wounded men:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“If by chance any of our men are wounded on the +field or elsewhere, efforts must be made to take away the rifles and +ammunition at once and carry them away as far as possible, so that they +may not be captured by the enemy; and if the wounded cannot be +immediately removed elsewhere or retreat from the place, let them be +left there, because it is better to save the arms than the men, as +there are many Filipinos to fill up the ranks, but rifles are scarce +and difficult to secure for battle; and besides the Americans, coming +upon any wounded, take good care of them, while the rifles are +destroyed; therefore, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8242" href= +"#xd21e8242" name="xd21e8242">281</a>]</span>I repeat, they must +endeavour to save the arms rather than the men.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8244src" href="#xd21e8244" name= +"xd21e8244src">20</a></p> +</div> +<p>There were some rare individual instances in which uninjured +Filipinos were treated with severity, and even with cruelty, by +American soldiers. They occurred for the most part late in the war when +the “water cure” in mild form was sometimes employed in +order to compel persons who had guilty knowledge of the whereabouts of +firearms to tell what they knew, to the end that the perpetration of +horrible barbarities on the common people, and the assassination of +those who had sought American protection, might the more promptly +cease. Usually the sufferers were themselves bloody murderers, who had +only to tell the truth to escape punishment. The men who performed +these cruel acts knew what treatment was being commonly accorded to +Filipinos, and in some instances to their own comrades. I mention these +facts to explain, not to excuse, their conduct. Cruel acts cannot be +excused, but those referred to seldom resulted in any permanent injury +to the men who suffered them, and were the rare and inevitable +exceptions to the general rule that the war was waged, so far as the +Americans were concerned, with a degree of humanity hitherto +unprecedented under similar conditions. The Insurgents violated every +rule of civilized warfare, yet oathbreakers, spies and men fighting in +citizens’ clothes not only were not shot by the Americans, as +they might very properly have been, but were often turned loose with a +mere warning not to offend again.</p> +<p>The false news circulated to aid the Insurgent cause was by no means +limited to such matters. Every time their troops made a stand they were +promptly defeated and driven back, but their faltering courage was +bolstered up by glorious tidings of wonderful, but wholly imaginary, +victories won elsewhere. It was often reported that many <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8251" href="#xd21e8251" name= +"xd21e8251">282</a>]</span>times more Americans had fallen in some +insignificant skirmish than were actually killed in the whole war, +while generals perished by the dozen and colonels by the thousand. Our +losses on March 27, 1899, in fighting north of Manila, were said to be +twenty-eight thousand. In reality only fifty-six Americans were killed +in all northern Luzón during the entire month.</p> +<p>On April 26, 1899, the governor of Iloilo published the following +remarkable news items among others:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Pavia</span>, April 6th, +1899.</p> +<p>“The Liberating Army of the Visayan Islands to the Local +Presidents of the towns shown on the margin:</p> +<p>“<i>Towns:</i> Santa Barbara, Pavia, Leganes, Zárraga, +Dumangas, Batac Viejo, Tuilao, Batac Nuevo, Banate.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“Santa Ana taken by Americans burning town our troops +advancing to Rosario and Escolta Americans request parley account death +General and officers and many soldiers.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“At 3 P.M. of the 14th battle at Santolan 500 American +prisoners who are to be taken to Malolos.</p> +<p>“At 9.45 P.M. Commissioner Laguna details 6000 more Americans +dead and 600 prisoners.</p> +<p>“Otis requests parley, and our representatives being present, +he tells them to request peace and conditions, to which they replied +that he, and not they, should see to that, so the parley accomplished +nothing.</p> +<p>“To-day, Wednesday, a decisive battle will be fought.</p> +<p>“Among the 5000 prisoners there are two generals. Tomorrow +7.15 Pasig in our power. Americans little by little leaving for +Manila.</p> +<p>“General Malbar to Provincial Chief Batangas.</p> +<p>“According to reports by telegraph hostilities have commenced +and all at Santa Mesa have fallen into our hands, also Pasay and +Maytubig.</p> +<p>“American boat surrendered at Laguna de Bay many prisoners +taken.</p> +<p>“General Ricarte to Provincial Chief of Batangas: Battle +stopped by truce Japan and Germany intervene to learn who provoked war. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8293" href="#xd21e8293" name= +"xd21e8293">283</a>]</span></p> +<p>“Foreigners favor parley one American general and chiefs and +officers dead.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8296src" href= +"#xd21e8296" name="xd21e8296src">21</a></p> +</div> +<p>Santa Ana is a suburb of Manila. The Rosario and Escolta are the +main business streets of the city.</p> +<p>Apparently the Insurgents must have thought that colonels were as +numerous in our army as in theirs, for they reported two thousand of +them killed on February 6, 1899, and threw in one general for good +measure.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8303src" href="#xd21e8303" name= +"xd21e8303src">22</a></p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>We learn from the <i>Filipino Herald</i> for February 23, 1899, that +on that day the Filipino army captured and occupied the suburbs of +Manila, while American troops were besieged in the outskirts of the +city, at La Loma, and in the neighbouring town of Caloocan.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8338src" href="#xd21e8338" name= +"xd21e8338src">23</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8377" href= +"#xd21e8377" name="xd21e8377">284</a>]</span></p> +<p>But why continue. No tale concerning American losses in the +Philippines was too fantastic to be told by the leaders and believed by +the soldiery and the populace. The American soldiers were even said to +be refusing to fight, and great prisons were being constructed in order +properly to punish them.</p> +<p>General MacArthur and his entire staff were captured before March 2, +1900, according to a letter sent to General Moxica of Leyte on that +date.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8383src" href="#xd21e8383" name= +"xd21e8383src">24</a></p> +<p>And what of conditions in the United States during this troubled +period? We learn from the Insurgent records that prior to January 15, +1900, “the Union Army” had met with a new disaster, as a +result of which President McKinley tendered his resignation, being +succeeded by Mr. Bryan. Philippine independence was to be proclaimed on +February 4, 1899. On January 20, “General Otis’s successor, +John Waterly, of the democratic party,” arrived at Manila with +papers and instructions relative to proclaiming the Philippine +Republic.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8388src" href="#xd21e8388" name= +"xd21e8388src">25</a> Things now <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8419" href="#xd21e8419" name="xd21e8419">285</a>]</span>went from +bad to worse. The trouble between democrats and republicans resulted in +an insurrection. Before August, 1901, President McKinley had brought +about strained relations between Germany and the United States by +bribing an anarchist to assassinate the German Emperor.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8421src" href="#xd21e8421" name= +"xd21e8421src">26</a> Before September 15, 1901, he had been killed by +a member of the Democratic party, and the Filipinos could acclaim their +independence.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8424src" href="#xd21e8424" +name="xd21e8424src">27</a></p> +<p>The first period of the war, which we may term the period of +organized armed resistance, drew rapidly to its close, and there +followed the second period, characterized by guerrilla tactics on the +part of the Insurgents.</p> +<p>On September 14, 1899, Aguinaldo accepted the advice of General +Pío del Pilar, ex-bandit, if indeed he had ever ceased to rob +and murder, and authorized this man, whom he had been again and again +asked to remove, to begin guerrilla warfare in Bulacan. Guerrilla +tactics were duly authorized for, and had been adopted by, Insurgent +forces everywhere before the end of November.</p> +<p>Of this style of fighting Taylor has truly said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“If war in certain of its aspects is a temporary +reversion to barbarism, guerrilla warfare is a temporary reversion to +savagery. The man who orders it assumes a grave responsibility before +the people whose fate is in his hands, for serious as is the material +destruction which this method of warfare entails, the destruction to +the orderly habits of mind and thought which, at bottom, are +civilization, is even more serious. Robbery and brigandage, murder and +arson follow in its wake. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8438" +href="#xd21e8438" name="xd21e8438">286</a>]</span></p> +<p>Guerrilla warfare means a policy of destruction, a policy of terror, +and never yet, however great may have been the injury caused by it, +however much it may have prolonged the war in which it has been +employed, has it secured a termination favorable to the people who have +chosen it.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8441src" href="#xd21e8441" +name="xd21e8441src">28</a></p> +</div> +<p>The case under discussion furnished no exception to the general +rule.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e8447width" id="p038"><img src="images/p038.jpg" +alt="The Baguio Country Club" width="720" height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">The Baguio Country Club</p> +</div> +<p>Such semblance of discipline as had previously existed among the +Insurgent soldiers rapidly disappeared. Conditions had been very bad +under the “Republic” and worse during the first period of +the war. During the second period they rapidly became unendurable in +many regions, and the common people were driven into the arms of the +Americans, in spite of threats of death, barbarously carried out by +Insurgent officers, soldiers and agents in thousands of cases. I have +described at some length the conditions which now arose in the chapter +on Murder as a Governmental Agency, to which the reader is referred for +details.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8453src" href="#xd21e8453" name= +"xd21e8453src">29</a></p> +<p>In the effort to protect the towns which showed themselves friendly, +the American forces were divided, subdivided and subdivided again. On +March 1, 1901, they were occupying no less than five hundred two +stations. By December of the same year the number had increased to six +hundred thirty-nine, with an average of less than sixty men to a post. +As a result of the protection thus afforded and of the humane conduct +of our troops, the people turned to us in constantly increasing +numbers.</p> +<p>It remained to stamp out the dying embers of insurrection, while +continuing to seek to protect those who put their trust in us. Further +subdivision of the troops in order to garrison more points was hardly +possible, but field operations were actively pushed. One after another +the Insurgent leaders were captured or voluntarily surrendered. Most +officers of importance issued explanatory statements to the people +shortly after giving up active field operations, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8463" href="#xd21e8463" name= +"xd21e8463">287</a>]</span>whether they surrendered voluntarily or were +taken prisoners. Aguinaldo himself was captured on March 23, 1901, at +Palanan, the northernmost point on the east coast of Luzon inhabited by +civilized people. No place in the islands, inhabited by Filipinos, is +more completely isolated, and he had long been almost entirely cut off +from his followers, many of whom believed him to be dead. On April 19, +1901, he issued an address to the Filipino people, in which he clearly +recognized the fact that they wanted peace. He said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Manila</span>, April 19, +1901.</p> +<p>“To the Filipino People:—</p> +<p>“I believe that I am not in error in presuming that the +unhappy fate to which my adverse fortune has led me is not a surprise +to those who have been familiar day by day with the progress of the +war. The lessons thus taught, the full meaning of which has recently +come to my knowledge, suggested to me with irresistible force that the +complete termination of hostilities and a lasting peace are not only +desirable but absolutely essential to the welfare of the +Philippines.</p> +<p>“The Filipinos have never been dismayed by their weakness, nor +have they faltered in following the path pointed out by their fortitude +and courage. The time has come, however, in which they find their +advance along the path impeded by an irresistible force—a force +which, while it restrains them, yet enlightens the mind and opens +another course by presenting to them the cause of peace. This cause has +been joyfully embraced by a majority of our fellow-countrymen, who have +already united around the glorious and sovereign banner of the United +States. In this banner they repose their trust in the belief that under +its protection our people will attain all the promised liberties which +they are even now beginning to enjoy.</p> +<p>“The country has declared unmistakably in favor of peace; so +be it. Enough of blood; enough of tears and desolation. This wish +cannot be ignored by the men still in arms if they are animated by no +other desire than to serve this noble people which has thus clearly +manifested its will.</p> +<p>“So also do I respect this will now that it is known to me, +and after mature deliberation resolutely proclaim to the world that I +cannot refuse to heed the voice of a people longing for peace, nor the +lamentations of thousands of families yearning <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8481" href="#xd21e8481" name= +"xd21e8481">288</a>]</span>to see their dear ones in the enjoyment of +the liberty promised by the generosity of the great American +nation.</p> +<p>“By acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United +States throughout the entire Archipelago, as I now do without any +reservation whatsoever, I believe that I am serving thee, my beloved +country. May happiness be theirs.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Emilio Aguinaldo</span>.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e8490src" href="#xd21e8490" name="xd21e8490src">30</a></p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Manila</span>, April 19, 1901.”</p> +</div> +<p>This announcement of Aguinaldo, published in Spanish, Tagálog +and English, undoubtedly hastened the end of the war, but it did not +lead to immediate general surrender, for as Taylor has very truly +said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“A force like Aguinaldo’s could not be +surrendered. It had been torn by internal dissensions and the bonds of +discipline had always been very lax. It had originally been held +together by a lively expectation of the advantages to be obtained from +the pillage of Manila. That hope had disappeared, and the leaders had +become the lords of life and property each in his own province. It was +a force which could disintegrate, but which could not surrender. Only +armies can do that. Forces over which their leaders have lost all +except nominal control when beaten do not surrender. They disintegrate +by passing through the stages of guerrilla warfare, of armed bands of +highwaymen, of prowling groups of thieves, of sturdy beggars who at +opportune moments resort to petty larceny.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8504src" href="#xd21e8504" name="xd21e8504src">31</a></p> +</div> +<p>Aguinaldo’s forces now passed through these several stages. +Some of his more important subordinates had previously been captured or +had surrendered. Others, still remaining in the field, now acted on his +advice, more or less promptly. A few remained obdurate for a time, but +as a rule not for long, and soon there remained in the field only a +very limited number of real military leaders, like General Malvar in +Batangas and General Lukban in Samar, and a very considerable number of +bandit chiefs, some of whom had posed as Insurgents. The forces of the +latter were now materially and rapidly augmented by men who had been +Insurgent officers or soldiers and <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8510" href="#xd21e8510" name="xd21e8510">289</a>]</span>while +serving in this capacity had become so enamoured of a lawless life that +they were now unwilling to settle down and work for their daily bread, +preferring to continue to live off their long-suffering +fellow-countrymen, whom they robbed and murdered more mercilessly than +ever.</p> +<p>The war was practically over. The insurrection had failed. In my +opinion no Filipino who held out to the end for independence compared +in intellectual power with Mabini, and I deem his views as to why it +failed worthy of special attention. At the time of his death, he left +behind a memoir from which I quote the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The revolution failed because it was poorly +led, because its head conquered his place, not by meritorious, but by +reprehensible actions, because in place of supporting the men most +useful to the people, he rendered them useless because he was jealous +of them. Believing that the aggrandizement of the people was nothing +more than his own personal aggrandizement, he did not judge the merits +of men by their capacity, character, or patriotism, but by the degree +of friendship and relationship which bound them to him; and wishing to +have his favorites always ready to sacrifice themselves for him, he +showed himself complaisant to their faults. Having thus secured the +people, the people deserted him. And the people having deserted him, he +had to fall like a wax idol melted by the heat of adversity. God forbid +that we should forget so terrible a lesson learned at the cost of +unspeakable sufferings.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8517src" +href="#xd21e8517" name="xd21e8517src">32</a></p> +</div> +<p>These are by no means the only reasons why the revolution failed, +but they foredoomed it to failure.</p> +<p>The surrender or capture of the more respectable military element +left the unsurrendered firearms in the hands of men most of whom were +ignorant, many of whom were criminal, and nearly all of whom were +irresponsible and unscrupulous.</p> +<p>Strict enforcement of the rules of civilized warfare against them +was threatened, but not actually resorted to. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8526" href="#xd21e8526" name= +"xd21e8526">290</a>]</span></p> +<p>The situation was particularly bad in Batangas. General J. F. Bell +was put in charge there, and he found a humane and satisfactory +solution of the existing difficulties in reconcentration—not the +kind of reconcentration which made the Spaniards hated in Cuba, but a +measure of a wholly different sort. This measure and its results have +been concisely described by Taylor, as follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“General Bell said he was as anxious as any one +could be to avoid making war against those who really wanted the +termination of hostilities, and it was his duty to protect them against +the vengeance of others. Over and above all these considerations in +importance, however, was the absolute necessity of making it impossible +for insurgents to procure food by levying contributions. Therefore, in +order to give those who were pacifically inclined an opportunity to +escape hardship, as far as possible, and preserve their food supply for +themselves and their families, it was determined to establish zones of +protection with limits sufficiently near all towns to enable the small +garrisons thereof to give the people living within these zones +efficient protection against ruinous exactions by insurgents. He +accordingly, ‘in order to put an end to enforced contributions +now levied by insurgents upon the inhabitants of sparsely settled and +outlying barrios and districts by means of intimidation and +assassination,’ ordered the commanding officers of all towns in +the provinces of Batangas and Laguna to ‘immediately specify and +establish plainly marked limits surrounding each town bounding a zone +within which it may be practicable, with an average-sized garrison, to +exercise sufficient supervision over and furnish protection to +inhabitants (who desire to be peaceful) against the depredation of +armed insurgents. The limits may include the barrios which exist +sufficiently near the town to be given protection and supervision by +the garrison, and should include some ground on which live stock could +graze, but so situated that it can be patrolled and watched. All +ungarrisoned towns will be garrisoned as soon as troops become +available.</p> +<p>“‘Commanding officers will also see that orders are at +once given and distributed to all the inhabitants within the +jurisdiction of towns over which they exercise supervision, informing +them of the danger of remaining outside of these limits, and that +unless they move by December 25 from outlying barrios and districts, +with all their movable food supplies, including <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8534" href="#xd21e8534" name= +"xd21e8534">291</a>]</span>rice, <i>palay</i>,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8539src" href="#xd21e8539" name="xd21e8539src">33</a> chickens, +live stock, etc., to within the limits of the zone established at their +own or nearest town, their property (found outside of said zone at said +date) will become liable to confiscation or destruction. The people +will be permitted to move houses from outlying districts should they +desire to do so, or to construct temporary shelter for themselves on +any vacant land without compensation to the owner, and no owner will be +permitted to deprive them of the privilege of doing so. In the +discretion of commanding officers the prices of necessities of +existence may also be regulated in the interest of those thus seeking +protection. As soon as peaceful conditions have been reëstablished +in the brigade these persons will be encouraged to return to their +homes, and such assistance be rendered them as may be found +practicable.’</p> +<p>“It was deemed best not to compel the people to enter these +zones; but they were warned that unless they accepted that protection +their property, which consisted almost entirely of food supplies, would +become liable to confiscation or destruction, because it might be +impossible to determine whether it belonged to hostile or peaceful +people. To put an end to vengeance by assassination, it was determined +to make use of the right of retaliation conferred by General Order 100 +issued by President Lincoln in 1863. A circular telegram was published +announcing an intention to retaliate by the execution of prisoners of +war in case any more were assassinated by insurgents for political +reasons. It was not found necessary to do this. Assassinations stopped +at once.</p> +<p>“As the campaign progressed it became more and more apparent +that a large number of poor people had contributed through fear, for +the power of the insurgents to collect came to an end after they had +lost their power of intimidation. The efficiency of the protection +afforded in such zones was the determining factor in forming the +decision and attitude of many of the natives. The protection afforded +was efficient, and from time to time many additional families entered +the zones. The sentiment for peace grew stronger steadily and natives +volunteered assistance to Americans at every hand and in every town. +When these volunteers were trustworthy they were armed and sent out +into the mountains from which they brought back guns, and insurgents, +and hundreds of half-famished men, women, and children who, released +from the intimidating influence of the insurgents, entered the zones of +protection. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8546" href="#xd21e8546" +name="xd21e8546">292</a>]</span></p> +<p>“The most serious discomfort experienced by any one within +these areas was caused to the <i>mestizo</i> ruling group, whose +members bitterly resented the blow to their prestige in being treated +like every one else. They had been accustomed to have others work for +them and obey them blindly. To a man who could speak Spanish and who +had always been the lord of his <i>barrio</i>,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8555src" href="#xd21e8555" name="xd21e8555src">34</a> the +possibility of having to cultivate a field with his own hands was an +unthinkable and scandalous thing. These men suffered and suffered +acutely; but it was not their bodies which suffered—it was their +pride.</p> +<p>“Malvar surrendered on April 16, 1902. Most of the people had +turned against their once highly respected chief, and toward the end +several thousand natives of Batangas joined the Americans in their +determined hunt for the fugitive leader. Realization of the fact that +the people were against him materially aided in forcing his +surrender.</p> +<p>“General Bell had captured or forced to surrender some 8000 to +10,000 persons actively engaged, in one capacity or another, in the +insurrection. These prisoners were rapidly released when they had taken +the oath of allegiance. By the first week of July no political +prisoners were held in this region. They had returned to their +homes.</p> +<p>“The policy of concentrating the people in protected zones and +destroying the food which was used for the maintenance of guerrilla +bands was not new. There had been precedents even in the United States. +One of these is the order issued on August 25, 1863, by +Brigadier-General Ewing, commanding the district of the border, with +headquarters at Kansas City, Mo., in which he ordered the inhabitants +of a large part of three counties of that State to remove from their +residences within fifteen days to the protection of the military +stations which he had established. All grain and hay in that district +was ordered to be taken to those military stations. If it was not +convenient to so dispose of it, it would be burned (Rebellion Records, +Series I, Vol. XXII, Part II, p. 473). The American commanders in the +Philippines had adopted no new method of procedure in dealing with war +traitors; they had, however, effectively employed an old one.</p> +<p>“The insurrection had originated among the Tagálogs and +had spread like a conflagration from the territory occupied by them. +The fire had been quenched everywhere else. General Bell had now +stamped out the embers in the Tagálog provinces. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8566" href="#xd21e8566" name= +"xd21e8566">293</a>]</span></p> +<p>“On July 2 the Secretary of War telegraphed that the +insurrection against the sovereign authority of the United States in +the Philippines having come to an end, and provincial civil governments +having been established throughout the entire territory of the +archipelago not inhabited by Moro tribes, the office of military +governor in the archipelago was terminated. On July 4, 1902, the +President of the United States issued a proclamation of amnesty +proclaiming, with certain reservations, a full and complete pardon and +amnesty to all persons in the Philippine Archipelago who had +participated in the insurrection.”</p> +</div> +<p>General Bell’s motives and methods in reconcentrating the +inhabitants of this troubled region have been grossly misrepresented, +and he himself has been sadly maligned. He is the most humane of men, +and the plan which he adopted resulted in the reëstablishment of +law and order at a minimum cost of human suffering.</p> +<p>Many of the occupants of his reconcentration camps received there +their first lessons in hygienic living. Many of them were reluctant to +leave the camps and return to their homes when normal conditions again +prevailed.</p> +<p>The number of Filipinos killed during the Batangas campaign was very +small.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8576src" href="#xd21e8576" name= +"xd21e8576src">35</a> Blount has sought to make it appear that partly +as an indirect consequence of war there was dreadful mortality there, +citing by way of proof the fact that the Coast and Geodetic Atlas, +published as a part of the report of the first Philippine Commission, +gave the population of Batangas as 312,192, while the census of 1903 +gave it as 257,715.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8579src" href= +"#xd21e8579" name="xd21e8579src">36</a></p> +<p>The report of the United States Philippine Commission for 1903 gives +the population of Manila as 221,000, while in 1900 it had been 260,000. +Does this mean that there had been a holocaust in Manila? Not at all. +It means <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8584" href="#xd21e8584" +name="xd21e8584">294</a>]</span>only that the thousands of Filipinos +who had sought the protection of the American forces there during the +period when they feared their own soldiers in the provinces had mostly +returned to their homes. During the disturbed period in Batangas great +numbers of people took refuge in other and more peaceful regions. Some +of them returned later; others did not.</p> +<p>Blount further quotes a statement in the 1901 report of the +Provincial Secretary of Batangas to the effect that:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The mortality, caused no longer by the war, but +by disease, such as malaria and dysentery, has reduced to a little over +200,000 the more than 300,000 inhabitants which in former years the +province had.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8591src" href= +"#xd21e8591" name="xd21e8591src">37</a></p> +</div> +<p>Apart from the fact that these figures, showing a mortality of a +hundred thousand from disease alone, are hardly consistent with those +quoted by Blount as showing a decrease in population during a longer +period of only fifty-four thousand four hundred and forty-seven, it is +not apparent why Americans should be charged with deaths due to malaria +or dysentery, since no systematic effort to rid Batangas of these ills +had ever previously been made, and the very thing which then prevented +the adoption of the measures subsequently so successfully put forth to +this end was the disorderly conduct of the people themselves. As a +simple matter of fact, however, there was no such dreadful mortality +from these diseases at this time. Malaria has never been especially bad +in this province, and even cholera, which swept it during the period in +question and is far more readily communicated than is dysentery, caused +only twenty-three hundred and ninety-nine known deaths.</p> +<p>In the end peace was established and prosperity followed in its +wake.</p> +<p>This result was brought about in part by the efficient activity of +the armed forces of the United States and in part by the efforts of the +first and second Philippine Commissions.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8601src" href="#xd21e8601" name="xd21e8601src">38</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8610" href="#xd21e8610" name= +"xd21e8610">295</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7779" href="#xd21e7779src" name="xd21e7779">1</a></span> +“To the Military Chiefs of the towns mentioned in the margin</p> +<p class="footnote">[there is nothing in the +margin.—TR.]:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“As there are still many soldiers paying no +notice to the order forbidding the waste of cartridges, you are +required to give a certain amount of ammunition to each soldier and to +see every day if there is any cartridge missing, and if so, inquire +into the reason. In order that this may be successfully carried out, I +have deemed it proper to prescribe the punishment for such offence, of +which you will inform the soldiers under your command, and post this +circular in a prominent place. Said punishments are as +follows:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 1. A soldier +found wasting ammunition shall be punished with 12 lashes; in case he +commits the same offence again he shall be punished with 24 lashes; and +on a further offence of like character by the same soldier, he shall be +court-martialled and severely punished.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 2. A soldier +who has been found short of even one cartridge out of the ammunition +assigned to him, shall be punished with 12 lashes, provided that he has +not previously been in any engagement.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Art</span>. 3. A soldier +who has been found with no cartridges by reason of throwing them away +during an engagement, shall be court-martialled, and severely +punished.</p> +<p class="footnote">“I most earnestly recommend you to carefully +look after your soldiers and see that every one is complying with the +foregoing order.</p> +<p class="footnote">“This order should be transmitted from one +town to another mentioned in the margin, and the last one should return +it to this office <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7805" href= +"#xd21e7805" name="xd21e7805">271n</a>]</span>with the information that +the same has been received and complied with by all.</p> +<p class="footnote">“May God guard you many years.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">E. Aguinaldo</span>, +Dictator.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Cavite</span>, June 17th, +1898.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 1124. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7826" href="#xd21e7826src" name="xd21e7826">2</a></span> +“November 16, 1900.</p> +<p class="footnote">(Stamp) “<span class="sc">Lacuna Brigade. +Headquarters</span>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Major Thomas +Tagunton</span>: Advise all officers of this brigade that he who allows +his soldiers to load their rifles without being before the enemy, shall +be liable to capital punishment. If the soldiers intentionally or +otherwise fire their pieces, whether in the air or at any determined or +undetermined person, said soldiers and the officers to whose command +they belong shall also be liable to the same punishment as above, +without further proceedings, for the reason that we are almost in front +of the enemy, and all the more if the shots take effect upon any of the +soldiers or chiefs.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Sergeants and corporals shall also take heed +of the present warnings, as they will also be given the same punishment +if they by abandoning their squads allow them to commit certain +outrages.</p> +<p class="footnote">“You will report receipt of and compliance +with this order.</p> +<p class="footnote">“God preserve you many years.</p> +<p class="footnote">“General Headquarters, November 16, 1900.</p> +<p class="footnote">(Signed) “<span class="sc">Lacuna</span>, +General, Political-Military Governor and Chief of +Operations.”—P.I.R., 643. 1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7859" href="#xd21e7859src" name="xd21e7859">3</a></span> Taylor, +AJ. 85.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7870" href="#xd21e7870src" name="xd21e7870">4</a></span> +“<span class="sc">Kabatúan</span>, Oct. 14th, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Edict</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Martín F. Delgado, +General and Politico-Military Governor of the Province of +Iloílo</span>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“As a consequence of the frequent assaults +and robberies committed by persons wearing military uniforms, and with +the determination to correct, with a firm hand, such scandalous +conduct, which, besides causing such deeds to be laid at the door of +the military, also makes it easier for evil-doers to commit their +misdeeds, I have, at the suggestion of the Councillor of Police, +ordered the following:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“1. From this date forward all private +citizens are absolutely prohibited from wearing military uniforms.</p> +<p class="footnote">“2. All authorities, both civil and military, +under this Government, are obliged to see to the strict enforcements of +this edict.</p> +<p class="footnote">“3. All persons who, not being in the +military service, are, after the publication of this edict, found +wearing military uniforms, and who cannot show that they are in the +military service, will be suspected as evil-doers and will be sent to +this Government to be subjected to the corresponding corrective +measures.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">(Signed) “<span class="sc">Martín +Delgado</span>,</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class= +"sc">Governor-General-President</span>.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 881. 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7911" href="#xd21e7911src" name="xd21e7911">5</a></span> +“On April 10, 1899, General Delgado wrote that, benignity having +failed, rigorous methods would be used to enforce collections and that +if the people did not pay—</p> +<p class="footnote">“‘I shall, with great pain, see myself +under the necessity of withdrawing all my forces to the mountains and +leaving them [the pueblos] to the fate which God will decide +upon,’ which of course meant that he <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7916" href="#xd21e7916" name= +"xd21e7916">273n</a>]</span>would leave them to the mercy of the +bandits who stood ready to descend upon them.”—P.I.R., B., +4.</p> +<p class="footnote">“This threat was not an idle +one.”—Taylor, 67 HS. E-L.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7925" href="#xd21e7925src" name="xd21e7925">6</a></span> +“<span class="sc">Santa Cruz, Laguna</span>, July, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Hon. Sr. Emilio +Aguinaldo</span>....</p> +<p class="footnote">“There was a notorious bandit here who was +the terror of the province with his gang; I had him arrested and shot +and the robberies ceased. Murders were being committed; I had the +murderers caught, shot one of them, and there were no more murders; +officers of the reserve would consider themselves kings in their towns, +they would shoot the local <i>presidentes</i> and commit other unlawful +acts; I disarmed them, and tried the most celebrated one, called +Arcadio Castillo, alias Bancucane, who attempted to escape and was +killed. With the death of these persons order has been completely +reëstablished in this province. Several had rifles that were used +only for robbery and after two or three trials all turned over their +rifles, and the arming of the battalion was completed.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">(Signed) “<span class="sc">Juan +Cailles</span>.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 7 & 8.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e7956" href="#xd21e7956src" name="xd21e7956">7</a></span> +“<span class="sc">Regional Revolutionary Government of the +Visayas</span>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Office of the +President</span>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Kabatúan</span>, +March 16, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">To the Honourable President +of the Philippine Republic</span>,</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Señor Emilio +Aguinaldo y Famy</span>,</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Most Distinguished +President</span>:</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">“In order to avoid the distress which the +knowledge of the abuses which are already unbearable, daily committed +by the troops of Señor Diocno, will cause you, this government +has hesitated to communicate them to you, but, as there is almost a +reign of terror here, it feels that it must inform you of them in order +to remedy them. The death of private individuals and assaults committed +in the towns are daily <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e7991" href= +"#xd21e7991" name="xd21e7991">274n</a>]</span>reported as having been +committed by the troops of General Diocno. Of the numerous companies of +Señor Diocno, only two under the orders of General Araneta fight +against the enemy, the remainder are the terror of the town and it is a +week since Sr. Diocno went to Capiz without telling any one what he was +going to do.</p> +<p class="footnote">“In view of the facts pointed out, the +soldiers of this General constituting a constant danger to the town, +this government asks you to order General Diocno to turn over his +rifles to us to kill Americans with and to enable the towns to recover +their former tranquillity; this government asks this of you, relying +upon the well-known justice with which you act and it wishes for you +many years of life for our liberty and our independence.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Kabatúan</span>, +March 16, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">(Signed) “<span class="sc">Jovito +Yusay</span>,</p> +<p class="footnote">“<i>Temporary President.</i></p> +<p class="footnote">(Signed) “<span class="sc">Francisco +Soriano</span>,</p> +<p class="footnote">“<i>General Secretary.</i>”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., 52. 5.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8028" href="#xd21e8028src" name="xd21e8028">8</a></span> +“Martin Delgado y Bermejo, lieutenant general and general in +chief of the republican army of the Visayan Islands.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">General Headquarters of +Santa Barbara</span>,</p> +<p class="footnote">“April 20, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The existence of a state of war, and the +trying circumstances through which the country is now passing have +brought about a complete change in the order of nearly all the pueblos; +and I have noticed with profound regret that sacking, robbery, +sequestrations, and other crimes highly dishonourable to our noble +cause, are of daily occurrence. With a view to preventing such conduct +in the future, and in order to guarantee to the inhabitants of the +military district under my command the most complete tranquillity, I +hereby decree:</p> +<p class="footnote">“1. That any person or persons who commit +acts of brigandage, sequestration, incendiarism, rape, or other +disturbances of a public nature calculated to excite the public, or +which infringe individual or property rights, shall be severely +punished in accordance with military law.</p> +<p class="footnote">“2. That all offenders who present themselves +to the Local or Military Authorities within the 30 days immediately +following this date, and who turn over their arms and join our forces +and help to fight other outlaws and to defend the nation, will be +pardoned for the crimes they have committed.</p> +<p class="footnote">“3. That when the period of 30 days above +mentioned has passed, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8046" href= +"#xd21e8046" name="xd21e8046">275n</a>]</span>any person taken in the +act of committing robbery, or who attempts to rob with an organized +band of outlaws, or who steals, rapes, or performs acts of +incendiarism, or any other criminal act, will be summarily condemned to +death by a military tribunal.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The Local Juntas of the various towns in +conjunction with citizens of standing and the military authorities will +organize a vigilance service to maintain public order and the authority +of the law.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">M. +Delgado</span>.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—P.I.R., Books B 4.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8061" href="#xd21e8061src" name="xd21e8061">9</a></span> +“February 13, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">(In the margin: A stamp which says:) +“Philippine Republic—Headquarters of operations of the +provinces of Southern Luzón.</p> +<p class="footnote">“It is with great regret that I have learned +that robberies, assaults, kidnapping, and other crimes which are +committed only by barbarous and savage tribes, are taking place in our +towns, without taking into consideration that the purpose of the +insurrection which has given origin to our social regeneration is true +justice, for the reëstablishment of which the lives and property +are being sacrificed of all who are proud of being called Filipinos. +These acts are being committed without restriction by civilians as well +as soldiers perhaps with the coöperation of their respective +chiefs, to the shame of the authority vested in them and to the +prejudice of the society to which they unworthily belong, and even to +the integrity itself of the Republic. And in order that these barbarous +and savage acts may disappear and that rigorous and exemplary +punishment be meted out, I have deemed it proper to forward to you for +general information the proclamation of these Headquarters of February +12th last, which is as follows”:</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">(Signed) “<span class="sc">Mariano +Trias</span>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<i>Lieutenant-General</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">To the Politico-Military +Chief of Infanta</span>.”—P.I.R., 896–9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8095" href="#xd21e8095src" name="xd21e8095">10</a></span> +“There does not seem to have been the faintest conception that +there was any reason for not using the white flag to deceive people who +were foolish enough to believe that Aguinaldo was going to adhere to +the rules prescribed for its use. The writer in the early spring of +1899 once watched an insurgent party advance under a white flag upon an +American line of trenches. When an officer and a bugler went forward to +receive them they threw down the flag and immediately opened fire with +the rifles which they were then seen to be dragging behind +them.”—<span class="sc">Taylor</span>, 48 HS.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8101" href="#xd21e8101src" name="xd21e8101">11</a></span> +“Such ammunition was not effective unless fired from very close +quarters, but even its possession made the guerrillas stronger than the +people of the country and undoubtedly had much to do with securing +their coöperation, not only as bolomen but also in the digging of +the pits which were placed in the trails and also set about the towns. +These were required to be constructed by the local authorities. In the +bottom was set a sharp spike of bamboo, sometimes poisoned; and the pit +was covered with leaves and soil upon a fragile framework; so that if a +man stood upon it he would fall through upon the spike. Bows were set +in the jungle with a string set across the trail so that any one +stumbling over it would discharge a sharp bamboo shaft with a poisoned +head. On September 18, 1900, Lukban congratulated the people of the +town of Katubig upon the efficient use they had made of arrows with the +heads dipped in ‘dita,’ a native poison. (P.I.R., 502. +8.)”</p> +<p class="footnote">—<span class="sc">Taylor</span>, 83 HS.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8110" href="#xd21e8110src" name="xd21e8110">12</a></span> See +also the chapter entitled “Murder as a Governmental +Institution.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8121" href="#xd21e8121src" name="xd21e8121">13</a></span> See p. +313.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8129" href="#xd21e8129src" name="xd21e8129">14</a></span> The +following newspaper supplement printed in Tagálog for the +benefit of the common people, is typical of this class of literature, +with which the country was kept flooded:</p> +<p class="footnote">(Circular printed in Tagálog. P.I.R., +17–6. Supplement to <i>Heraldo Filipino</i>.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Friday, 24th February, 1899.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Countrymen</span>:</p> +<p class="footnote">“We must consider ourselves fortunate that +the bad intentions of North America were found out early. If we had not +found them out by this time we should have been entrapped. And we +should thank God that they commenced the war.</p> +<p class="footnote">“You ought to know by this time that these +people can teach us nothing good. What we can learn from them is all +evil. You must admit the truth of what they are reported to do to our +brothers in Manila where they rob the houses when the dwellers in them +are out or busy. Their evil inclinations prevail over them to such an +extent that the houses most worthy of consideration are not safe. They +are worse than the wild people who live in the woods, they have not the +slightest idea of looking at things from the point of view of a man of +honour nor have they the slightest respect for reason, for this does +not control their actions in the least. Without the slightest attention +to civility they rush into houses and if they find the people eating, +without saying a word, they take what they want from the table, put it +into their mouths and go as they came.</p> +<p class="footnote">“If they find people sleeping or resting, +taking the siesta, it makes no difference to them; they go into the +most private parts of the house as though they were walking in the +street.</p> +<p class="footnote">“In the shops they take what pleases them and +if the owner wants payment they threaten him with their rifles. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8152" href="#xd21e8152" name= +"xd21e8152">278n</a>]</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“One can hardly believe and my pen refuses to +write all of the perversity, and evil and bad habits of these +people.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Their habits and manners are a disgrace to +the country where they were born. In no history have such customs and +manners been described even in that of the most ignorant people.</p> +<p class="footnote">“They search women who pass, feeling all over +their bodies, taking from them money and whatever else they carry and +if they come on them in a lonely place they strip them naked after +violating them and do not leave a rag on them.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Are these those honest men of whom we have +heard? Are these the people who were going to teach us good habits? Are +these the people who were going to guide us? The race which does these +things is the most hated one in the world, it is the race which commits +most cruelties, it is the race which does not treat its mother with +respect; in this race there is not the slightest idea of personal +dignity, it is a race which does not know what honour is, which does +not possess the slightest vestige of regard for good manners. Are these +the people who are going to protect us? It is better for us to die at +once than fall into the power of these unequalled malefactors.</p> +<p class="footnote">“¡Down with the bad men!</p> +<p class="footnote">“¡Kill the Americans!!</p> +<p class="footnote">“¡Let the people of the United States +be exterminated!!!</p> +<p class="footnote">“¡Notice.—This sheet is +distributed gratis.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8174" href="#xd21e8174src" name="xd21e8174">15</a></span> +“A light upon the treatment of women by these people is given by +the fact that after an American detachment had captured Lukban’s +papers and family on August 18, and came so close to taking him that he +was able to recognize their guide, one of his correspondents wrote to +him that to their surprise the women, who had fully expected to be +abused, had been treated with respect and given a house to live in. +(P.I.R., 1143.4.)”—<span class="sc">Taylor</span>, 84 +HS.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8183" href="#xd21e8183src" name="xd21e8183">16</a></span> In a +letter to General Ambrosio Moxica from ——— dated +March 2, 1900, occurs the following:—</p> +<p class="footnote">“The guerillas quartered in the neighbourhood +must render mutual assistance and keep up communication, so as to get +the news as to where the enemy comes or goes, and the time at which +they will pass certain points, endeavouring also to arrange that all +the guerilla bands should have regular couriers, with you or with +general headquarters, giving advice daily of any occurrence and +carrying correspondence. They <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8188" +href="#xd21e8188" name="xd21e8188">279n</a>]</span>must select +trustworthy women to carry correspondence, charging them to hide the +letters underneath their skirts, bearing in mind that the Americans do +not search them; and in sending to the towns for arms or food, the +orders must be sent by women and for small quantities, so as not to +attract attention.”—P.I.R., 2035. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8193" href="#xd21e8193src" name="xd21e8193">17</a></span> Simeon +Villa, who accompanied Aguinaldo on his long flight, kept a somewhat +detailed account of events in the form of a diary.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8215" href="#xd21e8215src" name="xd21e8215">18</a></span> P.I.R., +869.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8233" href="#xd21e8233src" name="xd21e8233">19</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8244" href="#xd21e8244src" name="xd21e8244">20</a></span> P.I.R., +2035. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8296" href="#xd21e8296src" name="xd21e8296">21</a></span> P.I.R., +886. 13.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8303" href="#xd21e8303src" name="xd21e8303">22</a></span> Exhibit +1233</p> +<p class="footnote">(Original in Spanish. Contemporary copy. P.I.R., +Books B. 4.)</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">General Headquarters, Santa +Barbara</span>, Feb. 28th, 1899.”</p> +<p class="footnote">(Literal copy of telegram.)</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">“Casualties, Americans, on 6th, 2000 Colonels +dead, one General; all churches converted into hospitals full American +wounded; total American casualties 7000 confirmed by General +Fullón just arrived from Malolos; says also Iloílo quiet +and not taken.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">“A true copy</p> +<p class="footnote">“By order of Chief of Staff.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Juan +Beloso</span>.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8338" href="#xd21e8338src" name="xd21e8338">23</a></span> +(Supplement to the <i>Filipino Herald</i>.)</p> +<p class="footnote">“Thursday, Feb. 23rd, 1899.—4 P.M.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The Filipino Army occupies the suburbs of +Manila.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p class="footnote">“The three columns commanded by Generals +Pío del Pilar and Licerio and Col. Hizon now occupy the suburbs +of Sampaloc, San Miguel, San Sebastian, Binondo, San Nicholas and +Tondo.</p> +<p class="footnote">“The Cavite battalion has possession of the +Cuartel de Meisic and our flag is now flying there.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Six Thousand Americans +Besieged!!!</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“The American troops now in Caloocan and La +Loma to the number of over six thousand are besieged by the columns +commanded by Generals Luna, Llanera and García. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8361" href="#xd21e8361" name= +"xd21e8361">284n</a>]</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">The Honourable +President</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“This very moment the special train carrying +the Honourable President has left for Caloocan.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Viva the independent Philippines!!!</p> +<p class="footnote">“Viva the unconquerable Philippine +Army!!!</p> +<p class="footnote">“Notice. This sheet is distributed +gratis.”—P.I.R., 70–6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8383" href="#xd21e8383src" name="xd21e8383">24</a></span> (News.) +The American General, MacArthur, with his entire staff, was taken +prisoner by our troops in Northern Luzón. Another American +general died on the 5th of January last in the North, who was seriously +wounded in an ambush or fight. When shot he was a colonel, but on +account of said fight he was promoted to the rank of a general, so that +later when he died, he had the benefit of that +rank.”—P.I.R., 2035. 3.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8388" href="#xd21e8388src" name="xd21e8388">25</a></span> +(Telegrams)</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Washington</span>, January +15, 1900, 10 A.M.</p> +<p class="footnote">“(Received, Cebú, January 16, 1900, 11 +A.M.)</p> +<p class="footnote">“Owing to a new disaster of the Union Army, +MacKinley has tendered his resignation as President, Mr. Bryan +succeeding him.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Peace promulgated in the Philippines. Basis +of the protectorate is being discussed.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Philippine independence will be proclaimed +February the 4th. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8404" href= +"#xd21e8404" name="xd21e8404">285n</a>]</span></p> +<p class="footnote">“Remark.—The basis of a protectorate +has been published in English.”</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Manila</span>, January 20, +1900, 10 A.M.</p> +<p class="footnote">“(Received at Cebú on the same day, at +11 A.M.)</p> +<p class="footnote">“Otis’ successor, John Waterly, of the +democratic party, has just arrived. He brings with him papers and +instructions in regard to proclamation of the Philippine Republic.</p> +<p class="footnote">“It is believed that Rev. Martin, Bishop of +Cebú, will be transferred to the Archbishopric of Manila, and +Rev. Nozaleda to Spain.”—P.I.R., Books B-10.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8421" href="#xd21e8421src" name="xd21e8421">26</a></span> P.I.R., +1193. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8424" href="#xd21e8424src" name="xd21e8424">27</a></span> +<i>Ibid.,</i> 2025.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8441" href="#xd21e8441src" name="xd21e8441">28</a></span> Taylor, +47 HS.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8453" href="#xd21e8453src" name="xd21e8453">29</a></span> +Beginning on page 730.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8490" href="#xd21e8490src" name="xd21e8490">30</a></span> Taylor, +36 GV, Exhibit 1017.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8504" href="#xd21e8504src" name="xd21e8504">31</a></span> Taylor, +28 HS.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8517" href="#xd21e8517src" name="xd21e8517">32</a></span> P.I.R., +1021.6.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8539" href="#xd21e8539src" name="xd21e8539">33</a></span> +Unhusked rice.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8555" href="#xd21e8555src" name="xd21e8555">34</a></span> +Village.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8576" href="#xd21e8576src" name="xd21e8576">35</a></span> 153, +according to Blount himself.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8579" href="#xd21e8579src" name="xd21e8579">36</a></span> +“Nor can the ultimate responsibility before the bar of history +for the awful fact that, according to the United States Coast and +Geodetic Survey Atlas of the Philippines of 1899, the population of +Batangas province was 312,192, and according to the American Census of +the Philippines of 1903, it was 257,715, rest entirely on military +shoulders.”—Blount, pp. 383–384.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8591" href="#xd21e8591src" name="xd21e8591">37</a></span> Blount, +p. 597.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8601" href="#xd21e8601src" name="xd21e8601">38</a></span> See +Chapters <a href="#ch11">XI</a> and <a href="#ch12">XII</a>.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch10" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e319">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter X</h2> +<h2 class="main">Mr. Bryan and Independence</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">In order to bring home to some of my Democratic and +Anti-Imperialist friends the unreliable character of the testimony of +even the very high officers of the so-called Philippine Republic, I +here quote certain extracts from the Insurgent records, showing the +important part played, doubtless unwittingly, by Mr. William Jennings +Bryan in Philippine politics during the war. The first of these might +properly have been considered in the chapter entitled “Was +Independence Promised?” Others are instructive in that they show +the use made of false news in bolstering up the Insurgent cause, and +might with propriety have been included in the chapter on “The +Conduct of the War.” I have thought it best to keep them by +themselves. Further comment on them would seem to be superfluous.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On May 1, 1900 (P.I.R., 516.6), I. de los +Santos wrote a long letter in Tagálog and cipher to Aguinaldo, +in which he reported upon the progress of what he would have probably +called the diplomatic campaign. If this letter is to be believed, the +agents in the United States of the junta had been able to form +relations which might be of great value to them. Santos said in +part:—</p> +<p>“‘Commissioners... Señores Kant (G. Apacible) and +Raff (Sixto López) duly carried out your last instructions given +at Tárlac. Señor Del Pan, sailing by way of Japan, about +the middle of October, and Señor Caney (G. Apacible), sailing by +way of Europe about the 1st of November, met in Toronto about the +middle of February following. But before the arrival of Kant, Raff had +already come from Hayti (United States) and was able to pry in upon our +political friends and enemies. When they met each other they continued +the voyage incognito, as Raft had done previously, making themselves +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8623" href="#xd21e8623" name= +"xd21e8623">296</a>]</span>known to a very few people; but later on, +and according to the instructions carried by Caney, they made +themselves known to a greater number of people, and have succeeded in +interviewing Bryan who happened to be in New York. Señor Raff +said that Bryan feared being present at a conference, lest he might be +called a traitor by members of his own party, and also by those of the +opposite or “imperialist” party, who are quite proud over +the victories they have gained against our people over there. +Nevertheless, Raff was able to be present and talk at some of the +anti-imperialist meetings, our political friends introducing him as a +friend from the committee (at Hongkong) and as an advocate of the +cessation of the war over there in order that our sacred rights may be +given consideration by them. And as Bryan could not personally take +part in the conference, he sent a most trusted person, his right-hand +man, Dr. Gardner. The results of the conference between Señor +Raff and Dr. Gardner, the latter acting in the name of Mr. Bryan, are +as follows:—</p> +<p>“‘1st. That we may fight on, and Bryan will never cease +to defend our sacred rights. 2nd. That we must never mention +Bryan’s name in our manifestos and proclamations, lest the +opposite party might say he is a traitor. 3rd. That we are in the +right; and hence he promised in the name of Bryan that if this +Señor Bryan is victorious in the presidential campaign, he will +recognize our independence without delay. Your honored self can easily +conclude from all the foregoing that Señor Del Pan, after the +receipt of these promises, concurred with him; and he returned to +inform Señor Apacible about the results of the conference. So +these two studied over the plan of the policy to be adopted and carried +out. I write you what their opinions are, viz.: 1st, that they will +reside there, pending the outcome of the presidential contest, aiding +the propaganda and enlivening it until November, the date set for the +desired thing. Owing to what Dr. Gardner said and promised in the name +of Bryan, some one ought to stay there in order that Bryan may be +approached, if he is elected, so he can sign the recognition of our +independence; and this should be done at once, lest in his excitement +over the victory he should forget his promise. 3rd. For carrying out +the two propositions just mentioned, they request 2000 pounds sterling, +that is $20,000 in silver, to be used for the propaganda, for paying +newspapers and for bribing senators—this last clause is somewhat +dangerous and impossible. And 4th, that the money must be sent +immediately, and that you should be <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8627" href="#xd21e8627" name="xd21e8627">297</a>]</span>informed +not to mention the name of Bryan in the manifestos and +proclamations.</p> +<p>“‘In order to answer quickly and decisively that +proposition, and as I did not have the desired money here, I answered +as follows: “Plan approved; for the sake of economy we have +decided that one of the two retire, but before doing so make +arrangements, establish communications with leaders of Bryan’s +party, and he who remains should thus cultivate the relations; he who +is to retire will locate himself in Paris near Señor Katipalad +(Agoncillo) with whom he will secretly discuss political problems that +may arise. So he will watch for the opportune moment of Bryan’s +election, in order to go immediately to Hayti and formally arrange the +contract with Bryan.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8631src" href= +"#xd21e8631" name="xd21e8631src">1</a></p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“‘By the end of 1899, by the time guerrilla warfare was +well under way, by the time that any Filipino government, unless an +expression of the unfettered will of the nearest bandit who can muster +a dozen rifles may be called a government, had ceased to exist, a +strong opposition to the policy of the administration had arisen in the +United States and a demand for the recognition of the independence of +the Philippines. The junta in Hongkong were assured that the Democratic +party would come into power in the next elections and that this would +mean the success of the patriotic efforts of Aguinaldo and his +followers. The news was good and was forthwith spread abroad in +“Extracts from our correspondence with America,” +“News from our foreign agents,” “News from +America,” and “Translations from the foreign +press”—circulars and handbills printed on thin paper which +were smuggled into the Philippines and passed into the hands of the +guerrilla leaders who could read Spanish. They gathered their followers +about them and told them that a powerful party had arisen in America +which was going to give them all they had ever asked for. They had only +to fight on, for success was certain. In America the +“Anti-imperialists” were hanging the +“Imperialists,” and they should continue to harry the +American adherents among the natives of the Philippines.</p> +<p>“‘There are a number of these publications among the +papers captured from the insurgents, and the adoption of this method of +propaganda seems to have been nearly coincident with Aguinaldo’s +orders declaring guerrilla warfare. It does not <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8640" href="#xd21e8640" name= +"xd21e8640">298</a>]</span>seem likely that the matter contained in +them was supplied by a Filipino, for if it was he assumed a general +acquaintance among the people with American politics and American +methods which they were far from possessing.</p> +<p>“‘In these publications the Filipinos were assured that +the Imperialists were kept in power only by the lavish contributions of +the “truts,” whatever they may have been; but the people of +the United States were growing weary of their domination and were about +to return to the true principles of Washington and Jefferson. The +illustrious Americans “Crosvy Stickney, and Vartridge” were +all laboring for the cause of Philippine independence. Long lists of +American cities were given in which the illustrious orators Mr. Croshy +and Mr. Schurts had addressed applauding crowds upon the necessity of +throttling the “truts” because they opposed recognition of +the rights of the Filipinos. In August, 1900, “News from our +agents in America” informed its readers that—</p> +<p>“‘“W. J. Bryan has stated in a speech that his +first act upon being elected President will be to declare the +independence of the Philippines.”</p> +<p>“‘On June 16, 1900, Gen. Riego de Dios, acting head of +the Hongkong junta, wrote to Gen. I. Torres (P.I.R., 530), the +guerrilla commander in Bulacán Province, and assured him that a +little more endurance, a little more constancy, was all that was needed +to secure the attainment of their ends. According to their advices the +Democratic party would win in the approaching elections in the United +States, and—“it is certain that Bryan is the incarnation of +our independence.”</p> +<p>“‘The number of men opposed to the policy of the +administration was said to be continually increasing.</p> +<p>“‘The attitude of those who protect us cannot be more +manly and resolute: “Continue the struggle until you conquer or +die.” Mr. Beecher of the League in Cincinnati writes us: “I +shall always be the champion of the cause of justice and of +truth,” says Mr. Winslow of the Boston League. “Not even +threats of imprisonment will make me cease in my undertaking,” +Doctor Denziger assures us. “I shall accept every risk and +responsibility,” says Doctor Leverson. “If it is necessary, +I shall go so far as to provoke a revolution in my own country,” +repeats Mr. Udell. “It is necessary to save the Republic and +democracy from the abyss of imperialism and save the worthy Filipinos +from oppression and extermination” is cried by all, and the sound +of this cry is ever rising louder and louder.’”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8652src" href="#xd21e8652" name= +"xd21e8652src">2</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8655" href="#xd21e8655" name= +"xd21e8655">299</a>]</span></p> +<p>Extract from a letter of Papa Isio<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8658src" href="#xd21e8658" name="xd21e8658src">3</a> dated March +4, 1901:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“I have received from Luzón an order to +proceed more rapidly with my operations this month, as Bryan ordered +Emilío to keep the war going vigorously until April, and he also +said that if independence was not given the Philippines by that time, +he, Bryan, and his followers would rise in arms against the +oppressors.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8664src" href= +"#xd21e8664" name="xd21e8664src">4</a></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Tarlac</span>, Oct. 26, +1899.</p> +<p>“To the Military Governor of This City, and To the Secretary +of the Interior.</p> +<p>“As a meeting shall be held on the morning of Sunday next in +the Presidential Palace of this Republic in return for that held in the +United States by Mr. Bryan, who drank to the name of our Honourable +President as one of the heroes of the world, and for the purpose of +celebrating it with more pomp and contributing to it the greater +splendor with your personnel, I will be obliged to you if you will +please call at this office to confer with me on the matter.</p> +<p>“God preserve you, etc.</p> +<p>(Signed) “<span class="sc">F. +Buencamino</span>.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8684src" href= +"#xd21e8684" name="xd21e8684src">5</a></p> +</div> +<p>In a letter written by A. Flores, acting secretary of war, to the +military governor of Tarlac on October 27, 1899, there occurs the +following:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In the United States meetings and banquets have +been held in honor of our Honourable President, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, +who was pronounced one of the heroes of the world by Mr. Bryan, future +president of the United States. The Masonic Society, therefore, +interpreting the unanimous desires of the people, and with the approval +of the government, will on Sunday the 29th instant, organize a meeting +or popular assembly in the interest of national independence and in +honor of Mr. Bryan of the anti-imperialist party, the defenders of our +cause in the United States. The meeting will consist of two functions; +first—at nine A.M. of the 29th the assembly will convene in a +suitable place, a national hymn will inaugurate <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8692" href="#xd21e8692" name= +"xd21e8692">300</a>]</span>the exercises, after which appropriate +addresses will be delivered; and second—at four P.M. a popular +demonstration will take place throughout the town, with bands of music +parading the streets; residents will decorate and illuminate their +houses.</p> +<p>“Which I have the pleasure of transmitting to you for your +information and guidance and for that of the troops under your +command.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8696src" href="#xd21e8696" +name="xd21e8696src">6</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8699" href="#xd21e8699" name= +"xd21e8699">301</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8631" href="#xd21e8631src" name="xd21e8631">1</a></span> Taylor, +13 KK, E.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8652" href="#xd21e8652src" name="xd21e8652">2</a></span> Taylor, +15 and 16 KK, E.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8658" href="#xd21e8658src" name="xd21e8658">3</a></span> +“Pope” Isio was the last of a series of bandit leaders, +claiming for themselves miraculous powers, who long infested the +mountains of Negros.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8664" href="#xd21e8664src" name="xd21e8664">4</a></span> P.I.R., +970. 7.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8684" href="#xd21e8684src" name="xd21e8684">5</a></span> P.I.R., +1134–1.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8696" href="#xd21e8696src" name="xd21e8696">6</a></span> P.I.R., +17. 9.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch11" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e329">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XI</h2> +<h2 class="main">The First Philippine Commission</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">I have elsewhere mentioned the appointment of the +First Philippine Commission.</p> +<p>On January 18, 1899, its civilian members met at Washington and +received the President’s instructions.</p> +<p>We were to aid in “the most humane, pacific and effective +extension of authority throughout these islands, and to secure, with +the least possible delay, the benefits of a wise and generous +protection of life and property to the inhabitants.”</p> +<p>We were directed to meet at the earliest possible day in the city of +Manila and to announce by a public proclamation our presence and the +mission intrusted to us, carefully setting forth that while the +established military government would be continued as long as necessity +might require, efforts would be made to alleviate the burden of +taxation, to establish industrial and commercial prosperity and to +provide for the safety of persons and property by such means as might +be found conducive to those ends.</p> +<p>We were to endeavour, without interfering with the military +authorities, to ascertain what amelioration in the condition of the +inhabitants and what improvements in public order were practicable, and +for this purpose were to study attentively the existing social and +political state of the several populations, particularly as regarded +the forms of local government, the administration of justice, the +collection of customs and other taxes, the means of transportation and +the need of public improvements, reporting through the Department of +State the results of our observations and reflections, and recommending +such executive action as might, from time to time, seem to us wise and +useful. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8715" href="#xd21e8715" +name="xd21e8715">302</a>]</span></p> +<p>We were authorized to recommend suitable persons for appointment to +offices, made necessary by personal changes in the existing civil +administration, from among the inhabitants who had previously +acknowledged their allegiance to the American government.</p> +<p>We were to “ever use due respect for all the ideals, customs +and institutions of the tribes which compose the population, +emphasizing upon all occasions the just and beneficent intentions of +the United States,” and were commissioned on account of our +“knowledge, skill, and integrity as bearers of the good-will, the +protection and the richest blessings of a liberating rather than a +conquering nation.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8720src" href= +"#xd21e8720" name="xd21e8720src">1</a></p> +<p>Nothing could be more false than Blount’s insinuation that we +were sent out to help Otis run the war.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8725src" href="#xd21e8725" name="xd21e8725src">2</a> There was no +war when we started, and we were expressly enjoined from interfering +with the military government or its officers. We were sent to deliver a +message of good-will, to investigate, and to recommend, and there our +powers ended.</p> +<p>Mr. Schurman and I, with a small clerical force, sailed from +Vancouver, January 31, 1899. On our arrival at Yokohama we learned with +keen regret of the outbreak of hostilities at Manila.</p> +<p>Blount has incorrectly stated that President McKinley had sent the +commission out when the dogs of war were already let loose.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8736src" href="#xd21e8736" name="xd21e8736src">3</a> +The dogs of war had not been loosed <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8739" href="#xd21e8739" name="xd21e8739">303</a>]</span>when we +started, and one of the main purposes in sending us was to keep them in +their kennels if possible.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo has made the following statements in his +“Reseña Verídica”:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“... We, the Filipinos, would have received said +commission, as honourable agents of the great America, with +demonstrations of true kindness and entire adhesion. The commissioners +would have toured over all our provinces, seeing and observing at close +range order and tranquillity, in the whole of our territory. They would +have seen the fields tilled and planted. They would have examined our +Constitution and public administration, in perfect peace, and they +would have experienced and enjoyed that ineffable charm of our Oriental +manner, a mixture of abandon and solicitude, of warmth and of +frigidity, of confidence and of suspiciousness, which makes our +relations with foreigners change into a thousand colours, agreeable to +the utmost.</p> +<p>“Ah! but this landscape suited neither General Otis nor the +Imperialists! For their criminal intention it was better that the +American commissioners should find war and desolation in the +Philippines, perceiving from the day of their arrival the fetid stench +emitted by the mingled corpses of Americans and Filipinos. For their +purposes it was better that that gentleman, Mr. Schurman, President of +the Commission, could not leave Manila, limiting himself to listen to +the few Filipinos, who, having yielded to the reasonings of gold, were +partisans of the Imperialists. It was better that the commission should +contemplate the Philippine problem through conflagrations, to the whiz +of bullets, on the transverse light of all the unchained passions, in +order that it might not form any exact or complete opinion of the +natural and proper limits of said problem. Ah! it was better, in short, +that the commission should leave defeated in not having secured peace, +and would blame me and the other Filipinos, when I and the whole +Filipino people anxiously desired that peace should have been secured +before rather than now, but an honourable and worthy peace for the +United States and for the Philippine Republic.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e8748src" href="#xd21e8748" name="xd21e8748src">4</a></p> +</div> +<p>These statements, made to deceive the public, make interesting +reading in the light of our present knowledge as to the purposes and +plans of Aguinaldo and his associates. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8753" href="#xd21e8753" name="xd21e8753">304</a>]</span></p> +<p>On our arrival at Yokohama we were promptly informed by a secretary +from the United States Legation that no less a personage than Marquis +Ito had been in frequent communication with the Filipinos since 1894, +that they had been looking to him for advice and support, and that he +had interested himself in the present situation sufficiently to come to +the American minister and offer to go to the Philippines, not in any +sense as an agent of the United States, but as a private individual, +and to use his influence in our behalf. His contention was that the +then existing conditions resulted from misunderstandings.</p> +<p>He said that Americans did not understand Asiatics, but he was an +Asiatic himself and did understand the Filipinos, and thought that he +could settle the whole affair. The minister had cabled to Washington +for instructions. Naturally the offer was not accepted.</p> +<p>I was reminded, by this extraordinary incident, of a previous +occurrence. I spent the month of March, 1893, in Tokio when returning +from my second visit to the Philippines, and was kindly invited to +inspect the zoölogical work at the Imperial University. When I +visited the institution for that purpose, I was questioned very closely +on the islands, their people and their resources. The gentlemen who +interrogated me may have been connected with the university, but I +doubt it.</p> +<p>We reached Hongkong on February 22. Here I had an interview with Dr. +Apacible of the junta, while Mr. Schurman visited Canton. Apacible told +me that the Filipinos wanted an independent republic under an American +protectorate. Pressed for the details of their desires, he said that +“the function of a protector is to protect.” Further than +that he could not go. I tried to convince him of the hopelessness of +the course the Filipinos were then pursuing and of the kindly +intentions of my government, but felt that I made no impression on +him.</p> +<p>We arrived at Manila on March 4, 1899, too late to <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8764" href="#xd21e8764" name= +"xd21e8764">305</a>]</span>land. Firebugs were abroad. We watched a +number of houses burn, and heard the occasional crackle of rifle fire +along the line of the defences around the city. The next morning there +was artillery fire for a time at San Pedro Macáti. Everywhere +were abundant evidences that the war was on.</p> +<p>This left little for us to do at the moment except to inform +ourselves as to conditions, especially as Colonel Denby had not yet +arrived, and General Otis was overwhelmed with work and anxiety.</p> +<p>I renewed my acquaintance with many old Filipino and Spanish friends +and improved the opportunity, not likely to recur in my experience, to +see as much as possible of the fighting in the field.</p> +<p>One day when I was at San Pedro Macáti, Captain Dyer, who +commanded a battery of 3.2-inch guns there, suggested that if I wished +to investigate the effect of shrapnel fire I could do so by visiting a +place on a neighbouring hillside which he indicated. Acting upon his +suggestion, I set out, accompanied by my private secretary, who, like +myself, was clad in white duck. The Insurgent sharpshooters on the +other side of the river devoted some attention to us, but we knew that +so long as they aimed at us we were quite safe. Few of their bullets +came within hearing distance.</p> +<p>We were hunting about on the hillside for the place indicated by +Captain Dyer, when suddenly we heard ourselves cursed loudly and +fluently in extremely plain American, and there emerged from a +neighbouring thicket a very angry infantry officer. On venturing to +inquire the cause of his most uncomplimentary remarks, I found that he +was in command of skirmishers who were going through the brush to see +whether there was anything left there which needed shooting up. As many +of the Insurgent soldiers dressed in white, and as American civilians +were not commonly to be met in Insurgent territory, these men had been +just about to fire on us when they discovered their <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8775" href="#xd21e8775" name= +"xd21e8775">306</a>]</span>mistake. We went back to Manila and bought +some khaki clothes.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e8778width" id="p039"><img src="images/p039.jpg" +alt="The Bureau of Science Building, Manila" width="720" height="431"> +<p class="figureHead">The Bureau of Science Building, Manila</p> +<p class="first">This is one of the best equipped laboratory buildings +in the world.</p> +</div> +<p>At first my interest in military matters was not appreciated by my +army friends, who could not see what business I had to be wandering +around without a gun in places where guns were in use. I had, however, +long since discovered that reliable first-hand information on any +subject is likely to be useful sooner or later, and so it proved in +this case.</p> +<p>For several weeks after we reached Manila there was no active +military movement; then came the inauguration of the short, sharp +campaign which ended for the moment with the taking of Malolos. For +long, tedious weeks our soldiers had sweltered in muddy trenches, shot +at by an always invisible foe whom they were not allowed to attack. It +was anticipated that when the forward movement began, it would be +active. Close secrecy was maintained with regard to it. Captain +Hedworth Lambton, of the British cruiser <i>Powerful</i>, then lying in +Manila Bay, exacted a promise from me that I would tell him if I found +out when the advance was to begin, so that we might go to Caloocan +together and watch the fighting from the church tower, which commanded +a magnificent view of the field of operations.</p> +<p>I finally heard a fairly definite statement that our troops would +move the following morning. I rushed to General Otis’s office and +after some parleying had it confirmed by him. It was then too late to +advise Lambton, and in fact I could not properly have done so, as the +information had been given me under pledge of secrecy. Accompanied by +my private secretary, Dr. P. L. Sherman, I hastened to Caloocan, where +we arrived just at dusk, having had to run the gantlet of numerous +inquisitive sentries <i>en route</i>.</p> +<p>We spent the night in the church, where General Wheaton and his +staff had their headquarters, and long before daylight were perched in +a convenient opening in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8798" href= +"#xd21e8798" name="xd21e8798">307</a>]</span>its galvanized iron roof, +made on a former occasion by a shell from Dewey’s fleet.</p> +<p>From this vantage point we could see the entire length of the line +of battle. The attack began shortly after daylight. Near Caloocan the +Insurgent works were close in, but further off toward La Loma they were +in some places distant a mile or more from the trenches of the +Americans.</p> +<p>The general plan of attack was that the whole American line should +rotate to the north and west on Caloocan as a pivot, driving the +Insurgents in toward Malabon if possible. The latter began to fire as +soon as the American troops showed themselves, regardless of the fact +that their enemies were quite out of range. As most of them were using +black-powder cartridges, their four or five miles of trenches were +instantly outlined. The ground was very dry so that the bullets threw +up puffs of dust where they struck, and it was possible to judge the +accuracy of the fire of each of the opposing forces.</p> +<p>Rather heavy resistance was encountered on the extreme right, and +the turning movement did not materialize as rapidly as had been hoped. +General Wheaton, who was in command of the forces about the church, +finally moved to the front, and as we were directly in the rear of his +line and the Insurgents, as usual, overshot badly, we found ourselves +in an uncomfortably hot corner. Bullets rattled on the church roof like +hail, and presently one passed through the opening through which Major +Bourns, Colonel Potter, of the engineer corps, and I were sticking our +heads. Immediately thereafter we were observed by Dr. Sherman making +record time on all fours along one of the framing timbers of the church +toward its tower. There we took up our station, and thereafter observed +the fighting by peeping through windows partially closed with blocks of +volcanic tuff. We had a beautiful opportunity to see the artillery +fire. The guns were directly in front of and below us and we could +watch the laying of the several pieces and then turn our <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8806" href="#xd21e8806" name= +"xd21e8806">308</a>]</span>field-glasses on the particular portions of +the Insurgent trenches where the projectiles were likely to strike. +Again and again we caught bursting shells in the fields of our glasses +and could thus see their effect as accurately as if we had been +standing close by, without any danger of being perforated by +shrapnel.</p> +<p>After the Insurgent position had been carried we walked forward to +their line of trenches and followed it east to a point beyond the La +Loma Church, counting the dead and wounded, as I had heard wild stories +of tremendous slaughter and wanted to see just how much damage the fire +of our troops had really done. On our way we passed the Caloocan +railroad station which had been converted into a temporary field +hospital. Here I saw good Father McKinnon, the champlain of the First +California Volunteers, assisting a surgeon and soaked with the blood of +wounded men. He was one chaplain in a thousand. It was always easy to +find him. One had only to look where trouble threatened and help was +needed. He was sure to be there.</p> +<p>On my way from the railway station to the trenches I met a very much +excited officer returning from the front. He had evidently had a long +and recent interview with Cyrus Noble,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8812src" href="#xd21e8812" name="xd21e8812src">5</a> and was +determined to tell me all about the fighting. I escaped from him after +some delay, and with much difficulty. Later he remembered having met +me, but made a grievous mistake as to the scene of our encounter, +insisting that we had been together in “Wheaton’s +Hole,” an uncommonly hot position where numerous people got hurt. +He persisted in giving a graphic account of our experiences, and in +paying high tribute to my coolness and courage under heavy fire. My +efforts to persuade him that I had not been with him there proved +futile, and I finally gave up the attempt. I wonder how many other +military reputations rest upon so slender <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8815" href="#xd21e8815" name="xd21e8815">309</a>]</span>a +foundation! This experience was unique. I never saw another officer +under the influence of liquor when in the field.</p> +<p>At the time that we visited the Insurgent trenches, not all of our +own killed and wounded had been removed, yet every wounded Insurgent +whom we found had a United States army canteen of water at his side, +obviously left by some kindly American soldier. Not a few of the +injured had been furnished hardtack as well. All were ultimately taken +to Manila and there given the best of care by army surgeons.</p> +<p>Sometime later a most extraordinary account of this fight, written +by a soldier, was published in the <i>Springfield Republican</i>. It +was charged that our men had murdered prisoners in cold blood, and had +committed all manner of barbarities, the writer saying among other +things:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We first bombarded a town called Malabon and +then entered it and killed every man, woman and child in the +place.”</p> +</div> +<p>The facts were briefly as follows: There was an Insurgent regiment +in and near a mangrove swamp to the right of this town. When it became +obstreperous it was shelled for a short time until it quieted down +again. None of the shells entered the town. Indeed, most of them struck +in the water. Our troops did not enter Malabon that day, but passed to +the northward, leaving behind a small guard to keep the Insurgents from +coming out of Malabon in their rear. Had they then entered the town, +they would not have found any women, children or non-combatant men to +kill for the reason that all such persons had been sent away some time +before. The town was burned, in part, but by the Insurgents themselves. +They fired the church and a great orphan asylum, and did much other +wanton damage.</p> +<p>Being able to speak from personal observation as to the occurrences +of that day, I sent a long cablegram direct to the <i>Chicago +Times-Herald</i> stating the facts. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e8836" href="#xd21e8836" name="xd21e8836">310</a>]</span>After my +return to the United States, President McKinley was kind enough to say +to me that if there had been no other result from the visit of the +first Philippine Commission to the islands than the sending of that +cablegram, he should have considered the expense involved more than +justified. He added that the country was being flooded at the time with +false and slanderous rumours, and people at home did not know what to +believe. The statements of army officers were discounted in advance, +and other testimony from some unprejudiced source was badly needed.</p> +<p>On April 2, 1899, Colonel Denby arrived, and our serious work began. +The fighting continued and there was little that we could do save +earnestly to strive to promote friendly relations with the conservative +element among the Filipinos, and to gather the information we had been +instructed to obtain.</p> +<p>On April 4, 1899, we issued a proclamation setting forth in clear +and simple language the purposes of the American government.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8842src" href="#xd21e8842" name="xd21e8842src">6</a> +It was translated into Tagálog and other dialects and widely +circulated. The Insurgent leaders were alert to keep the common people +and the soldiers from learning of the kindly purposes of the United +States. They were forbidden to read the document and we were reliably +informed that the imposition of the death penalty was threatened if +this order was violated. In Manila crowds of Filipinos gathered about +copies of the proclamation which were posted in public places. Many of +them were soon effaced by Insurgent agents or sympathizers.</p> +<p>This document unquestionably served a very useful purpose.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8847src" href="#xd21e8847" name="xd21e8847src">7</a> +For one thing, it promptly brought us into much closer touch with the +more conservative Filipinos. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8862" +href="#xd21e8862" name="xd21e8862">311</a>]</span></p> +<p>We soon established relations of friendliness and confidence with +men like Arellano, Torres, Legarda and Tavera, who had left the Malolos +government when it demonstrated its futility, and were ready to turn to +the United States for help. Insurgent sympathizers also conferred +freely with us. We were invited to a beautiful function given in our +honour at the home of a wealthy family, and were impressed, as no one +can fail to be, with the dignified bearing of our Filipino hosts, a +thing which is always in evidence on such occasions. We gave a return +function which was largely attended and greatly aided in the +establishment of relations of confidence and friendship with leading +Filipino residents of Manila.</p> +<p>The Filipinos were much impressed with Colonel Denby. He was a +handsome man, of imposing presence, with one of the kindest hearts that +ever beat. They felt instinctively that they could have confidence in +him, and showed it on all occasions.</p> +<p>Meanwhile we lost no opportunity to inform ourselves as to +conditions and events, conferring with Filipinos from various parts of +the archipelago and with Chinese, Germans, Frenchmen, Belgians, +Austrians, Englishmen, Spaniards and Americans. Among the witnesses who +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8869" href="#xd21e8869" name= +"xd21e8869">312</a>]</span>came before us were farmers, bankers, +brokers, merchants, lawyers, physicians, railroad men, shipowners, +educators and public officials. Certainly all classes of opinion were +represented, and when we were called upon by the President, a little +later, for a statement of the situation we felt fully prepared to make +it.</p> +<p>Blount has charged that the commission attempted to interfere with +the conduct of the war, and cites a cablegram from General Otis stating +that conferences with Insurgents cost soldiers’ lives in support +of this contention. No conference with Insurgent leaders was ever held +without the previous knowledge and approval of the general, who was +himself a member of the commission.</p> +<p>Late in April General Luna sent Colonel Arguelles of his staff to +ask for a fifteen days’ suspension of hostilities under the +pretext of enabling the Insurgent congress to meet at San Fernando, +Pampanga, on May 1, to discuss the situation and decide what it wanted +to do. He called on the commission and urged us to ask Otis to grant +this request, but we declined to intervene, and General Otis refused to +grant it.</p> +<p>Mabini continued Luna’s effort, sending Arguelles back with +letters to Otis and to the commission. In the latter he asked for +“an armistice and a suspension of hostilities as an indispensable +means of arriving at peace,” stating explicitly that the +Philippine government “does not solicit the armistice to gain a +space of time in which to reënforce itself.”</p> +<p>The commission again referred Arguelles to General Otis on the +matter of armistice and suspension of hostilities. We suspected that +the statement that these things were not asked for in order to gain +time was false, and this has since been definitely established.</p> +<p>Taylor says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On April 11 Mabini wrote to General Luna +(Exhibit 719) that Aguinaldo’s council was of the opinion that no +negotiations for the release of the Spanish prisoners should be +considered <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8885" href="#xd21e8885" +name="xd21e8885">313</a>]</span>unless the American Commission agreed +to a suspension of hostilities for the purpose of treating, not only in +regard to the prisoners, but for the purpose of opening negotiations +between Aguinaldo’s government and the American authorities.</p> +<p>“‘In arriving at this decision we have been actuated by +the desire to gain time for our arsenals to produce sufficient +cartridges, if, as would seem to be probable, they persist in not even +recognizing our belligerency, as means for furthering the recognition +of our independence.’”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8889src" +href="#xd21e8889" name="xd21e8889src">8</a></p> +</div> +<p>Arguelles, on his return, was instructed to ask Otis for +a—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“general armistice and suspension of hostilities +in all the archipelago for the short space of three months, in order to +enable it to consult the opinion of the people concerning the +government which would be the most advantageous, and the intervention +in it which should be given to the North American Government, and to +appoint an extraordinary commission with full powers, to act in the +name of the Philippine people.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8897src" href="#xd21e8897" name="xd21e8897src">9</a></p> +</div> +<p>General Otis naturally again declined to grant the request for a +suspension of hostilities.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e8904width" id="p040"><img src="images/p040.jpg" +alt="The Philippine General Hospital" width="720" height="428"> +<p class="figureHead">The Philippine General Hospital</p> +<p class="first">This photograph shows the administration building, to +the right and left of which may be seen portions of two ward pavilions. +These latter structures extend backward in a double row, while in the +centre, back of the administration building, come the building +containing the surgical amphitheatres, private operating room and +electrical apparatus and that containing the kitchen and the +subsistence storerooms. The sevaral buildings are connected by +corridors.</p> +</div> +<p>Little came of the conference between Arguelles and the commission, +except that we really succeeded in convincing him of the good +intentions of our government, and this promptly got him into very +serious trouble, as we shall soon see. I took him to a tent hospital on +the First Reserve Hospital grounds where wounded Insurgents were +receiving the best of treatment at the hands of American surgeons, and +he was amazed. He had been taught to believe that the Americans +murdered prisoners, raped women, and committed similar barbarities +whenever they got a chance. As we have seen, stories of this sort were +industriously spread by many of the Insurgent leaders among their +soldiers, and among the common people as well. They served to arouse +the passions of the former, and stirred them up to acts of devilish +brutality which they might perhaps not otherwise have perpetrated. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8912" href="#xd21e8912" name= +"xd21e8912">314</a>]</span>Arguelles told the truth upon his return, +and this, together with his suggestion that it might be well to +consider the acceptance of the form of government offered by the United +States, nearly cost him his life. Relative to this matter Taylor +says:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“When Arguelles returned to the insurgent lines, +it must have been considered that he had said too much in Manila. While +he had been sent there to persuade the Americans to agree to a +suspension of hostilities to be consumed in endless discussion under +cover of which Luna’s army could be reorganized, he had not only +failed to secure the desired armistice, but had come back with the +opinion that it might after all be advisable to accept the government +proposed by the United States. On May 22 General Luna ordered his +arrest and trial for being in favour of the autonomy of the United +States in the Philippine Islands. He was tried promptly, the +prosecuting witness being another officer of Luna’s staff who had +accompanied him to Manila and acted as a spy upon his movements +(P.I.R., 285. 2). The court sentenced him to dismissal and confinement +at hard labor for twelve years. This did not satisfy Luna’s +thirst for vengeance, and he was imprisoned in Bautista on the first +floor of a building whose second story was occupied by that officer. +One night Luna came alone into the room where he was confined and told +him that although he was a traitor, yet he had done good service to the +cause; and it was not proper that a man who had been a colonel in the +army should be seen working on the roads under a guard. He told him +that the proper thing for him to do was to blow his brains out, and +that if he did not do it within a reasonable time the sentinel at his +door would shoot him. He gave him a pistol and left the room. Arguelles +decided not to kill himself, but fully expected that the guard would +kill him. Shortly afterwards Luna was summoned to meet Aguinaldo, and +never returned. On September 29, 1899, his sentence was declared null +and void and he was reinstated in his former rank (P.I.R., 285. 3, and +2030. 2).”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e8917src" href="#xd21e8917" +name="xd21e8917src">10</a></p> +</div> +<p>Colonel Arguelles has told me exactly the same story. For a time it +seemed as if the views expressed by him might prevail. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8922" href="#xd21e8922" name= +"xd21e8922">315</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“According to Felipe Buencamino and some others, +the majority of the members of congress had been in favour of absolute +independence until they saw the demoralization of the officers and +soldiers which resulted in the American occupation of Malolos. In the +middle of April, 1899, they remembered Arellano’s advice, and all +of the intelligent men in Aguinaldo’s government, except Antonio +Luna and the officers who had no desire to lay down their military +rank, decided to accept the sovereignty of the United States. At about +the same time copies of the proclamation issued by the American +Commission in Manila reached them and still further influenced them +toward the adoption of this purpose. By the time congress met in San +Isidro on May 1, 1899, all of the members had accepted it except a few +partisans of Mabini, then president of the council of government. At +its first meeting the congress resolved to change the policy of war +with the United States to one of peace, and this change of policy in +congress led to the fall of Mabini and his succession by Paterno. The +first act of the new council was the appointment of a commission headed +by Felipe Buencamino which was to go to Manila and there negotiate with +the American authorities for an honourable surrender.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8926src" href="#xd21e8926" name= +"xd21e8926src">11</a></p> +<p>“Although Mabini had fallen from power, Luna and his powerful +faction had still to be reckoned with. He was less moderate than +Mabini, and had armed adherents, which Mabini did not, and when Paterno +declared his policy of moderation and diplomacy he answered it on the +day the new council of government was proclaimed by an order that all +foreigners living in the Philippines except Chinese and Spaniards, +should leave for Manila within forty-eight hours.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e8931src" href="#xd21e8931" name= +"xd21e8931src">12</a></p> +</div> +<p>Unfortunately Luna intercepted the Buencamino commission. Its head +he kicked, cuffed and threatened with a revolver. One of its members +was General Gregorio del Pilar. He was allowed to proceed, as he +commanded a brigade of troops which might have deserted had he been +badly treated, but Luna named three other men to go with him in place +of those who had been originally appointed.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8937src" href="#xd21e8937" name="xd21e8937src">13</a> They were +Gracio Gonzaga, Captain Zialcita, and Alberto Baretto. They reached +Manila on May 19, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8940" href= +"#xd21e8940" name="xd21e8940">316</a>]</span>1899, and during their +stay there had two long interviews with the commission.</p> +<p>They said that they had come, with larger powers than had been +conferred on Arguelles, to discuss the possibility of peace, the form +of ultimate government which might be proposed in future, and the +attitude of the United States government toward needed reforms.</p> +<p>Meanwhile, on May 4, we had laid before the President a plan of +government informally discussed with Arguelles, and had received the +following reply, authorizing, in substance, what we had +suggested:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Washington, May 5, 1899, 10.20 P.M.</p> +<p>“Schurman, Manila:</p> +<p>“Yours 4th received. You are authorized to propose that under +the military power of the President, pending action of Congress, +government of the Philippine Islands shall consist of a +governor-general, appointed by the President; cabinet, appointed by the +governor-general; a general advisory council elected by the people; the +qualifications of electors to be carefully considered and determined; +the governor-general to have absolute veto. Judiciary strong and +independent; principal judges appointed by the President. The cabinet +and judges to be chosen from natives or Americans, or both, having +regard to fitness. The President earnestly desires the cessation of +bloodshed, and that the people of the Philippine Islands at an early +date shall have the largest measure of local self-government consistent +with peace and good order.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Hay</span>.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8959src" href="#xd21e8959" name="xd21e8959src">14</a></p> +</div> +<p>Our proclamation of April 4, 1899, was also taken up at their +request and was gone over minutely, sentence by sentence. We were asked +to explain certain expressions which they did not fully understand.</p> +<p>They told us that it would be hard for their army to lay down its +arms when it had accomplished nothing, and asked if it could be taken +into the service of the United States. We answered that some of the +regiments might <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8966" href= +"#xd21e8966" name="xd21e8966">317</a>]</span>be taken over and +employment on public works be found for the soldiers of others.</p> +<p>We endeavoured to arrange for an interview with Aguinaldo, either +going to meet him or assuring him safe conduct should he desire to +confer with us at Manila.</p> +<p>They left, promising to return in three weeks when they had had time +to consider the matters under discussion, but they never came back.</p> +<p>Shortly thereafter there was an odd occurrence. Soon after our +arrival we had learned that Mr. Schurman was a man of very variable +opinions. He was rather readily convinced by plausible arguments, but +sometimes very suddenly reversed his views on an important subject.</p> +<p>At the outset Archbishop Nozaleda made a great impression upon him. +The Archbishop was a thoroughgoing Spaniard of the old school, and +entertained somewhat radical opinions as to what should be done to end +the distressing situation which existed. After talking with him Mr. +Schurman seemed to be convinced that we ought to adopt a stern and +bloody policy, a conclusion to which Colonel Denby and I decidedly +objected.</p> +<p>A little later he made a trip up the Pasig River with Admiral Dewey +and others and had a chance to see something of the aftermath of war. +It was not at all pretty. It never is. I was waiting for him with a +carriage at the river landing on his return and had hard work to keep +him away from the cable office. His feelings had undergone a complete +revulsion. He insisted that if the American people knew what we were +doing they would demand that the war be terminated immediately at any +cost and by whatsoever means, and he wanted to tell them all about it +at once. By the next morning, however, things fortunately looked rather +differently to him.</p> +<p>Mr. Schurman acquired a working knowledge of the Spanish language +with extraordinary promptness. Shortly thereafter Colonel Denby and I +discovered that when <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8980" href= +"#xd21e8980" name="xd21e8980">318</a>]</span>Filipinos came to see the +commission in order to impart information or to seek it, he was +conferring with them privately and sending them away without our seeing +them at all.</p> +<p>Soon after we had made our formal statement of the situation to the +President, Mr. Schurman had an interview with an Englishman who had +been living in Insurgent territory north of Manila, from which he had +just been ejected, in accordance with Luna’s order. This man told +him all about the mistakes of the Americans and evidently greatly +impressed him, for shortly thereafter he read to us at a commission +meeting a draft of a proposed cablegram which he said he hoped we would +approve. It would have stultified us, had we signed it, as it involved +in effect the abandonment of the position we had so recently taken and +a radical change in the policy we had recommended. Mr. Schurman told us +that if we did not care to sign it, he would send it as an expression +of his personal opinion. Colonel Denby asked him if his personal +opinion differed from his official opinion, and received an affirmative +reply. We declined to approve the proposed cablegram, whereupon he +informed us that if his policy were adopted, he and General Aguinaldo +would settle things without assistance from us, and that otherwise he +would resign. He inquired whether we, too, would send a cable, and we +told him certainly not, unless further information from us was +requested. He sent his proposed message, in somewhat modified form, and +received a prompt reply instructing him to submit it to the full +commission and cable their views.</p> +<p>He did submit it to Colonel Denby and myself at a regularly called +commission meeting, argued that in doing this he had obeyed the +President’s instructions, and vowed that he would not show it to +General Otis. I showed it to the General myself, allowing him to +believe that I did so with Mr. Schurman’s approval, and thus +avoided serious trouble, as he had been personally advised <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8986" href="#xd21e8986" name= +"xd21e8986">319</a>]</span>from Washington of the instructions to Mr. +Schurman. The General then joined with Colonel Denby and myself in a +cablegram setting forth our views, and so this incident ended.</p> +<p>Mr. Schurman did not resign, but thereafter we saw very little of +him. He made a hasty trip to the Visayas and the Southern Islands and +sailed for the United States shortly after his return to Manila, being +anxious to get back in time for the opening of the college year at +Cornell.</p> +<p>Colonel Denby and I were instructed to remain at Manila, where we +rendered such assistance as we could give, and continued to gather +information relative to the situation, the country and the people. In +this latter work we were given invaluable help by Jesuit priests, who +prepared for us a comprehensive monograph embodying a very large amount +of valuable information, and furnished us a series of new maps as well. +The latter were subsequently published by the United States Coast and +Geodetic Survey in the form of an Atlas of the Philippines.</p> +<p>Early in September we had a most interesting interview with Sr. +José de Luzuriaga, a distinguished and patriotic Filipino from +western Negros, where American sovereignty had been accepted without +resistance. Up to that time it had been possible for the people of +Negros to keep out Tagálog invaders. Sr. Luzuriaga assured us +that so long as this condition continued, there would be no trouble, +and he was quite right.</p> +<p>Aguinaldo’s agents eventually gained a foothold there for a +short time, and did some mischief, but it did not result very +seriously.</p> +<p>We felt an especial interest in this island, as General Otis had +asked us carefully to study and to criticise a scheme for its +government which had been drafted by General James F. Smith, who +afterward became justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, +secretary of public instruction and governor-general of the islands, +and was then in command of the troops in Negros. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8999" href="#xd21e8999" name= +"xd21e8999">320</a>]</span></p> +<p>General Lawton arrived in the Philippines during our stay. His +coming had been eagerly looked forward to by the army. He had sailed +with the understanding that he was to be put in charge of field +operations. While he was at sea, influences were brought to bear which +changed this plan.</p> +<p>It is my firm conviction that if Lawton had been put in command, the +war would have ended promptly. He was a wonderful man in the field. He +possessed the faculty of instilling his own tremendous energy into his +officers and men, whose privations and dangers he shared, thereby +arousing an unfaltering loyalty which stood him in good stead in time +of need. If there was fighting to be done, he promptly and thoroughly +whipped everything in sight. He punished looting and disorder with a +heavy hand, treated prisoners and noncombatants with the utmost +kindness, and won the good-will of all Filipinos with whom he came in +contact.</p> +<p>General MacArthur was always declaring that the Filipinos were a +unit against us and that he could never get information from them. +General Lawton never lacked for such information as he needed, and +constantly and successfully used the Filipinos themselves as messengers +and for other purposes. I came to know him intimately, and learned to +admire and love him as did all those who had that great privilege.</p> +<p>For some time I had charge of his spies. Never have men taken longer +chances than did the faithful few who at this time furnished us with +information as to events in Insurgent territory. Discovery meant prompt +and cruel death. For a long time Major F. S. Bourns had performed the +uncongenial task of directing the spies. He was then the chief health +officer of Manila, and as all sorts of people were compelled to consult +him on sanitary matters, visits to his office aroused no suspicion. He +spoke Spanish, and this was imperatively necessary. Our spies simply +would not communicate results through <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9008" href="#xd21e9008" name= +"xd21e9008">321</a>]</span>interpreters. The facts revealed by the +Insurgent records show how right they were in refusing to do so.</p> +<p>Major Bourns eventually returned to the United States. His work was +taken over by an army officer, with the result that two of our best men +died very suddenly in that gentleman’s back yard. As I spoke +Spanish, and as all sorts of people came to see the commission, I was +the logical candidate for this job, which I thereupon inherited.</p> +<p>Each morning, if there was news, I myself laboriously thumped out my +notes on the typewriter, making an original and one copy. The copy I +took at once to General Lawton. The original I took, later, to General +Otis.</p> +<p>General Lawton was firmly convinced that most army officers were +unfitted by their training to perform civil functions. He organized +municipal governments with all possible promptness in the towns +occupied by his troops, and in this work he requested my assistance, +which I was of course glad to give. Sr. Felipe Calderon drafted a +simple provisional scheme of municipal government which I submitted for +criticism to that most distinguished and able of Filipinos, Sr. +Cayetano Arellano.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9017src" href= +"#xd21e9017" name="xd21e9017src">15</a> When the final changes in it +had been made, I accompanied General Lawton on a trip to try putting it +into effect. We held elections and established municipal governments in +a number of the towns just south of Manila, and in some of those along +the Pasig River.</p> +<p>General Otis watched our operations and their results narrowly, and +was sufficiently well pleased with the latter to order General +Kobbé to follow a similar course in various towns on or near the +railroad north of Manila. Kobbé did not profess to know much +about municipal government, and asked me to go with him and help until +he got the hang of the thing, which I did.</p> +<p>Thus it happened that the first Philippine Commission had a sort of +left-handed interest in the first municipal governments established in +the islands under American rule.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e9025width" id="p041"><img src="images/p041.jpg" +alt="The College of Medicine and Surgery, Manila" width="720" height= +"428"> +<p class="figureHead">The College of Medicine and Surgery, Manila</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9029" href="#xd21e9029" name= +"xd21e9029">322</a>]</span></p> +<p>In his endeavour to show that the Commission interfered with +military operations, Blount has ascribed certain statements to Major +Starr. He says: “... at San Isidro on or about November 8, Major +Starr said: ‘We took this town last spring,’ stating how +much our loss had been in so doing, ‘but partly as a result of +the Schurman commission parleying with the Insurgents, General Otis had +us fall back. We have just had to take it again.’”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e9032src" href="#xd21e9032" name= +"xd21e9032src">16</a></p> +<p>If Major Starr ever made such a statement he was sadly misinformed. +General Lawton was the best friend I ever had in the United States +Army. I saw him almost daily when he was in Manila, and he showed me +the whole telegraphic correspondence which passed between him and +General Otis on the subject of the withdrawal from San Isidro and Nueva +Ecija, which was certainly one of the most ill advised moves that any +military commander was ever compelled to make. General Lawton’s +unremitting attacks had absolutely demoralized the Insurgent force, and +my information is that when he finally turned back, Aguinaldo and +several members of his cabinet were waiting, ten miles away, to +surrender to him when he next advanced, believing that they could never +escape from him. I have not the telegraphic correspondence before me, +but I remember its salient features. Otis ordered Lawton to withdraw, +and Lawton, convinced of the inadvisability of the measure, objected. +Otis replied that, with the rainy season coming on, he could neither +provision him nor furnish him ammunition. Lawton answered that he had +provisions enough to last three weeks and ammunition enough to finish +the war, whereupon Otis peremptorily ordered him to withdraw. The +Philippine Commission had no more to do with this matter than they had +to do with the similar order against advancing which Otis sent Lawton +on the day the latter won the Zapote River fight, when the Insurgents +were running all over the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9037" +href="#xd21e9037" name="xd21e9037">323</a>]</span>Province of Cavite. +Lawton wanted to push forward and clean the whole place up. The reply +to his request to be allowed to do so ran, if memory serves me well, as +follows:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Do nothing. You have accomplished all that was +expected of you.”</p> +</div> +<p>Later on, Lawton and his devoted officers and men had to duplicate +the fierce campaign which had resulted in the taking of San Isidro. +This made possible the movement that Lawton had had in mind in the +first instance, which was made with the result that organized armed +resistance to the authority of the United States promptly ceased in +northern Luzón.</p> +<p>While on this subject I wish to record the fact that shortly after +his return from the San Isidro campaign General Lawton asked me to +accompany him on a visit to General Otis and act as a witness. I did +so. In my presence Lawton said to Otis that if the latter would give +him two regiments, would allow him to arm, equip and provision them to +suit himself, and would turn him loose, he would stake his reputation +as a soldier, and his position in the United States Army, on the claim +that within sixty days he would end the insurrection and would deliver +to General Otis one Emilio Aguinaldo, dead or alive. The general +laughed at his offer. General Lawton asked me some day to make these +facts public. As life is an uncertain thing, I deem it proper to do so +now. Personally I am convinced that if his offer had been accepted he +would have kept his promise.</p> +<p>On September 15, 1899, Colonel Denby and I sailed for the United +States, having been recalled to Washington. Shortly after our arrival +there the commission issued a brief preliminary report. The winter was +spent in the preparation of our final report, which constituted a full +and authoritative treatise on the islands, the people and their +resources. Father José Algué, the distinguished +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9049" href="#xd21e9049" name= +"xd21e9049">324</a>]</span>head of the Philippine Weather Bureau, was +called to Washington to help us, and gave us invaluable assistance.</p> +<p>Our preliminary report, dated November 2, 1899, and the first volume +of our final report, published on January 31, 1900, contained our +observations and recommendations relative to political matters.</p> +<p>Mr. Schurman has been credited with saying in an address made on +January 11, 1902: “Any decent kind of government of Filipinos by +Filipinos is better than the best possible government of Filipinos by +Americans.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9055src" href="#xd21e9055" +name="xd21e9055src">17</a></p> +<p>On November 2, 1900, he signed the following statement:<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e9061src" href="#xd21e9061" name= +"xd21e9061src">18</a>—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, +the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would +speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it did not +necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division +of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, +is the idea of a free, self-governing, and united Philippine +commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the +Filipino point of view of maintaining American sovereignty over the +archipelago is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even by +those insurgents who desire an American protectorate. The latter, it is +true, would take the revenues and leave us the responsibilities. +Nevertheless, they recognize the indubitable fact that the Filipinos +cannot stand alone. Thus the welfare of the Filipinos coincides with +the dictates of national honour in forbidding our abandonment of the +archipelago. We cannot from any point of view escape the +responsibilities of government which our sovereignty entails; and the +commission is strongly persuaded that the performance of our national +duty will prove the greatest blessing to the peoples of the Philippine +Islands.”</p> +</div> +<p>More than fourteen years’ experience in governmental work in +the Philippines has profoundly impressed me with the fundamental +soundness of these conclusions of the first Philippine Commission. +Every statement then made still holds true. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9070" href="#xd21e9070" name= +"xd21e9070">325</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8720" href="#xd21e8720src" name="xd21e8720">1</a></span> For the +full text of these instructions, see appendix.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8725" href="#xd21e8725src" name="xd21e8725">2</a></span> +“Mr. McKinley sent Mr. Taft out, in the spring preceding the +election of 1900, to help General MacArthur run the +war.”—<span class="sc">Blount</span>. The Taft Commission +was sent out, to ‘aid’ General MacArthur, as the Schurman +Commission had ‘aided’ General +Otis.”—Blount.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8736" href="#xd21e8736src" name="xd21e8736">3</a></span> +“In February, 1899, the dogs of war being already let loose, +President McKinley had resumed his now wholly impossible Benevolent +Assimilation programme, by sending out the Schurman Commission, which +was the prototype of the Taft Commission, to yearningly explain our +intentions to the insurgents, and to make clear to them how +unqualifiedly benevolent those intentions were. The scheme was like +trying to put salt on a bird’s tail after you have flushed +him.”—Blount.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8748" href="#xd21e8748src" name="xd21e8748">4</a></span> P.I.R., +1300. 2.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8812" href="#xd21e8812src" name="xd21e8812">5</a></span> A brand +of whiskey then much in use.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8842" href="#xd21e8842src" name="xd21e8842">6</a></span> For the +text of this document see the Appendix, p. 977.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8847" href="#xd21e8847src" name="xd21e8847">7</a></span> In view +of the alleged attitude of General Otis toward the work of the +Commission, the following statement by him as to the effect of this +proclamation is of interest:—</p> +<p class="footnote">General Otis said: “It was unanimously +decided to print, publish, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e8852" +href="#xd21e8852" name="xd21e8852">311n</a>]</span>post, and +disseminate as much as possible among the inhabitants under insurgent +domination this address, printing the same in the English, Spanish, and +Tagálog languages. This was done, but scarcely had it been +posted in Manila twenty-four hours before it was so torn and mutilated +as to be unrecognizable. It suffered the same fate as the proclamation +of January 4, set out in pages 113 and 114 of this report, but it +produced a marked beneficial influence on the people, especially those +outside our lines, as it carried with it a conviction of the United +States’ intentions, on account of the source from which it +emanated, it being an expression from a committee of gentlemen +especially appointed to proclaim the policy which the United States +would pursue.”</p> +<p class="footnote">—<span class="sc">Taylor</span>, 90 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote">Taylor adds: “The commander of one of the +regiments of sandatahan in Manila reported that he had forced the +people of the city to destroy the proclamations issued by the +commission (P.I.R., 73. 9). As he found this necessary, the action of +the people could hardly have reflected their real feelings in the +matter.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8889" href="#xd21e8889src" name="xd21e8889">8</a></span> Taylor, +96 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8897" href="#xd21e8897src" name="xd21e8897">9</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8917" href="#xd21e8917src" name="xd21e8917">10</a></span> Taylor, +97 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8926" href="#xd21e8926src" name="xd21e8926">11</a></span> Taylor, +97 AJ.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8931" href="#xd21e8931src" name="xd21e8931">12</a></span> +<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8937" href="#xd21e8937src" name="xd21e8937">13</a></span> +Nominally they were named by Aguinaldo.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e8959" href="#xd21e8959src" name="xd21e8959">14</a></span> Report +of the Philippine Commission to the President, Vol. I, 1900, p. 9.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9017" href="#xd21e9017src" name="xd21e9017">15</a></span> Now +chief justice of the Philippine Supreme Court.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9032" href="#xd21e9032src" name="xd21e9032">16</a></span> Blount, +p. 235.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9055" href="#xd21e9055src" name="xd21e9055">17</a></span> Blount, +p. 105.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9061" href="#xd21e9061src" name="xd21e9061">18</a></span> Report +Philippine Commission, Vol. I, p. 183.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch12" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e338">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XII</h2> +<h2 class="main">The Establishment of Civil Government</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">The first Philippine Commission did not complete its +work until March, 1900. By this time conditions had so far improved in +the archipelago that President McKinley was prepared to initiate a +movement looking toward the establishment of civil government there. +With this end in view he appointed the following commission of five +civilians; William H. Taft of Ohio, Dean C. Worcester of Michigan, Luke +E. Wright of Tennessee, Henry C. Ide of Vermont and Bernard Moses of +California. Our appointments were dated March 16, 1900. Our +instructions which were full, are given in the appendix.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e9079src" href="#xd21e9079" name="xd21e9079src">1</a> +I was the only member of the first commission to be reappointed. +Neither General Otis nor Admiral Dewey cared to serve, and indeed the +professional duties of each of them rendered his appointment to the new +commission difficult, if not impossible. Mr. Schurman had at one time +expressed himself as vigorously opposed to the idea of a new +commission, maintaining that the best results could be obtained by the +appointment of a civil governor with wide powers. It was therefore +taken for granted that he would not desire reappointment. Colonel Denby +was keenly interested in the work and would have been glad to continue +it, but he was past seventy and with his good wife had then spent some +fifteen years in the Far East. He doubted whether his strength would be +adequate to bear the strain of the arduous task which obviously lay +before the new commission, and Mrs. Denby desired to remain in the +United States where she <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9082" href= +"#xd21e9082" name="xd21e9082">326</a>]</span>could be near her children +from whom she had been long separated, so her husband felt constrained +to say that he did not wish to return to the Philippines.</p> +<p>I separated from him with the keenest regret. He was an amiable, +tactful man of commanding ability and unimpeachable integrity, actuated +by the best of motives and loyal to the highest ideals. He constantly +sought to avoid not only evil but the appearance of evil. I count it +one of the great privileges of my life to have been associated with +him. The one thing in the book written by James H. Blount which aroused +my ire was his characterization of Colonel Denby as a hypocrite. No +falser, meaner, more utterly contemptible statement was ever made, and +when I read it the temptation rose hot within me to make public +Blount’s personal Philippine record, but after the first heat of +anger had passed I remembered what the good old Colonel would have +wished me to do in such a case, and forbore.</p> +<p>The second Philippine commission, hereinafter referred to as +“the commission,” received its instructions on April 7, +1900.</p> +<p>They covered a most delicate and complicated subject, namely, the +gradual transfer of control from military to civil authority in a +country extensive regions of which were still in open rebellion.</p> +<p>In the opinion of President McKinley there was no reason why steps +should not be taken, from time to time, to inaugurate governments +essentially popular in their form as fast as territory came under the +permanent control of our troops, and indeed, as we have seen, this had +already been done by the army. It was provided that we should continue +and perfect the work of organizing and establishing civil governments +already commenced by the military authorities. In doing this we were to +act as a board of which Mr. Taft was designated president. It was +contemplated that the transfer of authority from military commanders to +civil officers would be gradual, <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9092" href="#xd21e9092" name="xd21e9092">327</a>]</span>and full +and complete coöperation between these authorities was enjoined. +Having familiarized ourselves with the conditions then prevailing in +the islands, we were to devote our attention first to the establishment +of municipal governments, in which the natives should be given the +opportunity to manage their local affairs to the fullest extent and +with the least supervision and control found to be practicable. We were +then to consider the organization of larger administrative divisions, +and when of the opinion that the condition of affairs in the islands +was such that the central administration could safely be transferred +from military to civil control were to report this conclusion to the +secretary of war with our recommendations as to the form of central +government which should be established.</p> +<p>Beginning with September 1, 1900, we were authorized to exercise, +subject to the approval of the President and the secretary of war, the +legislative power, which was then to be transferred from the military +governor to us until the establishment of civil central government, or +until Congress should otherwise provide. We were authorized during a +like period to appoint to office such officers under the judicial, +educational, and civil service systems, and in the municipal and +departmental governments, as were duly provided for. Until the complete +transfer of control the military governor was to remain the chief +executive head of the government and to exercise the executive +authority previously possessed by him and not expressly assigned to the +commission by the president in his instructions. In establishing +municipal governments we were to take as the basis of our work those +established by the military governor, under the order of August 8, +1899, which I had helped to set up, as well as those established under +the report of a board constituted by the military governor by his order +of January 29, 1900, of which Señor Cayetano Arellano was the +president.</p> +<p>In the establishment of departmental or provincial <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9098" href="#xd21e9098" name= +"xd21e9098">328</a>]</span>governments we were to give special +attention to the then-existing government of the island of Negros, +established with the approval of the people of that island under the +order of the military governor of July 22, 1899.</p> +<p>We were instructed to investigate troubles growing out of large land +holdings, including those of the religious orders, and to promote, +extend and improve the system of education already inaugurated by the +military authorities, giving first importance to the extension of a +system of primary education free to all, which would tend to fit the +people for the duties of citizenship and the ordinary avocations of a +civilized community. Instruction was to be given at first in the native +dialects, but full opportunity for all of the people to acquire English +was to be provided as soon as possible. If necessity demanded, we were +authorized to make changes in the existing system of taxation and in +the body of the laws under which the people were governed, although +such changes were to be relegated to the civil government which we were +to establish later, so far as might be. Our instructions contained the +following important passages:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In all the forms of government and +administrative provisions which they are authorized to prescribe, the +commission should bear in mind that the government which they are +establishing is designed not for our satisfaction, or for the +expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace and +prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands, and the measures +adopted should be made to conform to their customs, their habits, and +even their prejudices, to the fullest extent consistent with the +accomplishment of the indispensable requisites of just and effective +government.</p> +<p>“At the same time the commission should bear in mind, and the +people of the islands should be made plainly to understand, that there +are certain great principles of government which have been made the +basis of our governmental system which we deem essential to the rule of +law and the maintenance of individual freedom, and of which they have, +unfortunately, been denied the experience possessed by us; that there +are also certain practical rules of government which we have found to +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9107" href="#xd21e9107" name= +"xd21e9107">329</a>]</span>be essential to the preservation of these +great principles of liberty and law, and that these principles and +these rules of government must be established and maintained in their +islands for the sake of their liberty and happiness, however much they +may conflict with the customs or laws of procedure with which they are +familiar.</p> +<p>“It is evident that the most enlightened thought of the +Philippine Islands fully appreciates the importance of these principles +and rules, and they will inevitably within a short time command +universal assent. Upon every division and branch of the government of +the Philippines, therefore, must be imposed these inviolable +rules:—</p> +<p>“That no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or +property without due process of law; that private property shall not be +taken for public use without just compensation; that in all criminal +prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public +trial, to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation, to be +confronted with the witnesses against him, to have compulsory process +for obtaining witnesses in his favour, and to have the assistance of +counsel for his defence; that excessive bail shall not be required, nor +excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted; +that no person shall be put twice in jeopardy for the same offence, or +be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself; that +the right to be secure against unreasonable searches and seizures shall +not be violated; that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall +exist except as a punishment for crime; that no bill of attainder or +ex-post-facto law shall be passed; that no law shall be passed +abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or the rights of the +people to peaceably assemble and petition the Government for a redress +of grievances; that no law shall be made respecting the establishment +of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, and that the +free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship without +discrimination or preference shall forever be allowed.”</p> +</div> +<p>It has been the fashion in some quarters to sneer at the last of +these paragraphs, and to insinuate, if not to charge, that President +McKinley in his policy toward the Philippine Islands was actuated by +unworthy motives. Nothing could be further from the truth. From the +beginning to the end the real good of the several peoples <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9116" href="#xd21e9116" name= +"xd21e9116">330</a>]</span>of the archipelago came first with him, and +no one who had the privilege of knowing him well doubts it. Thoroughly +imbued with the lofty sentiments expressed by him in our instructions, +we set forth on our long pilgrimage to a country where we were to +undertake a heavy task essentially different from that which had ever +before fallen to the lot of any five citizens of the United States.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e9120width" id="p042"><img src="images/p042.jpg" +alt="An Old-style Schoolhouse, with Teachers and Pupils" width="720" +height="424"> +<p class="figureHead">An Old-style Schoolhouse, with Teachers and +Pupils</p> +</div> +<p>On April 17, 1900, we sailed from San Francisco on the United States +army transport <i>Hancock</i>. We were forty-five strong. Of this +goodly company only four remain in the Philippines to-day,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e9129src" href="#xd21e9129" name= +"xd21e9129src">2</a>—Mr. and Mrs. Branagan, Mrs. Worcester and +myself. Singularly enough, with two exceptions, all of the others are +still alive and at work. Arthur W. Ferguson, prince of interpreters, +who was later appointed Executive Secretary, died in the service after +more than six years of extraordinarily faithful and efficient work. +James A. LeRoy, my faithful, able and efficient private secretary, +contracted tuberculosis, and fell a victim to it after a long and +gallant fight.</p> +<p>At Honolulu we met with a severe disappointment. It was of course +our duty to call on Governor Dole. We were advised that silk hats and +frock coats must be donned for this visit, and it was perishing hot. We +reached the palace in a reeking perspiration and had a long wait in a +suffocating room. When Mr. Dole appeared, he was closely followed by an +attendant bearing a large and most attractive-looking bottle carefully +wrapped in a napkin, and our spirits rose. But, alas! It contained +Poland water.</p> +<p>At Tokio we had an audience with the Emperor and were received by +the Empress as well. In the high official who had charge of the palace +where these events took place, I discovered an old University of +Michigan graduate who made the occasion especially pleasant for me.</p> +<p>We finally reached Manila on the morning of June 3. Although the +thermometer was in the nineties, a certain <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9138" href="#xd21e9138" name= +"xd21e9138">331</a>]</span>frigidity pervaded the atmosphere on our +arrival, which General MacArthur, the military governor, seemed to +regard in the light of an intrusion.</p> +<p>He had been directed to provide suitable office quarters for us. To +our amazement and amusement we found desks for five commissioners and +five private secretaries placed in one little room in the +Ayuntamiento.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9142src" href="#xd21e9142" +name="xd21e9142src">3</a> While it was possible to get through the room +without scrambling over them, it would have been equally possible to +circle it, walking on them, without stepping on the floor. In the +course of our first long official interview with the General, he +informed us that we were “an injection into an otherwise normal +situation.”</p> +<p>He added that we had already mediatized the volume of work that +flowed over his desk. At the moment none of us were quite sure what he +meant, but we found the word in the dictionary. How often in the weary +years that were to follow I wished that some one would materially +mediatize the task which fell to my lot! It was General +MacArthur’s honestly held and frankly expressed opinion that what +the Filipinos needed was “military government pinned to their +backs for ten years with bayonets.” He later changed that view +very radically, and when civil provincial governments were finally +established it was with his approval, and, in many instances, upon his +specific recommendation.</p> +<p>At the outset some effort was made to keep the public away from us. +Word was passed that we had no authority, which was true enough, as our +legislative activities were not to begin until September 1. The ninety +days which intervened were very advantageously spent in gaining +familiarity with the situation, which we had no difficulty in doing. +Plenty of people were already weary of military rule and flocked to us. +None of my companions had ever before set foot in the Philippines, and +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9149" href="#xd21e9149" name= +"xd21e9149">332</a>]</span>although I had spent more than four years +there, I still had plenty to learn.</p> +<p>In this connection I am reminded of an event which occurred somewhat +later. While the commission was en route from Iloilo to Catbalogan when +we were establishing civil provincial governments, General Hughes and +Mr. Taft became involved in a somewhat animated discussion. The General +displayed an accurate knowledge of facts which were of such a nature +that one would hardly have expected an army officer to be familiar with +them. Mr. Taft said: “General, how do you do it? You have always +been a busy man, devoted to your profession. How have you managed to +accumulate such a remarkable fund of information?” The General +smiled his rare smile and replied: “Governor, I will tell you. I +always try to go to bed at night knowing a little more than I did when +I got up in the morning.” It is a wise plan to follow.</p> +<p>On September 1 we assumed the legislative power, our first official +act being to appropriate $2,000,000 Mexican for the construction and +repair of highways and bridges.</p> +<p>We were impressed with the fundamental necessity of promptly opening +up lines of land communication in a country which almost completely +lacked them, and there were many poor people in dire need of employment +who would be relieved by the opportunity to earn an honest living which +the inauguration of road construction would afford them.</p> +<p>Our second act appropriated $5000 Mexican for the purpose of making +a survey to ascertain the most advantageous route for a railroad into +the mountains of Benguet, where we wished to establish a much-needed +health resort for the people of the archipelago.</p> +<p>Seven days later we passed an act for the establishment and +maintenance of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine +Islands. This measure was of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9162" +href="#xd21e9162" name="xd21e9162">333</a>]</span>basic importance. We +had stipulated before leaving Washington that no political appointees +should be forced upon us under any circumstances. The members of the +second commission, like their predecessors of the first, were firm in +the belief that national politics should, if possible, be kept out of +the administration of Philippine affairs, and we endeavoured to insure +this result.</p> +<p>Our tenth act appropriated $1500 Mexican to be paid to the widow of +Salvador Reyes, vice-president of Santa Cruz in Laguna Province, +assassinated because of his loyalty to the established government.</p> +<p>Our fifteenth act increased the monthly salaries of Filipino public +school teachers in Manila.</p> +<p>Our sixteenth and seventeenth acts reorganized the Forestry Bureau +and the Mining Bureau.</p> +<p>On October 15 we appropriated $1,000,000 United States currency, for +improving the port of Manila, where there was urgent need of protection +for shipping during the typhoon season.</p> +<p>On December 12 we passed an act authorizing the establishment of +local police in cities and towns in the Philippine Islands and +appropriating $150,000 United States currency for their +maintenance.</p> +<p>Two days later we passed a much-needed act regulating the sale of +intoxicating liquors within the city of Manila and its attached +barrios.</p> +<p>On December 21, we appropriated $75,000 United States currency for +the construction of the Benguet Road, little dreaming how much time +would elapse and how many more dollars would be appropriated, before a +vehicle passed over it.</p> +<p>It will be sufficiently evident that I cannot here give an account +of the several acts which we passed when I say that they number four +hundred forty-nine during the first year. We created the administrative +bureaus of a well-organized government, established civil rule in +numerous municipalities and provinces, provided for the necessary +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9180" href="#xd21e9180" name= +"xd21e9180">334</a>]</span>expenses of government, organized courts and +reformed the judiciary. So important were the results following the +establishment of the Civil Service Act and the act providing for the +organization of courts for the Philippine Islands that I have devoted a +chapter to each.</p> +<p>Although there were no limits on our power to enact legislation +other than those imposed by our instructions hereinbefore referred to, +nothing was further from our desire than to exercise too arbitrarily +the authority conferred upon us.</p> +<p>Taylor has correctly described our method of procedure in the +following words:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On September 1, 1900, the Commission began its +legislative and executive duties. In performing them it adopted the +policy of passing no laws, except in cases of emergency, without +publishing them in the daily press, nor until after they had passed a +second reading and the public had been given an opportunity to come +before the Commission and suggest objections or amendments to the +bills. Before enacting them they were submitted to the military +governor for his consideration and comment.”<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e9190src" href="#xd21e9190" name="xd21e9190src">4</a></p> +</div> +<p>The other especially important events of our first legislative year +were the establishment of civil rule in the municipalities as well as +in thirty-eight provinces and the substitution of the military central +government by the gradual creation of bureaus and the ultimate +appointment of a civil governor and of five heads of executive +departments.</p> +<p>On November 23, 1900, we passed an act providing for the +establishment of a civil government in the province of Benguet, and +thus it happened that a province practically all of whose inhabitants +were members of a non-Christian tribe was the first to enjoy the +benefits of civil rule. This action grew out of investigations by +General Wright and myself made when visiting Baguio during the latter +part of July, which led us to the conclusion that civil government +could be established in Benguet at any time and <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9197" href="#xd21e9197" name= +"xd21e9197">335</a>]</span>should be established as soon as possible. +In view of the rather primitive state of civilization of the people for +whom we were legislating, a special act adapted to local conditions was +passed providing for a provincial government and fixing a form of +government for the several settlements.</p> +<p>On January 31, 1901, we passed an act for the organization of +municipal governments in the Philippine Islands which, with various +amendments, is still in effect and has been made applicable to all +municipal corporations of the Philippines inhabited chiefly by +Filipinos, except the city of Manila, the city of Baguio and a few +small settlements in the so-called special government +provinces.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9201src" href="#xd21e9201" name= +"xd21e9201src">5</a></p> +<p>On February 6, 1901, we passed a general act for the organization of +provincial governments in the Philippine Islands. A special act was +required to make it applicable to any given province.</p> +<p>Having thus prepared for the serious work of establishing civil +government throughout the archipelago so fast and so far as conditions +might seem to justify, we determined to visit the several provinces and +to familiarize ourselves with conditions on the ground in each case +before taking action. We invariably sought the opinion of the military +authorities as to the fitness of the provinces under consideration for +civil rule, and never established it except with their approval. +Indeed, in several cases we yielded to their judgment and organized +provinces which we ourselves thought might better wait for a time.</p> +<p>Our first trip was to the northward along the line of the +Manila-Dagupan railway, and in the course of it we organized the +provinces of Bulaean, Pampanga, Tarlac and Pangasinán.</p> +<p>On the 2d of March we crossed Manila Bay to Bataan and established a +civil provincial government there. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9212" href="#xd21e9212" name="xd21e9212">336</a>]</span></p> +<p>The first provincial officers were necessarily appointed, not +elected. I well remember the consternation which Mr. Taft created on +this trip, when in announcing the appointment of a man of strong +character who was much disliked by some of the people present, he said +that if the appointee did not behave well his official head would be +promptly removed. Surprise showed on almost every face in the audience. +They had become sufficiently accustomed to the idea of being beheaded +or otherwise sent out of the world by their own people, but had been +led to believe that the Americans were a humane nation, and it took Mr. +Taft at least five minutes to explain his joke.</p> +<p>During the second week in March the commission transferred its +officers bodily to the United States Army Transport <i>Sumner</i> and +started on a long journey in the course of which it visited and +established provincial governments in eighteen provinces,<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e9220src" href="#xd21e9220" name="xd21e9220src">6</a> +returning to Manila on the 3d of May.</p> +<p>This trip was most interesting but dreadfully wearing. Everywhere we +were overwhelmed by the hospitality of our Filipino friends. We arrived +at some new place nearly every morning, and the programme in each was +much the same. After an early breakfast we hurried ashore, drove or +walked about for a short time to see what the town was like, and then +attended a popular meeting in its largest building, where we held long +and frank converse with the people on local conditions, giving them +every opportunity to air their views, with the result that the local +orators, of whom there were usually more than a sufficiency, had an +opportunity to bring their heavy guns into action. Then followed a +recess in the course of which we partook of a very elaborate lunch, and +when possible conferred privately with influential <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9225" href="#xd21e9225" name= +"xd21e9225">337</a>]</span>men, often learning things which they did +not care to tell us in public. Then came another open meeting at which +the actual organization of the province was effected and the officials +were appointed and sworn in. After this there was a long formal dinner, +with the endless courses which characterize such functions in the +Philippines, and then came a ball which lasted till the wee small +hours. When at last we got on board, tired out, our steamer sailed, and +often brought us to some new place by sunrise.</p> +<p>In several instances we did not pass the act organizing a given +province at the time of our visit, but for one reason or another +postponed action until a later date. We visited a number of places like +Joló, Basilan, Zamboanga, Cotabato, Davao and Samar, where we +had no intention of establishing civil government, in order to observe +local conditions.</p> +<p>We touched at Marinduque on our trip south, and found that nothing +could then be done there, but the better element were anxious for a +change, and we promised them that if they would bring about certain +specified results before our return we would give them a provincial +government. They undertook to do so, and kept their word. Needless to +say we also kept ours.</p> +<p>We had grave doubts as to the advisability of establishing civil +governments in Cebú, Bohol and Batangas. In the first of these +places the people were sullen and ugly. In the second there was a +marked disinclination on the part of leading citizens to accept public +office. There had been a little scattering rifle fire on the outskirts +of the capital of the third very shortly before our arrival there, but +the organization of all these provinces was recommended by the military +authorities, and we decided to try an experiment which could do little +harm, as we could return any one of them to military control in short +order should such a course seem necessary.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e9235width" id="p043"><img src="images/p043.jpg" +alt="A Modern Primary School Building" width="720" height="419"> +<p class="figureHead">A Modern Primary School Building</p> +<p class="first">Contrast this structure with the native houses near +it.</p> +</div> +<p>An effort has been made to make it appear that in <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9243" href="#xd21e9243" name= +"xd21e9243">338</a>]</span>organizing Cebú, Bohol and Batangas, +we acted prematurely and upon our own initiative, thus complicating the +situation for the military authorities. I will let Blount voice this +complaint. He says in part:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In his report for 1901 Governor Taft says that +the four principal provinces, including Batangas, which gave trouble +shortly after the civil government was set up in that year, and had to +be returned to military control, were organized under civil rule +‘on the recommendation’ of the then commanding general +(MacArthur). It certainly seems unlikely that the haste to change from +military rule to civil rule came on the motion of the military. If the +Commission ever got, <i>in writing,</i> from General MacArthur, a +‘recommendation’ that any provinces be placed under civil +rule while still in insurrection, the text of the writing will show a +mere soldierly acquiescence in the will of Mr. McKinley, the +commander-in-chief. Parol<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9251src" href= +"#xd21e9251" name="xd21e9251src">7</a> contemporaneous evidence will +show that General MacArthur told them, substantially, that they were +‘riding for a fall.’ In fact, whenever an insurrection +would break out in a province after Governor Taft’s inauguration +as governor, the whole attitude of the army in the Philippines, from +the commanding general down was ‘I told you so.’ They did +not say this where Governor Taft could hear it, but it was common +knowledge that they were much addicted to damning +‘politics’ as the cause of all the trouble.”<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e9254src" href="#xd21e9254" name= +"xd21e9254src">8</a></p> +</div> +<p>Prophecy is always dangerous and when unnecessary seems rather +inexcusable. I submit the essential portions of the record to show +exactly what we did get from General MacArthur, and add the suggestion +that it was really hardly essential that he should make his +recommendations in writing, as he did, for the reason that he was a +gentleman and would not have repudiated a verbal recommendation once +made.</p> +<p>On February 5, 1901, Governor Taft wrote General MacArthur a letter +closing with the following paragraph:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“As already communicated to you the purpose of +the Commission is to make a Southern trip on the 23rd of February, or +as soon thereafter as practicable, with the idea of arranging +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9264" href="#xd21e9264" name= +"xd21e9264">339</a>]</span>for provincial governments there, and I am +directed by the Commission to request your opinion as to the provinces +in which provincial governments may be safely established. It is +understood that Panay, Romblon, Tayabas, and possibly one or two of the +Camarines are ready for this. What has been said with reference to the +Northern provinces applies to these, but we shall communicate with you +further as to the Southern provinces when we have been advised as to +the possibility of securing a steamer.”</p> +</div> +<p>On February 9, General MacArthur gave the following instructions to +the Commanding General, Department of the Visayas:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The Military Governor desires that you report +to this office at the earliest date practicable the provinces in your +department that may be considered ready for the establishment of civil +governments therein and in this connection directs me to say that it +should not be considered as necessary that complete pacification has +been brought about in a province before reporting it as ready for such +government; that the provincial civil governments to be established +will doubtless prove useful agents in the further work of +pacification.”</p> +</div> +<p>On February 27, that officer reported that in his opinion Iloilo, +Capiz, Oriental Negros and Occidental Negros were ready; that Antique +might be in a few days, and that Cebú, Bohol and Leyte were not. +These facts were reported to Governor Taft by General MacArthur on +March 4, and on the same day Lieutenant-Colonel Crowder wrote to the +commanding general of the Visayas:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The Military Governor directs me to say that he +regards the initiation of provincial civil government as an aid in the +work of pacification, in which view it is not necessary that a province +should be completely pacified as a condition to the initiation of such +government. He has expressed to the Commission the opinion that you may +be able, upon their arrival at Iloilo, to submit a supplementary list +of provinces in which it would be advisable to establish at once these +governments.”</p> +</div> +<p>Meanwhile General MacArthur wrote on February 13, to Governor +Taft:— <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9281" href="#xd21e9281" +name="xd21e9281">340</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In partial reply to your letter of the 5th +instant I have the honor to inform you that the Commanding General, +Department of Southern Luzon, reports but one province, Tayabas, as +ready at the present time for civil government. I add the provinces of +Laguna, Batangas and Cavite, believing that the institution of civil +government in all these provinces will be in assistance of the military +authorities in the work of pacification.”</p> +</div> +<p>General MacArthur’s communications seem to me to show +something more than “a mere soldierly acquiescence in the will of +Mr. McKinley,” especially as the President had no knowledge of +these provinces, and never made any recommendation whatsoever relative +to the establishment of civil government there.</p> +<p>Similarly, in establishing civil government in Cebu and Bohol, the +commission acted on the specific recommendation of the military, and +rather against its own judgment. There seemed no very good reason for +refusing to try civil government, if the commanding general wanted it +tried, and when it failed, as it promptly did, in Cebu, Bohol and +Batangas, these provinces were immediately returned to the full control +of the military, and left there until conditions became +satisfactory.</p> +<p>Having escaped the perils of the deep, and the much graver perils of +the dinner table, during our southern trip, we returned to Manila, +wearier, wiser and sadder men than when we started, for we had learned +much of the superstitions, the ignorance and the obsessions which +prevailed among the Filipinos, and we knew that many of the men who +from love of country had accepted office under us had done so at the +peril of their lives. We had all had an excellent opportunity to come +to know the Filipinos. Their dignity of bearing, their courtesy, their +friendly hospitality, their love of imposing functions, and of +<i>fiestas</i> and display, their childishness and irresponsibility in +many matters, their passion for gambling, for litigation and for +political intrigue, even the loves and the hatreds of some of them, had +been spread before us like <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9296" +href="#xd21e9296" name="xd21e9296">341</a>]</span>an open book. It is a +fact that except for the inhabitants of Cebu, Bohol and Batangas, the +people wanted what we had to give them and were grateful for it. Never +before had they had their day in court, and they appreciated it.</p> +<p>The establishment of civil government throughout so large a +proportion of the provinces in the islands would have been impossible +at this time had it not been for the helpful activities of the Federal +Party organized on December 23, 1900, by many of the best and most +influential Filipinos in the archipelago for the purpose of aiding in +the establishment of peace and order. Its members were tireless in +their activities. They succeeded in persuading many Insurgent leaders +to lay down their arms, so that a normal condition could be restored in +territory which the latter had previously harried. They convinced many +of the common people of the true purposes of the American government, +and in numerous other ways rendered invaluable services.</p> +<p>The officers and many of the members and agents of this party were +promptly sentenced to death by Aguinaldo, and many of them were +assassinated;<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9302src" href="#xd21e9302" +name="xd21e9302src">9</a> but the party persisted in its efforts until +success was attained.</p> +<p>During June of 1901 Professor Moses and I made a horseback trip +through Pangasinán, La Union, Benguet, Lepanto and Ilocos Sur, +accompanied by our private secretaries. Professor Moses was in wretched +health as the result of overwork and confinement, and needed +out-of-door exercise.</p> +<p>I had been intrusted with the drafting of legislation for the +government of the non-Christian tribes, and wanted to learn as much +about them as possible, so that I could act intelligently.</p> +<p>We started from Dagupan mounted on horses kindly furnished us by the +army, and escorted by four mounted infantrymen. None of us had ridden +for years, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9311" href= +"#xd21e9311" name="xd21e9311">342</a>]</span>army officers were +offering wagers that we would not get as far as Baguio. At Mangaldan a +cavalry outfit replaced our mounted infantrymen, and while the members +of our new escort were resting under the shade of a tree in the +cemetery, I heard them voicing joyful anticipations of the easy time +they were to have travelling with tenderfeet. I made up ray mind to +give them some healthful exercise on the trip.</p> +<p>Having first visited the work at the lower end of the Benguet Road +and then travelled across country in a driving storm over wretched +trails, we reached Bauang, our point of departure for the interior. +Here I called the sergeant in charge and asked him where were the extra +shoes for our horses. In some confusion he confessed that he had +brought none, whereupon I read him a homily on the duties of a +cavalryman, and sent the whole outfit to San Fernando to get the horses +reshod and provided with extra shoes for the trip.</p> +<p>We arrived at Baguio in a howling typhoon. When we emerged from the +hills into the open, and our horses got the full sweep of the storm, +they at first refused to face it. We forced them into it, however, and +a few moments later had found refuge in the house of Mr. Otto Scheerer, +a hospitable German. The cavalrymen and the horses got in under the +building. It gave me great joy to hear through the floor the voice of +the sergeant remarking, with much emphasis of the sort best represented +in print by dashes, that if he had known the sort of a trip he was +starting on he would have been on sick report the morning of his +departure.</p> +<p>We waited in vain three days for the storm to end and then rode on. +Mr. Scheerer, who accompanied us, had sent ahead to arrange for lunch +at the house of a rich Igorot named Acop, but when we arrived at this +man’s place, soaked, cold, and hungry, we found it shut up. He +had not received the message and was away from home. Investigation +showed that our only resource in the commissary <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9319" href="#xd21e9319" name= +"xd21e9319">343</a>]</span>line were some wads of sticky, unsalted, +boiled rice which our Igorot carriers had inside their hats, in contact +with their frowsy hair. We bolted as much of this as the Igorots could +spare, killing its rather high flavour with cayenne peppers picked +beside the trail, and continued our journey. In descending a steep hill +my horse stumbled and while attempting to recover himself drove a sharp +stone into his hoof and turned a complete somersault, throwing me over +his head on to the rocks. When I got him up he was dead lame, and I +walked the rest of the way to Ambuklao, where we arrived just at +sunset.</p> +<p>This once prosperous little Igorot hamlet had been burned by the +Spaniards, for no apparent reason, during their flight from the +province in 1906, and we found only two houses standing. They were +naturally crowded. I was so dead with fatigue that I threw my saddle on +the ground, and using it as a pillow, lay down in a couple of inches of +water and fell sound asleep. Later the Igorots vacated one of the +houses, and placed it at our disposal. I spent the greater part of the +night in a contest with an old Igorot woman, who for the commendable +purpose of keeping us warm tended a smoky pitch-pine fire, and shut the +door, which afforded our only means of ventilation, every time I +dropped asleep. Awakened by the stifling smoke I would open it again, +but as soon as I dozed she would shut it. I finally solved the problem +by lying down with my head sticking out of the door.</p> +<p>The next day was bright and clear. We rested until noon, drying out +our belongings meanwhile, and then continued our journey, visiting the +Igorot settlements on the Agno River and those in southern Lepanto and +finally reaching Cervantes, the capital of that sub-province. The +Igorots of Benguet and Lepanto received us with the utmost +friendliness, and when not in danger of breaking our necks by falling +over the edges of the wretched trails, we greatly enjoyed our trip. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9326" href="#xd21e9326" name= +"xd21e9326">344</a>]</span></p> +<p>At Cervantes we were met by a delegation of Bontoc Igorots, who +begged us to visit their country, and we were just preparing to do so +when we received a telegram recalling us to Manila to be present at the +inauguration of Mr. Taft as civil governor. During our absence the +commission had established provincial governments in Rizal, Cavite and +Nueva Ecija. Mr. Taft was inaugurated on July 4, 1901. Thenceforth he +exercised control over the provinces where civil government had been +established, while the military governor continued in charge of each of +the remaining provinces until it was duly organized and transferred to +civil control.</p> +<p>In August, 1901, the commission sailed on a tour of the remaining +northern provinces, visiting La Union, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Ilocos Norte, +Cagayan, Isabela and Zambales in the order named, and establishing a +government in each. On the trip to Abra those members of the commission +not previously accustomed to roughing it in the islands were given a +novel experience, for we went up the Abra River on bamboo rafts. +However, a veritable ship of state had been prepared for Governor Taft, +and no one suffered any great discomfort.</p> +<p>At Vigan, the capital of Ilocos, we narrowly escaped drowning in the +surf when returning to our steamer. For a time our good +<i>viray</i><a class="noteref" id="xd21e9335src" href="#xd21e9335" +name="xd21e9335src">10</a> with some twenty oarsmen was unable to make +headway through the rolling waves. It broached to, nearly filled with +water, and struck the bottom heavily several times. Some of the men +quit rowing and began to pray, whereupon General J. F. Bell, who was +sitting in the stern, rose to his feet, and shouted at them until they +became more afraid of him than of the sea, and pulled for dear life +until we were out of danger. Upon arrival at the ship we watched with +interest the progress of other boats through the surf, and were alarmed +to see the men in one madly divesting themselves of their clothing. +When it finally came alongside its occupants <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9338" href="#xd21e9338" name= +"xd21e9338">345</a>]</span>made flying leaps for the gangway, and we +discovered that a great hole had been knocked in its bottom, and that +raincoats, ordinary coats, and trousers had been jammed into this +opening in order to keep the rapidly sinking craft afloat for a few +moments.</p> +<p>In the Cagayan valley we had a taste of real tropical heat. Never +have I seen a man suffer more than did Mr. Taft at Ilagan on the day +when we established a provincial government for Isabela, and the night +that followed still lingers in my memory. The air was suffocating. My +bed was in a corner. I dragged it out between a window and a door and +threw both wide open. Still I could not sleep. Slipping off my pajamas, +I seated myself on the broad window sill. The heat was intolerable. I +poured water over myself and resumed my seat in the window. The water +would not evaporate. I sat there until morning, as I could not endure +the heat lying down.</p> +<p>Such conditions are unknown throughout the greater part of the +archipelago, where cool sea breezes temper the heat at all times. In +the Cagayan valley an immense plain is bordered by ranges of high +mountains to the east and the west. They seem to shut off both monsoons +to a considerable extent, and there very trying heat is by no means +unusual.</p> +<p>On September 1, 1901, the first day of the second year of actual +service of the commission, a complete central civil government was +established. Commissioner Wright was appointed secretary of commerce +and police; Commissioner Ide, secretary of finance and justice; +Commissioner Moses, secretary of public instruction, and I myself +secretary of the interior. The commission was strengthened by the +addition of three Filipino members: Señor Benito Legarda, +Señor José R. de Luzuriaga, and Dr. T. H. Pardo de +Tavera, all of whom were men of exceptional ability and had rendered +distinguished service in the establishment of peace and order.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e9347width" id="p044-1"><img src= +"images/p044-1.jpg" alt="Old-style Central School Building" width="553" +height="355"> +<p class="figureHead">Old-style Central School Building</p> +<p class="first">This structure is typical of the better-class +school-houses constructed by the Spaniards.</p> +</div> +<div class="figure xd21e9354width" id="p044-2"><img src= +"images/p044-2.jpg" alt="Modern Central School Building" width="554" +height="402"> +<p class="figureHead">Modern Central School Building</p> +<p class="first">This structure is typical of the better-class +school-houses constructed under American rule.</p> +</div> +<p>Except for the addition of one more Filipino on July <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9362" href="#xd21e9362" name= +"xd21e9362">346</a>]</span>6, 1908, the organization of the commission +has remained unchanged up to the present time, although there have been +numerous changes in its personnel. The task which lay before it was to +enact a code of laws adapted to the peculiar conditions existing in the +Philippines, and this was indeed a herculean undertaking. Its members +laboured unremittingly. Governor Taft and General Wright were towers of +strength in the early days. The rest of us did what we could, and I, +for one, am very proud of the result. Certainly no one can ever claim +that the commission was not industrious. Before it finally ceased to be +the legislative body of the islands it had passed some eighteen hundred +acts. Obviously, as it is not my purpose to write an encyclopedia of +law, I cannot discuss them in detail, and must content myself with here +barely mentioning a few of the more important results obtained, leaving +the more detailed discussion of some of them for later chapters.</p> +<p>In general, it may be said that the additional bureaus necessary for +the work of the Insular government were created, and given proper +powers. Civil government was gradually extended to the entire +archipelago.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9366src" href="#xd21e9366" +name="xd21e9366src">11</a> The criminal code was amended and +supplemented by the passage of new laws. The administration of justice +was reorganized and reformed.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9369src" href= +"#xd21e9369" name="xd21e9369src">12</a> An efficient native insular +police force was organized, and an admirable state of public order +brought about.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9372src" href="#xd21e9372" +name="xd21e9372src">13</a> The health service was extended to the +provinces, and health conditions were greatly improved throughout the +islands.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9375src" href="#xd21e9375" name= +"xd21e9375src">14</a> Baguio was made accessible and became both the +summer capital and a health resort for the people of the +islands.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9378src" href="#xd21e9378" name= +"xd21e9378src">15</a> The scientific work of the government was +cordinated, and efficiency and economy in its performance were +insured.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9382src" href="#xd21e9382" name= +"xd21e9382src">16</a></p> +<p>Primary and secondary schools were established throughout the +islands, supplemented by trade schools, and <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9388" href="#xd21e9388" name= +"xd21e9388">347</a>]</span>a normal school at Manila.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e9390src" href="#xd21e9390" name="xd21e9390src">17</a> +Legislation was enacted, and submitted to the President and to +Congress, covering the disposition of public lands.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e9393src" href="#xd21e9393" name="xd21e9393src">18</a> The +purchase of extensive estates belonging to certain religious orders, +and the sale of their holdings therein to tenants, was provided +for.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9396src" href="#xd21e9396" name= +"xd21e9396src">19</a> Fairly adequate legislation for the protection +and development of the forest resources of the islands was +enacted.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9399src" href="#xd21e9399" name= +"xd21e9399src">20</a> Means of communication by land and sea were +greatly improved, and the development of commerce was thus +stimulated.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9403src" href="#xd21e9403" name= +"xd21e9403src">21</a></p> +<p>It is a noteworthy fact that all of these things were done with a +per capita taxation of about $2.24!</p> +<p>Another fundamentally important aid to the commercial development of +the islands was afforded by a radical reformation of the currency.</p> +<p>The islands under the sovereignty of Spain had their own distinct +silver coinage in peso, media peso, peseta and media peseta pieces.</p> +<p>In 1878 the Spanish government, hoping to check the heavy +exportation of gold currency from the Philippines, passed a law +prohibiting the importation of Mexican dollars, but allowed the Mexican +dollars then in the islands to continue to circulate as legal +tender.</p> +<p>When the American troops arrived, there were in circulation the +Spanish-Philippine peso and subsidiary silver coins; Spanish pesos of +different mintings; Mexican pesos of different mintings; Hongkong +dollars, fractional silver coins from different Chinese countries, and +copper coins from nearly every country in the Orient. Although a law +had been passed prohibiting the introduction of Mexican dollars into +the islands, they were being constantly smuggled in. Fluctuations in +the price of silver affected the value of the silver coins, and the +money in common use was in reality a commodity, worth on any given day +what one could get for it. These conditions <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9416" href="#xd21e9416" name= +"xd21e9416">348</a>]</span>affected most disastrously the business +interests of the islands. Merchants were forced to allow very wide +margins in commercial transactions, because they did not know what +their goods would actually cost them in local currency upon arrival. +The most important business of the local banks was in reality that of +exchange brokers and note shavers. They hammered the exchange rate down +and bought silver, then boosted the rate skyward and sold.</p> +<p>The American army brought in a large amount of gold, but this did +not remain in circulation long, as it was exported by the different +business concerns, or hoarded.</p> +<p>United States silver money had a limited circulation during the +early days of American occupation, but it passed at less than its true +value. An effort was made under the military administration to keep the +ratio of exchange at two to one by the purchase from the public of all +United States currency offered at that rate to the banks.</p> +<p>For a long time the banks refused to carry private accounts in +United States currency, but when it was offered for deposit it was +changed into Mexicans with a heavy charge for the transaction, and an +account opened in Mexican currency to the credit of the depositor. If +the depositor afterward desired to get United States currency, he gave +a check for it at the then existing rate of exchange. Such conditions +were intolerable, and the commission passed an act making it an offence +to refuse to accept for deposit the currency of the sovereign power, +but this did not remedy the fundamental difficulty. There came a heavy +slump in the price of silver. The Insular government lost a very large +sum because of the decrease in value of its silver coin.</p> +<p>Mr. Charles A. Conant had been brought from the United States to +make a report on the feasibility of providing an American coinage for +the islands. He recommended that the unit of value should be a peso, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9426" href="#xd21e9426" name= +"xd21e9426">349</a>]</span>equivalent to fifty cents United States +currency. Congress, by an act passed July 1, 1902, vested general +authority over the coinage in the Philippine government, but the +commission decided not to take action until more specific authority +could be obtained from Congress, as the proposed reform was radical, +and it was very important that the new currency should at the outset +command the confidence so essential to its success.</p> +<p>After long discussion, Congress authorized, by an act passed March +2, 1903, a new currency system based on a theoretical peso of 12.9 +grains of gold 900 fine, equivalent to one-half of a United States gold +dollar. The circulating medium was to be the Philippine silver peso, +which was to be legal tender for all debts, public and private, and its +value was to be maintained on a parity with the theoretical gold peso. +For this purpose the creation of a gold standard, or gold reserve fund, +was provided for, and this fund was to be maintained and could be used +for no other purpose.</p> +<p>Considerable difficulty was experienced in introducing the new +currency into the islands. The banks at first failed to give any +assistance to the government. The business men of Manila, and +especially the Chinese, discounted the new Philippine peso, because it +did not contain as much silver as did the Mexican dollar. They were +quickly brought to time, and given to understand where they stood if +they discredited the currency of the country.</p> +<p>The Spanish Philippine coins and the Mexican coins in circulation +were collected by the treasury and exported to the San Francisco mint, +where they were reminted into new coins of the weight and fineness +prescribed by law.</p> +<p>The establishment of a gold standard fund to maintain the parity +between the gold and silver dollar was quickly effected by the sale of +exchange on the United States in accordance with the established law, +at a cost <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9437" href="#xd21e9437" +name="xd21e9437">350</a>]</span>estimated to be the same as the +transportation of the gold coin itself.</p> +<p>The army, by direction of the secretary of war, ceased to pay in +United States money, and its paymasters were given credit at the +Insular Treasury, where they obtained the necessary funds in Philippine +currency.</p> +<p>The government also authorized, in addition to the coinage of +silver, the issuance of paper money in two, five, and ten peso notes. +All of the coins and bills were readily interchangeable with the United +States coins in common use, the dollar being worth two pesos, the half +dollar one peso, the twenty-five cent piece a half peso, the ten-cent +piece a peseta, the five-cent piece a media peseta and the cent two +centavos.</p> +<p>Unfortunately the silver value of the new peso was such that when +the price of silver again rose, its bullion value was greater than its +money value, and in consequence coins of this denomination were hoarded +and exported. It proved necessary to prohibit their exportation, and to +issue new coins of less bullion value, but this was the only really +serious difficulty attending a fundamental reform which put the +currency on a sound basis. The original pesos were recoined and a +handsome profit made on the transaction.</p> +<p>No one who has not lived in a country where the circulating medium +is constantly fluctuating in value can fully appreciate the enormous +benefit conferred on the Philippine Islands by this important +reform.</p> +<p>Another reform of far-reaching importance was the readjustment of +the burden of taxation so that it should bear lightly on the +necessities of life, and heavily on its luxuries. This was a complete +reversal of the scheme which we found in force, under which wheat flour +and kerosene oil paid very heavy import duties while cigars and +champagne were lightly taxed.</p> +<p>We imposed export taxes on certain products of the country. Such +taxes are objected to by many political <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9451" href="#xd21e9451" name= +"xd21e9451">351</a>]</span>economists, but were approved of by the +Filipinos, who strongly opposed the imposition of a logical and very +necessary personal tax to provide funds for the construction and +maintenance of highways and bridges. It is usually wise, when +practicable, to obtain funds for necessary governmental purposes by the +imposition of taxes which are willingly paid.</p> +<p>Mr. Taft resigned the governorship of the Philippines to become +secretary of war, his resignation taking effect January 31, 1904. He +had performed a monumental work for the Filipinos, and for humanity at +large, during his years of service in the islands, and carried with him +the good will of most of the people whom he had so faithfully, +efficiently and self-sacrificingly served. He had at one time very +gravely impaired his health by hard work, and when the opportunity came +to satisfy a lifelong ambition by accepting appointment as a Justice of +the Supreme Court of the United States, he had passed it by, in order +to perform his duty to the people of the Philippine Islands. As +secretary of war, and as President of the United States, he availed +himself of every opportunity which these high offices afforded to help +the Filipinos, and to increase the prosperity of their country. They +have had no better friend, and no other friend whom they have ever had +has been so useful to them. One more proof of his real greatness is +afforded by the fact that to-day, after being reviled by many Filipino +politicians whom he befriended, who have succeeded to a large degree in +making the common people of the Philippines consider him their enemy, +his interest in the people of the Islands is as keen, and his eagerness +to help them is as great, as in the early days when they acclaimed him +their deliverer.</p> +<p>General Luke E. Wright, a democrat of Memphis, Tennessee, was +appointed by President Roosevelt civil governor in Mr. Taft’s +place. He rendered his country and the Filipinos most distinguished +service. It is one thing <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9457" href= +"#xd21e9457" name="xd21e9457">352</a>]</span>to build up a great +government, with numerous political appointments at one’s +disposal, and another to stand by and keep it running smoothly and +efficiently, when a lot of disappointed politicians, who have seen +their last hope of political preferment go a-glimmering, are throwing +sand into the bearings of the machine. This latter class had begun to +plot against Governor Taft before his resignation took effect, but +their machinations were rendered fruitless by the wave of regret raised +by his coming departure.</p> +<p>They now devoted themselves, with a good deal of success, to +injuring Governor Wright, who declined to be dictated to, in the matter +of appointments, by the Federal Party, and aroused the ire of many +politicians by occasionally telling the Filipinos unpalatable but +wholesome and necessary truths relative to their fitness for immediate +independence.</p> +<p>General Wright, whose title had been changed from governor to +governor-general on February 6, 1905, went on leave during the latter +part of that year, fully expecting to return and resume his work in the +Philippines, but the islands were not to see him again. He resigned, +effective April 1, 1906, to become United States Ambassador to Japan. +In my opinion, the acceptance of his resignation at this time was one +of the gravest mistakes ever made in the Philippine policy of the +United States. The islands were deprived of the services of a very able +and distinguished man, thoroughly conversant with their needs, who had +the courage of his convictions, and whose convictions were thoroughly +sound.</p> +<p>Certain Filipino politicians openly boasted that they had secured +his removal, and they and their ilk were encouraged to put forth new +and pernicious efforts. Had General Wright returned to the islands much +of the political unrest from which they have since suffered would have +been avoided. He was beloved by his associates, who felt a sense of +personal loss when they learned that <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9466" href="#xd21e9466" name="xd21e9466">353</a>]</span>the +places which had known him in The Philippines would know him no +more.</p> +<p>He was succeeded for the brief period of five and a half months by +Judge Henry C. Ide, vice-governor and secretary of finance and justice, +who had performed his duties while he was on leave. Judge Ide was a +republican, from Vermont. He resigned on September 19, 1906.</p> +<p>He was succeeded by General James F. Smith, a democrat from +California, who had come to the islands as a colonel of volunteers, and +had won promotion because of his valuable services in the Visayas, and +more especially in the island of Negros, where he had earned the good +will of the Filipinos by his tact and kindness. Later he had served, +unwillingly, as head of the Manila custom house.</p> +<p>He was subsequently made a justice of the supreme court of the +Philippines. A lawyer by profession, he had resigned this position with +regret to accept appointment, on January 1, 1903, as secretary of +public instruction. He did not desire the governor-generalship and made +a strong but unsuccessful effort to avoid accepting the position, which +he finally took from a sense of duty. He was a good lawyer, with a big +heart, and a keen insight into human nature. He thoroughly understood +the Filipinos, and he made an excellent governor-general. It was during +his term of office that the Philippine Legislature, composed of an +upper appointive house, the Philippine Commission, and a lower elective +house, the Philippine Assembly, met for the first time on October 16, +1907.</p> +<p>I devote a separate chapter<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9476src" +href="#xd21e9476" name="xd21e9476src">22</a> to the Philippine +Legislature and its work, so need not discuss it here. Suffice it to +say that such success as attended the work of this body during its +inaugural, first and special sessions, was very largely due to the +tactful influence of Governor-General Smith, who gave the speaker of +the assembly much valuable, friendly counsel, and kept the two houses +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9479" href="#xd21e9479" name= +"xd21e9479">354</a>]</span>working in comparative harmony. Having +struggled through one session of the legislature, Governor-General +Smith felt at liberty to resign. He greatly desired to leave the +Philippine government service and return to the practice of his +profession. His resignation was reluctantly accepted, about a year +after he had tendered it, and he left the service on November 10, +1909.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e9482width" id="p045"><img src="images/p045.jpg" +alt="Typical Scene in a Trade School" width="720" height="424"> +<p class="figureHead">Typical Scene in a Trade School</p> +<p class="first">In institutions like this, young Filipinos are being +taught the dignity of labor and are learning useful trades.</p> +</div> +<p>He was succeeded by Vice-Governor W. Cameron Forbes, a republican +from Massachusetts, who had accepted appointment as secretary of +commerce and police on June 15, 1904. A man of independent means, Mr. +Forbes entered the public service only because of the opportunity for +greater usefulness which was thus afforded him. He brought to bear on +the problems which confronted him as secretary of commerce and police +intelligence and ability of a very high order. Wide practical +experience in the management of large business interests had admirably +fitted him to improve the organization and increase the efficiency of +the insular police force, and to mature and carry out plans for +bettering means of communication and otherwise facilitating and +stimulating the normal, healthful commercial development of the +islands. I have devoted several chapters to the discussion of the +results accomplished along these lines,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9490src" href="#xd21e9490" name="xd21e9490src">23</a> and will +not attempt here to enumerate them.</p> +<p>Like all of his predecessors, he brought to the office of +governor-general mature experience gained on the ground, having been in +the service more than five years at the time of his promotion.</p> +<p>As governor-general, he not only retained his keen interest in the +large problems which had previously engaged his attention, and laboured +unceasingly and most successfully in the performance of the duties of +his new office, but took an especial interest in the development of the +summer capital, and in the work for the non-Christian <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9497" href="#xd21e9497" name= +"xd21e9497">355</a>]</span>peoples of the islands, devoting a much +greater amount of time and attention to familiarizing himself with the +needs of this portion of the population than had ever previously been +given to it by any governor-general. He visited the Moros and the +Bukidnons in the south, and the Negritos, the Benguet Igorots, the +Lepanto Igorots, the Bontoc Igorots, the Ilongots, the Ifugaos, the +Kalingas, and both the wild and the civilized Tingians, in the north, +repeatedly inspecting the several sub-provinces of the Mountain +Province.</p> +<p>Through his generosity in making proper grounds available, public +interest in outdoor sports was greatly stimulated at Manila and at +Baguio, while his own participation in polo, baseball and golf was a +good example to Americans and Filipinos alike, in a country where +vigorous outdoor exercise is very necessary to the physical development +of the young and the preservation of the health of the mature. He was a +true friend of the Filipinos, whom he genuinely liked and was always +ready to assist. His personal influence was a powerful factor in the +success of the very important work carried on at the Philippine Normal +School and the Philippine Training School for Nurses.</p> +<p>During his term of office the prosperity of the islands increased by +leaps and bounds, public order became better than ever before in their +history, and the efficiency of the civil service reached its maximum. +No other governor-general ever drew so heavily on his private means in +promoting the public good, and it was the irony of fate that he should +have been accused, by certain irresponsible anti-imperialists, of using +his public office to promote his private interests. Near the end of his +administration grossly and absurdly false charges were made against him +on the floor of the House by Representative William A. Jones. As their +falsity has been conclusively and finally shown,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9504src" href="#xd21e9504" name="xd21e9504src">24</a> I will not +here lend importance to them by repeating them. No official +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9507" href="#xd21e9507" name= +"xd21e9507">356</a>]</span>has ever given any country a cleaner +administration than Governor-General Forbes gave the Philippines.</p> +<p>It was his fortune to be in office at the time of the change in the +national administration of the United States. After continuing to serve +for months with no sign from Washington as to whether his resignation +was desired, he was advised by the Chief of the bureau of insular +affairs that the appointment of Mr. Francis Burton Harrison, who is a +Tammany Hall democrat, as his successor had been sent to the +Senate,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9511src" href="#xd21e9511" name= +"xd21e9511src">25</a> and three days after its confirmation received a +curt request for his resignation to be effected in a week and a day. He +was also requested to employ servants for Mr. Harrison. Spaniards who +read on the public streets newspapers which printed this message were +seen to tear them up and stamp on the pieces! Our Spanish friends are +accustomed to expect courtesy in connection with the removal of +faithful and efficient public servants.</p> +<p>All other governors-general had taken the oath of office at Manila. +Mr. Harrison took it at Washington on September 2, 1913. He is the +first American governor of the islands who has entered upon his high +duties without previous experience in the country which he is to +govern, and he has as yet displayed little inclination to profit by the +experience of either Filipino or American administrative insular +officials of high rank. It is too soon to discuss any feature of his +administration other than his attitude toward the civil service, which +I take up elsewhere,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9516src" href= +"#xd21e9516" name="xd21e9516src">26</a> and I can only express the hope +that when he has gained that knowledge which can come only through +personal observation on the ground, he will grow to be a wise, strong, +conservative official.</p> +<p>The establishment of civil government in the Philippine Islands +under American rule was a gradual evolution up to the time of the +assumption of control by Governor-General Harrison. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9521" href="#xd21e9521" name= +"xd21e9521">357</a>]</span></p> +<p>I will not attempt to follow in detail all of its successive stages, +but in closing this chapter will endeavour briefly to summarize the +results obtained up to that time.</p> +<p>The Philippines now have two delegates to the Congress of the United +States appointed by the legislature in accordance with the provision of +Section 8 of the Act of Congress of July 1, 1902. Both are +Filipinos.</p> +<p>The ranking executive officials of the insular government are a +governor-general, a secretary of the interior, a secretary of finance +and justice, a secretary of commerce and police and a secretary of +public instruction. All of these officers are appointed by the +President, subject to confirmation by the Senate. The secretary of +finance and justice is a Filipino; the other secretaries of departments +are Americans.</p> +<p>There is a legislature composed of two houses known respectively as +the Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly. The Philippine +Commission is composed of nine members; five are the governor-general +and the four secretaries of department <i>ex officio</i>, and four are +appointed by the President subject to confirmation by the Senate. Four +of the members are Filipinos and five are Americans.<a class="noteref" +id="xd21e9533src" href="#xd21e9533" name="xd21e9533src">27</a></p> +<p>The Philippine Assembly is composed of <span class="corr" id= +"xd21e9538" title="Source: eight">eighty</span>-one elected members, +all of whom are Filipinos. They represent thirty-four of the +thirty-nine provinces into which the archipelago is divided. The two +houses of the legislature have equal powers. Neither has any special +privilege in the matter of initiating legislation, and affirmative +action by both is required in order to pass it. The Moro Province, the +Mountain Province and the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya and Agusan are not +represented in the assembly, nor are they subject to the jurisdiction +of the Philippine Legislature. The Philippine Commission alone has +legislative jurisdiction over them, their population being largely +composed <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9541" href="#xd21e9541" +name="xd21e9541">358</a>]</span>of Moros, or members of other +non-Christian tribes.</p> +<p>The provinces may be divided into regularly organized provinces +governed under the provincial government act, and specially organized +provinces, which include the Moro Province, the Mountain Province and +the provinces of Mindoro, Palawan, Agusan and Nueva Vizcaya, of which +the first is governed under a special law and the remaining four are +governed under a different one known as “The Special Provincial +Government Act.”</p> +<p>Regularly organized provinces have a governor and a treasurer. The +governor is elected, and the treasurer is appointed by the +governor-general with the approval of the commission. These two +officials, with another known as the third member, constitute a +provincial board. The third member is elected. As the Filipinos usually +elect to office men from among their own people, practically all of the +elective provincial officers are Filipinos, as are ten of the +appointive officers, it having been the policy to appoint Filipinos +whenever possible.</p> +<p>Regularly organized provinces are divided into municipalities which +elect their own officers and control their own affairs for the most +part. Provincial treasurers have intervention in municipal +expenditures, which are approved in advance for each fiscal year, and +municipal officers may be removed for misconduct by the +governor-general.</p> +<p>All officers of the six special government provinces are appointed +by the governor-general with the approval of the commission.</p> +<p>There are four regularly organized municipalities in these +provinces, but the remainder of their territory is divided into +townships, which elect their own officers, except their +secretary-treasurers, who are appointed by the provincial governor; and +into <i>rancherias</i> or settlements, with all of their officials +appointed by the provincial <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9557" +href="#xd21e9557" name="xd21e9557">359</a>]</span>governor. This latter +form of local government is confined to the more primitive wild +people.</p> +<p>The judiciary is independent. The details of its organization will +be found in <a href="#ch15">Chapter XV</a>.</p> +<p>Three of the seven justices of the supreme court, including the +chief justice, are Filipinos, as are approximately half of the judges +of the courts of first instance and practically all justices of the +peace.</p> +<p>At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 71 per cent of +the employees in the classified civil service of the islands were +Filipinos painstakingly trained for the positions to which they had +been appointed.</p> +<p>Prior to the American occupation, the Filipinos had practically no +intervention in the government of their country.</p> +<p>The changes introduced in the twelve years since the establishment +of civil government began are of a sweeping and radical nature. For +reasons hereinafter fully set forth, I believe they have been somewhat +too sweeping, and too radical. At all events, it is now certainly the +part of wisdom carefully to analyze their results before going +further.</p> +<p>I deem the subject of the establishment of civil governmental +control over the non-Christian tribes of the Philippines worthy of +special consideration.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9574src" href= +"#xd21e9574" name="xd21e9574src">28</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9577" href="#xd21e9577" name="xd21e9577">360</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9079" href="#xd21e9079src" name="xd21e9079">1</a></span> P. +981.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9129" href="#xd21e9129src" name="xd21e9129">2</a></span> +September 15, 1913.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9142" href="#xd21e9142src" name="xd21e9142">3</a></span> The +building where the executive offices of the insular government have +been located since the American occupation.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9190" href="#xd21e9190src" name="xd21e9190">4</a></span> Taylor, +18 HS.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9201" href="#xd21e9201src" name="xd21e9201">5</a></span> This +name is applied to certain provinces organized under special acts +because the majority of their inhabitants are non-Christians.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9220" href="#xd21e9220src" name="xd21e9220">6</a></span> Tayabas, +Romblon, Masbate, Iloilo, Antique, Capiz, Cebú, Bohol, +Occidental Negros, Oriental Negros, Leyte, Albay, Ambos, Camarines, +Sorsogon, Marinduque, Batangas, Surigao, and Misamis.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9251" href="#xd21e9251src" name="xd21e9251">7</a></span> +Obviously a misprint, perhaps, for “perusal of.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9254" href="#xd21e9254src" name="xd21e9254">8</a></span> Blount, +p. 380.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9302" href="#xd21e9302src" name="xd21e9302">9</a></span> For +further details see pp. 746; 753.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9335" href="#xd21e9335src" name="xd21e9335">10</a></span> A +native surf boat.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9366" href="#xd21e9366src" name="xd21e9366">11</a></span> See +Chapters XXI–XXIV.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9369" href="#xd21e9369src" name="xd21e9369">12</a></span> Chap. +XV.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9372" href="#xd21e9372src" name="xd21e9372">13</a></span> Chap. +XIV.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9375" href="#xd21e9375src" name="xd21e9375">14</a></span> Chap. +XVI.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9378" href="#xd21e9378src" name="xd21e9378">15</a></span> Chap. +XVII.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9382" href="#xd21e9382src" name="xd21e9382">16</a></span> Chap. +XVIII.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9390" href="#xd21e9390src" name="xd21e9390">17</a></span> See +Chapter XIX.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9393" href="#xd21e9393src" name="xd21e9393">18</a></span> Chap. +XXX.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9396" href="#xd21e9396src" name="xd21e9396">19</a></span> Chap. +XXX.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9399" href="#xd21e9399src" name="xd21e9399">20</a></span> Chap. +XXXI.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9403" href="#xd21e9403src" name="xd21e9403">21</a></span> Chap. +XXXII.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9476" href="#xd21e9476src" name="xd21e9476">22</a></span> Chapter +XXVII.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9490" href="#xd21e9490src" name="xd21e9490">23</a></span> +Chapters XIV, XXII, XXIII and XXIV.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9504" href="#xd21e9504src" name="xd21e9504">24</a></span> Reply +to Jones, Pamphlet, Manila, 1913.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9511" href="#xd21e9511src" name="xd21e9511">25</a></span> See pp. +375–77.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9516" href="#xd21e9516src" name="xd21e9516">26</a></span> See pp. +357–77.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9533" href="#xd21e9533src" name="xd21e9533">27</a></span> Under +the new regime these figures have been reversed.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9574" href="#xd21e9574src" name="xd21e9574">28</a></span> See +Chapters XX–XXIV.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch13" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e347">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XIII</h2> +<h2 class="main">The Philippine Civil Service</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">Before the Philippine Commission left Washington, a +clear understanding was reached with the President and secretary of war +to the effect that no political appointee whatsoever should under any +circumstances be forced upon us. After arrival at Manila early +attention was given to the drafting of a civil service act by Mr. Taft, +who was fortunate in having the assistance of Mr. Frank M. Kiggins, +chief of the examining division of the United States Civil Service +Commission. The passage of this act and its strict enforcement led to +very favourable comment in the United States. In his first annual +message President Roosevelt said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It is important to have this system obtain at +home, but it is even more important to have it rigidly applied in our +insular possessions....</p> +<p>“The merit system is simply one method of securing honest and +efficient administration of the government, and in the long run the +sole justification of any type of government lies in its proving itself +both honest and efficient.”</p> +</div> +<p>Secretary Root also gave us his fullest support, calling attention +to the fact that the law which we had passed was of a very advanced +type, and that under such circumstances as confronted us, the securing +of the best men available should outweigh, and indeed practically +exclude, all other considerations.</p> +<p>Our action met with the unqualified approval of organizations which +especially interest themselves in the maintenance of clean and +efficient public service, such as the Cambridge (Massachusetts) Civil +Service Reform <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9595" href= +"#xd21e9595" name="xd21e9595">361</a>]</span>Association<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e9597src" href="#xd21e9597" name="xd21e9597src">1</a> +and the National Civil Service Reform League, whose committee on civil +service in dependencies spoke in very high terms of existing conditions +in the Philippines.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9600src" href= +"#xd21e9600" name="xd21e9600src">2</a></p> +<div class="figure xd21e9604width" id="p046"><img src="images/p046.jpg" +alt="An Embroidery Class" width="720" height="426"> +<p class="figureHead">An Embroidery Class</p> +<p class="first">This is a typical scene in the Manila School of +Household Industries, where Filipina women are taught useful and +profitable employments.</p> +</div> +<p>In its first annual report the Civil Service Board called attention +to some of the more important provisions of the Act in the following +words:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Competitive examinations must, whenever +practicable, be held for original entrance to the service, and +promotions of employees must also be based upon competitive +examinations, in which the previous experience and efficiency of +employees shall be given due consideration. The examinations for +entrance to the service must be held in the United States and in the +Philippine Islands, and applicants are required to be tested in both +English and Spanish.</p> +<p>“Disloyalty to the United States of America as the supreme +authority in the Islands is made a complete disqualification for +holding office, and every applicant for admission to the service must, +before being admitted to examination, take the oath of loyalty. By an +amendment to the Civil Service Act on January 26, 1901, it is further +declared that all persons in arms against the authority of the United +States in the Philippine Islands, and all persons aiding or abetting +them, on the first day of April, 1901, shall be ineligible to hold +office.</p> +<p>“A minimum age limit of eighteen years and a maximum age limit +of forty years are fixed for those who enter the lowest grades in the +service. This avoids the difficulty and embarrassment <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9619" href="#xd21e9619" name= +"xd21e9619">362</a>]</span>that would result from the admission of men +advanced in years to positions where the duties can be better performed +by younger and more energetic persons.</p> +<p>“The Board is given authority to investigate matters relative +to the enforcement of the act and the rules, and is empowered to +administer oaths, to summon witnesses, and to require the production of +office books and records in making such investigations. Without such a +provision it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to conduct +satisfactory investigations, but with the authority conferred by the +act, the Board can make a rigid inquiry into the facts of every case +arising under the act and the rules.</p> +<p>“The act provides for the ultimate classification of all +positions in the service, from laborers to heads of bureaus and +offices, and the Board may, in its discretion, determine the efficiency +of those now in the service as well as those who may enter hereafter +through its examinations. This authority will enable the Board to +ascertain the fitness of all employees so that only the most competent +will be retained in the service.</p> +<p>“As a check upon the illegal payment of salaries the act +provides that whenever the Board finds that a person has been appointed +in violation of its provisions or of the rules of the Board, and so +certifies to the disbursing and auditing officers, such payments shall +be illegal, and if payment is continued the disbursing officer shall +not receive credit for the same and the auditing officer who authorizes +the payment shall be liable on his official bond for the loss to the +government.”</p> +</div> +<p>In its third annual report the Civil Service Board mentioned the +following among its distinctive duties:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“All appointments to classified positions are +required to be made on a form prescribed by the Board, and the +Board’s attestation is required in each case before the Civil +Governor or Secretary of Department will approve the appointment and +before the disbursing officer will pay any salary.</p> +<p>“The papers in all cases of reduction, removal and enforced +resignation are required to be submitted to the Board for +recommendation before transmission to the Civil Governor or Secretary +of Department for final action.</p> +<p>“The Board is required to keep a record of all unclassified as +well as classified employees in the Philippine civil service, showing +among other things date of appointment, original position and salary, +place of employment, all changes in status and grade, and all accrued +and sick leave granted. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9637" href= +"#xd21e9637" name="xd21e9637">363</a>]</span></p> +<p>“From its service records the Board is required to compile +annually, for publication on January 1, a roster of the officers and +employees under the Philippine Government.</p> +<p>“Applications from employees, classified and unclassified, for +accrued and sick leave for more than two days must be made on a form +prescribed by the Board and forwarded to it for verification of service +record and previous leave granted and for recommendation before final +action is taken by the Civil Governor or Secretary of +Department.”</p> +</div> +<p>These extracts from official reports clearly show that the act was +indeed of a very advanced type, and if honestly enforced would of +necessity lead to the establishment and maintenance of “an +efficient and honest civil service,” for which purpose it was +enacted.</p> +<p>In 1905 the insular government dispensed with boards as +administrative agencies, and in accordance with this general policy, a +bureau of civil service with a director at its head was substituted for +the Civil Service Board, thus securing greater administrative +efficiency and increased economy.</p> +<p>At first the Civil Service Act applied to comparatively few +positions, as only a few bureaus and offices had been created, but as +the government was organized and grew, the different bureaus and +offices were placed in the classified service, the acts organizing them +leaving in the unclassified service positions to which in the judgment +of the commission the examination requirements of the act should not +apply. Ultimately these requirements were made applicable to the +treasurers of all municipalities and to all positions, including +teachers, in the executive and judicial branches of the central +government, the provincial governments, and the governments of the +cities of Manila and Baguio, except a few specifically excepted by law, +which for the most part are unclassified or exempt in almost all +governments, national, state and municipal, having civil service laws. +None of the states of the Union has such a widely extended +classification of its civil service. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9649" href="#xd21e9649" name="xd21e9649">364</a>]</span></p> +<p>With the exception of the positions specifically placed in the +unclassified service by law and of appointments made by the Philippine +Commission, all positions in the Philippine civil service are +classified and must be filled by appointees who have passed civil +service examinations. Neither the governor-general nor the Bureau of +Civil Service can, by the promulgation of civil service rules, or in +any other manner whatever, transfer any position from the classified to +the unclassified service or except from examination any position in the +classified service. Under most of the civil service laws of the United +States the President or the governor of the state has authority to +transfer positions from the non-classified or exempted class to the +competitive classified civil service or <i>vice versa</i>, these powers +sometimes leading to manipulation of the civil service rules for +political purposes.</p> +<p>In the Philippines, where emergencies, such as cholera epidemics, +sometimes lead to the employment of large bodies of temporary employees +without examination, when the emergency has passed the temporary +employees have always been discharged; and no employee has ever +received classification without examination on account of temporary +service. This is in marked contrast to the practice in the United +States, where large bodies of employees taken on for temporary service +due to emergencies, such as the war with Spain, are not infrequently +blanketed into the classified service without examination.</p> +<p>In its last annual report the board recommended that a number of +official positions in the unclassified service be placed in the +classified service, and gave as a reason therefor that such action +would “add to the attractiveness of the classified service by +increasing the opportunities therein for promotion to responsible +positions.” This recommendation was adopted by providing that all +vacancies in the positions of heads and assistant heads of bureaus or +offices and of superintendents shall be filled by promotion, with or +without examination, in the discretion <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9660" href="#xd21e9660" name="xd21e9660">365</a>]</span>of the +civil governor or proper head of a department, of persons in the +classified civil service, if competent persons are found therein.</p> +<p>This provision is an important and distinguishing feature of the +Philippine Civil Service Act. The federal civil service has none +comparable with it. It is of special value in that it induces young men +of exceptional ability and training to enter the lower grades, for they +have the certainty that faithful and efficient work will in the end +earn for them the highest positions.</p> +<p>On February 25, 1909, the director of civil service made the +following statement with respect to the observance of the +law:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“A careful study of Act 5 and all acts +amendatory thereof will show that there has been no change in the +policy adopted by the Commission at the outset to extend the classified +service as widely as possible and to fill by promotion all the higher +positions so far as practicable. The provision requiring the higher +positions to be filled by promotion so far as practicable has always +been regarded by the Philippine Commission, by this Bureau, and by +others interested in obtaining the best possible government service in +the Philippines as one of the most important provisions of the Civil +Service Act. It has been faithfully observed by all +Governors-General....With the exception of the positions of +Governor-General and Secretaries of Departments, the Philippine Civil +Service Act requires the highest positions in the executive civil +service, namely, chiefs and assistant chiefs of Bureaus and Offices, to +be filled by promotion from the entire service in all cases except when +in the opinion of the appointing power there is no person competent and +available who possesses the qualifications required, and this provision +has been faithfully observed heretofore.”</p> +</div> +<p>The enforcement of the law by the commission has received the +following commendation from the executive committee of the National +Civil Service Reform League:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We have further to note with satisfaction the +course of the Philippine Commission, by which, if it be persevered in, +the merit system will be established in the Islands of that archipelago +at least as thoroughly and consistently as in any department +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9675" href="#xd21e9675" name= +"xd21e9675">366</a>]</span>of government, Federal, State, or Municipal, +in the Union. This must be, in any case, regarded as a gratifying +recognition of sound principles of administration on the part of the +Commission, and justifies the hope that, within the limits of their +jurisdiction at least, no repetition of the scandals of post-bellum +days will be tolerated.”</p> +</div> +<p>Up to the time of the appointment of Governor-General Harrison the +provisions of the Civil Service Act and rules were firmly supported by +all of the governors-general and secretaries of departments, and the +annual reports of the governor-general uniformly expressed satisfaction +with their practical operation. Mr. Taft was always an enthusiastic +supporter of the merit system.</p> +<p>Governor-General Forbes in his inaugural address made the following +statements:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“It is necessary that the civil service should +be rigidly maintained and its rules carefully observed. One very +distinguished Filipino has recently been appointed to administrative +control of one of the most important departments of the Government, +equal in rank to any executive position in the Islands with the +exception of the Executive head. In the executive branch of the +Government, the Filipinization of the service must steadily continue. +As vacancies occur Filipinos will be gradually substituted for +Americans as rapidly as can be done without positive detriment to the +service. At the same time, care will be taken to provide a suitable +career for honest and capable Americans who have come out here in good +faith. They should know that during good behavior and efficient +performance of their duty they are secure in their positions, and that +when they desire to return to the United States an effort will be made +to place them in the civil service at home.</p> +<p>“I want no better men than the present officers and employees +of the Government, Americans and Filipinos. They compare favorably with +any set of men I have ever seen both as regards ability and fidelity to +duty.”</p> +</div> +<p>Under the operation of the Civil Service Act the proportion of +Filipinos employed has increased from 49 per cent, in 1903, to 71 per +cent in 1913, as is shown by the following table:— <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9690" href="#xd21e9690" name= +"xd21e9690">367</a>]</span></p> +<div class="table"> +<h4 class="tablecaption">Comparison of Percentages of Americans and +Filipinos in the Service</h4> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td rowspan="2" class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> +Year</td> +<td colspan="2" class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop">Number of +Employees</td> +</tr> +<tr class="label"> +<td class="cellHeadBottom">Americans</td> +<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadBottom">Filipinos</td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1903</td> +<td>51%</td> +<td class="cellRight">49%</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1904</td> +<td>49</td> +<td class="cellRight">51</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1905</td> +<td>45</td> +<td class="cellRight">55</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1906<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9729src" href= +"#xd21e9729" name="xd21e9729src">3</a></td> +<td>—</td> +<td class="cellRight"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1907</td> +<td>40</td> +<td class="cellRight">60</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1908</td> +<td>38</td> +<td class="cellRight">62</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1909</td> +<td>38</td> +<td class="cellRight">62</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1910</td> +<td>36</td> +<td class="cellRight">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1911</td> +<td>35</td> +<td class="cellRight">65</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">1912</td> +<td>31</td> +<td class="cellRight">69</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">1913</td> +<td class="cellBottom">29</td> +<td class="cellRight cellBottom">71</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p>For the first few years after the establishment of the government +large numbers of Americans were appointed, as there were comparatively +few Filipino candidates with the necessary educational qualifications. +During the last two years, 89 per cent of the persons appointed in the +islands have been Filipinos.</p> +<p>There has been a great increase in the number of Filipinos entering +the civil service examinations in English. Ten years ago 97 per cent of +those examined took their examinations in Spanish, while during last +year 89 per cent of those examined took examinations in English, the +total number so examined being 7755. Almost all appointees for ordinary +clerical work are now Filipinos, but the supply of bookkeepers, +stenographers, civil engineers, physicians, veterinarians, surveyors, +chemists, bacteriologists, agriculturists, horticulturists, +constabulary officers, nurses, electricians, mechanical engineers, and +other scientific employees is still insufficient to meet the demands of +the service. Only one Filipino has passed <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e9791" href="#xd21e9791" name="xd21e9791">368</a>]</span>the +stenographer examination in English since the organization of the +government, and it is necessary each year to bring many American +stenographers from the United States. A few Filipinos pass each year +the junior stenographer examination<a class="noteref" id="xd21e9793src" +href="#xd21e9793" name="xd21e9793src">4</a> and are able to fill some +of the positions which would formerly have required the appointment of +Americans.</p> +<p>The salaries paid to executive officials, chiefs of bureaus and +offices, chief clerks, and chiefs of divisions equal in many instances +those paid to officials occupying similar positions in the service of +the United States government.</p> +<p>In the legislative branch the speaker receives $8000 per annum. +Members of the Philippine Commission without portfolios receive $7500 +per annum. Members of the Philippine Assembly receive $15 a day for +each day in which the assembly is in session.</p> +<p>In the executive branch secretaries of departments receive $15,500 +per annum each, including $5000 received by them as members of the +Philippine Commission. The executive secretary receives $9000 per +annum. The salaries of other bureau chiefs range from $2500 per annum +to $7500.</p> +<p>The justices of the Philippine Supreme Court receive $10,000 per +annum. Judges of courts of first instance receive from $4500 to +$5500.</p> +<p>The following extracts from an article by the chairman of the +Philippine Civil Service Board give information with respect to +salaries in the Philippine Islands, as compared with salaries paid in +surrounding British and Dutch colonies:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The salaries paid officials in all branches of +the service of the Straits Settlements are generally lower than those +paid in the Philippine civil service. In this connection, however, it +is only just to state that the population and extent of the territory +under British control, and the expenses of living, are less than in the +Philippines, while the difficulty of the problems <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9809" href="#xd21e9809" name= +"xd21e9809">369</a>]</span>to be solved is not so great. The salaries +paid to natives who fill the lower grade positions in the civil service +of the Philippine Islands are three and four times as great as the +salaries paid to natives in similar classes of work in the civil +service of the British Malay colonies.</p> +<p>“A study of the colonial civil service of the Dutch in the +islands of Java and Madura gives us somewhat different results....</p> +<p>“The matter of salaries is peculiarly interesting. The +comparison made above of the compensations received by the high +officials in the civil service of the English colonies and by those in +the Philippines does not hold good when applied to the Dutch in Java. +In fact, the salary of the Governor-General of Java is somewhat +remarkable in contrast with that of the Civil Governor of the +Philippines. As is well known, the latter receives $20,000, while the +salary of the Governor-General of Java amounts to 132,000 gulden or +something over $53,000. The American official is given, in addition, +free transportation on all official investigations and free use of the +governor’s palace, but not the cost of maintenance. On the other +hand, the Dutch governor is granted 51,000 gulden (about $21,500) as +personal and household expenses and travel pay.</p> +<p>“The general secretary of the government receives 24,000 +gulden ($9648), as compared with the executive secretary of the +Philippine government, whose salary is $7500.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9817src" href="#xd21e9817" name="xd21e9817src">5</a> The seven +heads of departments in the Javanese service each receive a like +compensation of 24000 gulden. The Raad, or Council, of the Dutch +colonial government is composed of a vice-president and four +members—the former receiving about $14,500, the latter slightly +over $11,500 each. In the Philippine government the executive functions +of heads of departments are exercised by four members of the +legislative body, each of whom receives $10,500 for his executive +services and $5000 for his legislative duties. Without going further +into detail, the conclusion is evident that all officials of high rank +are much better paid in the Dutch service. When a comparison is made +between the chief clerks and other office employees of middle +grades—not natives—the salaries are seen to be about the +same in the two countries.</p> +<p>“All natives in positions of lower grades, however, in the +Philippine Islands fare better than their Malay brethren, either in the +Straits Settlements or in the East Indies.”—(Second Annual +Report of the Philippine Civil Service Board, pp. 60, 61.) <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9822" href="#xd21e9822" name= +"xd21e9822">370</a>]</span></p> +<p>“Difference in salaries for subordinate positions in the +British and Dutch colonial services and the Philippine service are +distinctly in favour of subordinate employees in the Philippine +service; only the higher officials, after long experience, in the +British colonial service receive larger salaries than corresponding +officials in the Philippine service; the leave of absence and other +privileges for the Philippine service are not less liberal than for +other colonial services.”—(Report of the Philippine +Commission for 1905, p. 74.)</p> +</div> +<p>The entrance salaries of Americans brought to the islands are +considerably in excess of the entrance salaries received on appointment +to the civil service in the United States.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e9829width" id="p047"><img src="images/p047.jpg" +alt="Philippine Embroidery" width="549" height="642"> +<p class="figureHead">Philippine Embroidery</p> +<p class="first">This work was done by a pupul in one of the Manila +city schools.</p> +</div> +<p>The following table shows the minimum entrance salaries given to +Americans appointed in the United States to the United States civil +service, as shown by the manual of examinations of the United States +Civil Service Commission for the fall of 1913, and to Americans +appointed in the United States to the Philippine Civil +Service:—</p> +<div class="table"> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"></td> +<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Philippines</td> +<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">United States</td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Aid (Surveyor)</td> +<td>$1400</td> +<td class="cellRight">$900</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Civil Engineer</td> +<td>1400</td> +<td class="cellRight">1200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Forester, assistant</td> +<td>1400</td> +<td class="cellRight">1200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Scientific Assistant, (Agricultural +Inspector)</td> +<td>1400</td> +<td class="cellRight">600</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Physician</td> +<td>1600</td> +<td class="cellRight">1320</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Printer</td> +<td>2000</td> +<td class="cellRight">.50 per hour</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Stenographer</td> +<td>1200</td> +<td class="cellRight">700</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Trained Nurse</td> +<td>600 Board, quarters and laundry</td> +<td class="cellRight">600 and laundry</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Teacher</td> +<td>1000</td> +<td class="cellRight">540</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Veterinarian</td> +<td class="cellBottom">1600</td> +<td class="cellRight cellBottom">1200</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p>The following cases taken from the official rosters show some +promotions to the higher positions in the service of employees who +entered the lower ranks of the classified service:— <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9918" href="#xd21e9918" name= +"xd21e9918">371</a>]</span></p> +<p>A clerk who entered the service in 1899 at $1800 per annum was +appointed in 1903 an assistant chief of bureau at $3000 per annum and +in 1908 executive secretary at $9000 per annum. A teacher appointed in +1899 at $720 per annum was appointed a chief of an office at $4000 per +annum and in 1912 a judge at $4500 per annum. A teacher who entered the +service in 1901 at $1200 per annum was in 1909 appointed a chief of a +bureau at $6000 per annum. A teacher who entered the service in 1904 at +$1000 per annum was appointed in 1911 an assistant chief of a bureau at +$6000 per annum. A clerk who entered the service in 1901 at $1200 per +annum was appointed in 1909 an assistant chief of the executive bureau +at $3750 per annum and in 1912 a chief of a bureau at $6000 per annum. +A stenographer who entered the service in 1902 at $1400 per annum was +in 1908 appointed an assistant chief of a bureau at $5000 per annum. A +transitman who entered the service in 1905 at $1400 per annum was in +1913 appointed an assistant chief of a bureau at $4500 per annum. An +accountant who entered the service in 1901 at $1800 per annum was in +1907 appointed an assistant chief of a bureau at $3750 per annum and in +1909 a chief of a bureau at $6000 per annum. A law clerk who entered +the service in 1904 at $1800 per annum was in 1913 appointed judge at +$4500 per annum. In no service anywhere has promotion depended more +directly on demonstrated ability, and in many instances it has been +rapid.</p> +<p>Young men living two in a room may obtain room and board in boarding +houses in Manila at a rate as low as $35 per month each. In the Young +Men’s Christian Association building, a large reënforced +concrete structure with reading room, gymnasium, and a good restaurant, +the charge for two in a room is $10.25 each. Board costs $27.50, a +total of $37.75. The expenses for clothing in Manila are less than in +the United States, as white clothing is worn the whole year and white +duck suits may be obtained for about $3 each. The expenses for +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9924" href="#xd21e9924" name= +"xd21e9924">372</a>]</span>laundry amount to about $5 a month. The +necessity of employing a <i>muchacho</i><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9928src" href="#xd21e9928" name="xd21e9928src">6</a> is +<i>nil</i>, in the case of an unmarried employee who boards. Servants +are far cheaper and better in the Philippines than in the United +States.</p> +<p>In a discussion of the salaries paid in the Philippine civil service +the question of the leave allowed should be considered. Classified +employees who receive an annual salary of $1000 or more per annum may +be granted twenty-eight days’ leave per annum to cover absences +from duty due to illness or other causes. If not taken during the +calendar year in which it is earned or in January or February of the +succeeding year, it is forfeited. Employees taking vacation leave +during the months of December, January, February and March may take +fifty-six days, corresponding to two years of service, at one time, and +may thus get time to visit Australia, Japan, China, and neighbouring +countries.</p> +<p>In addition to vacation leave an employee whose salary is $1000 or +more but less than $1800 per annum is entitled to thirty days’ +accrued leave per annum, and an employee whose salary is $1800 per +annum or more is entitled to thirty-five days’ accrued leave per +annum. Accrued leave may accumulate for not more than five years of +service.</p> +<p>All classified employees are entitled to visit the United States or +foreign countries once in every three years, receiving in addition to +their accrued leave, one year’s vacation leave, allowance of +actual travel time at half pay not to exceed sixty days, and return +travel expenses from place of residence in the United States, or from +port of embarkation in a foreign country to Manila, on the completion +of two years of service after date of return. An employee entitled to +thirty-five days’ accrued leave per annum who visits the United +States after having rendered three years of service receives a total of +two hundred thirteen days’ accrued leave, vacation leave, and +half-pay travel time. If he postpones his visit till he has completed +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9940" href="#xd21e9940" name= +"xd21e9940">373</a>]</span>five years of service, he receives a total +of two hundred ninety-one days’ accrued leave, vacation leave and +travel time. An employee entitled to thirty days’ accrued leave +per annum who visits the United States after three years of service +receives a total of one hundred ninety-four days’ leave and +half-pay travel time, and if he postpones his visit until he has +rendered five years of service, he receives a total of two hundred +fifty-nine days’ leave and travel time.</p> +<p>It will be seen that these are very liberal allowances. An employee +receiving $1200 at the end of two years of service may spend eight +weeks of vacation leave visiting Japan or other surrounding countries, +and at the end of an additional year’s service he may visit his +home in the United States with six and a third months’ absence on +full and half pay and with his expenses from his home to Manila payable +two years after his return, and during every three years of his service +he may have the same privileges.</p> +<p>The law also provides that if an employee is wounded or injured in +the performance of duty, he may have a total of six months’ leave +on full pay in addition to any accrued leave to his credit.</p> +<p>Employees who have rendered satisfactory service and resign after +three or more years receive in a lump sum all accrued leave due and +thirty days’ half salary. For example, an employee who has +received $1800 per annum and has served five years without taking any +leave in excess of the four weeks’ vacation leave allowable +annually would draw $1025 were he to resign.</p> +<p>The school sessions amount to forty weeks per annum and the school +vacations to twelve weeks per annum.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9950src" href="#xd21e9950" name="xd21e9950src">7</a> Teachers +receive an annual salary and draw full pay during vacations as well as +during school sessions. Every third year they are allowed to visit the +United States or foreign countries with an allowance of sixty +days’ half-pay travel time in addition to the ten weeks’ +long vacation, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9953" href= +"#xd21e9953" name="xd21e9953">374</a>]</span>and on completing two +years of service after return to the islands they are entitled to their +travelling expenses from place of residence in the United States to +Manila or from port of embarkation in a foreign country to Manila.</p> +<p>It is interesting to compare these provisions with the regulations +governing leave of absence in the British colonial service:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">(1) There is no distinction between sick leave and +ordinary leave, the leave of absence on account of sickness being +charged against the ordinary leave allowable.</p> +<p>(2) There are two classes of leave: vacation leave on full pay and +half-pay leave.</p> +<p>(3) The vacation leave amounts to three months every two years, and +must be taken during the two years, as it does not accumulate.</p> +<p>(4) The half-pay leave amounts to two months for each year of +service, but cannot be taken until after a period of six years’ +resident service in the Colony, except in cases of serious +indisposition supported by medical certificate, or of “urgent +private affairs,” the nature of which must be stated to the +governor. In either case, the governor and council must be satisfied +that the indulgence is indispensable.</p> +<p>Half pay in African and Asiatic colonies may accumulate for twelve +years’ service—<i>i.e.</i> twenty-four months’ +half-pay leave.</p> +<p>(5) After the exhaustion of all vacation leave and half-pay leave, +an advance of six months’ half-pay leave may be made on special +grounds (“urgent private affairs” or illness supported by a +medical certificate), the advance being charged against leave accruing +subsequently.</p> +<p>(6) For the purpose of visiting home, an officer may be granted the +vacation leave due him (which is never more than three months) on full +pay, and his accumulated half-pay leave, to commence at the expiration +of his vacation leave.</p> +<p>(7) Judicial and education officers do not receive the vacation +leave described in paragraph 3 above, the vacation of courts and +schools being considered equal to this, but they do receive the +half-pay leave described in paragraph 4, and may, when visiting home on +half-pay leave, receive full pay during any ordinary vacation of the +court or school.</p> +</div> +<p>It will be noted that although officers in the British colonial +service are allowed much longer periods of absence, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9980" href="#xd21e9980" name= +"xd21e9980">375</a>]</span>the greater part of their absence is on half +pay and the total money value of the leave allowable in the British +colonial service and in the Philippine civil service is about the same. +As officers naturally prefer to be on full pay instead of half pay +while on leave, the provision of the Philippine law is in their +interest; it is also in the interest of the service, as the periods of +the absence from duty are not so prolonged.</p> +<p>The Philippine Civil Service Law is now about to be put to its first +really severe test as a result of the change in the national +administration. Heretofore those whose duty and privilege it has been +to enforce it have been in the most full and hearty sympathy with its +purposes. President McKinley was from the outset definitely committed +to the widest application of the merit system to appointments in the +Philippines. Mr. Roosevelt and Mr. Taft firmly supported that system, +as has each succeeding governor-general up to, but not including, Mr. +Harrison, who is as yet an unknown quantity.</p> +<p>It is interesting, however, to note that on the day following his +arrival there was a demand for the instant resignation of Mr. Thomas +Cary Welch, a faithful and efficient employee of the government, who +had been for nearly ten years in the service, whose position was +desired for, and immediately given to, Mr. Stephen Bonsal. That +gentleman had been appointed at Washington a member of the Municipal +Board of Manila immediately after Mr. Harrison’s confirmation as +governor-general. It is not recorded that Mr. Bonsal rendered any +valuable service to the city on the voyage, or during the twenty-four +hours of his occupancy of his municipal post subsequent to his arrival! +Nor does it appear that he passed any examination before his early +promotion.</p> +<p>Following closely upon the removal of Mr. Welch came a demand for +the resignation of Captain Charles H. Sleeper, Director of Lands, who +was unquestionably one of the ablest and most efficient of the bureau +chiefs. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e9989" href="#xd21e9989" +name="xd21e9989">376</a>]</span></p> +<p>He had earned the ill-will of the <i>politicos</i> by insisting that +persons authorized to make public land surveys, or other surveys on +which claims of title as against the government were to be based, +should know enough about surveying to make one correct survey when +given an opportunity practically to demonstrate their abilities under +very favourable conditions. He had also incurred the dislike of +influential <i>caciques</i> by defending the occupants of small +holdings on friar estates from the rapacity of their rich neighbours, +and by protecting free-patent applicants and homesteaders when large +landowners opposed their applications in order to prevent their +securing land, so that they might the more easily be held as peon +labourers.</p> +<p>He had started in his bureau a practical school for Filipino +surveyors which was training really well-qualified candidates for +positions desired by the politicians for themselves or their +incompetent friends.</p> +<p>Last, but not least, he had helped to upset the plans of the men +primarily responsible for the so-called “friar lands +investigation” conducted by the House Committee on Insular +Affairs, which cost the United States government a very large sum, and +resulted in demonstrating his uprightness and the efficiency of his +administration.</p> +<p>Mr. John R. Wilson, the assistant director of lands, was absent at +the moment, but his resignation was demanded on the day of his return. +He too was an active, efficient, upright man.</p> +<p>Both of these removals were political acts, pure and simple. Sr. +Manuel Tinio was appointed Director of Lands. He is a bright young +Ilocano of good character, who had become a “general” in +the Insurgent army at twenty-one years of age. He is unfit to hold the +place, because, as he has himself frankly said, he knows nothing about +the work. He is charged with the duty of administering $7,000,000 worth +of friar lands, and the whole public domain of the Philippine Islands, +and with such minor <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10006" href= +"#xd21e10006" name="xd21e10006">377</a>]</span>duties as the +checkmating of the machinations of numerous wealthy Filipinos who seek +fraudulently to acquire great tracts through fraudulent claims to +unperfected titles and by other improper means.</p> +<p>While in Honolulu, <i>en route</i> to Manila, Mr. Harrison gave out +an interview, which I am credibly informed he has since confirmed in +substance. It contained the following statement:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“For years I have been of the minority in +Congress and have seen the Democrats kicked about, trampled upon, and +otherwise manhandled by Republicans, so that I must confess it now +gives me a saturnine pleasure to see the Democrats in a position to do +the same thing to the Republicans.”</p> +</div> +<p>His early official acts after arrival at Manila confirmed the belief +that this was indeed the spirit in which he was facing the grave +responsibilities which there confronted him.</p> +<p>It is beyond doubt or cavil that high ideals heretofore have +prevailed in the Philippine Civil Service. Are they now to be +substituted by the methods of the ward politician?</p> +<p>In its report for 1901 the Philippine Commission said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The civil service law has been in operation +since our last report, and we see no reason to change our conclusion as +to the absolute necessity for its existence, and strict enforcement. +Without this law American government in these Islands is, in our +opinion, foredoomed to humiliating failure.”</p> +</div> +<p>I signed that report. I have not since seen any reason to change my +mind. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10030" href="#xd21e10030" +name="xd21e10030">378</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9597" href="#xd21e9597src" name="xd21e9597">1</a></span> +“The merit system has received renewed support from President +Roosevelt in his administration, and by the extension of civil service +throughout the nation, as well as in our new possessions. The +Philippine service is reported to be very satisfactory, and efforts are +being made for the extension and larger development of regulations in +Porto Rico.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9600" href="#xd21e9600src" name="xd21e9600">2</a></span> +“From the President down, every official charged with a duty +touching the government of our dependencies is imbued with a profound +sense of duty, and adequate realization of the situation and the +imperative necessity of an unselfish, patriotic execution of the laws +and regulations in the interest of the highest welfare of the +inhabitants of the dependencies. With this state of affairs, the +establishment of the merit system in them on an enduring basis should +follow as a matter of course. It will be the aim of this Committee to +aid in every possible way in extending and improving the system, and to +that end to give to the whole subject careful and detailed +study.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9729" href="#xd21e9729src" name="xd21e9729">3</a></span> No data +for 1906 available.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9793" href="#xd21e9793src" name="xd21e9793">4</a></span> Eight +passed last year.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9817" href="#xd21e9817src" name="xd21e9817">5</a></span> He now +receives $9000.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9928" href="#xd21e9928src" name="xd21e9928">6</a></span> Male +servant.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e9950" href="#xd21e9950src" name="xd21e9950">7</a></span> Two +weeks at Christmas and ten weeks in April, May and June.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch14" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e356">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XIV</h2> +<h2 class="main">The Philippine Constabulary and Public Order</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">During the last thirty years of Spanish rule in the +Philippines evil-doers were pursued and apprehended and public order +was maintained chiefly by the <i lang="es">guardia civil</i>. At the +time of its organization in 1868 this body had a single division. By +1880 the number had been increased to three, two for Luzón and +one for the Visayan Islands.</p> +<p>The <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> was organized upon a military +basis, its officers and soldiers being drawn from the regular army of +Spain by selection or upon recommendation. Detachments were distributed +throughout the provinces and were commanded according to their size by +commissioned or non-commissioned officers. Central offices were located +in district capitals; company headquarters were stationed in provincial +capitals, and detachments were sent to places where they were deemed to +be necessary.</p> +<p>Under ordinary conditions they rendered service as patrols of two +men each, but for the purpose of attacking large bands of outlaws one +or several companies were employed as occasion required.</p> +<p>The <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> had jurisdiction over all sorts +of violations of laws and municipal ordinances. They made reports upon +which were based the appointments of municipal officers, the granting +of licenses to carry firearms, and the determination of the loyalty or +the disloyalty of individuals.</p> +<p>They were vested with extraordinary powers. Offences against them +were tried by courts-martial, and were construed as offences against +sentinels on duty. Penalties were therefore extremely severe. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10055" href="#xd21e10055" name= +"xd21e10055">379</a>]</span></p> +<p>Officers of the <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> on leave could by +their own initiative assume a status of duty with the full powers and +responsibilities that go with command. This is contrary to American +practice, under which only dire emergency justifies an officer in +assuming an official status unless he is duly assigned thereto by +competent authority.</p> +<p>The <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> could arrest on suspicion, and +while the Spanish Government did not directly authorize or sanction the +use of force to extort confessions, it was not scrupulous in the matter +of accepting confessions so obtained as evidence of crime, nor was it +quick to punish members of the <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> charged +with mistreatment of prisoners.</p> +<p>Reports made by the <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> were not +questioned, but were accepted without support even in cases of the +killing of prisoners alleged to have attempted to escape, or of men +evading arrest.</p> +<p>This method of eliminating without trial citizens deemed to be +undesirable was applied with especial frequency in the suppression of +active brigandage, and latterly during the revolution against Spain. +Prisoners in charge of the <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> were always +tied elbow to elbow. They knew full well that resistance or flight was +an invitation to their guards to kill them, and that this invitation +was likely to be promptly accepted.</p> +<p>In the investigation of crime the members of this organization +arrested persons on suspicion and compelled them to make revelations, +true or false. Eye-witnesses to the commission of crime were not needed +in the Spanish courts of that day. The confession of an accused person +secured his conviction, even though not made in the presence of a +judge. Indirect and hearsay evidence were accepted, and such things as +writs of habeas corpus and the plea of double jeopardy were unknown in +Spanish procedure.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e10083width" id="p048"><img src= +"images/p048.jpg" alt="Filipino Trained Nurses" width="720" height= +"424"> +<p class="figureHead">Filipino Trained Nurses</p> +</div> +<p>The <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> could rearrest individuals and +again <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10092" href="#xd21e10092" +name="xd21e10092">380</a>]</span>charge them with crimes of which they +had already been acquitted. I have been assured by reliable Filipino +witnesses that it was common during the latter days of Spanish +sovereignty for persons who had made themselves obnoxious to the +government to be invited by non-commissioned officers to take a walk, +which was followed either by their complete disappearance or by the +subsequent discovery of their dead bodies.</p> +<p>It naturally resulted that the members of the <i lang="es">guardia +civil</i> were regarded with detestation and terror by the people, but +their power was so absolute that protest rarely became public. The one +notable exception was furnished by Dr. Rizal’s book entitled +“Noli Me Tangere,” which voiced the complaints of the +Filipinos against them. There is not a vestige of doubt that hatred of +them was one of the principal causes of the insurrection against +Spain.</p> +<p>In 1901 the American government organized a rural police force in +the Philippines. It was called the Philippine constabulary. The +insurrection was then drawing to a close, but there were left in the +field many guerilla bands armed and uniformed. Their members sought to +excuse their lawless acts under the plea of patriotism and opposition +to the forces of the United States. In many provinces they combined +with professional bandits or with religious fanatics. Various +“popes” arose, like Papa Isio in Negros. The Filipinos had +become accustomed to a state of war which had continued for nearly six +years. Habits of peace had been abandoned. The once prosperous +haciendas were in ruins. War and pestilence had destroyed many of the +work animals, and those which remained continued to perish from +disease. Asiatic cholera was sweeping through the archipelago, and +consternation and disorder followed in its wake.</p> +<p>Under such circumstances the organization of a rural police force +was imperatively necessary. Unfortunately the most critical situation +which it was to be called upon <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10103" href="#xd21e10103" name="xd21e10103">381</a>]</span>to +meet had to be faced at the very outset, when both officers and men +were inexperienced and before adequate discipline could be +established.</p> +<p>The law providing for its establishment was drawn by the Honourable +Luke E. Wright, at that time secretary of commerce and police and later +destined to become governor-general of the Philippines and secretary of +war of the United States.</p> +<p>It was intended that the constabulary should accomplish its ends by +force when necessary but by sympathetic supervision when possible, +suppressing brigandage and turning the people towards habits of peace. +The fact was clearly borne in mind that the abuses of the <i lang= +"es">guardia civil</i> had not been forgotten and the new force was +designed to meet existing conditions, to allay as rapidly as possible +the existing just rancour against the similar organization established +under the Spanish régime, and to avoid the evils which had +contributed so much toward causing the downfall of Spanish sovereignty. +The law was admirably framed to achieve these ends.</p> +<p>The officers of the constabulary were selected chiefly from American +volunteers recently mustered out and from honourably discharged +soldiers of the United States army. Some few Filipinos, whose loyalty +was above suspicion, were appointed to the lower grades. This number +has since been materially augumented, and some of the original Filipino +appointees have risen to the rank of captain.</p> +<p>It was inevitable that at the outset there should be abuses. The +organization was necessarily born at work; there was no time to +instruct, to formulate regulations, to wait until a satisfactory state +of discipline had been brought about. There were not barracks for +housing the soldiers; there were neither uniforms, nor arms, nor +ammunition. There was no system for rationing the men. All of these +things had to be provided, and they were provided through a natural +evolution of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10116" href= +"#xd21e10116" name="xd21e10116">382</a>]</span>practical processes, +crystallizing into form, tested by the duties of the day. The +organization which grew up was a true survival of the fittest, both in +personnel and in methods. The wonder is not that some abuses occurred, +but that they were so few; not that there were occasional evidences of +lack of efficiency, but that efficiency was on the whole so high from +the beginning.</p> +<p>The several provinces were made administrative units, the commanding +officer in each being designated as “senior inspector.” The +men who were to serve in a given province were by preference recruited +there, and a departure was thus made from the usual foreign colonial +practice.</p> +<p>In 1905 the total force was fixed at one hundred companies with a +nominal strength of two officers and fifty men each. Under special +conditions this rule may be departed from, and the size of the +companies or the number of officers increased.</p> +<p>Each province is divided by the senior inspector into sections, and +the responsibility for patrol work and general policing rests on the +senior company officer in each station. The provinces are grouped into +five districts, each commanded by an assistant chief who exercises +therein the authority, and performs the duties appropriate to the chief +for the entire Philippines. The higher administrative positions have +always been filled by detailing regular officers of the United States +army.</p> +<p>The constabulary soldiers are now neatly uniformed, armed with Krag +carbines and well disciplined. They show the effect of good and regular +food and of systematic exercise, their physical condition being vastly +superior to that of the average Filipino. They are given regular +instruction in their military duties. It is conducted in English.</p> +<p>The Philippine constabulary may be defined as a body of armed men +with a military organization, recruited from among the people of the +islands, officered in part <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10129" +href="#xd21e10129" name="xd21e10129">383</a>]</span>by Americans and in +part by Filipinos, and employed primarily for police duty in connection +with the establishment and maintenance of public order.</p> +<p>Blount’s chapters on the administrations of Taft, Wright and +Smith embody one prolonged plaint to the effect that the organization +of the constabulary was premature, and that after the war proper ended, +the last smouldering embers of armed and organized insurrection should +have been stamped out, and the brigandage which had existed in the +Philippines for centuries should have been dealt with, by the United +States army rather than by the constabulary.</p> +<p>Even if it were true that the army could have rendered more +effective service to this end than could have been expected at the +outset from a newly organized body of Filipino soldiers, the argument +against the organization and use of the constabulary would in my +opinion have been by no means conclusive. It is our declared policy to +prepare the Filipinos to establish and maintain a stable government of +their own. The proper exercise of police powers is obviously necessary +to such an end.</p> +<p>From the outset we have sacrificed efficiency in order that our +wards might gain practical experience, and might demonstrate their +ability, or lack of ability, to perform necessary governmental +functions. Does any one cognizant of the situation doubt for a moment +that provincial and municipal affairs in the Philippine Islands would +to-day be more efficiently administered if provincial and municipal +officers were appointed instead of being elected? Is any one so foolish +as to imagine that the sanitary regeneration of the islands would not +have progressed much more rapidly had highly trained American health +officers been used in place of many of the badly educated and +comparatively inexperienced Filipino physicians whose services have +been utilized?</p> +<p>Nevertheless, in the concrete case under discussion I dissent from +the claim that more satisfactory results <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10139" href="#xd21e10139" name="xd21e10139">384</a>]</span>could +have been obtained by the use of American troops.</p> +<p>The army had long been supreme in the Philippines. Every function of +government had been performed by its officers and men, if performed at +all. Our troops had been combating an elusive and cruel enemy. If they +were human it is to be presumed that they still harbored animosities, +born of these conditions, toward the people with whom they had so +recently been fighting. Had the work of pacification been then turned +over to them it would have meant that often in the localities in which +they had been fighting, and in dealing with the men to whom they had +very recently been actively opposed in armed conflict, they would have +been called upon to perform tasks and to entertain feelings radically +different from those of the preceding two or three years.</p> +<p>A detachment, marching through Leyte, found an American who had +disappeared a short time before crucified, head down. His abdominal +wall had been carefully opened so that his intestines might hang down +in his face.</p> +<p>Another American prisoner, found on the same trip, had been buried +in the ground with only his head projecting. His mouth had been propped +open with a stick, a trail of sugar laid to it through the forest, and +a handful thrown into it.</p> +<p>Millions of ants had done the rest.</p> +<p>Officers and men who saw such things were thereby fitted for war, +rather than for ordinary police duty.</p> +<p>The truth is that they had seen so many of them that they continued +to see them in imagination when they no longer existed. I well remember +when a general officer, directed by his superior to attend a banquet at +Manila in which Americans and Filipinos joined, came to it wearing a +big revolver!</p> +<p>Long after Manila was quiet I was obliged to get out of my carriage +in the rain and darkness half a dozen <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10156" href="#xd21e10156" name="xd21e10156">385</a>]</span>times +while driving the length of Calle Real, and “approach to be +recognized” by raw “rookies,” each of whom pointed a +loaded rifle at me while I did it. I know that this did not tend to +make me feel peaceable or happy. In my opinion it was wholly +unnecessary, and yet I did not blame the army for thinking +otherwise.</p> +<p>After the war was over, when my private secretary, Mr. James H. +LeRoy, was one day approaching Malolos, he was sternly commanded by a +sentry to halt, the command being emphasized as usual by presenting to +his attention a most unattractive view down the muzzle of a Krag. He +was next ordered to “salute the flag,” which he finally +discovered with difficulty in the distance, after being told where to +look. The army way is right and necessary in war, but it makes a lot of +bother in time of peace!</p> +<p>This was not the only reason for failing to make more extensive use +of American soldiers in police duty. A veteran colonel of United States +cavalry who had just read Judge Blount’s book was asked what he +thought of the claim therein made that the army should have done the +police and pacification work of the Philippines. His reply +was:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“How long would it take a regiment of Filipinos +to catch an American outlaw in the United States? +Impossible!”</p> +</div> +<p>Another army officer said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Catching Filipino outlaws with the Army is like +catching a flea in a twenty-acre field with a traction +engine.”</p> +</div> +<p>There is perhaps nothing so demoralizing to regular troops as +employment on police duty which requires them to work singly or in +small squads. Discipline speedily goes to the dogs and instruction +becomes impossible.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e10175width" id="p049"><img src= +"images/p049.jpg" alt="A School Athletic Team" width="720" height= +"448"> +<p class="figureHead">A School Athletic Team</p> +<p class="first">Calisthenic exercises taught in the public schools are +converting puny youths into vigorous athletes.</p> +</div> +<p>Successful prosecution of the work of chasing <i>ladrones</i> in the +Philippines requires a thorough knowledge of local topography and of +local native dialects. Spanish is of use, but only in dealing with +educated Filipinos. A <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10186" href= +"#xd21e10186" name="xd21e10186">386</a>]</span>knowledge of the +Filipino himself; of his habits of thought; of his attitude toward the +white man; and toward the <i>illustrado</i>, or educated man, of his +own race; ability to enter a town and speedily to determine the +relative importance of its leading citizens, finally centring on the +one man, always to be found, who runs it, whether he holds political +office or not, and also to enlist the sympathy and coöperation of +its people; all of these things are essential to the successful +handling of brigandage in the Philippines, whether such brigandage has, +or lacks, political significance.</p> +<p>The following parallel will make clear some of the reasons why it +was determined to use constabulary instead of American soldiers in +policing the Philippines from the time the insurrection officially +ended:—</p> +<div class="table"> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">United States +Army</td> +<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Philippine +Constabulary</td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Soldier costs per annum $1400. (Authority: +Adjutant General Heistand in 1910.)</td> +<td class="cellRight">Soldier costs per annum $363.50.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">American soldiers come from America.</td> +<td class="cellRight">Constabulary soldiers are enlisted in the +province where they are to serve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Few American soldiers speak the local +dialects.</td> +<td class="cellRight">All constabulary soldiers speak local +dialects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Few American soldiers speak any Spanish.</td> +<td class="cellRight">All educated constabulary soldiers speak +Spanish.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">American soldiers usually have but a slight +knowledge of local geography and topography.</td> +<td class="cellRight">Constabulary soldiers, native to the country, +know the geography and topography of their respective provinces.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">Few American soldiers have had enough contact with +Filipinos to understand them.</td> +<td class="cellRight">The Filipino soldier certainly knows his own kind +better than the American does.<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10229" +href="#xd21e10229" name="xd21e10229">387</a>]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">The American soldier uses a ration of certain +fixed components imported over sea. (A ration is the day’s +allowance of food for one soldier.)</td> +<td class="cellRight">The constabulary soldier is rationed in cash and +buys the food of the country where he happens to be.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">The American ration costs 24.3 cents United States +currency (exclusive of cost of transportation and handling). Fresh meat +requiring ice to keep it is a principal part of the American ration. To +supply it requires a regular system of transport from the United States +to Manila and from thence to local ports, and wagon transportation from +ports to inland stations.</td> +<td class="cellRight">The constabulary cash ration is 10.5 cents United +States currency. (No freight or handling charges.) The constabulary +soldier knows not ice. His food grows in the islands. He buys it on the +ground and needs no transportation to bring it to him.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">The American soldier is at no pains to +enlist the sympathy and coöperation of the people; and his methods +of discipline habits of life, etc., make it practically impossible for +him to gain them.</td> +<td class="cellRight cellBottom">The idea of enlisting the sympathy and +coöperation of the local population is the strongest tenet in the +constabulary creed.</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p>Before preparing the foregoing statement relative to the reasons for +using Philippine constabulary soldiers instead of soldiers of the +United States army for police work during the period in question, I +asked Colonel J. G. Harbord, assistant director of the constabulary, +who has served with that body nine years, has been its acting director +and is an officer of the United States army, to give me a memorandum on +the subject. It is only fair to him to say that I have not only +followed very closely the line of argument embodied in the memorandum +which he was good enough to prepare for me, but have in many instances +used his very words. The parallel columns are his. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10249" href="#xd21e10249" name= +"xd21e10249">388</a>]</span></p> +<p>The constabulary soldier, thoroughly familiar with the topography of +the country in which he operates; speaking the local dialect and +acquainted with the persons most likely to be able and willing to +furnish accurate information; familiar with the characteristics of his +own people; able to live off the country and keep well, is under all +ordinary circumstances a more efficient and vastly less expensive +police officer than the American soldier, no matter how brave and +energetic the latter may be. Furthermore, his activities are much less +likely to arouse animosity.</p> +<p>Incidentally, the army is pretty consistently unwilling to take the +field unless the constitutional guarantees are temporarily suspended, +and it particularly objects to writs of habeas corpus. The suspension +of such guarantees is obviously undesirable unless really very +necessary.</p> +<p>Let us now consider some of the specific instances of alleged +inefficiency of the constabulary in suppressing public disorder, cited +by Blount.</p> +<p>On page 403 of his book he says, speaking of Governor Taft and +disorder in the province of Albay which arose in +1902–1903:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“He did not want to order out the military again +if he could help it, and this relegated him to his native municipal +police and constabulary, experimental outfits of doubtful loyalty, and, +at best, wholly inadequate, as it afterwards turned out, for the +maintenance of public order and for affording to the peaceably inclined +people that sort of security for life and property, and that protection +against semi-political as well as unmitigated brigandage, which would +comport with the dignity of this nation.”</p> +</div> +<p>The facts as to these disorders are briefly as follows:—</p> +<p>In 1902 an outlaw in Tayabas Province who made his living by +organizing political conspiracies and collecting contributions in the +name of patriotism, who was known as José Roldan when operating +in adjoining provinces, but had an alias in Tayabas, found his life +made <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10266" href="#xd21e10266" name= +"xd21e10266">389</a>]</span>so uncomfortable by the constabulary of +that province that he transferred his operations to Albay. There he +affiliated himself with a few ex-Insurgent officers who had turned +outlaws instead of surrendering, and with oath violators, and began the +same kind of political operations which he had carried out in Tayabas, +the principal feature of his work being the collection of +“contributions.”</p> +<p>The troubles in Albay were encouraged by wealthy Filipinos who saw +in them a probable opportunity to acquire valuable hemp lands at bottom +prices, for people dependent on their hemp fields, if prevented from +working them, might in the end be forced to sell them. Roldan soon lost +standing with his new organization because it was found that he was +using for his personal benefit the money which he collected.</p> +<p>About this time one Simeon Ola joined his organization. Ola was a +native of Albay, where he had been an Insurgent major under the command +of the Tagálog general, Belarmino. His temporary rank had gone +to his head, and he is reported to have shown considerable severity and +hauteur in his treatment of his former neighbours in Guinobatan, to +which place he had returned at the close of the insurrection. +Meanwhile, a wealthy Chinese <i>mestizo</i> named Don Circilio Jaucian, +on whom Ola, during his brief career as an Insurgent officer, had laid +a heavy hand, had become <i>presidente</i> of the town.</p> +<p>Smarting under the indignities which he had suffered, Jaucian made +it very uncomfortable for the former major, and in ways well understood +in Malay countries brought it home to the latter that their positions +had been reversed. Ola’s house was mysteriously burned, and his +life in Guinobatan was made so unbearable that he took to the +hills.</p> +<p>Ola had held higher military rank than had any of his outlaw +associates, and he became their dominating spirit. He had no grievance +against the Americans, but <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10282" +href="#xd21e10282" name="xd21e10282">390</a>]</span>took every +opportunity to avenge himself on the <i>caciques</i> of Guinobatan, his +native town.</p> +<p>Three assistant chiefs of constabulary, Garwood, Baker and +Bandholtz, were successively sent to Albay to deal with this situation. +Baker and Bandholtz were regular army officers. The latter ended the +disturbances, employing first and last some twelve companies of +Philippine scouts, armed, officered, paid, equipped and disciplined as +are the regular soldiers of the United States army, and a similar +number of constabulary soldiers. Eleven stations in the restricted +field of operations of this outlaw were occupied by scouts. There were +few armed conflicts in force between Ola’s men and these troops. +In fact, it was only with the greatest difficulty that this band, which +from time to time dissolved into the population only to reappear again, +could be located even by the native soldiers. It would have been +impracticable successfully to use American troops for such work.</p> +<p>Referring to the statement made by Blount<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10292src" href="#xd21e10292" name="xd21e10292src">1</a> that +Vice-Governor Wright made a visit to Albay in 1903 in the interest +“of the peace-at-any-price policy that the Manila Government was +bent on,” and the implication that he went there to conduct peace +negotiations, General Bandholtz, who suppressed outlawry in Albay, has +said that Vice-Governor Wright and Commissioner Pardo de Tavera came +there at his request to look into conditions with reference to certain +allegations which had been made.</p> +<p>Colonel Bandholtz and the then chief of constabulary, General Allen, +were supported by the civil governor and the commission in their +recommendations that no terms should be made with the outlaws. The +following statement occurs in a letter from General Bandholtz dated +September 21, 1903:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“No one is more anxious to terminate this +business than I am, nevertheless I think it would be a mistake to offer +any <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10300" href="#xd21e10300" name= +"xd21e10300">391</a>]</span>such inducements, and that more lasting +benefits would result by hammering away as we have been +doing.”</p> +</div> +<p>And General Allen said in an indorsement to the Philippine +Commission:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“... in my opinion the judgment of Colonel +Bandholtz in matters connected with the pacification of Albay should +receive favourable consideration. Halfway measures are always +misinterpreted and used to the detriment of the Government among the +ignorant followers of the outlaws.”</p> +</div> +<p>These views prevailed.</p> +<p>Blount has claimed that the death rate in the Albay jail at this +time was very excessive, and cites it as an instance of the result of +American maladministration.</p> +<p>Assuming that his tabulation<a class="noteref" id="xd21e10315src" +href="#xd21e10315" name="xd21e10315src">2</a> of the dead who died in +the Albay jail between May 30 and September, 1903, amounting to 120, is +correct, the following statements should be made:—</p> +<p>Only recently has it been demonstrated that beri-beri is due to the +use of polished rice, which was up to the time of this discovery +regarded as far superior to unpolished rice as an article of food, and +is still much better liked by the Filipinos than is the unpolished +article. Many of these deaths were from beri-beri, and were due to a +misguided effort to give the prisoners the best possible food.</p> +<p>Cholera was raging in the province of Albay throughout the period in +question, and the people outside of the jail suffered no less than did +those within it. The same is true of malarial infection. In other +words, conditions inside the jail were quite similar to those then +prevailing outside, except that the prisoners got polished rice which +was given them with the best intentions in the world, and was by them +considered a superior article of food.</p> +<p>With the present knowledge of the methods of dissemination of +Asiatic cholera gained as a result of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10324" href="#xd21e10324" name= +"xd21e10324">392</a>]</span>American occupation of the Philippines, we +should probably be able to exclude it from a jail under such +circumstances, as the part played by “germ carriers” who +show no outward manifestations of infection is now understood, but it +was not then dreamed of. One of the greatest reforms effected by +Americans in the Philippines is the sanitation of the jails and +penitentiaries, and we cannot be fairly blamed for not knowing in 1903 +what nobody then knew.</p> +<p>The troubles in Albay ended with the surrender of Ola on September +25, 1903. Blount gives the impression that he had a knowledge of them +which was gained by personal observation. He arrived in the province in +the middle of November, seven weeks after normal conditions had been +reëstablished.</p> +<p>On October 5, 1903, General Bandholtz telegraphed with reference to +the final surrender of Ola’s band:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“The towns are splitting themselves wide open +celebrating pacification and Ramon Santos (later elected governor) is +going to give a record-breaking fiesta at Ligao. Everybody invited. +Scouts and Constabulary have done superb work.”</p> +</div> +<p>Blount makes much of disorders in Samar and Leyte. Let us consider +the facts.</p> +<p>In all countries feuds between highlanders and lowlanders have been +common. Although the inhabitants of the hills and those of the lowlands +in the two islands under discussion are probably of identical blood and +origin, they long since became separated in thought and feeling, and +grew to be mutually antagonistic. The ignorant people of the interior +have always been oppressed by their supposedly more highly civilized +brethren living on or near the coast.</p> +<p>The killing of Otoy by the constabulary in 1911 marked the passing +of the last of a series of mountain chiefs who had exercised a very +powerful influence over the hill people and had claimed for themselves +supernatural powers. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10341" href= +"#xd21e10341" name="xd21e10341">393</a>]</span></p> +<p>Manila hemp is the principal product upon which these mountaineers +depend in bartering for cloth and other supplies. The cleaning of hemp +involves very severe exertion, and when it is cleaned it must usually, +in Samar, be carried to the seashore on the backs of the men who raise +it. Under the most favourable circumstances, it may be transported +thither in small <i>bancas</i><a class="noteref" id="xd21e10346src" +href="#xd21e10346" name="xd21e10346src">3</a> down the streams.</p> +<p>The lowland people of Samar and Leyte had long been holding up the +hill people when they brought in their hemp for sale in precisely the +way that Filipinos in other islands are accustomed to hold up members +of the non-Christian tribes. They played the part of middlemen, +purchasing the hemp of the ignorant hill people at low prices and often +reselling it, without giving it even a day’s storage, at a very +much higher figure. This system was carried so far that conditions +became unbearable and finally resulted in so-called +<i>pulájanism</i> which began in the year 1904.</p> +<p>The term <i>pulájan</i> is derived from a native word meaning +“red” and was given to the mountain people because in their +attacks upon the lowlanders they wore, as a distinguishing mark, red +trousers or a dash of red colour elsewhere about their sparse clothing. +They raided coast towns and did immense damage before they were finally +brought under control. It should be remembered that these conditions +were allowed to arise by a Filipino provincial governor, and by +Filipino municipal officials. It is altogether probable that a good +American governor would have prevented them, but as it was, neither +their cause nor their importance were understood at the outset. The +<i>pulájan</i> movement was directed primarily against +Filipinos.</p> +<p>The first outbreak occurred on July 10, 1904, in the Gandara River +valley where a settlement of the lowlanders was burned and some of its +inhabitants were killed. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10364" +href="#xd21e10364" name="xd21e10364">394</a>]</span>Eventually disorder +spread to many places on the coast, and one scout garrison of a single +company was surprised and overwhelmed by superior numbers. Officers and +men were massacred and their rifles taken.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e10367width" id="p050"><img src= +"images/p050.jpg" alt="Filipina Girls playing Basket-ball" width="720" +height="443"> +<p class="figureHead">Filipina Girls playing Basket-ball</p> +</div> +<p>In point of area Samar is the third island in the Philippines. In +its interior are many rugged peaks and heavily forested mountains. It +was here that a detachment of United States marines under the command +of Major Waller, while attempting to cross the island, were lost for +nearly two weeks, going without food for days and enduring terrible +hardships.</p> +<p>At the time in question there were not five miles of road on the +island passable for a vehicle, nor were there trails through the +mountains over which horses could be ridden. The only interior lines of +communication were a few footpaths over which the natives were +accustomed to make their way from the mountains to the coast.</p> +<p>Troops have perhaps never attempted a campaign in a country more +difficult than the interior of Samar. The traditional needle in the +haystack would be easy to find compared with an outlaw, or band of +outlaws, in such a rugged wilderness.</p> +<p>Upon the outbreak of trouble troops were hurried to Samar, and by +December, 1904, according to Blount himself, there were some 1800 +native soldiers on the island who were left free for active operations +in the field by the garrisoning of various coast towns with sixteen +companies of United States infantry.</p> +<p>If the nature of the feuds between the Samar lowlanders and +highlanders had then been better understood, the ensuing troubles, +which were more or less continuous for nearly two years, might perhaps +have been avoided. As soon as it became evident that the situation was +such as to demand the use of the army it was employed to supplement the +operations of the constabulary.</p> +<p>About the time that trouble ended in Samar it began in Leyte. There +was no real connection between the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10384" href="#xd21e10384" name= +"xd21e10384">395</a>]</span>disorders in the two islands. No leader on +either island is known to have communicated with any leader on the +other; no fanatical follower ever left Samar for Leyte or Leyte for +Samar so far as we are informed.</p> +<p>For convenience of administration the two islands were grouped in a +single command after the army was requested to take over the handling +of the disturbances there, in coöperation with the constabulary. +The trouble ended in 1907 and both islands have remained quiet ever +since. The same causes would again produce the same results now or at +any time in the future, and they would be then, as in the past, the +outcome of the oppression of the weak by the strong and without other +political significance. Under a good government they should never +recur.</p> +<p>Many circumstances which did not exist in 1902 and 1904 made it +feasible to use the army in Samar and Leyte during 1905 and 1906. The +high officers who had exercised such sweeping powers during the +insurrection had meanwhile given way to other commanders. Indeed, a +practically new Philippine army had come into existence. The policy of +the insular government as to the treatment of individual Filipinos had +been recognized and indorsed by Americans generally, but many of the +objections to the use of the troops, including the heavy expense +involved, still existed and I affirm without fear of successful +contradiction that had it been possible to place in Samar and Leyte a +number of constabulary soldiers equal to that of the scouts and +American troops actually employed, disorder would have been terminated +much more quickly and at very greatly less cost.</p> +<p>With the final breaking up of organized brigandage in 1905 law and +order may be said to have been established throughout the islands. It +has since been the business of the constabulary to maintain it. The +value of the coöperation of the law-abiding portion of the +population has been fully recognized. The newly appointed constabulary +officer has impressed upon him the necessity of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10392" href="#xd21e10392" name= +"xd21e10392">396</a>]</span>manifesting an interest in the people with +whom he comes in contact; of cultivating the acquaintance of Filipinos +of all social grades, and of assisting to settle their disagreements +and harmonize their differences whenever possible. He is taught a +native dialect.</p> +<p>The constabulary have to a high degree merited and secured the +confidence and good-will of the people, whose rights they respect. +There is a complete absence of the old arbitrary procedure followed by +the <i lang="es">guardia civil</i> and as a result there are frequent +requests from Filipino officials for additional detachments, while the +removal of a company from a given community is almost invariably +followed by vigorous protests. The power of human sympathy is very +great, and as the attitude of constabulary officers and men is usually +one of sympathy, conciliation and affection, that body has earned and +deserved popularity.</p> +<p>The success of the constabulary in apprehending criminals has been +both praiseworthy and noteworthy. The courage and efficiency which have +often been displayed by its officers and men in hard-fought engagements +with Moro outlaws or with organized bands of thieves and brigands have +been beyond praise. Many of its officers have rendered invaluable +service in bringing the people of the more unruly non-Christian tribes +under governmental control, not only bravely and efficiently performing +their duty as police officers, but assisting in trail construction or +discharging, in effect, the duties of lieutenant-governors in very +remote places which could be visited by the actual lieutenant-governors +only infrequently. I later take occasion to mention the valuable work +done by Lieutenant Case in the early days of Ifugao, and to dwell at +length on the splendid service rendered there by Lieutenant Jeff D. +Gallman, who was for many years lieutenant-governor of the subprovince +while continuing to serve as a constabulary officer. Lieutenant Maimban +at Quiangan, and Lieutenant Dosser at Mayoyao, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10401" href="#xd21e10401" name= +"xd21e10401">397</a>]</span>have been and are most useful, though they +do not hold official positions under the Mountain Province or receive +any additional compensation for the special services which they render. +Captain Guy O. Fort served most acceptably as governor of the province +of Agusan during the interim between the resignation of Governor Lewis +and the appointment of Governor Bryant and Lieutenants Atkins and +Zapanta have also rendered valuable service as assistants to the +provincial governor. Lieutenant Turnbull is now assistant to the +governor of Nueva Vizcaya for work among the Ilongots on the Pacific +coast of northern Luzón. Other constabulary officers, who have +not been called upon for special service of this kind, have performed +their ordinary duties in such a way as to demonstrate that they were +actuated by the spirit of coöperation and have been of great +help.</p> +<p>But the work of the constabulary has not been confined to police +duty. They have been of the greatest assistance to the Director of +Health in effectively maintaining quarantine, and making possible the +isolation of victims of dangerous communicable diseases like cholera +and smallpox, when inefficient municipal policemen have utterly failed +to do their duty. They have given similar assistance to the Director of +Agriculture in the maintenance of quarantine in connection with efforts +to combat diseases of domestic animals. In great emergencies such as +those presented by the recent eruption of Taal volcano, and the +devastation caused by great typhoons, they have been quick to respond +to the call of duty and have rendered efficient and heroic service. +They assist internal revenue officers. Except in a few of the largest +cities they are the firemen of the islands and by their effective work +have repeatedly checked conflagrations, which are of frequent +occurrence and tend to be very destructive in this country, where most +of the houses are built of bamboo and nipa palm, and where roofs become +dry as tinder during the long period <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10405" href="#xd21e10405" name="xd21e10405">398</a>]</span>when +there is little or no rain. They have aided in combating pests of +locusts, and, in short, have been ready to meet almost any kind of an +emergency which has arisen.</p> +<p>The importance of having such a body of alert, industrious, +disciplined, efficient men inspired by a high sense of duty, and +physically so well developed that they can continue to perform that +duty in the face of long-continued privations and hardships, is beyond +dispute. The results which have been obtained by the Philippine +constabulary have abundantly justified the policy which led to its +organization.</p> +<p>Its task has been no sinecure. Eleven officers and one hundred +ninety-seven enlisted men have been killed in action. Forty-eight +officers and nine hundred ninety-one men have died of disease. +Forty-six officers have been wounded in action. Seven hundred +sixty-eight men have been discharged for disability. Seven thousand +four hundred twenty-four firearms and 45,018 rounds of ammunition have +been captured by, or surrendered to, the constabulary. Four thousand +eight hundred sixty-two outlaws have been killed and 11,977 taken +prisoners. Twelve thousand two hundred sixty-two stolen animals have +been recovered.</p> +<p>There are many things which are not brought home to the reader by +such statistics. The weary days and nights on tropical trails; the +weakness and pain of dysentery; the freezing and the burning of +pernicious malaria; the heavy weight of responsibility when one must +act, in matters of life and death, with no superior to consult; the +disappointment when carefully laid plans go wrong; the discouragement +caused by indifference; the danger of infection with loathsome +diseases; ingratitude; deadly peril; aching wounds; sudden death, and, +worse yet, death after suffering long drawn out, when one meets +one’s end knowing that it is coming and that one’s family +will be left without means or resources,—these are some +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10414" href="#xd21e10414" name= +"xd21e10414">399</a>]</span>of the things that the officers and men of +this gallant corps have faced unflinchingly.</p> +<p>The work of the constabulary and of the Philippine scouts has +conclusively demonstrated the courage and efficiency of the Filipino as +a soldier when well disciplined and well led.</p> +<p>The establishment and maintenance of order in the Philippines have +afforded opportunity for some of the bravest deeds in the annals of any +race, and the opportunity has been nobly met. The head-hunters of the +Mountain Province, the Mohammedan Moros of Mindanao, Joló and +Palawan, the bloody <i>pulájanes</i> of Samar and Leyte, the +wily <i>tulisanes</i> of Luzón, all unrestrained by any regard +for the rules of civilized warfare, have for twelve years matched their +fanatical bravery against the gallantry of the khaki-clad Filipino +soldiers. Time and again a single officer and a handful of men have +taken chances that in almost any other land would have won them the +Victoria cross, the legion of honor, or some similar decoration. Here +their only reward has been the sense of duty well done.</p> +<p>The force known as the Philippine constabulary was organized for the +purpose of establishing and maintaining order. It has established and +is maintaining a condition of order never before equalled or approached +in the history of the islands. The policy which led to its organization +has been a thousand times justified. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10428" href="#xd21e10428" name="xd21e10428">400</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10292" href="#xd21e10292src" name="xd21e10292">1</a></span> +Blount, p. 425.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10315" href="#xd21e10315src" name="xd21e10315">2</a></span> +Blount, p.430.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10346" href="#xd21e10346src" name="xd21e10346">3</a></span> +Native dugouts.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch15" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e365">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XV</h2> +<h2 class="main">The Administration of Justice</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">In no branch of the public administration have there +been more numerous or more beneficial reforms than in the +administration of justice. They have resulted in simplifying +organization, in decreasing the possibility of corruption and +partiality, and in diminishing the cost of litigation and the time +which it requires.</p> +<p>For the benefit of those especially interested I give in the +appendix the past and present organization of the courts.<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e10438src" href="#xd21e10438" name= +"xd21e10438src">1</a> The subject is too technical to interest the +average layman.</p> +<p>The slender salaries paid to judges, the fact that in the majority +of cases their appointment and promotion were due to influence and +suggestion, their liability to be transferred from one court to another +or from the Philippines to the Antilles, as frequently happened, and +the further fact that the subordinate personnel of the courts was not a +salaried one, caused the administration of justice in the Philippine +Islands to be looked upon askance. There was a general belief, well +founded in many instances, that lawsuits were won through influence or +bribery. Clerks and the subordinate personnel of the courts were +readily bribed. Indeed, they frequently demanded bribes from litigants, +or from defendants in criminal cases, under promise to expedite the +trials if paid to do so, or under threat to commit some injustice if +payment was not forthcoming. For many years after the American +occupation justices of the peace received no salaries and had to +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10443" href="#xd21e10443" name= +"xd21e10443">401</a>]</span>look to fees for their compensation. This +system worked wretchedly. The positions were only too often filled by +very incompetent and unworthy men, who stimulated litigation in order +to make more money. Now all justices of the peace receive reasonable +salaries.</p> +<p>The paying of regular salaries and the furnishing of necessary +offices and supplies have done much to improve the work of justice of +the peace courts, which are now presided over by men who average far +better than even their immediate predecessors.</p> +<p>Until they were put on a salary basis the work of the Filipino +justices of the peace left much more to be desired than is lacking at +present. In many instances they allowed gross brutalities, perpetrated +by the rich on the poor, or by the strong on the weak, to go +unpunished. The following case furnished me by an American teacher is +typical of what has occurred only too often:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On another occasion, I met the brother of my +house <i>muchacha</i>,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e10455src" href= +"#xd21e10455" name="xd21e10455src">2</a> a boy about eight. He had a +sort of protuberance on one side caused by broken ribs which had not +been set. I questioned my <i>muchacha</i>. She said her step-father had +kicked the child across the room some weeks before and broken his ribs. +The next day, I took the child together with Señora Bayot, the +wife of the Governor’s secretary, before the local Justice of the +Peace. Señora Bayot translated and the child told the same story +as had his sister. The Justice of the Peace issued an order for the +step-father to report to him on the next day. That night my +<i>muchacha</i> told me that her step-father had threatened to kill the +child if he did not tell the Justice that he got the hurt by falling +out of an orange tree. The child did as ordered, and the step-father +was dismissed. When I questioned the Justice of the Peace as to why he +credited the second tale, he said the child was under oath then, and +was not under oath in the first statements.”</p> +</div> +<p>It was not deemed wise at the outset to appoint a Filipino judge for +the city of Manila, as it was feared that there would be a lack of +confidence in a Filipino who had occasion to decide cases involving +large sums of money <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10467" href= +"#xd21e10467" name="xd21e10467">402</a>]</span>in which Americans or +foreigners on the one hand and Filipinos on the other were interested; +but a few years after the establishment of the new judicial system +Filipino judges had won such a reputation for justice and fairness as +to gain the confidence of Americans and foreigners and the appointment +of a Filipino judge for the court of the city of Manila did not arouse +any opposition.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e10470width" id="p051"><img src= +"images/p051.jpg" alt="University Hall, Manila" width="720" height= +"427"> +<p class="figureHead">University Hall, Manila</p> +</div> +<p>Filipino judges of courts of first instance seem usually to have +been actuated by a desire to do full justice. The instances in which +complaints have been made against them because of partiality to party +or to race are few. Some of them have been justly criticised for +tardiness in cleaning up their dockets, and it is undoubtedly true that +their capacity for turning out work is on the average below that of +their Americans associates.</p> +<p>The fact must not be forgotten that Americans are in the majority in +the Supreme Court, which reviews the decisions of courts of first +instance, and this undoubtedly exercises a restraining influence. It is +not possible accurately to judge what would be the actions of a body of +men now subject to such control if it did not exist. It is furthermore +true that the Filipinos are more inclined to be suspicious of their own +countrymen than of Americans, and there have been from time to time +specific requests from them that judges in certain provinces be +Americans.</p> +<p>Under the Spanish régime the fees paid by litigants were +excessive and the use of stamped paper was compulsory. Its value ranged +from twenty-five centavos to two pesos for a folio of two sheets +according to the amount involved in the suit. Now there are fixed fees +of $8 in civil suits, except in probate matters, where the fee is +$12.</p> +<p>It was in the power of an unscrupulous litigant to make a lawsuit +almost eternal. In matters involving an amount exceeding $250 it was +lawful to institute proceedings in the action whereby the decision of +the main issue was suspended pending decision of the proceedings, and +as a decision was appealable to the <i>audiencia</i>, this was often +done <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10486" href="#xd21e10486" name= +"xd21e10486">403</a>]</span>by attorneys who had an interest in +delaying the suit. By instituting one proceeding after another a suit +could be indefinitely prolonged.</p> +<p>Another method of securing delay was to object to the judge. In case +the judge denied the ground of the objection, a proceeding was +instituted against him and the trial of the main issue was turned over +to another judge; although the proceeding arising out of the objection +did not suspend the trial of the main issue, when the time came to +decide the latter the decision was withheld until the proceeding +arising out of the objection was settled, and as this latter was one in +connection with which other proceedings could be instituted which might +delay the decision and consequently the decision of the main issue, +there was no end to the matter.</p> +<p>To-day all this has been stopped by the procedure in court. The +challenging of judges is not allowed, although they must refrain from +the trial of any matter when they are disqualified in any way as +regards it. Proceedings which suspend the trial of the main issue +cannot be instituted. The procedure itself is more expeditious, the +time allowances and formalities have been reduced, and all the long +Spanish civil procedure regarding the presentation of evidence has been +shortened. Suits are settled with a speediness previously unknown. In +order to avoid delay on the part of judges in rendering decisions, an +act has been passed prohibiting the payment of their salaries without a +certificate that they have no matter which has been awaiting decision +for more than three months.</p> +<p>Owing to the inquisitorial procedure which obtained under Spanish +rule, the disposition of criminal cases was even slower than that of +civil cases. The cause would be commenced, either <i lang="es">de +officio</i>, by the judge who had a knowledge of the crime, or by the +prosecuting attorney, or by virtue of private accusation on the part of +the person aggrieved. The case once started, the investigations made +during the period known as the <i lang="es">sumario</i> were conducted +in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10500" href="#xd21e10500" name= +"xd21e10500">404</a>]</span>the absence of the accused. The latter had +no hand in the case, as it was thought that the reserve and secrecy of +the procedure ought not to be violated to the end that the accused +might not frustrate the evidence of the prosecution by preparing his +defence. Owing many times to the inactivity of the judge or of the +prosecuting attorney, to the great amount of work which weighed down +the courts—for actions were begun when there was knowledge of the +commission of the crime, although the perpetrators were not +known—and by the manipulations at other times of the private +accuser to whose interest it was to harm the accused by delaying the +<i lang="es">sumario</i>, this period was often made to extend over +years and years. Meanwhile the defendant was confined in prison, as no +bail was allowed in any case in which the penalty was that of <i lang= +"es">presidio correccional</i> (from six months and one day to six +years’ imprisonment) or greater. In addition to this the +circumstance that all criminal causes in the islands had to be sent for +review to the proper <i lang="es">audiencia</i>, caused a large +accumulation of old cases in these higher courts, and this alone made +their disposition a matter of some years.</p> +<p>To-day the procedure is rapid. Information having been brought +against the defendant, the trial is had in the same term or at most +during the next term of court. Sometimes the trial is suspended owing +to the non-appearance of witnesses, but it can be said that cases are +rare where causes are pending in the docket of the court for a longer +period than two terms. Causes appealed to the Supreme Court are +disposed of promptly, and as a general rule it does not take over six +months to get a decision.</p> +<p>Defendants in criminal cases have now been granted by the Philippine +Bill certain fundamentally important rights which they did not formerly +enjoy; namely, to appear and defend in person or by counsel at every +stage of the proceedings; to be informed of the nature and cause of the +accusation; to testify as witnesses in their <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10516" href="#xd21e10516" name= +"xd21e10516">405</a>]</span>own behalf; to be exempt from testifying +against themselves; to be confronted at the trial by, and to +cross-examine, the witnesses against them; to have compulsory process +issue for obtaining witnesses in their own favour; to have speedy and +public trials; to be admitted to bail with sufficient sureties in all +cases, except for capital offences. None of these rights were enjoyed +under the procedure in effect during the Spanish régime. A man +was prosecuted without being notified of the charges against him, and +he was only made aware of the case against him after the <i lang= +"es">sumario</i>. When all of the evidence of the prosecution had been +taken the accused was heard in his own defence. He was compelled to +testify, and was subjected to a very inquisitorial examination, +including questions which incriminated him. Although he had the right +to compel witnesses for the prosecution to ratify over their signatures +the evidence against him given during the <i lang="es">sumario</i>, as +the defence of the majority of the accused was in the hands of +attorneys <i lang="es">de officio</i> they nearly always renounced this +privilege of the defendant, and, as has already been said, bail was not +admitted in any grave offence during the trial.</p> +<p>No sentence of acquittal in a criminal case can now be appealed from +by the government. Under the Spanish system sentences of acquittal of +courts of first instance had to be referred for review to the proper +<i lang="es">audiencia</i> and the fiscal of the latter could appeal +from a sentence of acquittal by it.</p> +<p>The Philippine Bill grants to the inhabitants of the islands other +important individual rights which they did not formerly possess.</p> +<p>The Spanish constitution was not in force here, and although the +Penal Code contained provisions for punishing, in a way, officials who +violated certain rights granted by the Spanish constitution, citizens +had no expeditious method of securing their punishment. Now the Code of +Civil Procedure grants them certain special remedies by which their +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10536" href="#xd21e10536" name= +"xd21e10536">406</a>]</span>rights can be made good. To illustrate: +Under the Spanish régime the only remedy for a man illegally +detained was to bring a criminal action against the person illegally +detaining him. He did not have the remedy of the writ of habeas corpus +nor the writ of prohibition against an official who attempted to make +him the victim of some unlawful act. His only remedy was to bring a +criminal action against such official, or to sue him for damages. He +could not compel public officials to perform their ministerial duties +by mandamus proceedings.</p> +<p>The individual rights conferred by the Philippine Bill, and the +special remedies granted by the Code of Civil Procedure, assure to the +inhabitants of the islands liberties and privileges entirely unknown to +them during the days of Spanish sovereignty, and these liberties and +privileges are adequately safeguarded.</p> +<p>Two things still greatly complicate the administration of justice in +the Philippines.</p> +<p>The first is the dense ignorance of the people of the working class +who for the most part have failed to learn of their new rights, and +even if they know them are afraid to attempt to assert them in +opposition to the will of the <i lang="es">caciques</i>, whose power +for evil they know only too well.</p> +<p>The other is the unreliability of many witnesses and their shocking +readiness to perjure themselves. It is always possible to manufacture +testimony at small expense. While the criminal libel suit brought +against certain members of the staff of the newspaper <i lang="es">El +Renacimiento</i>, which libelled me, was in progress the judge showed +me the opinion of the two Filipino assessors<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10553src" href="#xd21e10553" name="xd21e10553src">3</a> in one of +the cases and told me that it was written by an attorney for the +defence. I could not believe this, but a few days later an assessor in +another of the cases called at my house, bringing a draft of the +opinion of himself and his associate which he sought to submit to me +for <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10556" href="#xd21e10556" name= +"xd21e10556">407</a>]</span>criticism or modification, saying that I +knew much more about the case than they did! He was nonplussed at my +refusal to read the document, and left saying “<i lang="es">acqui +tiene V. nuevo servidor</i>.”<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10561src" href="#xd21e10561" name="xd21e10561src">4</a> Had I +redrafted the opinion, as I might have done, my “new +servant” would have called later for a <i lang="la">quid pro +quo</i>.</p> +<p>Some of the Filipino judges of first instance have proved weak in +matters affecting the integrity of public domain and the protection of +the public forests, but on the whole these officers have done rather +surprisingly well. It must be remembered that the best men in the +islands have now been appointed, and that another generation must come +on before there will be available any considerable number of new +candidates who are up to the standard of the present appointees. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10573" href="#xd21e10573" name= +"xd21e10573">408</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10438" href="#xd21e10438src" name="xd21e10438">1</a></span> See +p. 998.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10455" href="#xd21e10455src" name="xd21e10455">2</a></span> +Female servant.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10553" href="#xd21e10553src" name="xd21e10553">3</a></span> Men +appointed to assist the judge in deciding questions of fact. Their +decision is not binding on him.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10561" href="#xd21e10561src" name="xd21e10561">4</a></span> Here +[<i>i.e.</i> in me] you have a new servant.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch16" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e374">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XVI</h2> +<h2 class="main">Health Conditions</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">I had abundant opportunity to observe health +conditions in the Philippines during the Spanish régime and they +were shocking in the extreme. There were no provisions for the sanitary +disposal of human waste even in Manila. If one had occasion to be out +on foot at night, it was wise to keep in the middle of the street and +still wiser to carry a raised umbrella.</p> +<p>Immediately after the American occupation some five hundred barrels +of caked excrement were taken from a single tower in one of the old +Manila monasteries. The moat around the city wall, and the <i lang= +"es">esteros</i>, or tidal creeks, reeked with filth, and the smells +which assailed one’s nostrils, especially, at night, were +disgusting.</p> +<p>Distilled water was not to be had for drinking purposes. The city +water supply came from the Mariquina River, and some fifteen thousand +Filipinos lived on or near the banks of that stream above the intake. +The water was often so thick with sediment that one could not see +through a glass of it, and it was out of the question to attempt to get +it boiled unless one had facilities of one’s own.</p> +<p>Conditions in the provinces were proportionately worse. As a rule, +there was no evidence of any effort to put provincial towns into decent +sanitary conditions. I must, however, note one striking exception. +Brigadier General Juan Arolas, long the governor of Joló, had a +thorough knowledge of modern sanitary methods and a keen appreciation +of the benefits derivable from their application. When he was sent to +Joló, practically in banishment, the town was a plague spot to +which were assigned Spaniards whose early demise would have been +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10590" href="#xd21e10590" name= +"xd21e10590">409</a>]</span>looked upon with favour by those in power. +He converted it into a healthy place the death rate of which compared +favourably with that of European cities, thereby demonstrating +conclusively what could be done even under very unfavourable +conditions. No troops in the islands were kept in anything like such +physical condition as were the regiments assigned to him, and he bore a +lasting grudge against any one inconsiderate enough to die in +Joló.</p> +<p>Everywhere I saw people dying of curable ailments. Malaria was +prevalent in many regions in which it was impossible to secure good +quinine. The stuff on sale usually consisted largely of cornstarch, or +plaster of Paris. Fortunately we had brought with us from the United +States a great quantity of quinine and we made friends with the +Filipinos in many a town by giving this drug gratis to their sick.</p> +<p>Smallpox was generally regarded as a necessary ailment of childhood. +It was a common thing to see children covered with the eruption of this +disease watching, or joining in, the play of groups of healthy little +ones.</p> +<p>The clothing of people who had died of smallpox was handed on to +other members of the family, sometimes without even being washed. The +victims of the disease often immersed themselves in cold water when +their fever was high, and paid the penalty for their ignorance with +their lives.</p> +<p>The average Spaniard was a firm believer in the noxiousness of night +air, which he said produced <i>paludismo</i>.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10603src" href="#xd21e10603" name="xd21e10603src">1</a> Most +Filipinos were afraid of an imaginary spirit, devil or mythical +creature known as <i>asuáng</i>, and closed their windows and +doors after dark as a protection against it. Thus it came about that in +a country where fresh air is especially necessary at night no one got +it.</p> +<p>Tuberculosis was dreadfully common, and its victims were conveying +it to others without let or hindrance.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e10613width" id="p052"><img src= +"images/p052.jpg" alt="Bakídan" width="544" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead">Bakídan</p> +<p class="first">This Kalinga chief saved the lives of Colonel Blas +Villamor, Mr. Samuel E. Kane, and the author during the first trip ever +made through the Kalinga country by outsiders.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10619" href="#xd21e10619" name= +"xd21e10619">410</a>]</span></p> +<p>A distressingly large percentage of native-born infants died before +reaching one year of age on account of infection at birth, insufficient +clothing, or improper food. I have many times seen a native mother +thrust boiled rice into the mouth of a child only a few days old, and I +have seen babies taught to smoke tobacco before they could walk.</p> +<p>Before our party left the islands in 1888, cholera had broken out at +a remote and isolated place. A little later it spread over a +considerable part of the archipelago. On my return in 1890 I heard the +most shocking stories of what had occurred. Victims of this disease +were regarded with such fear and horror by their friends that they were +not infrequently carried out while in a state of coma, and buried +alive. It became necessary to issue orders to have shelters prepared in +cemeteries under which bodies were required to be deposited and left +for a certain number of hours before burial, in order to prevent this +result.</p> +<p>In Siquijor an unfortunate, carried to the cemetery after he had +lost consciousness, came to himself, crawled out from under a mass of +corpses which had been piled on top of him, got up and walked home. +When he entered his house, his assembled friends and relatives vacated +it through the windows, believing him to be his own ghost. They did not +return until morning, when they found him dead on the floor.</p> +<p>I heard a well-authenticated story of a case in which all the +members of a family died except a creeping infant who subsisted for +some time by sucking a breeding sow which was being kept in the +kitchen.</p> +<p>During the great cholera epidemic in 1882 it is said that the +approaches to the Manila cemeteries were blocked with vehicles of every +description loaded with corpses, and that the stench from unburied +bodies in the San Lazaro district was so dreadful that one could hardly +go through it.</p> +<p>Beri-beri was common among the occupants of jails, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10632" href="#xd21e10632" name= +"xd21e10632">411</a>]</span>lighthouses and other government +institutions, as well as in certain garrisoned towns like Balabac.</p> +<p>In 1892 I found the wife of a very dear Spanish friend dying from an +ailment which in the United States could have been promptly and +certainly remedied by a surgical operation. I begged him to take her to +Manila, telling him of the ease with which any fairly good surgeon +would relieve her, and promising to interest myself in her case on my +arrival there. To my utter amazement I found that there was not a +surgeon in the Philippine Islands who would venture to open the human +abdomen. The one man who had sometimes done this in Spain stated that +it would be impossible for him to undertake it in Manila, on account of +the lack of a suitable operating room, of instruments and of the +necessary anaesthetist and other professional assistants. In fact, at +the time of the American occupation there was not a modern operating +room, much less a modern hospital, in the Philippines. Thousands upon +thousands of people were perishing needlessly every year for the lack +of surgical intervention. A common procedure in dealing with wounds was +to cover them with poultices of chewed tobacco, ashes, and leaves.</p> +<p>In many provinces the people were without medical assistance of any +sort, and fell into the hands of native quacks who were little, if at +all, better than witch doctors.</p> +<p>The most fantastic views were entertained relative to the causation +of disease. In some towns it was vigorously asserted that after a +peculiar looking black dog ran down the street cholera appeared. In +other places cholera was generally ascribed to the poisoning of wells +by Spaniards or foreigners.</p> +<p>Cemeteries were not infrequently situated in the very midst of +towns, or near the local supplies of drinking water. Conditions within +their walls were often shocking from an aesthetic view point. As the +area available for burials was limited, and the graves were usually +unmarked, parts of decomposed bodies were constantly being dug up. It +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10642" href="#xd21e10642" name= +"xd21e10642">412</a>]</span>was the custom to throw such remains about +the foot of the cross at the centre of the cemetery.</p> +<p>Military sanitation was also very bad. I was at Zamboanga when the +wreck of General Weyler’s expedition to Lake Lanoa began to +return. There had been no adequate provision for the medical care of +the force in the field, and the condition of many of the soldiers was +pitiable in the extreme. Disabled men were brought in by the shipload, +and the hospitals at Zamboanga, Isabela de Basilan and Joló were +soon filled to overflowing.</p> +<p>The lack of adequate sanitary measures was equally in evidence in +dealing with cattle disease. Rinderpest, a highly contagious and very +destructive disease of horned cattle, was introduced in 1888 and spread +like fire in prairie grass. No real effort was made to check it prior +to the American occupation, and it caused enormous losses, both +directly by killing large numbers of beef cattle and indirectly by +depriving farmers of draft animals.</p> +<p>When I first visited the islands every member of our party fell ill +within a few weeks. All of us suffered intensely from tropical ulcers. +Two had malaria; one had dysentery; one, acute inflammation of the +liver, possibly of amoebic origin; and so on to the end of the chapter. +I myself got so loaded up with malaria in Mindoro that it took me +fifteen years to get rid of it.</p> +<p>Fortunately the American army of occupation brought with it numerous +competent physicians and surgeons, and abundant hospital equipment and +supplies, for the soldiers promptly contracted about all the different +ailments to be acquired in the islands.</p> +<p>When I arrived in Manila on the 5th of March, 1899, I found that a +great army hospital, called the “First Reserve,” had been +established in the old rice market. There was another sizable one on +the Bagumbayan drive. A third occupied a large building belonging to +French sisters of charity which was ordinarily used for school +purposes. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10655" href="#xd21e10655" +name="xd21e10655">413</a>]</span></p> +<p>In immediate connection with the First Reserve Hospital was a tent +hospital where sick and wounded Insurgents were being given the best of +care.</p> +<p>Field hospitals were promptly established as the troops moved out +from Manila, and in connection with many of these Filipinos were given +much needed medical and surgical help. The recipients of such kindly +treatment were, however, prohibited by Insurgent officers from telling +others of their experiences lest the hatred of Americans diminish as a +result.</p> +<p>Smallpox had broken out among the Spanish soldiers in the walled +city and was spreading badly when my friend, Major Frank S. Bourns of +the army medical corps, was given the task of eradicating it, which he +promptly accomplished. A little later the use of the Santa Ana church +as a smallpox hospital was authorized, and sick Filipinos were +carefully tended there.</p> +<p>The army promptly set about cleaning up Manila and waging war upon +the more serious ailments which threatened the health of the soldiers +and that of the public. The work was at the outset put under the +direction of Major Edie, a very capable and efficient medical officer. +Subsequently it was turned over to Major Bourns, who, on account of his +intimate knowledge of Spanish, and his wide acquaintance with the +Filipinos, was able to carry out many much-needed reforms, and in doing +so aroused a minimum of public antagonism.</p> +<p>Upon the establishment of civil government Governor Taft was very +desirous of retaining Major Bourns’s services, but this did not +prove practicable, as he desired to give up government work and engage +in private business.</p> +<p>There was promptly created an efficient board of health made up of +men of recognized ability and large practical experience. Its chairman +was Major Louis M. Maus, commissioner of public health. The other +members were Mr. H. D. Osgood, sanitary engineer; Dr. Franklin H. +Meacham, chief sanitary inspector; Dr. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10668" href="#xd21e10668" name="xd21e10668">414</a>]</span>Paul +C. Freer, superintendent of government laboratories; and Dr. Manuel +Gomez, secretary.</p> +<p>This board was promptly put upon its mettle. It had inherited from +the army an incipient epidemic of bubonic plague in Manila, and the +disease soon spread to Cavite and also to Cebú, then the second +port of the Philippines in commercial importance. It also appeared in +several provincial towns near Cavite. An effective campaign against it, +inaugurated at this time, was never abandoned until it was completely +eradicated in 1906,—a noteworthy result to achieve in a country +like the Philippines.</p> +<p>On March 21, 1902, I was advised that two patients at San Juan de +Dios hospital were developing symptoms of Asiatic cholera, and on the +following day a positive laboratory diagnosis was made. Other cases +followed in quick succession, and we soon found ourselves facing a +virulent epidemic of this highly dangerous disease. At the outset the +mortality was practically 100 per cent. Unfortunately, there was no one +connected with the medical service of the islands who had had practical +experience in dealing with cholera, and we had to get this as we went +along.</p> +<p>At the time of the outbreak, Governor Taft was in the United States, +Acting Governor Wright was in Leyte, the secretary of finance and +justice was in Japan, and there were present in Manila only the +secretary of public instruction and the secretary of the interior. As +the executive head of the government was absent, and there was no +quorum of the legislative body, I of necessity arrogated to myself +powers which I did not lawfully possess, appointing employees and +incurring expenses without the usual formalities.</p> +<p>On the morning of March 22 I informed General Chaffee that four +cases of cholera had occurred in Manila, and requested that an adequate +military force be despatched to the valley of the Mariquina River to +protect the city water supply from possible contamination. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10679" href="#xd21e10679" name= +"xd21e10679">415</a>]</span></p> +<p>This request was promptly acceded to, and the guard thereafter +maintained proved adequate to prevent infection of the city water, +although there are three towns on the river above the intake, and it +was the custom of their people to bathe and wash their clothing in this +stream. Many of the filthy surface wells of the city were filled as +rapidly as possible, and those that could not be filled were +closed.</p> +<p>The people, entirely unaccustomed as they were to any sanitary +restrictions, believing that the disease was not cholera, and firm in +their conviction that they had a right to do whatever they liked so +long as they kept on their own premises, bitterly resented the burning +or disinfection of their houses and effects, and the restriction of +their liberty to go and come as they pleased, and in spite of the fact +that the number of cases was kept down in a manner never before dreamed +of at Manila, there arose an increasingly bitter feeling of hostility +toward the work of the board of health. In fact, the very success of +the campaign proved an obstacle, and we were assured that the disease +could not be cholera, as, if it were, there would be a thousand deaths +a day!</p> +<p>An educational campaign was immediately begun, and simple directions +for avoiding infection were published and scattered broadcast. +Distilled water was furnished gratis to all who would drink it, +stations for its distribution being established through the city and +supplemented by large water wagons driven through the streets. The sale +of foods likely to convey the disease was prohibited. Large numbers of +emergency sanitary inspectors were immediately appointed, and every +effort was made to detect all cases as soon as possible. A land +quarantine was established around the city, to protect the +provinces.</p> +<p>In anticipation of a possible extensive outbreak of contagious +disease a detention camp capable of accommodating some twenty-five +hundred people had been established previously on the San Lazaro +grounds, and to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10688" href= +"#xd21e10688" name="xd21e10688">416</a>]</span>this place were taken +the cholera “contacts.” A cholera hospital was opened near +this camp, and the stricken were removed to it from their homes as +speedily as possible, the buildings which they had occupied being +thoroughly disinfected, or burned if disinfection was +impracticable.</p> +<p>The bodies of the dead were at the outset either buried in +hermetically sealed coffins or cremated. When the detention camp and +hospital at San Lazaro threatened to become crowded, a second camp and +hospital were established at Santa Mesa. At this latter place both +“contacts” and the sick were obliged to live in tents.</p> +<p>The Spanish residents were allowed to establish a private cholera +hospital in a large and well-ventilated <i>convento</i> on Calle +Herran. As the number of sick Spaniards was nothing like sufficient to +fill this building, they were asked to turn over the unoccupied space +in it to the board of health, which they most generously did.</p> +<p>In response to popular clamour a hospital under strictly Filipino +management was opened in a nipa building in Tondo. Interest in it soon +flagged, and the government found itself with this institution on its +hands.</p> +<p>The epidemic came soon after the close of a long-continued war, and +there were at that time in Manila not a few evil-intentioned persons, +both foreign and native, who welcomed every opportunity to make +trouble. The difficulties arising from the claim advanced by a number +of reputable but ignorant medical men that the disease was not cholera +at all were sufficiently great. They were enormously increased by false +and malicious stories to the effect that “contacts” were +killed at the detention camp; that patients on arrival at the cholera +hospital were given a drink of poisoned <i>vino</i><a class="noteref" +id="xd21e10704src" href="#xd21e10704" name="xd21e10704src">2</a> and +instantly dropped dead; that the distilled water distributed free of +charge was poisoned, and that the Americans were poisoning the wells. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10707" href="#xd21e10707" name= +"xd21e10707">417</a>]</span></p> +<p>The necessary use of strychnine as a heart stimulant at the cholera +hospital was made the basis for a story that the sick were being +poisoned with this drug.</p> +<p>These silly tales were widely circulated and quite generally +believed, and as a result of the fear thus engendered, and of the +desire on the part of relatives and neighbours of stricken persons to +escape disinfection and quarantine, strong efforts were often made to +conceal the sick and the dead, and when this was not possible the +“contacts” usually ran away. There were not wanting +instances of the driving of cholera victims into the streets.</p> +<p>In spite of the generally hostile attitude of the public and some +grave mistakes in policy, the measures adopted sufficed at the outset +to hold the disease in check to an extent which surprised even the +health officers themselves.</p> +<p>On May 15 there began a rapid and quite steady decline in the number +of cases.</p> +<p>In June, however, it increased. During July it grew steadily larger, +and on the 25th of that month there were ninety-one cases, the largest +number which has ever occurred in Manila on any day since the American +occupation.</p> +<p>Throughout the early months of the epidemic Major Maus had laboured +unceasingly to check it, displaying an energy and an indifference to +fatigue and personal discomfort which were highly commendable. The +long-continued strain ultimately began to tell on him severely. On May +17 orders were received from the Adjutant-General’s Office +providing for his relief on or about July 30, and stating that Major E. +C. Carter, of the United States Army Medical Corps, would be available +for detail as commissioner of public health on that date, if his +services were desired. Arrangements were accordingly made to have Major +Carter proceed to the Philippines. Major Maus’s resignation was +accepted, effective July 31. Dr. Frank S. Bourns was urged to take +temporary charge of the situation, and consented to do so.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e10721width" id="p053"><img src= +"images/p053.jpg" alt="In Hostile Country" width="720" height="427"> +<p class="figureHead">In Hostile Country</p> +<p class="first">Colonel Villamor and the author at +Bakídan’s place in the Kalinga country. The four chiefs +were not as yet ready to lay down their shields or head-axes.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10727" href="#xd21e10727" name= +"xd21e10727">418</a>]</span></p> +<p>On the 8th of August Major Carter arrived and announced his +readiness to assume his duties, but it was suggested to him that he +ought first to have some time to familiarize himself with them, and Dr. +Bourns was left free to carry out the special work for which he had +been appointed.</p> +<p>This he did with promptness and despatch, the number of cases for +August being but seven hundred twenty as against thirteen hundred +sixty-eight for the previous month. On the 8th of September, having +brought the disease under control at Manila, he insisted on resigning +in order to attend to his private affairs, which were suffering from +neglect, and his resignation was reluctantly accepted.</p> +<p>Dr. Bourns’s remarkable success in dealing with a very +difficult situation was largely due to his ability to devise measures +which, while thoroughly effective, were less irritating to the public +than were those which had been previously employed.</p> +<p>The policy which he had inaugurated was followed by his successor +with the result that the cases fell to two hundred seventy-five in +September and eighty-eight in October. In November there was a slight +recrudescence, but the disease did not again threaten to escape control +and in February practically disappeared, there being but two cases +during the entire month.</p> +<p>The return of hot, damp weather again produced a slight +recrudescence, and scattering cases continued to occur until March, +when the epidemic of 1902–1904 ended in Manila.</p> +<p>In view of the conditions which then prevailed and of the extreme +risk of a general infection of the city water supply, which, had it +occurred, would doubtless have resulted in the death of a third of the +population, this is a record of which the Bureau of Health may well be +proud.</p> +<p>The effort to prevent the spread of infection by maintaining a land +quarantine around Manila proved entirely <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10743" href="#xd21e10743" name= +"xd21e10743">419</a>]</span>ineffective. The disease promptly appeared +in the provinces where the campaign against it was from the outset in +charge of newly appointed Filipino presidents of provincial boards of +health, aided, when practicable, by medical inspectors from Manila.</p> +<p>Before it was finally checked in Manila there were 5581 cases with +4386 deaths; while in the provinces, in many of which it necessarily +long ran its course practically unhindered, there were 160,671 cases, +with 105,075 deaths.</p> +<p>On the 27th of April, 1904, the Board of Health passed the following +resolutions:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Whereas cases of Asiatic cholera have occurred +in but three provincial towns of the Philippine Islands since February +8, 1904; and</p> +<p>“Whereas only one case of Asiatic cholera has been reported as +occurring any place in the Philippine Islands since March 8, 1904; +and</p> +<p>“Whereas the city of Manila was declared on March 23 to be +free from the infection of Asiatic cholera; On motion</p> +<p>“<i>Resolved</i>, That the islands composing the Philippine +Archipelago are, and are hereby declared to be, free from the infection +of Asiatic cholera; and</p> +<p>“<i>Be it further resolved</i>, That the Commissioner of +Public Health be directed to send a copy of these resolutions to the +honourable the Secretary of the Interior, the Municipal Board, the +United States Marine-Hospital Service, and the Collector of +Customs.”</p> +</div> +<p>As a matter of fact, however, it later proved that cholera was +endemic in certain swampy regions near Manila, and in 1905 we found +ourselves with a new epidemic on our hands.</p> +<p>At the end of the second week, beginning August 23, there had been +one hundred thirty-seven cases, as compared with one hundred +twenty-five for the same period during the epidemic of +1902–1904.</p> +<p>However, the conditions for combating cholera were now far more +favourable than in 1902. Major E. C. Carter had at his own request been +relieved from duty as <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10773" href= +"#xd21e10773" name="xd21e10773">420</a>]</span>commissioner of public +health, and Dr. Victor G. Heiser, passed assistant surgeon of the +United States public health and marine hospital service, had been +appointed to succeed him on April 5, 1905. Dr. Heiser was a highly +trained officer of one of the most efficient services which has ever +been organized for the combating of contagious and infectious +diseases.</p> +<p>He had under him in the city of Manila a small but thoroughly +trained body of twenty-four medical inspectors, of whom nineteen were +Americans and five Filipinos. Profiting by his previous experience and +that of his predecessors in the Philippine service, he inaugurated a +campaign which practically terminated the epidemic in Manila on +February 21, 1906,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e10777src" href= +"#xd21e10777" name="xd21e10777src">3</a> with a total of two hundred +eighty-three cases and two hundred forty-three deaths.</p> +<p>This brief and decisive campaign reflects the greatest credit on all +concerned with it.</p> +<p>The board of health had one great advantage in the fact that the San +Lazaro contagious disease hospital had been completed. This building, +with its cool wards and attractive surroundings, made it possible to +give cholera victims the best of care.</p> +<p>There was at the outset little or no fear of this hospital, but +apparently this condition of things was not satisfactory to that small +but dangerous element of the Manila public which from the time of the +American occupation has never let pass any opportunity to make trouble. +As usual, the medium of attack was the local press. <i lang= +"es">Soberanía Nacional</i> published a most extraordinary +article painting in vivid colours the alleged horrors of the San Lazaro +Hospital, and stating among other things that the naked bodies of the +dead, tagged and with their feet tied together, lay about the entrance +of that institution. A more false statement was never published.</p> +<p>Within twenty-four hours after its appearance terror <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10792" href="#xd21e10792" name= +"xd21e10792">421</a>]</span>reigned among the lower classes, and living +and dead cholera victims were being smuggled out of the city to +neighbouring towns.</p> +<p>Feeling that the vicious attitude of a certain section of the press +had cost lives enough, I sent the editor of this paper a courteous +invitation to call at my office. He made no response. I then wrote him, +demanding a retraction, and sending him a correct statement to +publish.<a class="noteref" id="xd21e10796src" href="#xd21e10796" name= +"xd21e10796src">4</a></p> +<p>He was at first disposed to argue the matter, but finding that I +meant business published the article which I sent to him and made the +following retraction:— <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10834" +href="#xd21e10834" name="xd21e10834">422</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We are exceedingly glad to affirm in the honour +of truth and justice, that the news given by us on the seventh instant +under the title ‘Painful Scenes,’ and ‘Naked +Dead,’ is absolutely absurd, false and unreasonable.</p> +<p>“We have investigated the truth of the said notice, and can +affirm to our readers that it is entirely inaccurate, as in the +courtyard of the said hospital the naked dead that we have spoken of +are not now exposed, nor have they ever been so exposed.</p> +<p>“The truth is above all things, and to rectify a baseless +piece of news should not be a doubtful action on the part of the person +who gave the news, but rather something in his favour that the public +should appreciate it at its full value.</p> +<p>“To conclude, we must record our gratitude to the Secretary of +the Interior, the Hon. Dean C. Worcester, for the investigations made +in the premises with the purpose of ascertaining the truth of the +alleged facts, and for the courteous way in which he received us this +morning when interviewed by one of our reporters.”</p> +</div> +<p>In the provinces the results of the campaign against cholera were +far less satisfactory than in Manila as was to be anticipated, owing to +lack of adequate personnel, but the cases, which numbered 34,238 and +deaths which numbered 22,938, were far fewer than during the previous +epidemic.</p> +<p>I shall not attempt here to trace the course of the subsequent +epidemics which have occurred from time to time, but shall content +myself with giving the deaths by years. In 1908, they numbered 18,811; +in 1909, 7306; in 1910, 6940; in 1911, 203. In 1912, there were none, +and thus far in 1913 there have been none.<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10849src" href="#xd21e10849" name="xd21e10849src">5</a></p> +<p>The superstitious practices which were formerly employed by the +Filipinos to combat this scourge have given way to simple and +inexpensive hygienic measures, and we can safely count on sufficient +coöperation from the people to make an effective campaign possible +when it next appears.</p> +<p>Never shall I forget the strain of the early days of the first +epidemic. Two of my best men, Dr. Meacham and <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10856" href="#xd21e10856" name= +"xd21e10856">423</a>]</span>Mr. Mudge, literally worked themselves to +death, remaining on duty when they knew that they were in imminent +danger, and in the end laying down their lives willingly for an alien +and hostile people. Such things make one proud of being an +American.</p> +<p>At times the situation was not devoid of amusing features. I had +occasion to visit one of the northern provinces, where the epidemic was +especially severe, in an effort to calm the panic-stricken populace. I +stayed with the governor, a very intelligent Filipino. For obvious +reasons I investigated his domestic arrangements, finding that he was +boiling drinking water, thoroughly cooking all food, and taking all +usual and necessary precautions to prevent infection.</p> +<p>On returning to his house the first evening, after a short absence, +I found the grounds decorated with lighted Japanese lanterns. Supposing +that the proverbial Filipino hospitality had risen above even such +untoward circumstances as those which then existed, I asked the +governor what the entertainment was to be. In evident perplexity he +replied that he had not planned to have any entertainment, and on my +inquiring what the lanterns were for, said he had heard that they were +good to keep away cholera germs!</p> +<p>I have referred to the fact that the civil government inherited a +fairly well developed epidemic of bubonic plague. In 1901 this disease +caused four hundred twenty-seven deaths, in 1902 it caused ten only, +but the demands made on the sanitary force by the cholera epidemic +which began in that year rendered it impossible to give to plague the +attention which it otherwise would have had, with the result that in +1903 we had one hundred seventy-four deaths. In 1904 there were +seventy-eight; in 1905, forty-three; in 1906, seven; in 1907, none; and +from 1907 until 1912, none. In the latter year the disease was +reintroduced.</p> +<p>Rats become infected with it, and fleas transmit it from them to +human beings. It was probably brought <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10867" href="#xd21e10867" name="xd21e10867">424</a>]</span>in by +pestiferous rodents hidden inside packages of vegetables, as it +appeared in a district where crates of vegetables are opened in large +numbers, and did not appear in the vicinity of the piers, although +shore rats are abundant there, and if diseased rodents had landed from +shipping, would promptly have become infected,—a thing which did +not occur.</p> +<p>At about the same time plague also appeared at Iloilo, where it was +eradicated with a total of nine deaths. At Manila there have been up to +the present time<a class="noteref" id="xd21e10871src" href= +"#xd21e10871" name="xd21e10871src">6</a> fifty-nine deaths, and +scattering cases continue to occur at considerable intervals.</p> +<p>Had plague not been promptly and effectively combated, it would +unquestionably have spread rapidly, causing untold misery and heavy +property losses.</p> +<p>As I have previously stated, at the time of the American occupation +smallpox was by many people regarded as an almost inevitable ailment of +childhood. It proved necessary to secure the passage of legislation +forbidding the inoculation of human beings with it to prevent misguided +Filipinos from deliberately communicating it to their children, not +because they did not dearly love them, but because they regarded +infection with it as a calamity sure to come sooner or later, and +desired to have it over with once for all.</p> +<p>We have performed more than ten million vaccinations, with the +result that the annual deaths from this disease have decreased from +forty thousand at the outset to seven hundred for the year just ended. +There is now less smallpox in Manila than in Washington.</p> +<p>In the six provinces nearest Manila it was killing, on the average, +six thousand persons annually. For a year after we finished vaccinating +the inhabitants of these provinces it did not cause a death among them; +nor has it since caused such a death except among new-born children or +newly arrived unvaccinated persons. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10882" href="#xd21e10882" name="xd21e10882">425</a>]</span></p> +<p>These extraordinary results have been achieved without the loss of a +life or a limb so far as we know. The vaccine used was prepared by our +own Bureau of Science with extraordinary care, and has proved to be +remarkably pure and active.</p> +<p>We at first endeavoured to have vaccinations performed by local +Filipino health officers, but, after spending large sums without +obtaining satisfactory results, gave up this plan and substituted +therefor a method of procedure by which the work was carried on under +the very immediate supervision of the director of health. We then made +substantial progress. However, under the law as it at present stands, +succeeding annual vaccination, intended to insure the immunization of +children soon after they are born and of unvaccinated persons who may +come into a given territory, are intrusted to the local Filipino +authorities, with the result that in very many cases they are not +attended to. We get elaborate returns showing the number of persons +vaccinated. Then comes an outbreak of smallpox, and on investigation we +learn that the vaccinations so fully reported were made on paper only! +In other words, the continuance of this work, of such vital importance +to the Filipino people, is still directly dependent upon continued +control by American health officers.</p> +<p>Another great problem now in a fair way to final solution is the +eradication of leprosy. At the outset we were told by the church +authorities that there were thirty thousand lepers in the islands. In +1905 we began to isolate and care for all supposed victims of this +disease, only to find that many outcasts believed to be suffering from +it were really afflicted with curable ailments. We were able to restore +a very large number of them to society, to their great joy and that of +their friends.</p> +<p>A few hundreds of true lepers were being humanely cared for in +Manila and elsewhere. Many others had been driven out of the towns into +forests or waste places on the larger islands, where they were +perishing miserably <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10891" href= +"#xd21e10891" name="xd21e10891">426</a>]</span>from fever and other +diseases. Still others had been isolated on sand quays, where they were +in danger of dying from thirst during the dry season. Not a few +wandered through the towns at will, spreading the disease +broadcast.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e10895width" id="p054"><img src= +"images/p054.jpg" alt="Travel under Difficulties" width="720" height= +"428"> +<p class="figureHead">Travel under Difficulties</p> +<p class="first">One of our bamboo rafts, loaded with baggage, on the +Mabáca River.</p> +</div> +<p>All known lepers are now cared for at Culion, a healthful, sanitary +town with good streets, excellent water and sewer systems, many modern +concrete buildings and a first-class hospital.</p> +<p>They are not confined to the limits of the town, but wander at will, +except that they are excluded from the immediate vicinity of the houses +of the officers and employees of the colony.</p> +<p>They may have their little farms, and raise pigs, chickens, +vegetables, etc., if they wish. They may, and do, float about over the +waters of the neighbouring bay in boats or on rafts, and fish to their +hearts’ content. They are well fed and well cared for, and their +physical condition improves to a marked degree promptly after their +arrival at the colony. The only hardship which they suffer is that +necessarily involved in separation from their relatives and friends, +and this is mitigated by occasional visits which the latter may make +them.</p> +<p>Since we began to isolate lepers, their number has decreased to +approximately three thousand, and with a continuance of the present +policy the disease should soon disappear from the Philippines.</p> +<p>During the period immediately subsequent to the American occupation, +amoebic dysentery wrought sad havoc both among our soldiers and among +civil government officers and employees. Four of my own family of five +had it, and one had it twice, in spite of the fact that we took all +known precautions; and the experience of my family was by no means +exceptional. This disease then annually cost the lives of a large +number of American men and women, and a considerable additional number +went home invalids for life as a result of infection <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10911" href="#xd21e10911" name= +"xd21e10911">427</a>]</span>with it. We seemed to hear almost daily of +some new case.</p> +<p>Careful scientific investigation carried on at the bureau of science +taught us the best methods of combating this type of dysentery, and the +proper disposal of human feces, the regulation of methods used in +fertilizing vegetables, improvement in supplies of drinking water, and +other simple, hygienic measures have reduced the deaths from it among +Americans to an almost negligible minimum. Such cases as occur are +almost without exception detected early, and readily yield to +treatment.</p> +<p>The belief that Filipinos do not suffer from this disease has proved +to be without foundation. It kills thousands of them every year. Those +who are willing to adopt the simple precautions which experience has +shown to be necessary may enjoy the large degree of immunity from it +which Americans now have.</p> +<p>The chief cause of amoebic dysentery in the Philippines has +undoubtedly been infected drinking water. From time immemorial the +people have been obtaining their water for drinking purposes from +flowing streams, open springs or shallow surface wells.</p> +<p>The wells were especially dangerous, as it was the common custom to +wash clothing around them so that water containing disease germs +frequently seeped into wells used by whole villages. The results of +such conditions during a cholera epidemic can readily be imagined.</p> +<p>The drinking supplies of many provincial towns have now been +radically improved by the sinking of 853 successful artesian wells.</p> +<p>In many places there has been a resulting reduction of more than +fifty per cent in the annual death rate. Large sums are spent yearly by +the government in drilling additional wells,—a policy which is +warmly approved by the common people. The recent appropriations for +this purpose have been $255,000 for the fiscal year 1912, $60,000 for +1913 and $200,000 for 1914. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10926" +href="#xd21e10926" name="xd21e10926">428</a>]</span></p> +<p>When we came to the islands, malaria was killing as many persons as +was smallpox. The mortality caused by it is now being greatly reduced +by giving away annually millions of doses of quinine, and by draining +or spraying with petroleum places where mosquitoes breed, as well as by +teaching the people the importance of sleeping under mosquito nets and +the necessity of keeping patients suffering from active attacks of +malaria where mosquitoes cannot get at them. Only quinine of +established quality is allowed in the market.</p> +<p>The results obtained in combating malaria are often very striking. +Calapan, the capital of Mindoro, was in Spanish days known as +“the white man’s grave” on account of the prevalence +of “pernicious fever” there. To-day it is an exceptionally +healthy provincial town.</p> +<p>At Iwahig, in Palawan, the Spaniards attempted to conduct a penal +colony. They were compelled to abandon it on account of pernicious +malaria, which caused continued serious mortality when the American +government attempted to establish a similar institution there. +Application of the usual sanitary measures has made it a healthful +place.</p> +<p>Old jails throughout the islands have been rendered sanitary, or +replaced by new ones. The loathsome skin diseases from which prisoners +formerly suffered have in consequence disappeared. The practical +results obtained in Bilibid, the insular penitentiary, are worthy of +special note. The annual death rate at this institution was 78.25 per +thousand for the calendar year 1904. It increased steadily each month +from January, 1904, to September, 1905, when it reached its maximum, +deaths occurring at the rate of 241.15 per thousand per year. At this +time the director of health was given charge of the sanitation of this +prison.</p> +<p>By remedying overcrowding, improving drainage, installing sewers and +regulating diet along scientific lines, the rate was reduced in six +months to 70 per 1000, and there it stuck. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10937" href="#xd21e10937" name= +"xd21e10937">429</a>]</span></p> +<p>A systematic examination of the stools of prisoners was then made. +Eighty-four per cent were found to be afflicted with at least one +intestinal parasite. Fifty per cent had two or more, and twenty per +cent had three or more. Fifty-two per cent of the total had hookworm. +Active treatment for the elimination of these parasites was begun in +one barrack, and after the work was completed it was noted that there +was much less disease there than in the remainder. All of the +thirty-five hundred prisoners were ultimately examined, and intestinal +parasites eradicated if present. The death rate then dropped to +thirteen to the thousand, and has remained at or near this figure up to +the present time.</p> +<p>I have already referred to the discovery of the cause of beri-beri, +and to the effect of the governor-general’s order forbidding the +use of polished rice in government institutions or by government +organizations.</p> +<p>I subsequently made a strong effort to secure legislation imposing a +heavy internal revenue tax on polished rice, thus penalizing its use. I +failed, but such effort will be renewed by some one, let us hope with +ultimate success.</p> +<p>In Spanish days cholera, leprosy, smallpox and other dangerous +communicable diseases were constantly reintroduced from without. This +is no longer the case. The United States public health and marine +hospital service has stretched an effective defensive line around the +archipelago and has sent its outposts to Hongkong, Shanghai and Amoy, +to prevent, so far as possible, the embarkation for Manila of persons +suffering from such ailments. We now have the most effective quarantine +system in the tropics, and one of the best in the world. At Mariveles +there is a very large and complete disinfecting plant, and vessels may +also be satisfactorily disinfected at Cebú and Iloilo.</p> +<p>This quarantine service kept the Philippines free from bubonic +plague for seven years, and has repeatedly prevented the entry of +pneumonic plague, that most deadly of all known diseases. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10948" href="#xd21e10948" name= +"xd21e10948">430</a>]</span></p> +<p>A peculiar and shockingly disfiguring disease known as yaws occurs +somewhat infrequently in the Philippine lowlands and is very prevalent +in a number of places in the highlands. In many ways it resembles +syphilis, and indeed at one time was considered to be syphilitic in its +origin. Doctor Richard P. Strong, of the Bureau of Science, made the +very important discovery that salvarsan is an absolute specific for it. +The effect of an injection of this remedy closely approaches a miracle +in medicine. In five or six days the condition of the patient begins to +improve rapidly. By the end of the second week his horrible sores have +healed.</p> +<p>It was with this remedy that we began our health work among some of +the wilder head-hunters of northern Luzón. Think of the +advantage of being absolutely certain of curing such an ailment in +every case, and think of the gratitude of poor wretches, undergoing +untold suffering, when they were almost immediately relieved!</p> +<p>Soon after this use for salvarsan was discovered, I caused a liberal +supply of it to be sent to the Bontoc Hospital. For some time we were +unable to persuade any victims of yaws to undergo treatment, but +finally we found one at Barlig who was guilty of a minor criminal +offence, arrested him, and took him to Bontoc. Instead of putting him +in jail there, we sent him to the hospital for treatment.</p> +<p>At first he complained bitterly that we were putting no medicine on +his sores. Then the remedy began to work and he decided it was +“strong medicine.” By the tenth day he was running around +town joyfully exhibiting his rapidly healing body to every one who +would look at it. On the fourteenth day he suddenly disappeared, to the +deep regret of the medical men, who had hoped that they might keep him +as an example of what could be done, and thus persuade others to +undergo treatment. A few days later, however, he reappeared with +thirteen victims of yaws from his home town, having meanwhile +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10958" href="#xd21e10958" name= +"xd21e10958">431</a>]</span>twice covered on foot the great distance +which separates Barlig from Bontoc, and assembled and brought in his +fellow-sufferers.</p> +<p>As we have seen, the people of Manila were formerly supplied with +impure drinking water from the Mariquina River, and were therefore in +constant danger of infection with cholera and other deadly diseases. At +a cost of some $1,500,000 we have given the city a modern water system, +the intake of which is far up in the hills above the last village. The +annual deaths from ordinary water-borne diseases exclusive of cholera +have fallen from 3558—the average number at the time the new +system was introduced—to 1195. Recently a leak in the dam, which +necessitated temporary resumption of the use of the Mariquina River +water, was immediately followed by a marked increase in the number of +deaths from such diseases, thus conclusively demonstrating the fact +that we were right in ascribing the previous reduction in deaths to a +better water supply.</p> +<p>This annual saving of lives is an important result, but more +important yet is the fact that when Asiatic cholera reappears in the +Mariquina valley, as it inevitably will sooner or later, we shall not +live in constant fear of a general infection of the Manila water +supply, which, judging from the experience of other cities where modern +sanitary methods have been introduced, might result in the death of a +third of the population. In every country a very considerable part of +the population always fails to boil its drinking water, no matter how +great the resulting danger may be.</p> +<p>Manila lacked any facilities for the proper disposal of human waste, +and the conditions which resulted were unspeakable, especially in the +little <i>barrios</i>, or groups of houses, placed close together, +helter-skelter, on wet, swampy ground and reached by means of runways +not worthy even of the name of alleys, as one often had to crouch to +pass along them. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e10969" href= +"#xd21e10969" name="xd21e10969">432</a>]</span></p> +<p>A modern sewer system costing $2,000,000, supplemented by a pail +system, has very effectively solved this problem, while thousands of +homes closely crowded on disease-infected, mosquito-breeding ground +have been removed to high, dry, sanitary sites. The regions thus +vacated have in many instances been drained, filled, provided with city +water and good streets, and made fit for human occupancy.</p> +<p>The old moat around the city walls was a veritable incubator of +disease. It has been converted into an athletic field where crowds of +people take healthful exercise. The <i lang="es">esteros</i>, or tidal +creeks, reeked with filth. More than twenty miles of such creeks have +been cleaned out, although much still remains to be done to put them in +really satisfactory condition.</p> +<p>There were no regulations covering the construction of buildings, +and it was not unusual to find six or eight persons sleeping in a +closed and unventilated room 10 × 8 × 8 feet. Manila now +has an excellent sanitary code, and such conditions have been made +unlawful.</p> +<p>The previous woeful lack of hospital facilities has been effectively +remedied. At a cost of approximately a million and quarter pesos we +have built and equipped the great Philippine General Hospital, one of +the most modern institutions of its kind in the world, and by far the +best in the Far East. In it we have very satisfactorily solved the +question of getting sufficient light and air in the tropics without +getting excessive heat. Its buildings are certainly among the very +coolest in the city of Manila, and “the hospital smell” is +everywhere conspicuously absent.</p> +<p>It is called a three-hundred-bed institution, but as a matter of +fact the ventilation is so admirable that nearly two hundred additional +beds can safely be put in as an emergency measure.</p> +<p>Two hundred and twenty of its beds are free. In them a very large +number of persons are annually given <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10986" href="#xd21e10986" name="xd21e10986">433</a>]</span>the +best of medical and surgical care. At its free clinic some eighty +thousand patients find relief in the course of a year.</p> +<p>The increase in private hospital facilities has also been +noteworthy. Among the new institutions doing admirable work should be +mentioned the University Hospital, an Episcopal institution; the Mary +J. Johnston Hospital, a Methodist institution; and St. Paul’s +Hospital, a Catholic institution. Patients are admitted to all of them +without regard to their religious belief, a policy the liberality of +which must commend itself to all broadminded persons.</p> +<p>In enumerating the hospitals of Manila, the old Spanish institution, +San Juan de Dios, should not be forgotten, for it has been improved and +modernized until it offers good facilities for the treatment of the +sick and the injured.</p> +<p>All of the above mentioned institutions are in effect acute-case +hospitals designed for the treatment of curable ailments. Cases of +dangerous communicable disease are excluded from them, but are +adequately provided for at San Lazaro where the insular government has +established modern and adequate hospitals for plague, smallpox, +cholera, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, etc., as well as a +detention hospital for lepers, pending their departure for Culion.</p> +<p>An insane hospital capable of comfortably accommodating 300 inmates +has also been provided. A few years since the insane were commonly +chained to floors, or tied to stakes under houses or in yards, and were +not infrequently burned alive during conflagrations. Such conditions no +longer exist, but the government is not yet able to provide for nearly +all of the insane who need institutional care.</p> +<p>The several institutions above mentioned have a very important +function apart from the relief of human suffering, in that they afford +unexcelled opportunities for giving <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e10998" href="#xd21e10998" name= +"xd21e10998">434</a>]</span>practical instruction in nursing and in the +practice of medicine and surgery.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11001width" id="p055"><img src= +"images/p055.jpg" alt="Dangerous Navigation" width="720" height="432"> +<p class="figureHead">Dangerous Navigation</p> +<p class="first">This photograph shows one of our rafts passing a point +on the Abulug River which we named the “Needle’s +Eye.” The current was very swift, and the water forty feet deep. +Many persons have been drowned, or killed by being thrown against the +rocks, while trying to make this passage.</p> +</div> +<p>A few years ago there was not such a thing as a Filipina trained +nurse in the islands. I was firmly convinced that the Filipinas of this +country could learn to be good nurses, and made earnest efforts to have +included among the first students sent at government expense to the +United States several young women of good family who should attend +nurses’ training schools and then return to assist in our +hospital work.</p> +<p>I failed to secure the adoption of this plan, but later the training +of nurses was inaugurated in connection with hospital work at the old +Civil Hospital, St. Paul’s, the University Hospital, the Mary J. +Johnston Hospital and the Philippine General Hospital. At the latter +institution there is now conducted an admirable school where more than +two hundred young men and women are being trained. Three classes have +already graduated from it, and Filipina nurses have long since proved +themselves to be exceptionally efficient, capable and faithful. It will +be some time before we can educate as many as are needed in the +government hospitals, and after that has been accomplished a vast field +opens before others in the provincial towns, where the need of trained +assistants in caring for the sick is very great.</p> +<p>We found exceedingly few competent Filipino physicians or surgeons +in the islands. This condition was due not to natural incompetence on +the part of the Filipinos but to the previous lack of adequate +educational facilities. The government has established a thoroughly +modern college of medicine and surgery, well housed, and provided with +all necessary laboratory facilities. It furnishes the best of +theoretical instruction, while its students have every opportunity for +practical work at the bedsides of patients in the government hospitals, +all patients in free beds being admitted subject to the condition that +they will allow their cases to be studied. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11013" href="#xd21e11013" name= +"xd21e11013">435</a>]</span></p> +<p>While there is still an evident tendency on the part of graduates of +this school to feel that they know enough, and to desire to get to +making money without delay, we are nevertheless managing to attract an +increasingly large number of the more competent to the intern service +of the Philippine General Hospital, where as the result of additional +years of practical experience they become exceptionally proficient.</p> +<p>This institution, with its great free clinic, offers very +exceptional facilities for practical instruction, and we have already +trained some extremely competent Filipino physicians and surgeons.</p> +<p>As funds permit, hospital work is being extended to the provinces. +At Cebú a thoroughly up-to-date sixty-bed institution is now +open. A smaller one was established years ago at Baguio, where surgical +work may be performed with great advantage on account of the rapidity +with which convalescence occurs in the cool, pure mountain air, which +also expedites the recovery of persons recuperating from wasting +diseases.</p> +<p>A little more than a year ago a hospital was opened at Bontoc, the +demand for accommodations being so great from the start that we did not +even await the arrival of beds. Sick Igorots were only too glad to lie +on the floor if their needs could be ministered to.</p> +<p>It had previously been the custom of the wild men to kill chickens, +pigs or carabaos in case of illness, in order to propitiate evil +spirits, the kind and number of animals killed being of course +determined by the wealth of the patients. They have now satisfied +themselves that quinine for malaria, salvarsan for yaws, and other +effective remedies for common ailments are more useful and more readily +obtained than was the helpful intervention of the <i>anítos,</i> +or spirits of the dead, while the methods and results of modern surgery +are a source of unending amazement and satisfaction to them.</p> +<p>The first surgeon to anesthetize a Kalinga became <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11030" href="#xd21e11030" name= +"xd21e11030">436</a>]</span>promptly and widely known as “the man +who kills people and brings them to life again,” and the +individual on whom he operated successfully, who chanced to be the most +influential chief of the tribe, became his friend for life. Indeed, the +results of medical and surgical work for the wild men have been an +important factor in bringing about and maintaining friendly relations +with them.</p> +<p>Their gratitude is at times very touching. At Atok, in Benguet, +there lives an Igorot chief named Palasi. When he was already old a son +was born to him. This boy, who was the delight of his declining years, +became deathly ill with confluent smallpox, and the Igorots considered +him as good as dead. At this time Sanitary Inspector Baron appeared on +the scene. He promptly turned every one else out of the house and +himself nursed the boy, saving his life. Palasi wished to pay him for +his services, but was informed by Mr. Baron that the government paid +him, and he could not accept additional compensation. Palasi promptly +made the long journey to Baguio to ascertain whether Baron had told him +the truth, and was informed by Governor Pack that this was the case. +The old man retired to Atok, quite disgusted with the strange ways of +Americans.</p> +<p>Six months later he again appeared at Baguio to ask the governor +about a <i>fiesta</i> which he had just heard it was customary to +celebrate on the 25th of December. He had been told that Americans were +in the habit of giving presents to each other at this time, and asked +if this was the ease. Governor Pack said yes. Palasi then inquired if +the feast was a <i>good</i> feast, and the custom a <i>good</i> custom, +and was assured that both of these things were true. He next asked if +it would be a good feast for Igorots as well as for Americans, and +receiving an affirmative reply from the unsuspecting governor, +triumphantly declared that he was going to give Baron his best horse. +Under the circumstances the governor allowed him to do so. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11045" href="#xd21e11045" name= +"xd21e11045">437</a>]</span></p> +<p>In connection with the Bontoc Hospital we use two men, one of whom +travels from settlement to settlement, relieving minor ailments on the +spot and sending to the hospital only those patients who need to go +there, while the other stays at home and receives them. From time to +time these two doctors “change works.” Pages from their +daily journals, written in the field, often read like romance.</p> +<p>Were I a young man, and possessed of adequate knowledge of medicine +and surgery, I would ask nothing better than to minister to the wants +of these people. One might not, and indeed would not, acquire great +wealth, but he would be rich in friends. Here lies a great field for +practical missionary work.</p> +<p>In connection with the health work there have been many occurrences +which were both amusing and sad. At one time there was great excitement +over a sacred spring which had appeared in Manila Bay off the district +of Tondo. It was duly blessed by Aglipay, the head of the so-called +Aglipayano church. Coincidently with its discovery there was a sharp +little outbreak of Asiatic cholera. Investigation revealed the fact +that the “spring” had its origin in a broken sewer pipe. We +were obliged to prevent the faithful from further partaking of its +waters, and thus insuring themselves a speedy trip to the better +world.</p> +<p>At one time cases of cholera appeared scattered generally throughout +the Mariquina valley and without apparent connection. For some days we +were unable to make a guess as to their origin. Then we heard that a +“Queen” had arisen at the town of Taytay near the Laguna de +Bay. An investigation of the Queen and her activities resulted in +rather astonishing revelations. She was a very ordinary looking +Tagálog girl who had secured the body of an old bull-cart, +stopped the cracks with clay, partially filled it with water and +decaying vegetable matter, and at rather frequent intervals had bathed +in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11055" href="#xd21e11055" name= +"xd21e11055">438</a>]</span>the fermenting mass thus concocted. In due +time she announced herself a healer of all the ills to which flesh is +heir, and the sick flocked to her. Cholera was then prevalent in some +of the towns near Taytay, and there were persons suffering from it +among those seeking relief. Some of them were directed to wash their +hands in the extemporized tank, while others bathed their bodies in it. +As a result it soon contained a cholera culture of unprecedented +richness. This was given to patients applying for treatment, and was +bottled and sent to those who were too ill to come in person. Hence +numerous scattering cases of cholera which did not bear any +relationship to other known cases.</p> +<p>It proved quite an undertaking to put the Queen of Taytay out of +business. We first asked the local authorities to have her sent to +Manila, but the presidente and the police declined to act. We then +applied for a warrant to the Filipino judge of the court of first +instance having jurisdiction over Taytay, but that worthy official +found it convenient to be suddenly called out of the province. At last +we prevailed upon soldiers of the Philippine constabulary to arrest the +queen and bring her to Manila.</p> +<p>We had anticipated that she might prove insane, but she showed +herself to be a very keen-witted young woman. We employed her at the +San Lazaro Hospital to look after cholera patients. The people of +Taytay were not satisfied, and a few days later a large delegation of +them came to Manila and demanded the Queen. I was at my wits’ end +to know what to do, but old Spanish law can usually be relied upon in +emergencies, and the attorney-general discovered a provision couched in +very general terms, which provided against disobedience to the +authorities. It was only necessary for an “authority” to +have read to an ordinary person a statement setting forth what that +person must not do; then if the order was violated, such person could +be made to suffer pains and penalties.</p> +<p>I accordingly prepared a most impressive order prohibiting +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11063" href="#xd21e11063" name= +"xd21e11063">439</a>]</span>the Queen of Taytay from further engaging +in the practice of medicine, had her followers drawn up in battalion +formation, placed myself at the front and centre, caused the Queen to +be brought before me, and read her my communication, at the same time +charging the good people of Taytay not to tempt her again to try her +hand at healing, for the reason that if they did she would surely get +into serious trouble. They marched away with the Queen and I have not +heard of her since.</p> +<p>Hardly a year goes by that some similar miraculous healer does not +set up in business, and the supply of dupes seems to be unending.</p> +<p>While it is comparatively easy to combat disease in a place like +Manila, what of the provinces, where in many cases there is not one +physician to two hundred thousand inhabitants?</p> +<p>To meet this difficulty we have an organization of district and +municipal health officers. A district may include a single province or +several provinces. A district health officer is invariably a physician +who has had reasonably thorough practical training in the work of +public sanitation, usually at Manila.</p> +<p>He is supposed to spend his time in sanitary work rather than in +treating sick individuals, but it is, of course, impossible for him +always to refuse to treat such persons, and we encourage gratuitous +work for the poor when it can be carried on without interfering too +seriously with more important duties.</p> +<p>Presidents of municipal boards of health may exercise jurisdiction +over a single municipality or over several. They are supposed to +maintain good sanitary conditions in their respective towns, under the +general supervision of district health officers, and to instruct their +people in sanitary methods and their results, as well as to devote a +certain amount of their time to the relief of the suffering poor.</p> +<p>On the whole it must be admitted that while this <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11077" href="#xd21e11077" name= +"xd21e11077">440</a>]</span>system has accomplished much, it has fallen +far short of accomplishing what it should.</p> +<p>Men like Dr. Arlington Pond of Cebú have wrought marvels, and +have conclusively demonstrated the fact that it is not the system that +is at fault. Of our thirteen district health officers, ten are +Filipinos. They are, with few exceptions, letter-perfect. They know +what they ought to do, but as a rule lack the initiative and the +courage to do it.</p> +<p>Recently after discovering exceptionally bad sanitary conditions in +several towns of the province of Misamis, I demanded an explanation of +the district health officer, an exceptionally well-educated and +intelligent Filipino physician. I found, as I had anticipated, that the +sanitary regulations of his towns left little to be desired, but that +they were absolutely ignored.</p> +<p>I asked him what sense there was in paying his salary if he failed +to remedy such conditions as I had discovered. He replied that if he +were really going to compel people to clean up, it would be necessary +to begin with the provincial governor, whose premises were in a bad +state. When I suggested that in my opinion the provincial governor +would be the best possible man to begin with, the doctor evidently +thought me crazy!</p> +<p>It is as yet impossible for the average intelligent Filipino to +understand that the rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, +should be treated alike.</p> +<p>It often happens that a province asks for an American health +officer, or a Filipino demands the services of an American physician. +My invariable procedure in such cases has been to request that the +application be made in writing. For some mysterious reason the +petitioners are seldom willing to go on record.</p> +<p>A short time since we had a strong demand from Iloilo for an +American district health officer. I made the usual suggestion and got a +written request that there be sent to Iloilo a district health officer +“after the style <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11092" href= +"#xd21e11092" name="xd21e11092">441</a>]</span>of the district health +officer of Cebú.” If Dr. Pond’s nationality may be +considered a part of his style, then this was a request for an +American, otherwise not!</p> +<p>With rather shocking frequency, Filipinos who must be examined for +leprosy or some other dangerous communicable disease strongly insist +that the examination be made by an American bacteriologist rather than +by one of their own countrymen.</p> +<p>In connection with recent election troubles two men were wrongfully +denounced as lepers. In several instances perfectly sound people have +been thrust among lepers who were being taken on board steamer for +transfer to Culion. This grievous wrong was committed by their enemies +under cover of darkness, and in the confusion which attends the +embarking of a number of people in a heavy sea. The reason why the +services of Americans are often specially requested for diagnostic work +is not far to seek!</p> +<p>It is a significant fact that our greatest success in establishing +satisfactory provincial sanitary conditions has been achieved in +certain of the “special government provinces,” where the +people are under the very direct control of American officials.</p> +<p>There is not a regularly organized province in the Philippines in +which the towns are as clean as are those of Mindoro, where, until +recently, we have never had a resident district health officer.</p> +<p>I believe that nowhere in the tropics can there be found native +towns which are cleaner or more healthful than are those of Bukidnon, +inhabited in some instances by people who have literally been brought +down out of the tree-tops within the last two or three years. We have +never had a resident health officer in this subprovince.</p> +<p>I mention these facts not as an argument against health officers, +but as a proof of what can be done without them by intelligent +Americans vested with proper authority.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11108width" id="p056"><img src= +"images/p056.jpg" alt="A Negrito Family and their “House”" +width="720" height="455"> +<p class="figureHead">A Negrito Family and their +“House”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11112" href="#xd21e11112" name= +"xd21e11112">442</a>]</span></p> +<p>It has given me especial pleasure to see the fundamental change +which has come about in public sentiment relative to medical, surgical +and sanitary work. At the outset sanitary inspectors and vaccinators +carried on their work at serious risk of personal violence. Indeed, +several of them were killed. Incredible tales were believed by the +populace, with the result that cholera victims sometimes had to be +taken to the hospital by force. In later years it has been by no means +unusual for them to come in voluntarily and request treatment.</p> +<p>General hospitals were in the old days regarded as places where +people so unfortunate as to have no homes to die in might go to end +their days. It was almost impossible to get any other class of persons +into them.</p> +<p>Now we constantly turn away deserving patients from the Philippine +General Hospital because of lack of room. The common people are +flocking to it in rapidly increasing numbers. We even have +“repeaters,” and persons who drop in just to get a +comfortable bed and a bath while waiting for an examination which will +inevitably show that there is nothing wrong with them.</p> +<p>Our difficulties were increased at the outset by the fact that many +foreign medical men working in the Far East good-naturedly ridiculed +our efforts to better conditions, claiming that in tropical colonies it +was customary to take only such steps as would safeguard the health of +European residents, and that it was really best to let the masses live +as they would, since orientals were incapable of sanitary reform, and +the attempt to bring it about involved a waste of effort that might be +more profitably directed elsewhere. Furthermore these men were, in +their several countries, practising what they preached.</p> +<p>It has been very interesting to note the reaction of American +methods upon those previously in vogue in neighbouring colonies. At +first our efforts to make Asiatics clean up, and to eliminate diseases +like leprosy, cholera and plague, were viewed with mild amusement, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11123" href="#xd21e11123" name= +"xd21e11123">443</a>]</span>not unmixed with contempt; but the results +which we obtained soon aroused lively interest.</p> +<p>Foreign governments began to send representatives to the annual +meetings of the “Philippine Island Medical +Association,”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11127src" href= +"#xd21e11127" name="xd21e11127src">7</a> in order to learn more of our +methods. From these small beginnings sprang “The Far Eastern +Association of Tropical Medicine,” the biennial meetings of which +bring together the most experienced, skilful and widely known +physicians and sanitarians in the East for an interchange of views and +experiences which is invaluable, and greatly facilitates concerted +action between the various governments concerned in dealing with what +may be termed “international health problems.”</p> +<p>The first meeting of this Association was held at Manila, the second +at Hongkong. The third will take place at Saigon.</p> +<p>The results of a rigid enforcement of the “Pure Food and Drugs +Act” are worthy of more than passing notice. Such enforcement has +been comparatively easy as the officials concerned are not hampered by +politics. The Philippines were at one time a dumping-ground for +products that could not be sold elsewhere, but it is now possible for +Filipinos to obtain wholesome preserved foods and unadulterated drugs, +except in very remote places where none of any sort are available.</p> +<p>The cost of our medical and sanitary work has been comparatively +small. The per capita rate of taxation here is lower than in any other +civilized country. What we have done has been accomplished without +spending vast sums of money or resorting to military measures.</p> +<p>The results obtained are very largely due to the faithfulness and +efficiency of Dr. Victor G. Heiser, who was chief quarantine officer of +the Philippines when he succeeded Major E. C. Carter as commissioner of +public <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11138" href="#xd21e11138" +name="xd21e11138">444</a>]</span>health on April 5, 1905, and was later +made director of health when the original board of health was abolished +as an administrative entity. He has continued to hold the office of +chief quarantine officer, and thus has been in complete executive +control of the health situation for eight years.</p> +<p>Through good report and ill, mostly ill, he has given unsparingly of +his time, his skill and his wisdom, always treating the government +money as if it were his own.</p> +<p>His tenure of office has been long enough to enable him to +inaugurate and carry out policies, and thus get results.</p> +<p>Seldom, if ever, have health officials been more viciously and +persistently attacked than have Dr. Heiser and myself. The assaults on +us have been the direct result of a firm stand for a new sanitary order +of things, established in the interest of the whole body of inhabitants +of these islands, civilized and uncivilized. We both welcome the +profound change in public sentiment, which has slowly but surely come +about as a result of practical accomplishment.</p> +<p>Many very grave health problems still confront the insular +administration. Of these the most serious are the eradication of +tuberculosis and the reduction of the very high infant mortality +rate.</p> +<p>It is believed that about one Filipino in five suffers from +tuberculosis in some form during his life and the work we have thus far +accomplished in many fields must be considered as in a way a clearing +of the decks for action against this, the greatest enemy of all. +However, the Philippines do not differ essentially from other civilized +countries, in all of which tuberculosis is a very serious factor in the +death rate.</p> +<p>As regards infant mortality the situation is different. More than +fifty per cent of the babes die before completing their first year of +life. The causes which lead to this appalling result have been made the +subject of careful <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11153" href= +"#xd21e11153" name="xd21e11153">445</a>]</span>investigation which +still continues. Popular interest has been aroused, but it is +undoubtedly true that many years of patient work will be necessary +before anything approaching satisfactory results can be brought +about.</p> +<p>The physical condition of the average Filipino is undoubtedly bad. +Of one hundred seventy-eight university students recently examined +sixty-nine were found to be suffering from serious organic troubles. +Unquestionably the great mass of the people are underfed. This is +largely due to the poor quality of the rice which they consume, and to +the fact that rice forms too large a part of their diet. I am firmly +convinced that much of the so-called laziness of the Filipinos is the +direct result of physical weakness due to improper and insufficient +food.</p> +<p>Since the American occupation a large amount of time has been +successfully devoted to the working out of a good all-around diet made +up of local products the cost of which comes within the means of the +poor. The next thing will be to get them to adopt it, and there comes +the rub. Incalculable good would result, if we could only persuade the +people of these islands to sleep with their windows open. Thousands +upon thousands of infant lives would be saved annually, if mothers +could be persuaded not to give solid food to their little ones during +the early months of their existence.</p> +<p>In the educational campaign which we have thus far conducted with +some considerable degree of success, two agencies have proved +invaluable, namely the Catholic Church and the public schools. Again +and again I have begged Apostolic Delegate Monsignor Agius and +Archbishop Harty to bring to bear the influence of the Church in favour +of simple sanitary regulations, the general adoption of which was +imperatively necessary in combating some epidemic of disease. They have +invariably given me invaluable assistance.</p> +<p>Through the public schools we reach more than half a million +children, and they take the information which we <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11163" href="#xd21e11163" name= +"xd21e11163">446</a>]</span>convey to them home to their parents. +Simple rules for the prevention of cholera have been universally taught +in the schools. When the use of English has become generalized the +difficulty now encountered in reaching the common people will largely +disappear. The truth is that they are singularly tractable and docile +when their reason can be effectively appealed to. The readiness with +which they have submitted to the rigorous measures necessary for the +elimination of leprosy is a lasting honour to them.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11166width" id="p057"><img src= +"images/p057.jpg" alt="A Typical Negrito" width="458" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead">A Typical Negrito</p> +<p class="first">The people of this tribe of woolly-headed blacks are +believed to be the aborignes of the Philippines. Only about twenty-five +thousand of them remain.</p> +</div> +<p>Would the sanitary campaign so vitally important to the people of +the Philippines be effectively continued if American authority were +withdrawn at this time? With regret I must answer this question +emphatically in the negative. We have succeeded in training a few good +physicians and surgeons. We have thus far failed to train really +efficient sanitary officers. What is lacking is not so much knowledge +as to what should be done as initiative and courage to do it. Until +this condition changes radically for the better, Filipinos cannot +safely be intrusted with the sanitary regeneration of their country. +Under American control the population of the islands is steadily and +rapidly increasing. It is my firm conviction that if Filipinos were at +this time placed in control of the health work, the population would +steadily and rapidly decrease.</p> +<p>The present attitude of the Filipino press toward sanitary work is +both interesting and important. I quote the following editorial from +the March 27, 1913, issue of <i>El Ideal</i>, a paper generally +believed to be controlled by Speaker Osmeña:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“Some persons, who, because of being ignorant of +many things, do not sympathize with the Filipino people, who are in the +habit of frequently throwing up to them the violent opposition of our +masses to strict sanitary measures in cases of epidemics, and the +lively protests which are provoked here on some occasions by other +provisions tending to end some public calamity, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11183" href="#xd21e11183" name= +"xd21e11183">447</a>]</span>thinking they see in this disposition of +mind an indication of our incapacity to govern ourselves....</p> +<p>“To be more expressive, we shall say that the sanitary agents +and veterinarians of the government, swollen with power and overly +zealous of their prestige, quickly become, when an occasion like those +cited by us presents itself, cunning czars, whose sphere of influence +is in direct ratio to the peaceful character and ignorance of the +people intrusted to their care, and whose excesses and abuses recognize +no limits but the natural ones established by the greater or lesser +honour of those public servants, their greater or lesser cynicism, and +their greater or lesser degree of temerity.</p> +<p>“This, and nothing else, is the logical and natural +explanation of the hostility of our people toward those measures of +good government which are sincerely esteemed for what they are worth, +but for which they have veritable terror because of the nameless abuses +to which they give rise.</p> +<p>“These comments are of palpitating current interest at this +moment, when reports are made almost daily to the press and the proper +authorities of misbehaviour and excesses befitting soulless people who +live without the law committed by persons who should be examples of +prudence, honesty and good manners, for it is in this concept that the +people are compelled to furnish them their daily bread.”</p> +</div> +<p>It is deeply to be regretted that the public press of the islands +has not yet become sufficiently enlightened to join in the great +sanitary campaign which has already relieved an enormous amount of +human suffering and has greatly increased the expectancy of life of the +people of the Philippines.</p> +<p>The Philippine Assembly has repeatedly passed acts providing for the +creation of a sort of sanitary council of numerous members authorized +to pass on public health measures proposed by the director of health +and instructed to disapprove them if not in accordance with the beliefs +and customs of the Filipinos.</p> +<p>In protecting the public health in the Philippine Islands +emergencies constantly arise which must be instantly and effectively +met. It would be as logical to place a commanding general directing a +battle under the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11198" href= +"#xd21e11198" name="xd21e11198">448</a>]</span>control of an advisory +board as it would thus to tie the hands of the director of health, and +it is difficult to see how any competent and self-respecting sanitarian +could be willing to continue to hold this position if so hampered.</p> +<p>The Philippine Commission has heretofore invariably tabled the acts +designed to accomplish this end, but that body has now been +“Filipinized” and its future attitude on this very +important question is therefore in doubt. Hardly had the legislative +session opened in October, 1913, when the assembly again passed the +same old bill. Should it become a law, there will be occasion to watch, +with especial interest, the death rate of Manila and that of the +archipelago as a whole. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11202" href= +"#xd21e11202" name="xd21e11202">449</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10603" href="#xd21e10603src" name="xd21e10603">1</a></span> +Malaria.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10704" href="#xd21e10704src" name="xd21e10704">2</a></span> A +strong alcoholic drink commonly made by diluting low-grade alcohol with +water and flavouring it.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10777" href="#xd21e10777src" name="xd21e10777">3</a></span> There +was one stray case in March.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10796" href="#xd21e10796src" name="xd21e10796">4</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote first">“To the Editor of <span lang="es">El +Soberanía Nacional</span>, Manila, P.I.</p> +<p class="footnote">“<span class="sc">Sir</span>: In your issue +of the 7th of July there appeared a paragraph embodying a shameful +libel of the administration of the San Lazaro Hospital, which reads as +follows:</p> +<p class="footnote">“‘<i lang="es">Un cuadro verdaderamente +aterrador es el que prezenta el patio del Hospital de San Lazaro. Los +fallecidos por la enfermedad del colera, son expuestos desnudos en el +atrio de dicho Hospital con un cartel atado en los pies con la +inscripción de sus respectivos nombres.</i>’</p> +<p class="footnote">“This statement was so grossly and +ridiculously false and at the same time so extremely harmful in its +effect as to bring you fairly and squarely within the reach of the +law.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Yesterday morning I sent you a courteous +letter requesting you to come to my office, purposing to discuss the +affair with you in a friendly manner, and hoping to find that the +statement referred to had been prepared by some irresponsible +subordinate and published through oversight.</p> +<p class="footnote">“As, however, you have neither acceded to my +request for a conference nor had the courtesy to reply to my letter, I +now have the honour to forward you herewith a communication which +embodies a reply to the false statement above referred to and at the +same time conveys information as to what is actually being done at the +San Lazaro Hospital. I request that you give this letter immediate +publicity through your paper, and in the editorial columns or elsewhere +in some conspicuous place retract immediately and fully the libellous +statement relative to the exposure of the dead, above referred to.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Kindly advise me of your intention in the +matter. The bearer of this communication has instructions to wait for +your reply. I shall interpret failure to hear from you by return +messenger as refusal to retract this slander and to publish the +enclosed communication, and shall act accordingly.</p> +<p class="footnote">“Very respectfully,</p> +<p class="footnote">“Dean C. Worcester,</p> +<p class="footnote">“<i>Secretary of the Interior.</i>”</p> +</div> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10849" href="#xd21e10849src" name="xd21e10849">5</a></span> Just +before I left Manila in October, 1913, cholera reappeared there.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e10871" href="#xd21e10871src" name="xd21e10871">6</a></span> Sept. +15, 1913.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11127" href="#xd21e11127src" name="xd21e11127">7</a></span> The +first organization of American physicians in the Philippines was the +Manila Medical Association, from which the Philippine Island Medical +Association ultimately developed.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch17" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e383">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XVII</h2> +<h2 class="main">Baguio and the Benguet Road</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">In June, 1892, when sitting in a native house on a +hill overlooking Naujan Lake in Mindoro, and anxiously awaiting the +boats which were to make it possible for my party to return to the +coast, I saw a small flotilla approaching.</p> +<p>To my surprise and regret I found that it was not coming for us, but +brought a number of Spanish officers who had heard that we had some +mysterious procedure for killing the tamarau, an extraordinarily wild +and vicious little buffalo peculiar to this island. They had come to +get us to tell them how we did it, if possible, and if not to watch us +and find out for themselves.</p> +<p>We described to them our method, which was easily understood. It +consisted in picking up a likely trail along some water course, +following it until the tamarau was overtaken, and then shooting him. +This looked suspiciously simple to our Spanish friends before they had +tried it, and they shook their heads. After trying it they became +convinced that more than a few days of experience would be necessary +before satisfactory results could be obtained. They profited little by +the best information we could give them, and by the services of the +expert tracker whom we loaned to them. Meanwhile I obtained from one of +them, Señor Domingo Sanchez, information destined to become of +great importance in the development of the Philippines.</p> +<p>Señor Sanchez, who was an employee of the Spanish forestry +bureau, told me that in the highlands of Northern Luzón at an +elevation of about five thousand feet, there was <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11216" href="#xd21e11216" name= +"xd21e11216">450</a>]</span>a region of pines and oaks blessed with a +perpetually temperate climate and even with occasional frosts. I +confess that I did not believe all of his statements. I was then +experienced in climbing Philippine mountains, and at five thousand feet +had invariably found a hopeless tangle of the rankest tropical +vegetation, with humidity so high that trees were draped with ferns, +orchids, and thick moss, and dripping with moisture. However, I knew +that the mere presence of pine and oak trees would mean the occurrence +of special bird species feeding upon their seeds, and so determined to +investigate.</p> +<p>A severe attack of typhoid fever necessitated my leaving the islands +before I could carry out this plan, but upon my return with the first +Philippine Commission in 1899 I remembered Señor Sanchez’s +story. In view of the probability that American occupation would +continue for a long period, the existence or non-existence near Manila +of an extensive highland region with a temperate climate became a +question of great practical importance. I therefore caused search to be +made in the Spanish archives to see what, if any, reliable information +was available, and to my great satisfaction unearthed a detailed report +made by a committee of three distinguished and competent Spanish +officers who had spent some weeks at Baguio in the <i>comandancia</i> +of Benguet, during which period they had made six temperature +observations daily, had tramped over the neighbouring country very +thoroughly, had located a number of springs of potable water and +determined their approximate flow, and in short had gathered a large +series of very valuable data which more than bore out the statements of +Señor Sanchez.</p> +<p>I found, furthermore, that Spanish engineers had made a survey for a +carriage road into this country, and had prepared a profile of it with +estimates of the amount and cost of the necessary excavation and other +work.</p> +<p>While in Washington during the winter of 1899–1900, I brought +this matter to the attention of Secretary Root. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11227" href="#xd21e11227" name= +"xd21e11227">451</a>]</span>Just as the second Philippine Commission +was filing out of his office, after receiving its instructions, he +called out to us directing that we look into that Benguet matter, and +if the facts proved to be as stated open up the country.</p> +<p>Mindful of these instructions the commission delegated General Luke +E. Wright and myself to visit Benguet and familiarize ourselves with +conditions by investigation on the ground. General MacArthur was +dubious when we expressed a desire to carry out the instructions of the +secretary of war. He told us that the country was very dangerous, +doubtless confusing it with Bangued, the capital of Abra, near which +there was at that time a strong and active Insurgent force.</p> +<p>We insisted on going, so he said that he would send a troop of +cavalry with us, and he kept his word. During the last week of July we +finally sailed from Manila on a naval vessel for San Fernando in the +province of Union. From this place we expected to go by road as far as +Naguilian, in the same province, and thence on horseback to Trinidad +and Baguio, in Benguet.</p> +<p>In order to expedite investigations as much as possible we took with +us Mr. Horace L. Higgins, president of the Manila and Dagupan Railway +Company, who was an engineer of experience, to report on the +practicability of constructing a railway to Baguio. We also took Major +L. M. Maus, of the army medical corps, and Dr. Frank S. Bourns, who +then held the volunteer rank of major in the same corps, to report on +the possibilities of the place as a health resort. Two young naval +officers went along just for the trip.</p> +<p>Major Maus accompanied us only because requested to do so. Taking +the latitude and altitude as a basis for his calculations, he had +already determined with a lead pencil and piece of paper just what the +climate of Baguio must be, and had demonstrated to his own complete +satisfaction that the statements of the members of the Spanish +committee above referred to were necessarily false.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11239width" id="p058"><img src= +"images/p058.jpg" alt="Typical Kalingas" width="500" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead">Typical Kalingas</p> +<p class="first">The people of this tribe, until recently fierce +head-hunters, have been brought under effective control largely through +the individual efforts of Lieutenant-Governor Walter F. Hale.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11245" href="#xd21e11245" name= +"xd21e11245">452</a>]</span></p> +<p>His first rude shock came when we were met at San Fernando by a +young aide to Colonel<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11248src" href= +"#xd21e11248" name="xd21e11248src">1</a> Duval, who was in command of +the local garrison at that place. This lieutenant told us that some +negro soldiers were stationed at Trinidad and were being kept supplied +by an army pack train. I asked him how they were getting on. He said +very well, except that they could not keep warm. They had called for +all the spare blankets available, but still complained of the cold!</p> +<p>The trail proved to be in execrable condition. No repair work had +been done on it since 1896, and its constant use during the +then-existing rainy season by a pack train had completed its +destruction. Much of the way it was a mere V in the earth, with deep +mud at the bottom.</p> +<p>We left Naguilian early in the morning and stopped for lunch at a +little place properly called Sablán, but unofficially known as +“The Bells.” Aguinaldo had thought at one time of +establishing his headquarters in Benguet and had planned to have a gun +foundry at Sablán. His troops accordingly stole most of the +church bells in the neighbouring lowland towns, meaning to use them for +gun metal, and compelled the unfortunate Benguet Igorots to carry them +up the steep trail. Boiler pipes, which had been used in lieu of +carrying poles, had in several instances been badly bent out of shape. +There was even an old vertical boiler which had been lugged up entire +for some unknown reason.</p> +<p>The labour involved must have been enormous, and we were assured +that when the Igorot bearers, prostrated with fatigue, had refused to +continue their titanic task without rest, they had been driven to it at +the muzzles of Insurgent rifles, and that some of them had been shot as +a lesson to the others. At all events, the boiler and the bells were +there, and there the boiler and the larger bells have remained ever +since!</p> +<p>It was still steaming hot at Sablán, and the whole +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11259" href="#xd21e11259" name= +"xd21e11259">453</a>]</span>countryside was buried in the densest +tropical vegetation. Major Maus was triumphant. Things were working out +just as he had predicted. However, as we were already halfway up, we +thought that we might as well continue the journey. I had expected to +find pines and oaks, but had anticipated that they would grow amidst a +dense tangle of damp tropical vegetation.</p> +<p>We were all literally dumfounded when within the space of a hundred +yards we suddenly left the tropics behind us and came out into a +wonderful region of pine parks. Trees stood on the rounded knolls at +comparatively wide intervals, and there were scores of places where, in +order to have a beautiful house lot, one needed only to construct +driveways and go to work with a lawn-mower. At the same moment, a +delightful cold breeze swept down from the heights above us.</p> +<p>Just at sunset we experienced a second surprise, coming out on the +knife-sharp crest of a ridge, and seeing spread before us the Trinidad +Valley, which is shaped like a huge wash-basin. Its floor was vividly +green with growing rice, Igorot houses were dotted here and there over +its surface, and the whole peaceful, beautiful scene was illuminated by +the rays of the setting sun. The air had been washed clean by the heavy +rain which had poured down on us throughout the afternoon, and the +sight was one never to be forgotten.</p> +<p>Just at dusk we reached the little settlement of Trinidad, which had +been the capital of the Spanish <i>comandancia</i> of Benguet, finding +that its inhabitants were in part Ilocanos and in part Igorots.</p> +<p>Here we were hospitably entertained by the officers of the military +post. It was so cold that one’s breath showed. Major Maus +improved the opportunity to indulge in a severe chill. Finding him +buried under blankets, we asked his views as to the Benguet climate. +They were radical! It is only fair to the Major to say that the report +which he ultimately made set forth the facts fully and fairly. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11273" href="#xd21e11273" name= +"xd21e11273">454</a>]</span>It did not suit General MacArthur. Years +afterward, when discussing the climate of Benguet with Surgeon-General +Sternberg, I referred to this report and found to my amazement that he +had never seen it. He caused an investigation to be made, and it was at +last resurrected from a dusty pigeonhole.</p> +<p>On our arrival at Trinidad we received a letter from Mr. Otto +Scheerer, the one white resident of Benguet, inviting us to make our +headquarters at his house when we visited Baguio. Bright and early the +next morning Mr. Scheerer himself appeared on the scene and guided us +to his home, where he entertained us most hospitably during our entire +stay. The trip from Trinidad, a distance of four miles, was made over a +wretched pony trail.</p> +<p>We found conditions exactly as described in the Spanish report. The +country was gently rolling, its elevation ranging from forty-five +hundred to fifty-two hundred feet. The hills were covered with short, +thick grass, and with magnificent pine trees, which for the most part +grew at considerable distance from each other, while along the streams +there were wonderful tree ferns and luxuriant tangles of beautiful +tropical vegetation. It took us but a short time to decide that here +was an ideal site for a future city, if water could be found in +sufficient quantity.</p> +<p>We revisited each of the several springs discovered and described by +the Spanish committee, but decided that they would be inadequate to +supply a town of any great size. Mr. Scheerer now came to the front and +guided us to the very thing that we were looking for, but had hardly +dared hope to find; namely, a magnificent spring of crystal-clear +water. At that time it was flowing nearly a million gallons per day. It +burst forth from a hillside in such a manner as to make its protection +from surface drainage easy, and we decided that there was nothing +lacking to make Baguio an admirable site for the future summer capital +and health resort of the Philippines. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11281" href="#xd21e11281" name="xd21e11281">455</a>]</span></p> +<p>It was obvious that the construction of a highway from San Fernando, +in Union, to Baguio would involve considerable expense, and we asked +Mr. Scheerer about other possible lines of communication. A study of +the Spanish maps had led us to consider two: one up the valley of the +Agno River, and the other up that of the Bued River. The latter route +had the great advantage of affording direct communication with the end +of the railway line at Dagupan.</p> +<p>Mr. Scheerer took us to a point which commanded a view for some +distance down the Bued River valley, and conditions looked rather +favourable. Mr. Higgins undertook to make a trip down this valley to +the plains of Pangasinán, reporting to us on his arrival at +Manila, so we returned to that place and awaited advices from him. He +was furnished with a guard of soldiers from Trinidad, and attempted to +go down the river bed, but encountered unexpected difficulties, and his +progress was finally checked by a box cañon from which he +escaped with difficulty, spending a night without food or water on a +chilly mountain top known as “Thumb Peak.” The following +morning he managed to cross to a high mountain called Santo +Tomás, whence he returned to Baguio. He was, however, of the +opinion that the trip down the cañon could be made without +special difficulty by a party suitably provided with food and +tentage.</p> +<p>Convinced by our report that active measures should be taken to +establish communication with this wonderful region, the commission, on +September 12, 1900, appropriated $5000 Mexican, “for the purpose +of making a survey to ascertain the most advantageous route for a +railway into the mountains of Benguet, Island of Luzon, and the +probable cost thereof.”</p> +<p>Captain Charles W. Meade, then serving as city engineer of Manila, +was selected to make the survey. There was every theoretical reason to +believe him competent, and we did not question either his integrity or +his ability. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11290" href= +"#xd21e11290" name="xd21e11290">456</a>]</span>After being absent from +Manila for some time, he reported in favour of the Bued River valley +route, saying that it was entirely feasible to build a railway along +it.</p> +<p>He suggested that, as the construction of a wagon road would be +necessary in building the railroad, we might as well undertake that +first, and so be able to go to Baguio in wheeled vehicles before the +railroad was completed. He asked for $75,000 United States currency, +with which to build this road, stating that he expected to be able to +do it for $65,000, but would like $10,000 as a margin of safety.</p> +<p>On December 21, 1901, the commission passed an act authorizing the +construction of a highway from Pozorubio, in Pangasinán, to +Baguio, “the same to be built under the general supervision of +the military governor and the immediate direction of Captain Charles W. +Meade, Thirty-sixth Infantry, United States Volunteers, who has been +detailed by the military governor for that purpose, along the general +line of survey recently made by Captain Meade for a railway between +said towns.” The $75,000 asked for were appropriated by this +act.</p> +<p>Work began promptly at both ends of the line. In June, 1901, I set +out on my first trip through the wild man’s territory in northern +Luzón. Incidentally, and for my personal satisfaction only, I +inspected the work on the road. We had been rather disappointed by +Captain Meade’s failure to make more rapid progress. At the lower +end I found that delay was being caused by a huge cliff necessitating a +very heavy rock cut. I was assured by Captain Meade that from this +point on the line ran through dirt most of the way, so that the road +could be completed very rapidly. This statement proved to be grossly in +error. It took years of hard work to open up the road.</p> +<p>Its cost when finally ready for traffic was $1,961,847.05. Its +length was forty-five kilometers eight hundred ninety-one +meters,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11301src" href="#xd21e11301" name= +"xd21e11301src">2</a> of which thirty-four kilometers were in +non-Christian <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11304" href= +"#xd21e11304" name="xd21e11304">457</a>]</span>territory. Some ten +kilometers of the remainder have since been incorporated in the +first-class road system of the province of Pangasinán, as this +part is chiefly used by the people of that province in shipping their +agricultural products to Benguet, and in maintaining communication +between their towns.</p> +<p>The additional cost of the road to date<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11308src" href="#xd21e11308" name="xd21e11308src">3</a> since it +was first opened is $792,434, making its total cost to date +$2,754,281.05. This includes not only the actual cost of maintenance, +but very extensive improvements, such as the metalling of the road from +the so-called zigzag to Baguio, the construction of five steel bridges, +and the replacing of all the original bridges on the road and of all +the original culverts except those made of concrete or masonry.</p> +<p>On my arrival in Benguet in 1901, I found that good progress had +been made on the upper end of the road, which had penetrated for a +short distance into the cañon proper without encountering any +considerable obstacles.</p> +<p>On October 15, 1901, the commission stated in its annual report to +the secretary of war, “He<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11315src" +href="#xd21e11315" name="xd21e11315src">4</a> has been much delayed by +the difficulty of procuring the labour necessary for its early +completion, and several months will yet elapse before it is +finished!” They did!</p> +<p>On August 20, 1901, Captain Meade was relieved, and Mr. N. M. Holmes +was made engineer of the road.</p> +<p>On February 3, 1902, a little sanitarium was opened in a small +native house at Baguio. During the following July I was sent to it as a +patient, and while in Benguet again inspected the road which had been +continued high up on the cañon wall to a point where, on a very +steep mountain side, a peculiar rock formation had been encountered at +the very grass roots. This rock disintegrated rapidly under the action +of the sun when exposed to it. Comparatively solid in the morning, it +would crack to pieces and slide down the mountain side before +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11322" href="#xd21e11322" name= +"xd21e11322">458</a>]</span>night. A sixty-foot cut had already been +made into the precipitous mountain side, and the result was an unstable +road-bed, hardly four feet in width, which threatened to go out at any +moment.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11325width" id="p059"><img src= +"images/p059.jpg" alt="Settling a Head-hunting Feud" width="720" +height="429"> +<p class="figureHead">Settling a Head-hunting Feud</p> +<p class="first">This picture shows Lieutenant-Governor Walter F. Hale, +of Kalinga, persuading Kalinga head men of Mañgali and +Lúbao to settle amicably a head-hunting feud of long +standing.</p> +</div> +<p>My trip to Baguio promptly relieved a severe attack of acute +intestinal trouble from which I had been suffering, and when Governor +Taft fell ill the following year with a similar ailment, and his +physicians recommended his return to the United States, I did my best +to persuade him to try Baguio instead. He decided to do so.</p> +<p>Five rough cottages had meanwhile been constructed for the use of +the commissioners, the lumber for them being sawed by hand on the +ground. Boards had been nailed to frames as rapidly as they fell from +the logs, and had shrunk to such an extent that a reasonably expert +marksman might almost have thrown a cat by the tail through any one of +the houses. At night they looked like the old-fashioned perforated tin +lanterns, leaking light in a thousand places. These were the luxurious +homes provided for the high officials of the government of which so +much has been said!</p> +<p>We paid for them an annual rental amounting to ten per cent of their +cost, which had of course been excessively high on account of the +necessity of packing everything used in them, except the lumber, up the +Naguilian trail.</p> +<p>However, we were in no frame of mind to be critical. We had put in +three years of killing hard work, labouring seven days in the week, and +keeping hours such as to arouse a feeling little short of horror among +old British and other foreign residents. We were all completely +exhausted, and Mr. Taft was ill. For my part, I would gladly have paid +almost any sum for a tent under the pine trees and the privilege of +occupying it for a few weeks.</p> +<p>On the trip up Mr. Taft had ridden a magnificent saddle horse which +had been given to him by General Chaffee. At the time he left, Manila +had been burning hot. When he was at last seated on the porch of the +little house which <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11342" href= +"#xd21e11342" name="xd21e11342">459</a>]</span>was to be his home for +weeks, with a cool breeze sighing through the needles of a spreading +pine tree close at hand, his satisfaction knew no bounds. Already his +magnificent constitution had begun to respond to the stimulation of the +wonderful mountain air, and filled with enthusiasm he summoned a +stenographer and dictated the following cablegram to the secretary of +war:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“April 15, 1903.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Secwar</span>,</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Washington</span>.</p> +<p>“Stood trip well, rode horseback 25 miles to 5000 feet +altitude. Hope amoebic dysentery cured. Great province this, only 150 +miles from Manila with air as bracing as Adirondacks or Murray Bay. +Only pines and grass lands. Temperature this hottest month in the +Philippines in my cottage porch at three in the afternoon 68. Fires are +necessary night and morning.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Taft</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p>As quick as the wires could bring it, he received the following +reply:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“<span class="sc">Washington</span>, D.C., April +16, 1903.</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Taft</span>,</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Manila</span>.</p> +<p>“Referring to telegram from your office of 15th inst., how is +horse?</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Root</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p>When he read it his shouts of laughter, rolling over the hills of +Baguio, must have been audible half a mile away!</p> +<p>Mr. Taft’s sojourn in the hills put him again in fine +condition and made it possible for him to return to Manila and resume +the heavy burden of work which there awaited him. The other members of +the commission also greatly benefited by their stay in the hills.</p> +<p>While there we heard disquieting rumours as to the practicability of +completing the road. There was a difference of opinion between the +engineer in charge and one of his immediate subordinates as to the +route which should <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11397" href= +"#xd21e11397" name="xd21e11397">460</a>]</span>be followed. The +consulting engineer of the commission was accordingly requested to make +a survey to determine a practicable route for the unfinished portion of +the road and estimate the cost of completing it. In due time he advised +us that it was practicable to complete it, but that the cost would be +at least $1,000,000. Warned by our experience with Meade, we wished +additional expert advice, so summoned to Baguio Colonel L. W. V. +Kennon, a man of great energy and executive ability, who had had large +experience in engineering work in mountainous country, and requested +him to go down the Bued River valley and report on the progress of the +work, and the practicability of completing the road on the route which +had been determined upon.</p> +<p>Being the youngest and most active member of the commission, I was +detailed to accompany him. On this trip I became convinced that all of +the engineers interested, except the consulting engineer, had grossly +understated the difficulties which must be overcome before the road +could be completed. Colonel Kennon decided that it was entirely +feasible to build the road, but that the comparatively short stretch +already completed from Baguio into the upper end of the cañon +must be abandoned and a new line adopted. Furthermore, he gave us some +very definite and extremely unpleasant information as to the probable +cost of completing the work, his statements on this subject confirming +those of the consulting engineer.</p> +<p>The commission was thus put face to face with the hard facts but did +not flinch. On the contrary, it passed the following resolution on June +1, 1903:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“On Motion, <span class="sc">Resolved</span>, +That it be declared the policy of the Commission to make the town of +Baguio, in the Province of Benguet, the summer capital of the +Archipelago and to construct suitable buildings, to secure suitable +transportation, to secure proper water supply, and to make residence in +Baguio possible for all of the officers and employees of the Insular +Government for four months during the year, that in pursuance of this +purpose the Secretary of the Interior, the Consulting Engineer +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11409" href="#xd21e11409" name= +"xd21e11409">461</a>]</span>to the Commission, the Chief of the Bureau +of Architecture, and Major<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11411src" href= +"#xd21e11411" name="xd21e11411src">5</a> L. W. V. Kennon, United States +Army, whom it is the intention of the Commission to put in actual +charge of the improvements in Benguet Province, including the +construction of the Benguet Road, the erection of the buildings and the +construction of a wagon road from Naguilian, be appointed a Committee +to report plans and estimates to the Commission for the proposed +improvements in the Province of Benguet and to submit same to the +Commission for action and necessary appropriation, and</p> +<p>“<span class="sc">Be it further resolved</span>, That steps +should be immediately taken looking to the increase of the capacity of +the Sanitarium by at least twenty rooms, to the construction of seven +more cottages on the grounds of the Sanitarium, to the construction of +a Governor’s residence on the site overlooking the big spring +which is the source of the Bued River immediately south of the +Sanitarium proper, to the construction of an Administration building +sufficient for the Commission, the Commission’s staff and the +Executive Bureau, of at least twenty-five rooms, and to the making of a +plan for a town site for the municipality of Baguio; but that the +details of construction and improvements, with such variations from the +indicated plan as may seem wise, shall be left to the committee +appointed under the previous resolution.”</p> +</div> +<p>In his annual report dated November 15, 1903, Governor Taft +said:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In connection with the subject of health, +reference should be made to the province of Benguet and to Baguio, the +capital of that province. The secretary of commerce and police will +refer to the work now being done in the construction of the Benguet +road from Pozorrubio, through Twin Peaks, to Baguio. There have been +serious engineering mistakes made in the road, and it is proving to be +much more costly than was expected; but when completed its importance +in the development of these islands can hardly be overestimated. One of +the things essential to progress in the islands is the coming of more +Americans and Europeans who shall make this their business home. If +there can be brought within twelve hours’ travel of Manila a +place with a climate not unlike that of the Adirondacks, or of Wyoming +in summer, it will add greatly <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11425" href="#xd21e11425" name="xd21e11425">462</a>]</span>to the +possibility of living in Manila for ten months of the year without +risk. It will take away the necessity for long vacations spent in +America; will reduce the number who go invalided home, and will be a +saving to the insular government of many thousands of dollars a year. +It will lengthen the period during which the American soldiers who are +stationed here may remain without injury to their health and will thus +reduce largely the expense of transportation of troops between the +islands and the United States. More than this, Filipinos of the +wealthier class frequently visit Japan or China for the purpose of +recuperating. People of this class are much interested in the +establishment of Baguio as a summer capital, and when the road is +completed a town will spring up, made up of comfortable residences, of +a fine, extensive army post, and sanitariums for the relief of persons +suffering from diseases prevalent in the lowlands. It is the hope of +the government that the Roman Catholic Church will send American +priests as it has sent American bishops to the islands, to assist in +the moral elevation of the people. The fear of the effect of the +climate has kept many from coming. The Roman Catholic Church +authorities have announced their intention of erecting rest houses at +Baguio for the purpose of the recuperation of their ministers and +agents. The Methodists and Episcopalians have already secured building +lots in Baguio for this purpose. It is the settled purpose of the +Commission to see this improvement through, no matter what the cost, +because eventually the expenditures must redound to the benefit of the +government and people of the islands. We have already stated, in the +report on the public land act, that it is proposed, under that act, +which allows the organizing of town sites, to sell the public land in +suitable lots at auction so that every one interested shall have the +opportunity to obtain a good lot upon which to build a suitable +house.”<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11427src" href="#xd21e11427" +name="xd21e11427src">6</a></p> +</div> +<p>Mr. Taft would be delighted could he see to-day how completely his +anticipations have been fulfilled.</p> +<p>Colonel Kennon was put in charge of construction work, and things +began to move. They kept moving until the road was finished. From this +time on we knew that the expense involved would be out of all +proportion to the original estimate, but we were determined to push the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11434" href="#xd21e11434" name= +"xd21e11434">463</a>]</span>work through, having reached the decision +that it was worth while to open up communication with Baguio at any +cost within reason, because of its future certain value to the people +of the islands as a health resort.</p> +<p>On April 1, 1904, I rode over the road in a vehicle nearly to Camp +Four, and came the rest of the way to Baguio on horseback over a new +trail which zigzagged up a mountain side near Camp Four and followed +the crest of the range from there in. A little later the Commission +came by the same route, and spent the hot season in the cool Benguet +hills.</p> +<p>On January 29, 1905, Colonel Kennon drove into Baguio in the first +wagon to arrive there over the Benguet Road, which was opened for +regular service on March 27th of the same year. The cost of the road on +November 1, 1905, had, as previously stated, been $1,966,847.05, and +the cost of the heavy work in the cañon had been approximately +$75,000 per mile, which is not excessive when compared with the cost of +similar work in the United States, especially as this sum included +maintenance of the portions constructed during previous years.</p> +<p>The fact that a certain amount of congressional relief funds was +expended on the construction of this road has been made the subject of +very unjust criticism. A large number of poor Filipinos, who were in +dire straits, were thus given an opportunity for remunerative +employment, and the distribution of a portion of the congressional +relief fund in this way was in entire harmony with the fixed policy of +the commission to avoid pauperizing the people by giving money or food +outright to able-bodied persons, and to afford them relief by +furnishing them opportunity to work for a good wage. A further reason +why the expenditure of money from this fund on the Benguet Road was +appropriate is found in the fact that the region opened up is destined +to play a very important part in the cure of tuberculosis, which is the +principal cause of death among the people of the lowlands, but is +practically unknown among the Igorots of the hills.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11444width" id="p060"><img src= +"images/p060.jpg" alt="Entertaining the Kalingas" width="720" height= +"470"> +<p class="figureHead">Entertaining the Kalingas</p> +<p class="first">They are listening with great interest to the +reproduction of a speech which one of their chiefs has just made into +the receiving horn of a dictaphone.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11450" href="#xd21e11450" name= +"xd21e11450">464</a>]</span></p> +<p>During the earlier years after the road was open owners of bull +carts in Pangasinán made large sums transporting freight over +it. This is not the case at the present time, as the growing volume of +freight requiring to be moved led to the blocking of the road with bull +carts and necessitated the installation of an automobile truck line so +that it might be more expeditiously handled.</p> +<p>In December, 1904, the great landscape architect, Mr. D. H. Burnham, +visited Baguio, and made a plan for its future development. He was +enthusiastic over its possibilities, and gave his services free of +charge. His plan is being closely adhered to, and although funds are +not now available for going far toward carrying it out, we have at +least avoided anything which would interfere with it.</p> +<p>The next important event in the history of Baguio was the first sale +of residence and building lots, which took place on May 28, 1906, and +was conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Public Land Act +relative to town sites.</p> +<p>Although a howling typhoon was sweeping Benguet at the time, 91 +residence lots and 15 business lots were disposed of at this first +sale, and at a subsequent one held in Manila a few weeks later all the +remaining lots then surveyed were sold.</p> +<p>The town site includes two hundred sixteen square miles, and new +lots are surveyed as required. All sums derived from the sale of lots +are used for the improvement of the town site, and thus Baguio is made +to help build itself.</p> +<p>In the spring of 1900 the Baguio Country Club was organized. Because +of the extraordinary false statements made concerning it by certain +unscrupulous politicians, I give its history somewhat fully. Its +purpose was to afford a meeting place for the people of the town and to +give them an opportunity for outdoor sports. It purchased a hundred +acres of land on which a low assessment had been placed in view of the +semipublic purpose which it was to serve. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11463" href="#xd21e11463" name="xd21e11463">465</a>]</span></p> +<p>At the outset the “club house” was a rude, grass-roofed +shed made of pine slabs. Its doors and windows were mere openings which +could not be closed. It was erected in about a week. Three holes of a +golf course and a croquet ground had been prepared. These decidedly +primitive club facilities nevertheless served to bring the people of +Baguio together and give them an opportunity for a good time out of +doors.</p> +<p>In February, 1907, a Country Club Corporation was organized with a +capital stock of $5000, of which $3000 have thus far been subscribed. +The shares cost $50. No single subscriber owns more than three, with +the sole exception of Mr. Forbes, who took ten to help the club get +started. Ownership of stock brings no emoluments, but, on the contrary, +indirectly involves expense which the present owners have been willing +to bear for the public good.</p> +<p>From these small beginnings the Baguio country club has grown into +an important institution. As funds became available from the sale of +stock, the payment of dues and tile generous donations of a few +members, an excellent nine-hole golf course was completed, and tennis +courts and facilities for trap-shooting were installed. In March and +April, 1908, a modest club house was built at a cost of some $5000. It +has two small locker rooms, a large living room, a tiny office, a +little bath, a kitchen, and nine single sleeping rooms. Three very +small cottages, costing $375 each, were erected on the club grounds for +the use of the members. Five larger cottages have since been +constructed.</p> +<p>Any person of good character is eligible to membership. The entrance +fee is $25, but officers of the army, navy and marine corps stationed +at Baguio are admitted without the payment of this fee, and persons +temporarily there may secure the privileges of the club by paying at +the rate of $5 per month. The annual dues are $20. The families of +members are entitled to the privileges of the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11473" href="#xd21e11473" name= +"xd21e11473">466</a>]</span>club. Among its members are the highest +officials of the insular government and teachers, clerks, stenographers +and other employees drawing small salaries, as well as numerous +permanent residents of Baguio.</p> +<p>It knows no race or creed, and Filipinos take advantage of its +privileges quite as freely as do Americans. Representatives of every +nationality in the islands may be found on its golf course on a +pleasant afternoon. It is the common meeting place of Baguio, and +hardly a day passes without the giving of some pleasant luncheon or +dinner in its little living room or in the outdoor space covered by an +overhanging roof at its eastern end. No more democratic institution +ever existed.</p> +<p>Congressman Jones, in his attacks on the Philippine administration, +is fond of stating that “there is a club for officials at +Baguio.” The statement is true, but reminds one of that other +statement of a ship’s first mate who came on board intoxicated +just before the vessel sailed. The following morning, happening to look +at the ship’s log for the previous day, he saw the entry +“The mate drunk to-day.” It was his first offence, and he +begged the captain to erase this record, but the captain said “It +is true, is it not?” and insisted that it must stand.</p> +<p>A little later the captain was taken ill. Upon resumption of duty he +found an entry in the log reading: “The captain sober +to-day.” When he furiously insisted that it be erased, the mate +said “It is true, is it not?” Now, it is true that there is +a club for government officers at Baguio, but in making this statement +Mr. Jones and his ilk have neglected to say that there is also at +Baguio a club for employees; a club for private citizens; a club for +Americans; a club for Filipinos; a club for foreign consuls and other +foreign residents of the islands; a club for business men; a club for +clerks; and that all of these institutions are one and the same, +namely, the Baguio Country Club, which is now strictly self-supporting +and meets its obligations from the funds derived from the dues +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11481" href="#xd21e11481" name= +"xd21e11481">467</a>]</span>of its members. These dues are absurdly low +in view of the privileges which it affords.</p> +<p>Although Mr. Forbes does not like to have it known, I cannot refrain +from stating that the club has not always been self-supporting, and +that he has repeatedly made up deficits from his private funds. The +cost involved in getting the golf course into shape was out of all +proportion to the resources of the organization. Sufficient funds were +not available to pay for the club house and cottages when they were +constructed, and had it not been for the generosity of Mr. Forbes the +club would not exist to-day in anything like its present form.</p> +<p>The polo field at Baguio has been referred to as another evidence of +extravagant governmental expenditure. It is true enough that it was in +the first instance an expensive luxury, as an immense amount of +earthwork had to be done in order to make a level piece of ground of +sufficient size. The field is administered by the Country Club, and is +open to the use of the public for any form of amusement which will not +interfere with its use for polo. The detractors of the government have +neglected to mention that the cost of its construction and maintenance +have been met from the private funds of Mr. Forbes.</p> +<p>Returning now to the story of the growth of Baguio, the next step +forward was the construction of an official residence for the +governor-general, for which $15,000 were appropriated. Mr. Forbes had +not the slightest personal interest in this appropriation. When it was +made he had no knowledge of the fact that he was later to become +governor-general, and his private Baguio residence was decidedly more +comfortable and commodious than this official one. His subsequent +occupancy of the latter building involved a real personal +sacrifice.</p> +<p>In 1908 a modern hospital and the governor-general’s residence +were completed. No other government official is furnished a free house. +All have to rent government cottages or stay at hotels, unless they +choose to build <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11491" href= +"#xd21e11491" name="xd21e11491">468</a>]</span>for themselves. The +policy of giving the governor-general an official residence in Baguio +is in accord with that which gives him one at Manila.</p> +<p>In April, 1908, there was opened a “Teachers’ +Camp,” to which came American school teachers from all over the +islands. They were housed in a hundred and fifty tents, which were set +up under the shade of the pine trees. Larger tents served as kitchen, +dining room, storehouse and recitation rooms, while a structure of +bamboo and nipa palm, erected at a total cost of $150, was utilized for +general assembly purposes. Four talented lecturers were employed to +instruct and entertain the teachers. At one time there were a hundred +and ninety persons in the camp.</p> +<p>The credit for initiating this very important move is due chiefly to +William F. Pack, at that time governor of the province of Benguet, who +strongly advocated bringing the teachers to Baguio, and did everything +in his power to make the first assembly the great success which it +was.</p> +<p>It has now become a fixed institution, and has accomplished untold +good. Americans who spend too many years in out-of-the-way +municipalities of the Philippines without coming in contact with their +kind are apt to lose their sense of perspective, and there is danger +that they will grow careless, or even slovenly, in their habits. It is +of the utmost benefit for school teachers to get together once a year, +learn of each other’s failures and successes, and profit by each +other’s experiences, forget their troubles while engaging in +healthful athletic sports, listen to inspiring and instructive +discourses, and above all else benefit by open-air life in a temperate +region.</p> +<p>The Teachers’ Camp is now a beautiful and attractive place. A +fine system of walks and drives make every part of it readily +accessible. It has an excellent athletic field. The teachers live in +tents, but good permanent buildings have been provided in which are +located the mess, a social hall, recitation rooms, etc., and several +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11502" href="#xd21e11502" name= +"xd21e11502">469</a>]</span>comfortable cottages have been constructed +for the use of visiting lecturers and others. An outdoor amphitheatre +which seats a thousand persons has been built at small expense by +taking advantage of peculiarly favorable natural conditions. Filipino +teachers share the pleasures and benefits of the camp with their +American associates, and the “assembly” certainly does +great good.</p> +<p>During the hot season of 1908 the Bureau of Lands transferred a +number of its employees to Baguio, quartering them in tents. This was +done in order to ascertain the practical effect of sending American and +Filipino employees to this mountain resort. The conclusion was reached +that the small additional expense involved was more than justified by +the larger quantity and higher quality of the work performed as a +result of the greatly improved physical condition of the workers. Every +Filipino sent to Baguio gained in weight, with the single exception of +a messenger who had to run his legs off! Other bureaus subsequently +followed the example of the Bureau of Lands, with similar results.</p> +<p>During the 1909 season, the railroad having reached Camp One, five +large Stanley steam automobiles were operated by the government in +transporting passengers from this place to Baguio, and more than two +thousand persons were thus moved over the road.</p> +<p>Meanwhile, the unexpectedly heavy expense involved in completing the +road had been made the subject of severe criticism by the public press +of Manila. Most of the critics were entirely honest, having no idea of +the character of the country opened up, or of the importance of making +it readily accessible.</p> +<p>Just at the time when the commission should have crowded its +programme through to conclusion, it faltered. The only government +construction work performed at the summer capital that year, in +addition to what has been mentioned, was the erection of a small office +building and of a barrack building for labourers, the enlarging of +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11512" href="#xd21e11512" name= +"xd21e11512">470</a>]</span>five government cottages, the addition of +out-buildings, and the enlarging of a building which served as a +combination sanatorium and hotel.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11515width" id="p061"><img src= +"images/p061.jpg" alt="An Ifugao Family" width="720" height="430"> +<p class="figureHead">An Ifugao Family</p> +<p class="first">The man is Guíned, the most influential of the +Ifugao chiefs.</p> +</div> +<p>This policy of inaction was a mistaken one. It made the Benguet Road +seem like the city avenue which ran into a street, the street into a +lane, the lane into a cow path, the cow path into a squirrel track and +the squirrel track up a tree, for while one could get to Baguio, there +was very little there after one arrived. The accommodations at the +sanatorium were strictly limited, and there was some apparent +justification for the charge freely made that the Philippine Commission +had voted to spend very large sums of money to open up a health resort +from which only its members and its staff derived benefit.</p> +<p>The government had at the outset been obliged to construct its +buildings on a piece of private land purchased from Mr. Otto Scheerer, +as prior to the passage of the Public Land Act and its approval by the +President and Congress, building on public land was impossible. Now, +however, a town site had been surveyed, and plans for the future +development of Baguio had been made by one of the world’s most +competent experts. The time had arrived for action. Mr. Forbes, then +secretary of commerce and police, argued vigorously for the carrying +out of the original plan of the commission by the construction of +adequate public buildings. To help the development of the place, he +purchased two adjacent building lots and on the tract of land so +secured built a handsome and expensive home, where he subsequently +entertained not only his personal friends, but guests of the +government, as well as various persons who had no other claim on him +than the fact that they were officers or employees of the government +who were in need of a change of climate and could ill afford to seek it +at their own expense. Among his house guests were General Aguinaldo, +Speaker Osmeña and many other Filipinos. It was Mr. +Forbes’s idea, and mine as well, that members of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11525" href="#xd21e11525" name= +"xd21e11525">471</a>]</span>the commission ought to set the example by +building at Baguio. I followed his example to the extent of buying a +lot and constructing on it a simple and inexpensive house, thus +obtaining the first and only home that I have ever owned.</p> +<p>Ultimately Mr. Forbes formulated a plan for the construction of a +group of government buildings, a mess hall and a large number of small +and inexpensive cottages for rental to government officers and +employees so that the executive offices of the government might be +transferred to Baguio during the heated term and it might become the +true summer capital of the Philippines. This plan was adopted in +substance, and it was decided to transfer the bureaus of the government +to Baguio for the coming hot season, so far as practicable.</p> +<p>Funds were appropriated for the carrying out of Mr. Forbes’s +plan, but before the construction work had fairly begun there occurred, +on October 17, 1909, a destructive typhoon. Eighteen inches of rain +fell in nine hours, and twenty-six inches in twenty-four hours. The +Bued River quickly rose fifty feet, carrying away trees and rocks which +obstructed its course, and seriously injuring the road for miles. Four +of the largest bridges were swept away and the work of constructing +government buildings, which was just about to begin, was greatly +retarded. It was not thought possible to transfer the bureaus of the +government to Baguio for the coming hot season as planned. Indeed, +there were not lacking those who insisted that no one would be able to +get there. Mr. Haubé, the energetic and capable young engineer +in charge, had the road open on the twentieth day of December, and the +projected buildings ready for occupancy in February, a noteworthy and +highly creditable achievement.</p> +<p>It was then thought that the storm which had done such serious +damage to the road was of unprecedented violence, but there was worse +to come. On July 14 and 15, 1911, a terrific typhoon swept across +northern Luzón, bringing <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11534" href="#xd21e11534" name="xd21e11534">472</a>]</span>down +one of the world’s record rainfalls. Between noon of the 14th and +noon of the 15th, forty-five and ninety-nine hundredths inches of rain +fell at Baguio. A mountain forming a part of the wall of the Bued +cañon split from the top and the detached portion toppled over +into the river, damming it to a depth of about a hundred and fifty feet +at a time when it was carrying an enormous volume of water. When this +dam burst, an avalanche of earth and rock, swept onward by a huge wave, +rushed down the cañon, leaving complete destruction in its wake. +Every bridge in its course was carried away, and the road was left in +such condition that it would have cost $300,000 to open it for traffic. +Then Providence, having apparently done its worst, relented and sent +another typhoon which washed away most of the débris left by the +first one, uncovering the road-bed and making it possible to reopen +communication for $50,000.</p> +<p>The cost of maintaining the Benguet Road has proved excessive. +Mountains tower above it on both sides to a height of four to seven +thousand feet and the drainage basin which finds its outlet down the +narrow gorge through which the road runs is enormous. Even so, under +ordinary climatic conditions its maintenance does not offer very +exceptional difficulties, as much of it is blasted out of rock; but +during extraordinarily heavy storms the danger of destruction by +overwhelming floods is great.</p> +<p>While a century may pass before there is another storm like the one +which brought down the terrific slide above described, there may be one +at any time, and when the railroad has once reached Baguio, it is +hardly probable that such extensive repairs as were necessary after the +last destructive typhoon will ever again be made, especially as the +horse trail built on a carriage road grade from Baguio to Naguilian in +the lowlands has been widened little by little, until it is now safe +for small automobiles. The maintenance of the bridges alone, on the +Benguet Road, is a very formidable item, while there is only one short +bridge <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11540" href="#xd21e11540" +name="xd21e11540">473</a>]</span>on the Naguilian Road before the +province of Union is reached. As it runs on or near the crests of +ridges all the way, there are no extensive watersheds above it, and it +is not liable to serious injury during the most violent storms. The +total cost of the Benguet portion of this road to date<a class= +"noteref" id="xd21e11542src" href="#xd21e11542" name= +"xd21e11542src">7</a> has been only $33,405. This stretch is seventeen +and a half miles in length and does not include that portion of the +road which lies within the city of Baguio. The total distance from the +centre of Baguio to Bauang, the nearest railroad station on the coast, +is thirty-four miles.</p> +<p>With the completion of the new government buildings and the transfer +of the several bureaus to Baguio for the season of 1910 a real boom +began. The old sanatorium building had long been leased to a private +individual who used it for hotel purposes, adding to it from time to +time. A second hotel had been built. The railroad had been extended to +Camp One and a regular automobile service established for the +convenience of the public between Camp One and Baguio. The Jesuits had +constructed a great rest house and meteorological observatory on a +commanding hill. The Dominicans had purchased a neighbouring hill top +and prepared to erect thereon a very large reënforced concrete +building to serve for college purposes and as a rest house for members +of the order who required a change of climate.</p> +<p>Development began early at Camp John Hay, an extensive and beautiful +military reservation set aside within the Baguio town site. Some +progress had been made in this direction prior to the coming of +Major-General Leonard Wood. That highly efficient and far-seeing +officer gave a tremendous impetus to the work. He had been something of +a sceptic on the subject of Baguio before visiting the place, but, like +all other responsible persons who take the trouble to see it, promptly +became an enthusiast when he had an opportunity to observe conditions +for himself. Many army officers and their families who <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11549" href="#xd21e11549" name= +"xd21e11549">474</a>]</span>could not obtain accommodations in the +limited number of buildings on the reservation were glad to take tents +for the season, and the Camp promptly began to serve useful ends. It +has steadily grown and developed ever since, and is now a +well-organized army post. Its remarkable progress has been due in large +measure to the initiative and ingenuity of Captain M. R. Hilgard, who +has been its commander since October, 1905. Great progress has been +made in erecting buildings, but they are still far short of the needs +of the service. At the present writing<a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11551src" href="#xd21e11551" name="xd21e11551src">8</a> there are +many tents in use by officers and their families. These serve very well +during the dry months, but with the oncoming of the heavy showers, +which usher in the rainy season, become damp and uncomfortable and make +it necessary for the occupants to return to the lowlands just at the +time when Baguio is growing most attractive and the heat of Manila is +becoming most oppressive.</p> +<p>The ground set aside in the military reservation is adequate for a +brigade post, and such a post should be established as soon as the +railroad reaches Baguio. The different commands in the islands could +then be ordered there in succession, and officers and men given the +benefits of one of the best climates in the world.</p> +<p>Baguio has continued steadily to develop, and the Benguet Road no +longer ends by running up a tree. The government has not only erected a +residence for the governor-general, but has established offices for the +chief executive, the secretaries of departments, the Philippine +Commission, the Executive Bureau, and the Bureaus of Agriculture, Civil +Service, Education, Forestry, Health, Public Works and Constabulary. +There are also a hospital, a series of tuberculosis cottages for the +treatment of patients from the lowlands, cottages and dormitories for +government officers and employees, a great mess hall where meals may be +had at moderate cost, an automobile station, a garage, storehouses, a +pumping plant, and labourers’ <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11558" href="#xd21e11558" name= +"xd21e11558">475</a>]</span>quarters. At the Teachers’ Camp there +are a separate mess hall, an assembly hall and a fine athletic +field.</p> +<p>The city of Baguio has a city hall, a storehouse, a corral and +market buildings. Lot owners who have built summer homes for themselves +have brought up friends to show them what Baguio was like. Curiously it +has never seemed possible to convey any adequate idea of its +attractions and advantages by word of mouth. Again and again I have +urged sceptics to come and see for themselves. When after the lapse of +years they finally did so, they have invariably asked me why I had not +told them about it before, forgetting that I had exhausted my +vocabulary without being able to make them understand. Practically +without exception, the persons who actually visit Baguio become +“boosters.”</p> +<p>It is fortunate in a way that the boom did not come quicker, for the +hard truth is that up to date the rapidity of the growth of the summer +capital has been determined absolutely by the local lumber supply. The +original Filipino hand-sawyers were ultimately replaced by small +portable mills, and these in turn by large modern mills to which logs +are brought by skidding engines or overhead cables, yet it is true +to-day, as it has always been true, that no sawmill has ever been able +to furnish dry lumber, for the simple reason that the green output is +purchased as fast as it can be sawed.</p> +<p>For a time the lumbermen took advantage of the necessities of the +public, but when timber on the government concessions first granted +them had been exhausted and they applied for new cutting areas, my turn +came. I fixed maximum prices on lumber which they might not exceed +without forfeiting their concessions. I also fixed a minimum annual cut +which they were compelled to make, and imposed a regulation providing +that at least half of the total cut should be offered for sale to the +public.</p> +<p>There is no justification for the claim that Baguio is a rich +man’s city. The town site is very large and can be <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11568" href="#xd21e11568" name= +"xd21e11568">476</a>]</span>indefinitely extended. Good lots may be had +at extremely moderate prices, and the cost of houses is strictly a +matter of individual means and taste. A large section is given up to +small dwellings for Filipinos. The man who earns his living with a bull +cart has no more difficulty in establishing a home there than does the +Filipino millionnaire, and rich and poor are building in constantly +increasing numbers.</p> +<p>While experience has taught me that I cannot convey by words alone +any adequate conception of what Baguio is like, I must nevertheless +here make the attempt.</p> +<p>Twenty-one miles of well surfaced roads wind among its pine-covered +hills and afford beautiful glimpses of the luxuriant vegetation along +its numerous small streams. There are building sites to suit all +tastes, and each house owner is convinced that his particular location +is better than that of any one else. One spring supplies exceptionally +pure water sufficient for the needs of at least ten thousand people, +and an abundant additional supply can be obtained when needed. The +scenery is everywhere beautiful, and in many sections truly +magnificent.</p> +<p>Gently rolling hills enclose valleys with sides sometimes steep and +precipitous and sometimes gently sloping. The country is watered by +numerous streams bordered by magnificent tree-ferns, and by trees, +shrubs, and plants requiring a large amount of water, while the dry +hillsides bear noble pines standing at wide intervals and often +arranged as if grouped by a skilled landscape artist. During the rainy +season they are covered with ferns and orchids, while exquisite white +lilies, larger than Easter lilies, dot the hillsides. The dense +<i>cógon</i> of the Philippine lowlands is absent. Bamboo grass +or <i>runo</i> occurs sparingly in the immediate vicinity of streams +and springs, but the hills are covered with a short grass seldom more +than knee high, so that one may ride or walk over them in almost any +direction with comfort. A system of excellent horse trails affords +communication with neighbouring <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11583" href="#xd21e11583" name= +"xd21e11583">477</a>]</span>provinces where one may see wonderful +tropical vegetation, magnificent scenery, strange wild peoples, and the +most remarkable terraced mountainsides in the world. These regions may +be visited with safety and comfort, as public order is well-nigh +perfect and rest houses have been provided at reasonable intervals on +all important main trails.</p> +<p>The delightfully cool climate of Baguio makes active outdoor +exercise enjoyable, and insures the speedy restoration to health and +vigor of persons suffering ill effects from tropical heat, or +recuperation from wasting diseases. Open fires are comfortable morning +and evening throughout the year, and the pitch pine wood burns +beautifully. Except during typhoons the rainy season weather is +delightful. When one wakens in the morning the atmosphere and the +landscape have been washed clean. The air is clear as crystal, and +mountain peaks fifty or seventy-five miles away stand out with +cameo-like sharpness. The needles of the pines fairly glisten and their +delightful odor is constantly in one’s nostrils. The whole +country is green as a lawn. Roses, violets, azaleas, +“jacks-in-the-pulpit,” and several kinds of raspberries and +huckleberries, all growing wild, make one feel as if back in America. +One may visit the neighbouring Trinidad valley and see cabbages and +coffee, bananas and Irish potatoes, flourishing on one piece of land. +Strawberry plants imported from America bear continuously from December +to May. Fresh vegetables of all sorts tickle palates which have grown +weary of the canned goods of the lowlands.</p> +<p>Anywhere from twelve to three o’clock, the clouds begin to +roll in and heavy showers fall, usually lasting until nine or ten at +night. Then the stars come out. The next day is like its +predecessor.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11590width" id="p062"><img src= +"images/p062.jpg" alt="Ifugao Dancers" width="720" height="458"> +<p class="figureHead">Ifugao Dancers</p> +</div> +<p>After the first rains, which usually come about the middle of April, +there is as a rule a month of beautiful weather with very little +precipitation. Then the rains begin to come steadily again, and keep it +up until the end of the wet season, falling in the manner already +described <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11596" href="#xd21e11596" +name="xd21e11596">478</a>]</span>so that one can get one’s +outdoor exercise in the morning, while the afternoon showers are +conducive to industry.</p> +<p>The following table shows the average maximum, minimum and mean +temperatures for each month of the year, the figures covering the +period January, 1902, to January, 1908:—</p> +<div class="table"> +<table class="borderOutside"> +<thead> +<tr class="label"> +<td rowspan="2" class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> +Month</td> +<td class="cellHeadTop">Average Maximum</td> +<td class="cellHeadTop">Average Minimum</td> +<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop">Mean</td> +</tr> +<tr class="unit"> +<td class="cellHeadBottom">°F.</td> +<td class="cellHeadBottom">°F.</td> +<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadBottom">°F.</td> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">January</td> +<td>75.1</td> +<td>50.2</td> +<td class="cellRight">63.3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">February</td> +<td>75.4</td> +<td>45.8</td> +<td class="cellRight">61.6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">March</td> +<td>77.5</td> +<td>49.4</td> +<td class="cellRight">64.1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">April</td> +<td>78.2</td> +<td>51.9</td> +<td class="cellRight">65.7</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">May</td> +<td>77.7</td> +<td>54</td> +<td class="cellRight">66.2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">June</td> +<td>77</td> +<td>56.8</td> +<td class="cellRight">66.2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">July</td> +<td>75.9</td> +<td>55.9</td> +<td class="cellRight">65.4</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">August</td> +<td>76</td> +<td>54.9</td> +<td class="cellRight">65.1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">September</td> +<td>75.2</td> +<td>56</td> +<td class="cellRight">65.2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">October</td> +<td>76.4</td> +<td>53.8</td> +<td class="cellRight">65.1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">November</td> +<td>76.4</td> +<td>49.8</td> +<td class="cellRight">64.1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">December</td> +<td class="cellBottom">76.1</td> +<td class="cellBottom">50.3</td> +<td class="cellRight cellBottom">64.1</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p>All of the above figures are for temperatures at a height of six +feet above the ground. Temperatures nearer the ground are decidedly +lower. It has been found that in the Baguio plateau the lowest +temperatures correspond to the deepest valleys. In such places white +frost is not rare during the months of January, February, and March, +while on the tops of hills the temperature is milder, frost being +almost unknown. During typhoons conditions do not differ essentially +from those experienced elsewhere in the islands, except that the +rainfall is exceptionally heavy.</p> +<p>Major-General J. Franklin Bell, who has given special attention to +mountain resorts the world over, vigorously asserts that Baguio has no +equal on the globe. Certainly the climate is more nearly perfect than +any other of which I have personal knowledge, and the delightful +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11731" href="#xd21e11731" name= +"xd21e11731">479</a>]</span>coolness and the bracing air afford +heavenly relief to jangling nerves and exhausted bodies, worn out by +overwork and by a too prolonged sojourn in tropical lowlands.</p> +<p>One of the very important things about the Baguio climate is its +marvellous effect upon victims of tuberculosis.</p> +<p>Persons suffering from this disease in its earlier stages may +confidently look forward to restored health if willing to live out of +doors under the pine trees, and there have been a number of +extraordinary recoveries among those in advanced stages.</p> +<p>A series of little cottages which can be thrown wide open have been +operated for some time in connection with the government hospital, in +order practically to demonstrate the effect of the climate on +tuberculosis victims.</p> +<p>The results are conclusive, and whenever funds are available there +should be established a settlement of such cottages on some one of the +numerous good sites sufficiently removed from the town to avoid any +possible danger of infecting healthy persons. There should also be a +large mess hall from which good nourishing food can be served, and +plenty of level ground on which tents can be erected during the dry +season. Baguio’s potential importance as a resort for victims of +the great white plague justifies every cent of expenditure necessary to +make it readily accessible.</p> +<p>The Sisters of the Assumption have erected a handsome building which +serves as a rest house and a girls’ school. The sisters known as +the “Belgian Canonist Missionaries” are erecting a building +which will afford them a place to come for recuperation when wearied by +strenuous work in the lowlands, and will make it possible for them to +open a school for Igorot girls, which they are planning to do.</p> +<p>Bishop Brent has established an excellent school for American boys, +situated on a sunny hilltop. The instruction is very good, the food +excellent, and a healthier, heartier-looking lot of youngsters than +those who enjoy the privileges of this institution cannot be found +anywhere. There is abundant opportunity for them to play <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11746" href="#xd21e11746" name= +"xd21e11746">480</a>]</span>basket-ball, tennis and golf. Some of them +indulge in polo, playing on Filipino ponies.</p> +<p>Bishop Brent also has a mission school for Igorot girls, and plans +to open a boarding school for American girls in the near future.</p> +<p>The Belgian missionary priests, locally known as the +“Missionary Priests of the Church of San Patricio,” have +their headquarters at Baguio, where the chief of their order resides +and where they come occasionally for rest and recuperation. Archbishop +Harry has a modest home on one of the numerous hilltops.</p> +<p>The building of a school for constabulary officers, to which young +men arriving from the United States are sent before entering upon +active service, crowns another hill and commands a magnificent view of +the surrounding country.</p> +<p>Several business concerns, such as the <span lang= +"es">Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas</span>, have +erected rest houses for their officers and employees, while the number +of attractive private homes increases as rapidly as the supply of +building materials will permit. Filipino residents of Manila have +recently invested more than a hundred thousand dollars in Baguio +homes.</p> +<p>But this is not all. No description would be anything like complete +without mention of a unique structure which is certain to become famous +the world over. It has been built under the immediate supervision of +Major-General Bell, who has given freely of his time and thought to +make it the extraordinary success which it is. I refer to the wonderful +amphitheatre which stands at the side of the official residence of the +major-general commanding the Division of the Philippines. Advantage has +been taken of the existence of a natural amphitheatre with remarkable +acoustic properties. Man has added what Nature left undone, and the +result is an imposing and beautiful auditorium capable of seating four +thousand people, throughout which a whisper can be heard. It is +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11761" href="#xd21e11761" name= +"xd21e11761">481</a>]</span>utilized for religious services, concerts, +lectures, theatrical performances and other public entertainments. No +charge is exacted for its use, but if an admission fee is collected, a +liberal percentage of the proceeds must go to some worthy charity. It +has been terraced in stone by Igorot labourers; the trees originally +standing in it have been protected, and tree ferns, shrubs and +flowering plants have been added. The result beggars description, and +photographs do it scant justice.</p> +<p>Igorots from Bontoc, and even Ifugaos, now visit Baguio with +increasing frequency, attracted by a large market established +especially for the benefit of the hill people, where they may sell +their manufactured articles or agricultural products, and may purchase +at moderate cost the commodities which they need. The Benguet Igorots +do not raise rice enough for their own use. Formerly they had to make +up the shortage by eating <i>camotes</i>, but they have now become so +prosperous that they can afford to buy rice, which is carted in over +the Benguet Road.</p> +<p>There are promising gold mines close at hand. Their development +would have been impossible had not the construction of the Benguet Road +made it feasible to bring in the necessary heavy machinery.</p> +<p>Some of the fruits, many of the flowers and practically all of the +vegetables of the temperate zone can be advantageously produced in +Benguet. They are being shipped to Manila in steadily increasing +quantities.</p> +<p>One would gather from the criticisms of the enemies of the +Philippine government that the Benguet Road was a pleasure boulevard. +The government motor trucks transported over it during the last fiscal +year 22,390 passengers and 7696.24 metric tons of freight.</p> +<p>Railroad corporations are inclined to be a bit soulless. The Manila +Railway Company is extending its line to Baguio by means of a branch +leaving the main line at Aringay. The building of this extension is +now<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11777src" href="#xd21e11777" name= +"xd21e11777src">9</a> fifty-five <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11780" href="#xd21e11780" name="xd21e11780">482</a>]</span>per +cent completed, and the company is bound under the terms of its +agreement to finish the road by August, 1914. In the event of its +failure to do so, it must pay a monthly penalty amply sufficient in +amount to cover the cost of maintaining the Benguet Road. Baguio will +continue to develop steadily until the railroad is opened and then will +go ahead by leaps and bounds. It is sure to prosper because it meets a +very real and very imperative need.</p> +<p>In this connection the following extracts from a letter of August 7, +1913, from the director of medical services in India to the department +surgeon of the Philippines are of interest:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“In reply to your letter of June 31st I attach a +statement showing the number and location of the hill stations in India +with the approximate capacity of each, and their height above +sea-level.</p> +<p>“With regard to your inquiry regarding the number of cases +treated in these sanitaria we use these hill stations not only for the +treatment of convalescents, but also for giving healthy men an +opportunity of spending the Indian hot weather under the best climatic +conditions procurable. To this end, so far as is practicable, all units +are sent to the hills for the first hot weather after their arrival in +India, and they are thus able to settle down to their new conditions of +life without being immediately exposed to the trying and enervating +environment of a plains station in the summer months. We also send as +many soldiers as we can of the older residents from hot stations to +summer in the hills.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“Practically all soldiers’ wives and families are given +an opportunity of a change from the more unhealthy stations to the +hills during the hot weather.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>“Our experience shows that the following cases are most +benefited by a change to the hills:—</p> +<p>“1. All cases of malarial fever and malarial cachexia.</p> +<p>“2. Patients recovering from acute diseases.</p> +<p>“3. Convalescents after surgical operations. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11803" href="#xd21e11803" name= +"xd21e11803">483</a>]</span></p> +<p>“4. Cases of anaemia and debility.</p> +<p>“5. Cases of chronic venereal diseases.</p> +<p>“6. Neurasthenics.”</p> +</div> +<p>Not only are all such cases greatly benefited at Baguio, but +patients suffering from dysentery and chronic diarrhoea are also +greatly benefited and often cured by a sufficiently long sojourn there. +This is the experience of the civil government at its hospital and of +the military authorities at the Camp John Hay hospital, according to +General Bell.</p> +<p>Continuing the quotations from the letter of the director of medical +services in India:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“We have found that by the judicious use of hill +stations for convalescents both the invaliding and death rate of the +British troops in Indian have been enormously reduced and the +efficiency of the Army has been increased with a considerable financial +saving to the Government.</p> +<p>“It is advisable that all troops and families should be +accommodated in huts, especially during the rainy season in the hills, +but there is no doubt that they are benefited by the change even if +they have to live in tents and are thereby exposed to considerable +discomfort.”</p> +</div> +<p>The importance attached by the British to hill stations is shown by +the fact that there are no less than 29 in India, their height above +sea-level varying from 2000 to 7936 feet. Of these eleven have no +permanent accommodations and are used for men only.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11824width" id="p063"><img src= +"images/p063.jpg" alt="An Ifugao Dancer" width="720" height="456"> +<p class="figureHead">An Ifugao Dancer</p> +</div> +<p>I add the following extracts from a letter of Major P. M. Ashburn, +Medical Corps, U.S.A., president of the army board for the study of +tropical diseases:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“A man can remain in the tropics indefinitely +without being actually sick, if infectious diseases are avoided. This +is fast leading to the fallacy that we can advantageously remain many +years in these latitudes. The fact that while a man may never be sick, +he yet may have his physical and mental vigour greatly impaired by +prolonged exposure to heat is thus lost sight of. No man can do his +best work, either physical or mental, if he is hot and uncomfortable. +The same feeling of lassitude and indisposition to exertion is +experienced at home during the hot summer, which after a few years here +becomes chronic.” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11833" href= +"#xd21e11833" name="xd21e11833">484</a>]</span></p> +<p>“It is a matter of official recognition that government +employees need to get away from the heat of Manila each year, hence the +removal to Baguio.</p> +<p>“It is likewise commonly recognized that many women and +children become so run down and debilitated as to need to go to Japan, +Baguio or the United States.</p> +<p>“It is often true that monotony and discomfort are the cause +of nervous and mental breakdown, witness the often-mentioned insanity +among farmers’ wives and the nervous breakdowns attributable to +pain and strain, even though it be, as in many cases of eyestrain, so +slight as not to be recognized by the patient.”</p> +</div> +<p>In short, it is the monotony of a tropical lowland climate which +makes an occasional change so imperatively necessary. Shall residents +of the Philippines be forced to seek that change, at great expense of +time and money, in Japan, the United States or Europe, or shall we make +and keep available for them a region which admirably answers the +purpose, distant only half a day’s travel from Manila?</p> +<p>I give extracts from a memorandum of Col. William H. Arthur, +Department Surgeon of the Philippines, which are important in this +connection:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">“3. Experience has shown that long residence in +the Philippines has a marked effect on the mental and physical vigour +of people not born and raised in the tropics. This is manifested in +many ways, and men, women and children who are not actually ill, seem +to lose their energy, become listless, irritable, and forgetful, and +find the least exertion burdensome. This is much aggravated in the hot +season, and very few individuals manage, without permanent mental and +physical deterioration, to live through many hot seasons in the +plains.</p> +<p>“4. There are in the Philippine Islands two places where +relief from these conditions can be found:—(1) Camp John Hay, +near Baguio, in the mountain province of Benguet, Island of +Luzón; and (2) Camp Keithley, in the Lake Lanao District of the +Island of Mindanao. Camp John Hay, in the province of Benguet, is in +the mountains at an elevation of approximately 5000 feet and is 175 +miles from Manila, most of which distance is covered by railroad. +Within 18 months it is expected that the railroad all the way to Baguio +will be completed. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11851" href= +"#xd21e11851" name="xd21e11851">485</a>]</span></p> +<p>“5. Experience has shown that a large number of cases of +disease or injury, or patients convalescing from surgical operations, +recover much more rapidly in the cool mountain climate of Baguio than +in the depressing heat and humidity of the plains. Before the +establishment of this mountain refuge from the heat of the plains, many +cases of this class were transferred to the United States that are now +brought back to health at Camp John Hay and Camp Keithley. The +beneficial effect of the change in climate is particularly noticeable +in people who have become run down after one or more hot seasons spent +at the lower levels.</p> +<p>“6. The great value of a refuge in the mountains from the +effect of prolonged heat is shown in enclosed reports, which indicate +the classes of cases especially benefited, but there are a great many +others not reported and not actually sick but whose vitality and +resistance are more or less diminished and who find great benefit from +an occasional sojourn in the mountains of Benguet or the highlands of +Mindanao, especially during the hottest part of the year.”</p> +</div> +<p>I have quoted thus at length from communications of a distinguished +British medical officer, of a well-known and able special student of +tropical diseases, and of the ranking United States army surgeon in the +islands to show the consensus of opinion among experienced experts as +to the necessity of hill stations in the tropics. I might give numerous +additional similar opinions of equally competent men but will only add +two more statements of Major Ashburn, the latter of which seems to me +admirably to sum up the situation:—</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="first">So firm is my belief in the efficacy of the place that +I have at considerable expense kept my two sons in school there, +instead of keeping them at home in Manila at no expense for schooling, +and so satisfactory has been the result in normal, vigorous growth and +robust health for both boys, that I consider the money so spent about +the best investment I have ever made.</p> +<hr class="tb"> +<p>I state all this to show the faith that is in me. To experience +Baguio and to see the rapid improvement of visitors there is to be +convinced that it is a delightful and beneficial climate. To appreciate +the full degree of its delights it is only necessary <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11866" href="#xd21e11866" name= +"xd21e11866">486</a>]</span>to compare in one’s own experience +(not in weather reports) a hot season in Manila and one there. To +appreciate its benefits it is necessary to compare in one’s own +experience (not in statistics) the appearance of health of the people +seen at the two times and places. As recent work on beri-beri has +clearly shown the vast importance in diet of substances formerly not +known to have any importance, so, I think, are the factors in climate +not to be recorded by wind gauges, thermometers or other meteorological +instruments, and factors in health and efficiency not recorded in books +on physiology, bacteriology, pathology or health statistics.”</p> +</div> +<p>Let no one think that the summer capital of the Philippines has been +built solely for the benefit of Americans. The Filipinos need it almost +as much as we do, and many of them profit by the change with +extraordinary promptness.</p> +<p>It is really almost incredible that such a place should exist within +eight hours’ travel of Manila, and every possible victim of +tuberculosis in the islands, which means every inhabitant of the +lowlands, has a right to demand that it should be made, and kept, +readily accessible. Existing accommodations are nothing like adequate +for the crowds which desire to take advantage of them during the +season. Hotels are filled to overflowing. There are always several +different applicants for each government cottage. Many persons who +would be glad to spend the hot months in the Benguet mountains find it +impossible to do so, because they cannot obtain accommodation, and at +present many more are obliged to shorten their stay in order to give +others a chance.</p> +<p>In the early days, when we were facing unforeseen difficulties and +discouragements, I was for a time the one member of the Philippine +Commission who was really enthusiastically in favour of carrying out +the original plans for the summer capital. It was then the fashion to +charge me with responsibility for the policy of opening up +communication with the place and for the mistakes made in the +construction of the Benguet Road, although I had <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11875" href="#xd21e11875" name= +"xd21e11875">487</a>]</span>never had any control over the road work +and had been one of five at first, and later one of nine, to vote for +every appropriation found necessary in order to complete it.</p> +<p>It was the enthusiasm of Mr. Forbes which at a critical time finally +saved the situation, and now that Baguio has arrived, and the wisdom of +the policy so long pursued in the face of manifold discouragements has +been demonstrated, my one fear is that he will get all the glory and +that I shall be denied credit for the part which I actually did play in +bringing about the determination to establish quick communication with +one of the most wonderful mountain health resorts to be found in any +tropical country, and in giving that determination effect. But I have +had a more than abundant reward of another sort. My wife, my son and I +myself, when seriously ill, have been restored to vigorous health by +brief sojourns at this one of the world’s great health +resorts.</p> +<p>It has been very much the fashion for Filipino politicians to rail +at Baguio, and now that the dangerous experiment of giving them control +of both houses of the legislature is being made, they may refuse to +appropriate the sums necessary to make possible the annual transfer of +the insular government to that place. The result of such a bit of +politics would be a marked increase in the present extraordinarily low +death rate among government officers and employees, American and +Filipino,<a class="noteref" id="xd21e11881src" href="#xd21e11881" name= +"xd21e11881src">10</a> beginning in about two years, when the +cumulative effect of long residence in the lowlands makes itself +felt.</p> +<p>Meanwhile, Baguio can stand on its own feet, and if, as the +politicians suggest, the government buildings there be sold at auction, +purchasers for all dwelling houses should readily be found. Too many +Filipinos have learned by happy experience the delights of this +wonderful region, to let such an opportunity pass. Baguio has come to +stay. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11886" href="#xd21e11886" +name="xd21e11886">488</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11248" href="#xd21e11248src" name="xd21e11248">1</a></span> Now a +major-general.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11301" href="#xd21e11301src" name="xd21e11301">2</a></span> About +28.7 miles.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11308" href="#xd21e11308src" name="xd21e11308">3</a></span> May +1, 1913.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11315" href="#xd21e11315src" name="xd21e11315">4</a></span> +Captain Meade.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11411" href="#xd21e11411src" name="xd21e11411">5</a></span> He +had the volunteer rank of colonel, but was a major in the regular +army.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11427" href="#xd21e11427src" name="xd21e11427">6</a></span> +Report of the Philippine Commission, Part 1, 1903, p. 58.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11542" href="#xd21e11542src" name="xd21e11542">7</a></span> May +1, 1913.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11551" href="#xd21e11551src" name="xd21e11551">8</a></span> April +15, 1913.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11777" href="#xd21e11777src" name="xd21e11777">9</a></span> May +1, 1913.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd21e11881" href="#xd21e11881src" name="xd21e11881">10</a></span> This +rate, for the fiscal year 1913, was 3.33 per thousand for Filipinos and +2.49 per thousand for Americans.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="ch18" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#xd21e392">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divHead"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter XVIII</h2> +<h2 class="main">The Coördination of Scientific Work</h2> +</div> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first">When Americans landed at Manila, they found no +government institutions for the training of physicians and surgeons and +no hospital in any sense modern or indeed worthy of the name.</p> +<p>There did exist the equipment of what had been called a municipal +laboratory, outfitted for a limited amount of chemical work only.</p> +<p>When the Philippine Commission arrived on the scene, it fell to my +lot to draft the necessary legislation for placing scientific work on a +firm foundation, and, later, as secretary of the interior, to exercise +ultimate executive control over practically all such work carried on +under the insular government.</p> +<p>The complete initial lack of adequate hospital facilities and of +means for making chemical and bacteriological investigations had been +promptly remedied by the establishment of army hospitals and an army +laboratory. Although these could not be placed fully at the service of +the public, they nevertheless bridged the gap for the time being, and +in formulating laws and making plans for the future I was inclined to +say, “Blessed be nothing,” as we were not hampered by +useless employees or archaic equipment, but were left free to make a +clean start.</p> +<p>I had thoroughly learned one lesson at the University of Michigan +while a member of its zoölogical staff. We had a zoölogical +laboratory in which were conducted the zoölogical half of a course +in general biology and numerous other courses in animal morphology, +mammalian anatomy, comparative anatomy and embryology. There was also a +botanical laboratory in which all of the botanical work <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11902" href="#xd21e11902" name= +"xd21e11902">489</a>]</span>of the institution was carried on. This did +not involve any overlapping, but there was overlapping of the work of +the zoölogical laboratory and that of the medical department, +which had an anatomical laboratory, a histological laboratory, a +pathological laboratory and a so-called hygienic laboratory. The +professor of anatomy thought that his students would understand human +anatomy better if they knew something of comparative anatomy, and +instead of sending them to us wished to start his own courses. The +histologist dabbled in embryology and was soon duplicating our course +in the embryology of the chick. He was constantly at war with the +pathologist over the question of where histology left off and pathology +began, and both of them were inclined to differ with the man in charge +of the hygienic laboratory over similar questions of jurisdiction. +Furthermore, we had a chemical laboratory split up into various more or +less independent subdivisions, and a psychological laboratory. In these +several institutions for scientific research there was much duplication +of instruction and of books, apparatus and laboratory equipment. Great +economies might have been effected by the establishment of a central +purchasing agency, which could have obtained wholesale rates on +supplies ordered in large quantity. Nothing of the sort existed. One +laboratory chief would order from the corner drug store, while another +bought in Germany.</p> +<p>There was danger that a similar condition of things might arise in +the Philippines. The Bureau of Health would want its chemical and its +biological laboratories; the Bureau of Agriculture would need to do +chemical work covering a wide range of subjects, and botanical and +entomological work as well. The Bureau of Forestry would of course +require a large amount of botanical work, and would also need to have +chemical work done on gums, resins and other forest products, to say +nothing of investigating insects injurious to trees and more especially +to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11906" href="#xd21e11906" name= +"xd21e11906">490</a>]</span>timber after cutting. The latter class of +destroyers do enormous damage in the Philippines. Much chemical work +would be required by the Bureau of Customs, which as a matter of fact +later insisted upon the necessity of a “microscopical +laboratory” to provide facilities for the examination of fibres, +etc. Obviously there would be a large amount of work for the general +government in connection with investigation of the mineral resources of +the country, and the testing of coals, cements and road materials.</p> +<p>Smallpox was decimating the population. There was need of the +manufacture of great quantities of virus with which to combat it, and +of other common and necessary serums and prophylactics as well.</p> +<p>Here then was a golden opportunity to start right. In imagination I +saw a Bureau of Science for scientific research and for routine +scientific work, a great General Hospital, and a modern and up-to-date +College of Medicine and Surgery, standing side by side and working in +full and harmonious relationship. The medical school would give to the +youth of the land the best possible facilities for theoretical training +in medicine and surgery, while access to the wards of the hospital +would make possible for them a large amount of practical bedside work. +Its operating amphitheatres would increase the opportunity for clinical +instruction, as would a great free outpatient clinic, conducted +primarily for the benefit of the poor. Professors in the college would +hold positions on the hospital staff, not only in order to give to them +and to their students every facility for clinical demonstration work, +but to enable them constantly to “keep their hands in.” +Promising Filipino graduates would be given internships and other +positions on the house staff of the hospital. Patients would be +admitted to its free beds subject to the condition that they allow +their cases to be studied by the faculty and students of the college. +The necessary biological and chemical examinations for the hospital +would be made in the laboratories of the Bureau <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11912" href="#xd21e11912" name= +"xd21e11912">491</a>]</span>of Science, which would at the same time +afford every facility for the carrying on of scientific investigation +by advanced students, by members of the faculty of the college and by +members of the hospital staff. Members of the staff of the biological +laboratory would have the use of the great volume of pathological +material from the hospital, and with free access to its rooms and +wards, would have an almost unparalleled opportunity for the study of +tropical diseases, while some of the officers and employees of the +Bureau of Science and of the Bureau of Health might be made members of +the faculty of the college and their services utilized as +instructors.</p> +<p>As we had neither laboratories, hospital nor college at the time, +the realization of this somewhat comprehensive scheme seemed rather +remote. It was commonly referred to as “Worcester’s +dream,” and one of my friends in the army medical corps probably +quite correctly voiced public sentiment when he said, “Poor +Worcester has bats in his belfry.” However, he laughs best who +laughs last! After the lapse of a good many years my dream came true. +The three great institutions which I hoped might sometime be +established are to-day in existence, and are doing the work which I +hoped that they might perform. Now let us consider how they came to +be.</p> +<p>In the early days I drafted an act providing for the establishment +of a Bureau of Government Laboratories which should perform all of the +biological and chemical work of the government under the direction of +one chief, and on July 1, 1901 the commission passed it.</p> +<p>I was more than fortunate in securing as the director of this bureau +Dr. Paul C. Freer, then professor of general chemistry at the +University of Michigan.</p> +<p>Dr. Freer obtained leave of absence for a year, in order to help us +get started. This leave was twice extended for additional periods of +one year each, and in the end he decided to sever his connection with +the university and throw in his lot with the Philippine government. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11923" href="#xd21e11923" name= +"xd21e11923">492</a>]</span></p> +<p>He remained in charge of the Bureau of Government Laboratories and +of its successor, the Bureau of Science, until his death on April 17, +1912.</p> +<div class="figure xd21e11927width" id="p064"><img src= +"images/p064.jpg" alt="Ifugao Rice Terraces" width="720" height="429"> +<p class="figureHead">Ifugao Rice Terraces</p> +<p class="first">The wonderful irrigated rice terraces of the Ifugaos +sometimes extend up steep mountain sides for thousands of feet. They +afford an extraordinary example of successful primitive hydraulic +engineering.</p> +</div> +<p>Himself a chemist and investigator of note, he had a wide and +catholic knowledge of science in general, and no better man could have +been found for this important piece of constructive work. For nearly a +year the two of us laboured over plans for the laboratory building and +lists of the necessary books, instruments, apparatus, glassware, +chemicals and other supplies. At the end of this time we submitted to +the commission what I do not hesitate to say was the most complete +estimate for a large project which ever came before it. Much +forethought was necessary in order to time the orders for books, +instruments and apparatus so that it would be possible to house them +properly when they arrived, and the estimated expense was distributed +over a period of two and one-half years.</p> +<p>Meanwhile work had begun in cramped temporary quarters in a hot +little “shack,” for it deserved no better name, back of the +Civil Hospital. Here under almost impossible conditions there were +performed a large volume of routine biological and chemical work, and a +considerable amount of research, the results of which proved to be of +far-reaching importance.</p> +<p>With the employment of the first chemists and bacteriologists there +arose a class of questions which I determined to settle once for all. +There is a regrettable tendency among some scientific men to try to +build barbed-wire fences around particular fields of research in which +they happen to be interested, and to shoo every one else away.</p> +<p>At the outset I gave all employees clearly to understand that such +an unscientific and ungenerous spirit would not be tolerated in the +Bureau of Government Laboratories. The field which opened before us was +enormous. There was work enough and more than <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11941" href="#xd21e11941" name= +"xd21e11941">493</a>]</span>enough for all, and we should at the outset +adopt a spirit of friendliness and helpfulness toward every scientific +man who desired to lend a hand.</p> +<p>This rule of conduct has been steadfastly adhered to. Numerous +well-known scientists have visited the Philippines and to each we have +extended all possible assistance, furnishing laboratory quarters, +instruments, apparatus and reagents, and, whenever practicable, +material as well. Indeed, many of our scientific guests have been made +employees of the bureau without pay, so that there might be no +questioning of their right to use government equipment.</p> +<p>Two important results have followed this policy. One is that we have +established the friendliest and most helpful relations with numerous +research institutions. The other is that we have been able to assist in +the performance of much valuable work which has borne important +results, and which would perhaps have remained undone had it not been +possible for us to aid those who undertook it.</p> +<p>In due course of time came our fine new building, with good +facilities for performing all kinds of laboratory work. When it was +equipped and occupied, we were able to say that the opportunities +offered at Manila for investigating tropical diseases were probably +unequalled elsewhere, and there was a deal of such investigation +urgently needing to be made. Our equipment for chemical research was +also very complete and the vast undeveloped natural resources of the +islands presented a practically virgin field for such +investigation.</p> +<p>At the outset absurd rumours spread as to the cost of buildings and +equipment, and there was much popular outcry against the supposed +wastefulness of the government. A simple statement of the facts served +to kill these foolish tales, and people soon began to see that the +creation of the Bureau of Government Laboratories was merely the +application of common-sense to existing conditions and had resulted in +greatly increased economy and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11952" +href="#xd21e11952" name="xd21e11952">494</a>]</span>efficiency. Indeed, +at the suggestion of a committee appointed to make a study of the +government service and suggest measures for its betterment, the +principle which I had adopted was carried still further. Not only was +all zoölogical and botanical work transferred to this bureau, but +the Bureau of Ethnology and the Bureau of Mines were abolished as +separate entities and were made divisions of it, and its title was +changed to “The Bureau of Science.” Little by little the +scope of the work has steadily widened.</p> +<p>The scientific books and periodicals of the government were +scattered among half a dozen different bureaus and were not being well +cared for. I arranged to have them all temporarily transferred to the +library of the Bureau of Science and catalogued there. Those said to be +really needed for frequent reference were then returned to the several +bureaus but were kept under observation by the bureau of science +librarian, who took particular pains to look after the binding of +serial publications as rapidly as the volumes were completed.</p> +<p>The list of books requested by the several bureau chiefs for +reference was suspiciously long. I gave orders that each set of bureau +bookshelves be provided with cards and a box into which to drop them, +and each time a book was used a card was made out for it and placed in +the box. After six months I quietly gathered up the cards and had them +checked against the lists of books for which the several bureau chiefs +had asked, and was then able to order a large proportion of them back +to the library for the reason that they had not been used at all.</p> +<p>The result of this policy is that we have to-day a central +scientific library in which are catalogued all the scientific books of +the government. Books needed by the several bureaus for frequent +reference are placed where they can be used conveniently, and the card +catalogue indicates where they are, so that they can readily be found. +In this way it has been possible to avoid much needless and +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11960" href="#xd21e11960" name= +"xd21e11960">495</a>]</span>expensive duplication. The library now +contains 26,652 bound volumes.</p> +<p>We were extremely fortunate in the men whose services we secured in +the early days, and the volume of research work turned out was +unexpectedly large. The question of how best to arrange for the prompt +publication of our results became urgent, and in the end we answered it +by publishing the <i>Philippine Journal of Science</i>, now in its +eighth year and with an assured and enviable position among the +scientific journals of the world.</p> +<p>In the early days before we knew what we now know about the +preservation of health in tropical countries there was a deal of +sickness among government officers and employees. While the army was +more than liberal in helping us meet the conditions which arose, it was +of course very necessary that we should establish our own hospital as +soon as possible.</p> +<p>On October 12, 1901, the so-called “Civil Hospital” was +opened in a large private dwelling, obtained, as we then fondly +imagined, merely as a temporary expedient. Together with two adjoining +and even smaller buildings it continued to be our only place for the +treatment of ordinary medical and surgical cases until September 1, +1910! I can here only very briefly outline the causes of this long +delay.</p> +<p>At the outset the building was large enough to meet immediate needs. +At the time when it began to grow inadequate there was a plan on foot +for a large private institution, in which the government was to secure +accommodations for its patients, and a hospital building was actually +erected, but interest in this project waned, the private backing which +was believed to have been assured for it failed, and the whole scheme +went by the board. Then plans for a great general hospital were called +for. A very large amount of time was consumed in their preparation and +when they were finished the expense involved <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11973" href="#xd21e11973" name= +"xd21e11973">496</a>]</span>in carrying them out was found to be far +beyond the means of the government. Ultimately I was charged with the +duty of securing other plans involving a more moderate expenditure. +Again long delay necessarily ensued. When semi-final plans were +submitted, the consulting architect insisted on a series of arches +along the sides of the several ward pavilions which were doubtless most +satisfying from an artistic point of view, but would have shut off +light and fresh air to an extent which I could not tolerate. A three +months’ deadlock was finally broken by his acceding to my wishes, +but in October, 1906, just as the completed plans were finally ready to +submit to the commission, I was compelled by severe illness to return +to the United States. There remained three American and three Filipino +members of the commission. One of the former was Mr. W. Morgan Shuster, +then secretary of public instruction. Prior to the time when he became +a candidate for a secretaryship he had been bitter in his criticism of +the Filipinos. Coincidently with the development of this ambition he +became almost more pro-Filipino than some of the Filipino politicians +themselves. For a time he seemed to control the Filipino vote on the +commission and largely as a result of his activities every important +matter which I left pending, including that of the establishment of the +great general hospital so vitally needed by the people of the islands, +was laid on the table. I was informed that Mr. Shuster had announced +that we could have $125,000 for the hospital and no more! We needed +$400,000.</p> +<p>Beginning on the day after my return the following April these +several projects, including that for the Baguio Hospital and that for +the Philippine General Hospital. were taken from the table and +passed.</p> +<p>Construction work goes slowly in the tropics. One ward pavilion of +the Philippine General Hospital was occupied on September 1, 1910. Soon +afterward the four others came into use. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd21e11979" href="#xd21e11979" name="xd21e11979">497</a>]</span></p> +<p>On June 10, 1907, a medical college was opened. It was called +“The Philippine Medical School.” Its creation at this time +was made possible by the existence of the Bureaus of Science and +Health. Its staff was at the outset recruited very largely from these +two bureaus. The director of the Bureau of Science was made its dean +and continued to hold this position until his death. To his unselfish +efforts and to those of the director of health is due the +well-organized modern college which we have to-day. In lieu of better +quarters the first classes were held in an old Spanish government +building which was altered and added to until it answered the purpose +reasonably well.</p> +<p>The preparation of the act which provided for the establishment of +this college was intrusted to me. I called for the assistance of a +committee of technical experts and asked that they submit a draft for +my consideration, which they did. It contained a provision to the +effect that the college should be under the administrative control of +the secretary of the interior. I struck out the words “secretary +of the interior” and inserted in lieu thereof the words +“secretary of public instruction” for two reasons. First, +the school theoretically belongs under that official, in spite of its +necessarily close relationship with the Bureau of Science and the +Bureau of Health. Second, I wanted the support of the secretary of +public instruction for the measure, as it involved considerable +expenditure and I was not sure how the bill might fare in the +commission. It happened that the incumbent of that position was very +much inclined to take a liberal view of bills which extended his +jurisdiction. Mr. Taft, when he visited the Philippines in 1909, +reached the conclusion that I was guilty of an error of judgment in +doing this, and a little later expressed the view that the Medical +College ought to be under the control of the secretary of the interior, +because of its intimate relationship with the bureaus above mentioned. +I might perhaps <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11985" href= +"#xd21e11985" name="xd21e11985">498</a>]</span>even then have had this +change made, but refrained from attempting to do so, believing that all +would go well under the existing arrangement. So long as Dr. Freer +lived this was the case.</p> +<p>He was a man of absolute honesty and sincerity of purpose, and was +far-seeing enough fully to realize that the interests of the +government, and of individuals as well, would best be served by +carrying out the broad and liberal policy which was then in effect.</p> +<p>The next event of importance was the establishment of the University +of the Philippines, which was provided for by an Act passed on June 18, +1908.</p> +<p>The Philippine Medical School was in due time incorporated with the +university as its College of Medicine and Surgery, passing under the +executive control of the university board of regents.</p> +<p>At this time the plan of which I had dreamed so many years before +was in full force and effect and was working admirably. Members of the +Bureau of Science staff served on the college faculty and held +appointments in the Philippine General Hospital as well, one of them +being the chief of a division there. Members of the college faculty +carried on research work at the Bureau of Science. The great working +library installed in the building of the latter bureau served as the +medical library. Members of the college faculty also rendered important +service in the Philippine General Hospital, where two of them were +chiefs of divisions, two held important positions on the house staff +and numerous others served as interns. Officers of the Bureau of Health +were appointed to the faculty of the college and carried on research +work at the Bureau of Science. The staff of the latter bureau made the +chemical and biological examinations needed in connection with the work +of the hospital as well as those required by the Bureau of Health. The +Bureau of Science manufactured the sera and prophylactics required by +the Bureau of Health in its work. The two large operating amphitheatres +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e11995" href="#xd21e11995" name= +"xd21e11995">499</a>]</span>in the Philippine General Hospital were +planned with especial reference to the accommodation of students, who +could pass along a gallery from one to the other. The work of the free +clinic, attended daily by hundreds of Filipinos seeking relief, was +largely turned over to the college faculty, and increased opportunities +were thus given for medical students to study actual cases.</p> +<p>The arrangement was an ideal one. It excited the admiration of +numerous visiting European and American experts, who were competent to +judge of its merits, and its continued success was dependent only upon +the honesty of purpose, loyalty and good faith of the several parties +to it.</p> +<p>Then came the untimely death of Dr. Freer. A few months later an +attempt was made by certain university officers to secure control of +the professional work of the hospital for that institution, leaving the +director of health and the secretary of the interior in charge of the +nurses, servants, accounts and property, and burdened with the +responsibility for the results of work involving life and death, but +without voice in the choice of the men who were to perform it.</p> +<p>Those who were responsible for this effort evidently had not taken +the trouble to read the law, and I had only to call attention to its +provisions in order to end for the time this first effort to disturb +the existing logical distribution of work between the two +institutions.</p> +<p>Before I left Manila in October, 1913, a second attempt was being +made to secure control of the professional work of the hospital for the +university, but this time the plan was more far-reaching, in that it +contemplated the transfer to the university of control of the Bureau of +Science as well; and more logical, in that a bill accomplishing these +ends had been drafted for consideration by the Filipinized +legislature.</p> +<p>The original plan for the coördination of the scientific +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd21e12007" href="#xd21e12007" name= +"xd21e12007">500</a>]</span>work of the Philippine government was sound +in principle and will, I trust, eventually be carried out, whatever may +be done temporarily to upset it during a period of disturbed political +conditions. There is much consolation to be derived from contemplating +the fact that pendulums swing.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="back"> +<div class="div1 cover"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="divBody"> +<p class="first"></p> +<div class="figure xd21e12012width"><img src="images/spines.jpg" alt= +"Original Spines." width="313" height="720"></div> +<p> </p> +<div class="figure xd21e12019width"><img src="images/back.jpg" alt= +"Original Back Cover." width="480" height="720"></div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="transcribernote"> +<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2> +<h3 class="main">Availability</h3> +<p class="first">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no +cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give +it away or re-use it under the terms of the <a class="exlink xd21e31" +title="External link" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" rel= +"license">Project Gutenberg License</a> included with this eBook or +online at <a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://www.gutenberg.org/" rel="home">www.gutenberg.org</a>.</p> +<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at <a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p> +<p>The author, Dean C. Worcester, was a member of the Philippine +Commission and afterwards Secretary of the Interior for the Insular +Government of the Philippine Islands. In this work he gives an +impression of the early years of American colonial politics in the +Philippines, which the US acquired in 1898. It goes into a lot of +detail on the dealings with the Filipino resistance, the organization +of the administration, education, health-service, etc. Probably the +most controversial of all American officials during the American era, +considerable space is dedicated to rebutting the strong criticism in +James H. Blount’s <i><a class="pglink xd21e31" title= +"Link to Project Gutenberg ebook" href= +"http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36542">The American Occupation of the +Philippines, 1898–1912</a></i>.</p> +<p><a class="pglink xd21e31" title="Link to Project Gutenberg ebook" +href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/41918">Volume II</a> of this work +is also available from Project Gutenberg.</p> +<p>Scans of this work are available from the Internet Archive (Volume +I, copy <a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespastp01worcuoft">1</a>, +<a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespast02worcgoog">2</a>; Volume +II, copy <a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespastp02worcuoft">1</a>, +<a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/afj2380.0001.001.umich.edu">2</a>, +<a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespast00unkngoog">3</a>).</p> +<p>Project Gutenberg catalog page: <a class="pglink" href= +"http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12077">12077</a>.</p> +<p>Related Library of Congress catalog page: <a class="catlink" href= +"http://lccn.loc.gov/14020557">14020557</a>.</p> +<p>Related Open Library catalog page (for source): <a class="catlink" +href="http://openlibrary.org/books/OL23325314M">OL23325314M</a>.</p> +<p>Related Open Library catalog page (for work): <a class="catlink" +href="http://openlibrary.org/works/OL11945228W">OL11945228W</a>.</p> +<p>Related WorldCat catalog page: <a class="catlink" href= +"http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/313761323">313761323</a>.</p> +<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3> +<p class="first">Special characters used:</p> +<div class="table"> +<table> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellTop">in text</td> +<td class="cellRight cellTop">description</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft">½</td> +<td class="cellRight">fraction one half</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">₱</td> +<td class="cellRight cellBottom">Philippine Peso sign.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>Scans of this work are available from the Internet Archive (Volume +I, copy <a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespastp01worcuoft">1</a>, +<a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespast02worcgoog">2</a>; Volume +II, copy <a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespastp02worcuoft">1</a>, +<a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/afj2380.0001.001.umich.edu">2</a>, +<a class="exlink xd21e31" title="External link" href= +"http://archive.org/details/philippinespast00unkngoog">3</a>).</p> +<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3> +<ul> +<li>18-MAY-2003 Added TEI tagging and header.</li> +<li>19-NOV-2005 Added first 48 plates with captions; fixed numerous +errors.</li> +<li>2010-08-10 Adjustments for ePub generation.</li> +<li>2012-08-12 Added remaining pictures and improvements of +tagging.</li> +</ul> +<h3 class="main">External References</h3> +<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These +links may not work for you.</p> +<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3> +<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> +<table class="correctiontable" summary= +"Overview of corrections applied to the text."> +<tr> +<th>Page</th> +<th>Source</th> +<th>Correction</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd21e1655">43</a></td> +<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40 bottom">’</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd21e9538">357</a></td> +<td class="width40 bottom">eight</td> +<td class="width40 bottom">eighty</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12077 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/12077-h/images/back.jpg b/12077-h/images/back.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9330314 --- /dev/null +++ b/12077-h/images/back.jpg diff --git a/12077-h/images/book.png b/12077-h/images/book.png Binary files differnew file 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