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diff --git a/old/1179-h.zip b/old/1179-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..61b8720 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/1179-h.zip diff --git a/old/1179-h/1179-h.htm b/old/1179-h/1179-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..134b55d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/1179-h/1179-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1594 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + On Revenues, by Xenophon + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of On Revenues, by Xenophon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: On Revenues + +Author: Xenophon + +Translator: H. G. Dakyns + +Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #1179] +Last Updated: January 15, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON REVENUES *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + ON REVENUES + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Xenophon + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Translation by H. G. Dakyns + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + Revenues describes Xenophon's ideas to solve the + problem of poverty in Athens, and thus remove an + excuse to mistreat the Athenian allies. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + WAYS AND MEANS + </h2> + <h3> + A Pamphlet On Revenues + </h3> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + For myself I hold to the opinion that the qualities of the leading + statesmen in a state, whatever they be, are reproduced in the character of + the constitution itself. (1) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) "Like minister, like government." For the same idea more fully + expressed, see "Cyrop." VIII. i. 8; viii. 5. +</pre> + <p> + As, however, it has been maintained by certain leading statesmen in Athens + that the recognised standard of right and wrong is as high at Athens as + elsewhere, but that, owing to the pressure of poverty on the masses, a + certain measure of injustice in their dealing with the allied states (2) + could not be avoided; I set myself to discover whether by any manner of + means it were possible for the citizens of Athens to be supported solely + from the soil of Attica itself, which was obviously the most equitable + solution. For if so, herein lay, as I believed, the antidote at once to + their own poverty and to the feeling of suspicion with which they are + regarded by the rest of Hellas. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Lit. "the cities," i.e. of the alliance, {tas summakhidas}. +</pre> + <p> + I had no sooner begun my investigation than one fact presented itself + clearly to my mind, which is that the country itself is made by nature to + provide the amplest resources. And with a view to establishing the truth + of this initial proposition I will describe the physical features of + Attica. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, the extraordinary mildness of the climate is proved by + the actual products of the soil. Numerous plants which in many parts of + the world appear as stunted leafless growths are here fruit-bearing. And + as with the soil so with the sea indenting our coasts, the varied + productivity of which is exceptionally great. Again with regard to those + kindly fruits of earth (3) which Providence bestows on man season by + season, one and all they commence earlier and end later in this land. Nor + is the supremacy of Attica shown only in those products which year after + year flourish and grow old, but the land contains treasures of a more + perennial kind. Within its folds lies imbedded by nature an unstinted + store of marble, out of which are chiselled (4) temples and altars of + rarest beauty and the glittering splendour of images sacred to the gods. + This marble, moreover, is an object of desire to many foreigners, Hellenes + and barbarians alike. Then there is land which, although it yields no + fruit to the sower, needs only to be quarried in order to feed many times + more mouths than it could as corn-land. Doubtless we owe it to a divine + dispensation that our land is veined with silver; if we consider how many + neighbouring states lie round us by land and sea and yet into none of them + does a single thinnest vein of silver penetrate. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Lit. "those good things which the gods afford in their seasons." + + (4) Or, "arise," or "are fashioned." +</pre> + <p> + Indeed it would be scarcely irrational to maintain that the city of Athens + lies at the navel, not of Hellas merely, but of the habitable world. So + true is it, that the farther we remove from Athens the greater the extreme + of heat or cold to be encountered; or to use another illustration, the + traveller who desires to traverse the confines of Hellas from end to end + will find that, whether he voyages by sea or by land, he is describing a + circle, the centre of which is Athens. (5) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) See "Geog. of Brit. Isles." J. R. and S. A. Green, ch. i. p. 7: + "London, in fact, is placed at what is very nearly the geometrical + centre of those masses of land which make up the earth surface of + the globe, and is thus more than any city of the world the natural + point of convergence for its different lines of navigation," etc. + The natural advantages of Boeotia are similarly set forth by + Ephorus. Cf. Strab. ix. 2, p. 400. +</pre> + <p> + Once more, this land though not literally sea-girt has all the advantages + of an island, being accessible to every wind that blows, and can invite to + its bosom or waft from its shore all products, since it is peninsular; + whilst by land it is the emporium of many markets, as being a portion of + the continent. + </p> + <p> + Lastly, while the majority of states have barbarian neighbours, the source + of many troubles, Athens has as her next-door neighbours civilised states + which are themselves far remote from the barbarians. + </p> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + All these advantages, to repeat what I have said, may, I believe, be + traced primarily to the soil and position of Attica itself. But these + natural blessings may be added to: in the first place, by a careful + handling of our resident alien (1) population. And, for my part, I can + hardly conceive of a more splendid source of revenue than lies open in + this direction. Here you have a self-supporting class of residents + conferring large benefits upon the state, and instead of receiving payment + (2) themselves, contributing on the contrary to the gain of the exchequer + by the sojourners' tax. (3) Nor, under the term careful handling, do I + demand more than the removal of obligations which, whilst they confer no + benefit on the state, have an air of inflicting various disabilities on + the resident aliens. (4) And I would further relieve them from the + obligation of serving as hoplites side by side with the citizen proper; + since, beside the personal risk, which is great, the trouble of quitting + trades and homesteads is no trifle. (5) Incidentally the state itself + would benefit by this exemption, if the citizens were more in the habit of + campaigning with one another, rather than (6) shoulder to shoulder with + Lydians, Phrygians, Syrians, and barbarians from all quarters of the + world, who form the staple of our resident alien class. Besides the + advantage (of so weeding the ranks), (7) it would add a positive lustre to + our city, were it admitted that the men of Athens, her sons, have reliance + on themselves rather than on foreigners to fight her battles. And further, + supposing we offered our resident aliens a share in various other + honourable duties, including the cavalry service, (8) I shall be surprised + if we do not increase the goodwill of the aliens themselves, whilst at the + same time we add distinctly to the strength and grandeur of our city. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Lit. "metics" or "metoecs." + + (2) {misthos}, e.g. of the assembly, the senate, and the dicasts. + + (3) The {metoikion}. See Plat. "Laws," 850 B; according to Isaeus, ap. + Harpocr. s.v., it was 12 drachmae per annum for a male and 6 + drachmae for a female. + + (4) Or, "the class in question." According to Schneider (who cites the + {atimetos metanastes} of Homer, "Il." ix. 648), the reference is + not to disabilities in the technical sense, but to humiliating + duties, such as the {skaphephoria} imposed on the men, or the + {udriaphoria} and {skiadephoria} imposed on their wives and + daughters in attendance on the {kanephoroi} at the Panathenaic and + other festival processions. See Arist. "Eccles." 730 foll.; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x. (Eng. tr. G. Cornewall Lewis, p. 538). + + (5) Or, reading {megas men gar o agon, mega de kai to apo ton tekhnon + kai ton oikeion apienai}, after Zurborg ("Xen. de Reditibus + Libellus," Berolini, MDCCCLXXVI.), transl. "since it is severe + enough to enter the arena of war, but all the worse when that + implies the abandonment of your trade and your domestic concerns." + + (6) Or, "instead of finding themselves brigaded as nowadays with a + motley crew of Lydians," etc. + + (7) Zurborg, after Cobet, omits the words so rendered. + + (8) See "Hipparch." ix. 3, where Xenophon in almost identical words + recommends that reform. +</pre> + <p> + In the next place, seeing that there are at present numerous building + sites within the city walls as yet devoid of houses, supposing the state + were to make free grants of such land (9) to foreigners for building + purposes in cases where there could be no doubt as to the respectability + of the applicant, if I am not mistaken, the result of such a measure will + be that a larger number of persons, and of a better class, will be + attracted to Athens as a place of residence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) Or, "offer the fee simple of such property to." +</pre> + <p> + Lastly, if we could bring ourselves to appoint, as a new government + office, a board of guardians of foreign residents like our Guardians of + Orphans, (10) with special privileges assigned to those guardians who + should show on their books the greatest number of resident aliens—such + a measure would tend to improve the goodwill of the class in question, and + in all probability all people without a city of their own would aspire to + the status of foreign residents in Athens, and so further increase the + revenues of the city. (11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) "The Archon was the legal protector of all orphans. It was his + duty to appoint guardians, if none were named in the father's + will."—C. R. Kennedy, Note to "Select Speeches of Demosthenes." + The orphans of those who had fallen in the war (Thuc. ii. 46) were + specially cared for. + + (11) Or, "help to swell the state exchequer." +</pre> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + At this point I propose to offer some remarks in proof of the attractions + and advantages of Athens as a centre of commercial enterprise. In the + first place, it will hardly be denied that we possess the finest and + safest harbourage for shipping, where vessels of all sorts can come to + moorings and be laid up in absolute security (1) as far as stress of + weather is concerned. But further than that, in most states the trader is + under the necessity of lading his vessel with some merchandise (2) or + other in exchange for his cargo, since the current coin (3) has no + circulation beyond the frontier. But at Athens he has a choice: he can + either in return for his wares export a variety of goods, such as human + beings seek after, or, if he does not desire to take goods in exchange for + goods, he has simply to export silver, and he cannot have a more excellent + freight to export, since wherever he likes to sell it he may look to + realise a large percentage on his capital. (4) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Reading {adeos} after Cobet, or if {edeos}, transl. "in perfect + comfort." + + (2) Or, "of exchanging cargo for cargo to the exclusion of specie." + + (3) I.e. of the particular locality. See "The Types of Greek Coins," + Percy Gardner, ch. ii. "International Currencies among the + Greeks." + + (4) Or, "on the original outlay." +</pre> + <p> + Or again, supposing prizes (5) were offered to the magistrates in charge + of the market (6) for equitable and speedy settlements of points in + dispute (7) to enable any one so wishing to proceed on his voyage without + hindrance, the result would be that far more traders would trade with us + and with greater satisfaction. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) Cf. "Hiero," ix. 6, 7, 11; "Hipparch." i. 26. + + (6) {to tou emporiou arkhe}. Probably he is referring to the + {epimeletai emporiou} (overseers of the market). See Harpocr. + s.v.; Aristot. "Athenian Polity," 51. + + (7) For the sort of case, see Demosth. (or Deinarch.) "c. Theocr." + 1324; Zurborg ad loc.; Boeckh, I. ix. xv. (pp. 48, 81, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + It would indeed be a good and noble institution to pay special marks of + honour, such as the privilege of the front seat, to merchants and + shipowners, and on occasion to invite to hospitable entertainment those + who, through something notable in the quality of ship or merchandise, may + claim to have done the state a service. The recipients of these honours + will rush into our arms as friends, not only under the incentive of gain, + but of distinction also. + </p> + <p> + Now the greater the number of people attracted to Athens either as + visitors or as residents, clearly the greater the development of imports + and exports. More goods will be sent out of the country, (8) there will be + more buying and selling, with a consequent influx of money in the shape of + rents to individuals and dues and customs to the state exchequer. And to + secure this augmentation of the revenues, mind you, not the outlay of one + single penny; nothing needed beyond one or two philanthropic measures and + certain details of supervision. (9) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 24. + + (9) See Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, 3. +</pre> + <p> + With regard to the other sources of revenue which I contemplate, I admit, + it is different. For these I recognise the necessity of a capital (10) to + begin with. I am not, however, without good hope that the citizens of this + state will contribute heartily to such an object, when I reflect on the + large sums subscribed by the state on various late occasions, as, for + instance, when reinforcements were sent to the Arcadians under the command + of Lysistratus, (11) and again at the date of the generalship of + Hegesileos. (12) I am well aware that ships of war are frequently + despatched and that too (13) although it is uncertain whether the venture + will be for the better or for the worse, and the only certainty is that + the contributor will not recover the sum subscribed nor have any further + share in the object for which he gave his contribution. (14) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) "A starting-point." + + (11) B.C. 366; cf. "Hell." VII. iv. 3. + + (12) B.C. 362; cf. "Hell." VII. v. 15. See Grote, "H. G." x. 459; + Ephor. ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 54; Diod. Sic. xv. 84; Boeckh, ap. L. + Dindorf. Xenophon's son Gryllus served under him and was slain. + + (13) Reading {kai tauta toutout men adelou ontos}, after Zurborg. + + (14) Reading { (uper) on an eisenegkosi} with Zurborg. See his note, + "Comm." p. 25. +</pre> + <p> + But for a sound investment (15) I know of nothing comparable with the + initial outlay to form this fund. (16) Any one whose contribution amounts + to ten minae (17) may look forward to a return as high as he would get on + bottomry, of nearly one-fifth, (18) as the recipient of three obols a day. + The contributor of five minae (19) will on the same principle get more + than a third, (20) while the majority of Athenians will get more than cent + per cent on their contribution. That is to say, a subscription of one mina + (21) will put the subscriber in possession of nearly double that sum, (22) + and that, moreover, without setting foot outside Athens, which, as far as + human affairs go, is as sound and durable a security as possible. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) "A good substantial property." + + (16) Or, "on the other hand, I affirm that the outlay necessary to + form the capital for my present project will be more remunerative + than any other that can be named." As to the scheme itself see + Grote, "Plato," III. ch. xxxix.; Boeckh, op. cit. (pp. 4, 37, 136, + 600 seq. Eng. tr.) Cf. Demosth. "de Sym." for another scheme, 354 + B.C., which shows the "sound administrative and practical + judgment" of the youthful orator as compared with "the benevolent + dreams and ample public largess in which Xenophon here indulges." + —Grote, op. cit. p. 601. + + (17) L40:12:4 = 1000 drachmae. + + (18) I.e. exactly 18 or nearly 20 per cent. The following table will + make the arithmetic clear:— + + 6 ob. = 1 drachma 10 minae = 6000 ob. + 100 dr. = 1 mina = 1000 dr. + + 600 ob. = 1 mina 1000 dr.:180 dr.::100:18 therefore nearly 1/5 + 3 ob. (a day) x 360 = 1080 ob. p.a. = nearly 20 per cent. + = 180 dr. p.a. + + As to the 3 obols a day (= 180 dr. p.a.) which as an Athenian + citizen he is entitled to, see Grote, op. cit. p. 597: "There will + be a regular distribution among all citizens, per head and + equally. Three oboli, or half a drachma, will be allotted daily to + each, to poor and rich alike" (on the principle of the Theorikon). + "For the poor citizens this will provide a comfortable + subsistence, without any contribution on their part; the poverty + now prevailing will thus be alleviated. The rich, like the poor, + receive the daily triobolon as a free gift; but if they compute it + as interest for their investments, they will find that the rate of + interest is full and satisfactory, like the rate on bottomry." + Zurborg, "Comm." p. 25; Boeckh, op. cit. IV. xxi. (p. 606, Eng. + tr.); and Grote's note, op. cit. p. 598. + + (19) = L20:6:3 = 500 drachmae. + + (20) = I.e. 36 per cent. + + (21) = L4:1:3 = 100 drachmae. + + (22) I.e. 180 per cent. +</pre> + <p> + Moreover, I am of opinion that if the names of contributors were to be + inscribed as benefactors for all time, many foreigners would be induced to + contribute, and possibly not a few states, in their desire to obtain the + right of inscription; indeed I anticipate that some kings, (23) tyrants, + (24) and satraps will display a keen desire to share in such a favour. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (23) Zurborg suggests (p. 5) "Philip or Cersobleptes." Cf. Isocr. "On + the Peace," S. 23. + + (24) I.e. despotic monarchs. +</pre> + <p> + To come to the point. Were such a capital once furnished, it would be a + magnificent plan to build lodging-houses for the benefit of shipmasters in + the neighbourhood of the harbours, in addition to those which exist; and + again, on the same principle, suitable places of meeting for merchants, + for the purposes (25) of buying and selling; and thirdly, public + lodging-houses for persons visiting the city. Again, supposing + dwelling-houses and stores for vending goods were fitted up for retail + dealers in Piraeus and the city, they would at once be an ornament to the + state and a fertile source of revenue. Also it seems to me it would be a + good thing to try and see if, on the principle on which at present the + state possesses public warships, it would not be possible to secure public + merchant vessels, to be let out on the security of guarantors just like + any other public property. If the plan were found feasible this public + merchant navy would be a large source of extra revenue. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (25) Reading, with Zurborg, {epi one te}. +</pre> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + I come to a new topic. I am persuaded that the establishment of the silver + mines on a proper footing (1) would be followed by a large increase in + wealth apart from the other sources of revenue. And I would like, for the + benefit of those who may be ignorant, to point out what the capacity of + these mines really is. You will then be in a position to decide how to + turn them to better account. It is clear, I presume, to every one that + these mines have for a very long time been in active operation; at any + rate no one will venture to fix the date at which they first began to be + worked. (2) Now in spite of the fact that the silver ore has been dug and + carried out for so long a time, I would ask you to note that the mounds of + rubbish so shovelled out are but a fractional portion of the series of + hillocks containing veins of silver, and as yet unquarried. Nor is the + silver-bearing region gradually becoming circumscribed. On the contrary it + is evidently extending in wider area from year to year. That is to say, + during the period in which thousands of workers (3) have been employed + within the mines no hand was ever stopped for want of work to do. Rather, + at any given moment, the work to be done was more than enough for the + hands employed. And so it is to-day with the owners of slaves working in + the mines; no one dreams of reducing the number of his hands. On the + contrary, the object is perpetually to acquire as many additional hands as + the owner possibly can. The fact is that with few hands to dig and search, + the find of treasure will be small, but with an increase in labour the + discovery of the ore itself is more than proportionally increased. So much + so, that of all operations with which I am acquainted, this is the only + one in which no sort of jealousy is felt at a further development of the + industry. (4) I may go a step farther; every proprietor of a farm will be + able to tell you exactly how many yoke of oxen are sufficient for the + estate, and how many farm hands. To send into the field more than the + exact number requisite every farmer would consider a dead loss. (5) But in + silver mining (operations) the universal complaint is the want of hands. + Indeed there is no analogy between this and other industries. With an + increase in the number of bronze-workers articles of bronze may become so + cheap that the bronze-worker has to retire from the field. And so again + with ironfounders. Or again, in a plethoric condition of the corn and wine + market these fruits of the soil will be so depreciated in value that the + particular husbandries cease to be remunerative, and many a farmer will + give up his tillage of the soil and betake himself to the business of a + merchant, or of a shopkeeper, to banking or money-lending. But the + converse is the case in the working of silver; there the larger the + quantity of ore discovered and the greater the amount of silver extracted, + the greater the number of persons ready to engage in the operation. One + more illustration: take the case of movable property. No one when he has + got sufficient furniture for his house dreams of making further purchases + on this head, but of silver no one ever yet possessed so much that he was + forced to cry "enough." On the contrary, if ever anybody does become + possessed of an immoderate amount he finds as much pleasure in digging a + hole in the ground and hoarding it as in the actual employment of it. And + from a wider point of view: when a state is prosperous there is nothing + which people so much desire as silver. The men want money to expend on + beautiful armour and fine horses, and houses, and sumptuous paraphernalia + (6) of all sorts. The women betake themselves to expensive apparel and + ornaments of gold. Or when states are sick, (7) either through barrenness + of corn and other fruits, or through war, the demand for current coin is + even more imperative (whilst the ground lies unproductive), to pay for + necessaries or military aid. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "on a sound basis." + + (2) "Exploited." + + (3) Or, "at the date when the maximum of hands was employed." + + (4) Reading {epikataskeuazumenois}, or, if {episkeuazomenoi}, transl. + "at the rehabilitation of old works." + + (5) Cf. "Oecon." xvii. 12. + + (6) "The thousand and one embellishments of civil life." + + (7) "When a state is struck down with barrenness," etc. See "Mem." II. + vii. +</pre> + <p> + And if it be asserted that gold is after all just as useful as silver, + without gainsaying the proposition I may note this fact (8) about gold, + that, with a sudden influx of this metal, it is the gold itself which is + depreciated whilst causing at the same time a rise in the value of silver. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Lit. "I know, however." +</pre> + <p> + The above facts are, I think, conclusive. They encourage us not only to + introduce as much human labour as possible into the mines, but to extend + the scale of operations within, by increase of plant, etc., in full + assurance that there is no danger either of the ore itself being exhausted + or of silver becoming depreciated. And in advancing these views I am + merely following a precedent set me by the state herself. So it seems to + me, since the state permits any foreigner who desires it to undertake + mining operations on a footing of equality (9) with her own citizens. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) Or, "at an equal rent with that which she imposes on her own + citizens." See Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x. (p. 540, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + But, to make my meaning clearer on the question of maintenance, I will at + this point explain in detail how the silver mines may be furnished and + extended so as to render them much more useful to the state. Only I would + premise that I claim no sort of admiration for anything which I am about + to say, as though I had hit upon some recondite discovery. Since half of + what I have to say is at the present moment still patent to the eyes of + all of us, and as to what belongs to past history, if we are to believe + the testimony of our fathers, (10) things were then much of a piece with + what is going on now. No, what is really marvellous is that the state, + with the fact of so many private persons growing wealthy at her expense, + and under her very eyes, should have failed to imitate them. It is an old + story, trite enough to those of us who have cared to attend to it, how + once on a time Nicias, the son of Niceratus, owned a thousand men in the + silver mines, (11) whom he let out to Sosias, a Thracian, on the following + terms. Sosias was to pay him a net obol a day, without charge or + deduction, for every slave of the thousand, and be (12) responsible for + keeping up the number perpetually at that figure. So again Hipponicus (13) + had six hundred slaves let out on the same principle, which brought him in + a net mina (14) a day without charge or deduction. Then there was + Philemonides, with three hundred, bringing him in half a mina, and others, + I make no doubt there were, making profits in proportion to their + respective resources and capital. (15) But there is no need to revert to + ancient history. At the present moment there are hundreds of human beings + in the mines let out on the same principle. (16) And given that my + proposal were carried into effect, the only novelty in it is that, just as + the individual in acquiring the ownership of a gang of slaves finds + himself at once provided with a permanent source of income, so the state, + in like fashion, should possess herself of a body of public slaves, to the + number, say, of three for every Athenian citizen. (17) As to the + feasibility of our proposals, I challenge any one whom it may concern to + test the scheme point by point, and to give his verdict. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Reading {para ton pateron}, with Zurborg, after Wilamowitz- + Mollendorf. + + (11) See "Mem." II. v. 2; Plut. "Nicias," 4; "Athen." vi. 272. See an + important criticism of Boeckh's view by Cornewall Lewis, + translation of "P. E. A." p. 675 foll. + + (12) Reading {parekhein}, or if {pareikhen}, transl. "whilst he + himself kept up the number." See H. hagen in "Journ. Philol." x. + 19, pp. 34-36; also Zurborg, "Comm." p. 28. + + (13) Son of Callias. + + (14) = L4:1:3 = 600 ob. + + (15) Or, "whose incomes would vary in proportion to their working + capital." + + (16) See Jebb, "Theophr." xxvi. 21. + + (17) According to the ancient authorities the citizens of Athens + numbered about 21,000 at this date, which would give about 63,000 + as the number of state-slaves contemplated for the purposes of the + scheme. See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 29. "At a census taken in B.C. 309 + the number of slaves was returned at 400,000, and it does not seem + likely that there were fewer at any time during the classical + period."—"A Companion to School Classics" (James Gow), p. 101, + xiii. "Population of Attica." +</pre> + <p> + With regard to the price then of the men themselves, it is obvious that + the public treasury is in a better position to provide funds than any + private individuals. What can be easier than for the Council (18) to + invite by public proclamation all whom it may concern to bring their + slaves, and to buy up those produced? Assuming the purchase to be + effected, is it credible that people will hesitate to hire from the state + rather than from the private owner, and actually on the same terms? People + have at all events no hesitation at present in hiring consecrated grounds, + sacred victims, (19) houses, etc., or in purchasing the right of farming + taxes from the state. To ensure the preservation of the purchased + property, the treasury can take the same securities precisely from the + lessee as it does from those who purchase the right of farming its taxes. + Indeed, fraudulent dealing is easier on the part of the man who has + purchased such a right than of the man who hires slaves. Since it is not + easy to see how the exportation (20) of public money is to be detected, + when it differs in no way from private money. Whereas it will take a + clever thief to make off with these slaves, marked as they will be with + the public stamp, and in face of a heavy penalty attached at once to the + sale and exportation of them. Up to this point then it would appear + feasible enough for the state to acquire property in men and to keep a + safe watch over them. (21) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (18) Or, "senate." See Aristot. "Athen. Pol." for the functions of the + Boule. + + (19) So Zurborg. See Demosth. "in Mid." 570; Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. + xii. (p. 212, Eng. tr.) See Arnold's note to "Thuc." iii. 50, 7. + + (20) Or, "diversation," "defalcation." + + (21) Or, "as far as that goes, then, there is nothing apparently to + prevent the state from acquiring property in slaves, and + safeguarding the property so acquired." +</pre> + <p> + But with reference to an opposite objection which may present itself to + the mind of some one: what guarantee is there that, along with the + increase in the supply of labourers, there will be a corresponding demand + for their services on the part of contractors? (22) It may be reassuring + to note, first of all, that many of those who have already embarked on + mining operations (23) will be anxious to increase their staff of + labourers by hiring some of these public slaves (remember, they have a + large capital at stake; (24) and again, many of the actual labourers now + engaged are growing old); and secondly, there are many others, Athenians + and foreigners alike, who, though unwilling and indeed incapable of + working physically in the mines, will be glad enough to earn a livelihood + by their wits as superintendents. (25) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (22) Or, "with this influx (multiplying) of labourers there will be a + corresponding increase in the demand for labour on the part of the + lessees." + + (23) Or, "got their mining establishments started." + + (24) Or, "of course they will, considering the amount of fixed capital + at stake," or, "since they have large resources at their back." I + have adopted Zurborg's stopping of this sentence. + + (25) See "Mem." II. viii. 1, for an illustrative case. +</pre> + <p> + Let it be granted, however, that at first a nucleus of twelve hundred + slaves is formed. It is hardly too sanguine a supposition that out of the + profits alone, (26) within five or six years this number may be increased + to at least six thousand. Again, out of that number of six thousand—supposing + each slave to being in an obol a day clear of all expenses—we get a + revenue of sixty talents a year. And supposing twenty talents out of this + sum laid out on the purchase of more slaves, there will be forty talents + left for the state to apply to any other purpose it may find advisable. By + the time the round number (27) of ten thousand is reached the yearly + income will amount to a hundred talents. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (26) "Out of the income so derived." + + (27) Or, "full complement." +</pre> + <p> + As a matter of fact, the state will receive much more than these figures + represent, (28) as any one here will bear me witness who can remember what + the dues (29) derived from slaves realised before the troubles at Decelea. + (30) Testimony to the same effect is borne by the fact, that in spite of + the countless number of human beings employed in the silver mines within + the whole period, (31) the mines present exactly the same appearance + to-day as they did within the recollection of our forefathers. (32) And + once more everything that is taking place to-day tends to prove that, + whatever the number of slaves employed, you will never have more than the + works can easily absorb. The miners find no limit of depth in sinking + shafts or laterally in piercing galleries. To open cuttings in new + directions to-day is just as possible as it was in former times. In fact + no one can take on himself to say whether there is more ore in the regions + already cut into, or in those where the pick has not yet struck. (33) Well + then, it may be asked, why is it that there is not the same rush to make + new cuttings now as in former times? The answer is, because the people + concerned with the mines are poorer nowadays. The attempt to restart + operations, renew plant, etc., is of recent date, and any one who ventures + to open up a new area runs a considerable risk. Supposing he hits upon a + productive field, he becomes a rich man, but supposing he draws a blank, + he loses the whole of his outlay; and that is a danger which people of the + present time are shy of facing. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (28) Or, "a very much larger sum than we have calculated on." Lit. + "many times over that sum." + + (29) Or, "tax." See below, S. 49; for the whole matter see Thuc. vii. + 27, vi. 91; Xen. "Mem." III. vi. 12, in reference to B.C. 413, + when Decelea had been fortified. As to the wholesale desertion of + slaves, "more than twenty thousand slaves had deserted, many of + them artisans," according to Thucydides. + + (30) Or, "the days of Decelea." Lit. "the incidents of Decelea." + + (31) I.e. "of their working since mining began." + + (32) Lit. "are just the same to-day as our forefathers recollected + them to be in their time." + + (33) Or, "whether the tracts already explored or those not yet opened + are the more prolific." +</pre> + <p> + It is a difficulty, but it is one on which, I believe, I can offer some + practical advice. I have a plan to suggest which will reduce the risk of + opening up new cuttings to a minimum. (34) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (34) Or, "I have a plan to make the opening of new cuttings as safe as + possible." +</pre> + <p> + The citizens of Athens are divided, as we all know, into ten tribes. Let + the state then assign to each of these ten tribes an equal number of + slaves, and let the tribes agree to associate their fortunes and proceed + to open new cuttings. What will happen? Any single tribe hitting upon a + productive lode will be the means of discovering what is advantageous to + all. Or, supposing two or three, or possibly the half of them, hit upon a + lode, clearly these several operations will proportionally be more + remunerative still. That the whole ten will fail is not at all in + accordance with what we should expect from the history of the past. It is + possible, of course, for private persons to combine in the same way, (35) + and share their fortunes and minimise their risks. Nor need you apprehend, + sirs, that a state mining company, established on this principle, will + prove a thorn in the side (36) of the private owner, or the private owner + prove injurious to the state. But rather like allies who render each other + stronger the more they combine, (37) so in these silver mines, the greater + number of companies at work (38) the larger the riches they will discover + and disinter. (39) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (35) "To form similar joint-stock companies." + + (36) See "Cyneg." v. 5. + + (37) Or, "deriving strength from combination." + + (38) Co-operators. + + (39) Reading {ekphoresousi}, after Cobet. +</pre> + <p> + This then is a statement, as far as I can make it clear, of the method by + which, with the proper state organisation, every Athenian may be supplied + with ample maintenance at the public expense. Possibly some of you may be + calculating that the capital (40) requisite will be enormous. They may + doubt if a sufficient sum will ever be subscribed to meet all the needs. + All I can say is, even so, do not despond. It is not as if it were + necessary that every feature of the scheme should be carried out at once, + or else there is to be no advantage in it at all. On the contrary, + whatever number of houses are erected, or ships are built, or slaves + purchased, etc., these portions will begin to pay at once. In fact, the + bit-by-bit method of proceeding will be more advantageous than a + simultaneous carrying into effect of the whole plan, to this extent: if we + set about erecting buildings wholesale (41) we shall make a more expensive + and worse job of it than if we finish them off gradually. Again, if we set + about bidding for hundreds of slaves at once we shall be forced to + purchase an inferior type at a higher cost. Whereas, if we proceed + tentatively, as we find ourselves able, (42) we can complete any + well-devised attempt at our leisure, (43) and, in case of any obvious + failure, take warning and not repeat it. Again, if everything were to be + carried out at once, it is we, sirs, who must make the whole provision at + our expense. (44) Whereas, if part were proceeded with and part stood + over, the portion of revenue in hand will help to furnish what is + necessary to go on with. But to come now to what every one probably will + regard as a really grave danger, lest the state may become possessed of an + over large number of slaves, with the result that the works will be + overstocked. That again is an apprehension which we may escape if we are + careful not to put into the works more hands from year to year than the + works themselves demand. Thus (45) I am persuaded that the easiest method + of carrying out this scheme, as a whole, is also the best. If, however, + you are persuaded that, owing to the extraordinary property taxes (46) to + which you have been subjected during the present war, you will not be + equal to any further contributions at present, (47) what you should do is + this: (48) during the current year resolve to carry on the financial + administration of the state within the limits of a sum equivalent to that + which your dues (49) realised before the peace. That done, you are at + liberty to take any surplus sum, whether directly traceable to the peace + itself, or to the more courteous treatment of our resident aliens and + traders, or to the growth of the imports and exports, coincident with the + collecting together of larger masses of human beings, or to an + augmentation of harbour (50) and market dues: this surplus, I say, however + derived, you should take and invest (51) so as to bring in the greatest + revenue. (52) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (40) Or, "sinking fund." + + (41) {athrooi}—"in a body." It is a military phrase, I think. In + close order, as it were, not in detachments. + + (42) "According to our ability," a favourite Socratic phrase. + + (43) {authis}. See for this corrupt passage Zurborg, "Comm." p. 31. He + would insert, "and a little delay will not be prejudicial to our + interests, but rather the contrary," or to that effect, thus: {kai + authis an (anutoimen ou gar toiaute te anabole blaben genesthai + an) emin oiometha} "vel simile aliquid." + + (44) Or, "it is we who must bear the whole burthen of the outlay." + + (45) {outos}, "so far, unless I am mistaken, the easiest method is the + best." + + (46) Or, "heavy contributions, subscriptions incidental to," but the + word {eisphoras} is technical. For the exhaustion of the treasury + see Dem. "Lept." 464; Grote, "H. G."xi. 326. + + (47) Or, "you will not be able to subscribe a single penny more." + + (48) {umeis de}, you are masters of the situation. It lies with you to + carry on, etc.; {dioikeite} is of course imperative. + + (49) Or, "taxes." + + (50) Reading, after Zurborg, {dia ta ellimenia}. Or, if the vulg. {dia + en limeni}, transl. "an augmentation of market dues at Piraeus." + + (51) I.e. as fixed capital, or, "you should expend on plant." + + (52) Or, adopting Zurborg's emend, {os an pleista eggignetai}, transl. + "for the purposes of the present scheme as far as it may be + available." +</pre> + <p> + Again, if there is an apprehension on the part of any that the whole + scheme (53) will crumble into nothing on the first outbreak of war, I + would only beg these alarmists to note that, under the condition of things + which we propose to bring about, war will have more terrors for the + attacking party than for this state. Since what possession I should like + to know can be more serviceable for war than that of men? Think of the + many ships which they will be capable of manning on public service. Think + of the number who will serve on land as infantry (in the public service) + and will bear hard upon the enemy. Only we must treat them with courtesy. + (54) For myself, my calculation is, that even in the event of war we shall + be quite able to keep a firm hold of the silver mines. I may take it, we + have in the neighbourhood of the mines certain fortresses—one on the + southern slope in Anaphlystus; (55) and we have another on the northern + side in Thoricus, the two being about seven and a half miles (56) apart. + Suppose then a third breastwork were to be placed between these, on the + highest point of Besa, that would enable the operatives to collect into + one out of all the fortresses, and at the first perception of a hostile + movement it would only be a short distance for each to retire into safety. + (57) In the event of an enemy advancing in large numbers they might + certainly make off with whatever corn or wine or cattle they found + outside. But even if they did get hold of the silver ore, it would be + little better to them than a heap of stones. (58) But how is an enemy ever + to march upon the mines in force? The nearest state, Megara, is distant, I + take it, a good deal over sixty miles; (59) and the next closest, Thebes, + a good deal nearer seventy. (60) Supposing then an enemy to advance from + some such point to attack the mines, he cannot avoid passing Athens; and + presuming his force to be small, we may expect him to be annihilated by + our cavalry and frontier police. (61) I say, presuming his force to be + small, since to march with anything like a large force, and thereby leave + his own territory denuded of troops, would be a startling achievement. + Why, the fortified city of Athens will be much closer the states of the + attacking parties than they themselves will be by the time they have got + to the mines. But, for the sake of argument, let us suppose an enemy to + have arrived in the neighbourhood of Laurium; how is he going to stop + there without provisions? To go out in search of supplies with a + detachment of his force would imply risk, both for the foraging party and + for those who have to do the fighting; (62) whilst, if they are driven to + do so in force each time, they may call themselves besiegers, but they + will be practically in a state of siege themselves. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (53) Or, "the proposed organisation." + + (54) See ch. ii. above. + + (55) Or, reading {en te pros mesembrian thalatte}, "on the southern + Sea." For Anaphlystus see "Hell." I. ii. 1; "Mem." III. v. 25. It + was Eubulus's deme, the leading statesman at this date. + + (56) Lit. "60 stades." + + (57) The passage {sunekoi t an erga}, etc., is probably corrupt. {Ta + erga} seems to mean "the operatives;" cf. Latin "operae." Others + take it of "the works themselves." Possibly it may refer to + military works connecting the three fortresses named. "There might + be a system of converging (works or) lines drawn to a single point + from all the fortresses, and at the first sign of any thing + hostile," etc. + + (58) I.e. "they might as well try to carry off so many tons of stone." + + (59) Lit. "500 stades." + + (60) Lit. "more than 600 stades." + + (61) The {peripoloi}, or horse patrol to guard the frontier. See Thuc. + iv. 57, viii. 92; Arist. "Birds,"ii. 76. Young Athenians between + eighteen and twenty were eligible for the service. + + (62) Or, "for the very object of the contest." The construction is in + any case unusual. {peri on agonizontai} = {peri touton oi}. + Zurborg suggests {peri ton agonizomenon}. +</pre> + <p> + But it is not the income (63) derived from the slaves alone to which we + look to help the state towards the effective maintenance of her citizens, + but with the growth and concentration of a thick population in the mining + district various sources of revenue will accrue, whether from the market + at Sunium, or from the various state buildings in connection with the + silver mines, from furnaces and all the rest. Since we must expect a + thickly populated city to spring up here, if organised in the way + proposed, and plots of land will become as valuable to owners out there as + they are to those who possess them in the neighbourhood of the capital. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (63) I adopt Zurborg's correction, {prosphora} for {eisphora}, as + obviously right. See above, iv. 23. +</pre> + <p> + If, at this point, I may assume my proposals to have been carried into + effect, I think I can promise, not only that our city shall be relieved + from a financial strain, but that she shall make a great stride in + orderliness and in tactical organisation, she shall grow in martial spirit + and readiness for war. I anticipate that those who are under orders to go + through gymnastic training will devote themselves with a new zeal to the + details of the training school, now that they will receive a larger + maintenance whilst (64) under the orders of the trainer in the torch race. + So again those on garrison duty in the various fortresses, those enrolled + as peltasts, or again as frontier police to protect the rural districts, + one and all will carry out their respective duties more ardently when the + maintenance (64) appropriate to these several functions is duly + forthcoming. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (64) I follow Zurborg in omitting {e}. If {e} is to stand, transl. + "than they get whilst supplied by the gymnasiarch in the torch + race," or "whilst exercising the office of gymnasiarchs + themselves." See "Pol. Ath." i. 13. + + (65) "State aid." +</pre> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + But now, if it is evident that, in order to get the full benefit of all + these sources of revenue, (1) peace is an indispensable condition—if + that is plain, I say, the question suggests itself, would it not be worth + while to appoint a board to act as guardians of peace? Since no doubt the + election of such a magistracy would enhance the charm of this city in the + eyes of the whole world, and add largely to the number of our visitors. + But if any one is disposed to take the view, that by adopting a persistent + peace policy, (2) this city will be shorn of her power, that her glory + will dwindle and her good name be forgotten throughout the length and + breadth of Hellas, the view so taken by our friends here (3) is in my poor + judgment somewhat unreasonable. For they are surely the happy states, + they, in popular language, are most fortune-favoured, which endure in + peace the longest season. And of all states Athens is pre-eminently + adapted by nature to flourish and wax strong in peace. The while she + abides in peace she cannot fail to exercise an attractive force on all. + From the mariner and the merchant upwards, all seek her, flocking they + come; the wealthy dealers in corn and wine (4) and oil, the owner of many + cattle. And not these only, but the man who depends upon his wits, whose + skill it is to do business and make gain out of money (5) and its + employment. And here another crowd, artificers of all sorts, artists and + artisans, professors of wisdom, (6) philosophers, and poets, with those + who exhibit and popularise their works. (7) And next a new train of + pleasure-seekers, eager to feast on everything sacred or secular, (8) + which may captivate and charm eye and ear. Or once again, where are all + those who seek to effect a rapid sale or purchase of a thousand + commodities, to find what they want, if not at Athens? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "to set these several sources of revenue flowing in full + stream." + + (2) Cf. "a policy of peace at any price," or, "by persisting for any + length of time in the enjoyment of peace." + + (3) {kai outoi ge}. The speaker waves his hand to the quarter of the + house where the anti-peace party is seated. + + (4) After Zurborg, I omit {oukh oi eduoinoi}. + + (5) Reading {kai ap arguriou}, with Zurborg. + + (6) Lit. "Sophists." See Grote, "H. G." viii. lxvii. note, p. 497. + + (7) E.g. chorus-trainers, musicians, grammarians, rhapsodists, and + actors. + + (8) Or, "sacred and profane." +</pre> + <p> + But if there is no desire to gainsay these views—only that certain + people, in their wish to recover that headship (9) which was once the + pride of our city, are persuaded that the accomplishment of their hopes is + to be found, not in peace but in war, I beg them to reflect on some + matters of history, and to begin at the beginning, (10) the Median war. + Was it by high-handed violence, or as benefactors of the Hellenes, that we + obtained the headship of the naval forces, and the trusteeship of the + treasury of Hellas? (11) Again, when through the too cruel exercise of her + presidency, as men thought, Athens was deprived of her empire, is it not + the case that even in those days, (12) as soon as we held aloof from + injustice we were once more reinstated by the islanders, of their own free + will, as presidents of the naval force? Nay, did not the very Thebans, in + return for certain benefits, grant to us Athenians to exercise leadership + over them? (13) And at another date the Lacedaemonans suffered us + Athenians to arrange the terms of hegemony (14) at our discretion, not as + driven to such submission, but in requital of kindly treatment. And + to-day, owing to the chaos (15) which reigns in Hellas, if I mistake not, + an opportunity has fallen to this city of winning back our fellow-Hellenes + without pain or peril or expense of any sort. It is given to us to try and + harmonise states which are at war with one another: it is given to us to + reconcile the differences of rival factions within those states + themselves, wherever existing. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) Lit. "her hegemony for the city," B.C. 476. + + (10) "And first of all." + + (11) See Thuc. i. 96. + + (12) B.C. 378. Second confederacy of Delos. See Grote, "H. G." x. 152. + + (13) B.C. 375. Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 62; Grote, "H. G." x. 139; Isocr. + "Or." xiv. 20; Diod. Sic. xv. 29. + + (14) B.C. 369 (al. B.C. 368). Cf. "Hell." VII. i. 14. + + (15) See "Hell."VII. v. 27. +</pre> + <p> + Make it but evident that we are minded to preserve the independence (16) + of the Delphic shrine in its primitive integrity, not by joining in any + war but by the moral force of embassies throughout the length and breadth + of Hellas—and I for one shall not be astonished if you find our + brother Hellenes of one sentiment and eager under seal of solemn oaths + (17) to proceed against those, whoever they may be, who shall seek (18) to + step into the place vacated by the Phocians and to occupy the sacred + shrine. Make it but evident that you intend to establish a general peace + by land and sea, and, if I mistake not, your efforts will find a response + in the hearts of all. There is no man but will pray for the salvation of + Athens next to that of his own fatherland. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) "Autonomy." + + (17) See Thuc. v. 18, clause 2 of the Treaty of Peace, B.C. 422-421. + + (18) Reading, with Zurborg, {peironto}. Or, if the vulgate + {epeironto}, transl. "against those who sought to step." +</pre> + <p> + Again, is any one persuaded that, looking solely to riches and + money-making, the state may find war more profitable than peace? If so, I + cannot conceive a better method to decide that question than to allow the + mind to revert (19) to the past history of the state and to note well the + sequence of events. He will discover that in times long gone by during a + period of peace vast wealth was stored up in the acropolis, the whole of + which was lavishly expended during a subsequent period of war. He will + perceive, if he examines closely, that even at the present time we are + suffering from its ill effects. Countless sources of revenue have failed, + or if they have still flowed in, been lavishly expended on a multiplicity + of things. Whereas, (20) now that peace is established by sea, our + revenues have expanded and the citizens of Athens have it in their power + to turn these to account as they like best. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) Reading {epanoskopoin}. + + (20) Or, "But the moment peace has been restored." +</pre> + <p> + But if you turn on me with the question, "Do you really mean that even in + the event of unjust attacks upon our city on the part of any, we are still + resolutely to observe peace towards that offender?" I answer distinctly, + No! But, on the contrary, I maintain that we shall all the more promptly + retaliate on such aggression in proportion as we have done no wrong to any + one ourselves. Since that will be to rob the aggressor of his allies. (21) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) Reading, after Cobet, {ei medena uparkhoimen adikountes}. Or, if + the vulgate {ei medena parakhoimen adikounta}, transl. "if we can + show complete innocence on our own side." +</pre> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + But now, if none of these proposals be impracticable or even difficult of + execution; if rather by giving them effect we may conciliate further the + friendship of Hellas, whilst we strengthen our own administration and + increase our fame; if by the same means the people shall be provided with + the necessaries of life, and our rich men be relieved of expenditure on + war; if with the large surplus to be counted on, we are in a position to + conduct our festivals on an even grander scale than heretofore, to restore + our temples, to rebuild our forts and docks, and to reinstate in their + ancient privileges our priests, our senators, our magistrates, and our + knights—surely it were but reasonable to enter upon this project + speedily, so that we too, even in our own day, may witness the unclouded + dawn of prosperity in store for our city. + </p> + <p> + But if you are agreed to carry out this plan, there is one further counsel + which I would urge upon you. Send to Dodona and to Delphi, I would beg + you, and consult the will of Heaven whether such a provision and such a + policy on our part be truly to the interest of Athens both for the present + and for the time to come. If the consent of Heaven be thus obtained, we + ought then, I say, to put a further question: whose special favour among + the gods shall we seek to secure with a view to the happier execution of + these measures? + </p> + <p> + And in accordance with that answer, let us offer a sacrifice of happy omen + to the deities so named, and commence the work; since if these + transactions be so carried out with the will of God, have we not the right + to prognosticate some further advance in the path of political progress + for this whole state? + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Revenues, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON REVENUES *** + +***** This file should be named 1179-h.htm or 1179-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/1/7/1179/ + +Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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G. Dakyns + +Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #1179] +Release Date: January, 1998 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON REVENUES *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers + + + + + +ON REVENUES + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + Revenues describes Xenophon's ideas to solve the + problem of poverty in Athens, and thus remove an + excuse to mistreat the Athenian allies. + + + + + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + +WAYS AND MEANS + +A Pamphlet On Revenues + + + +I + +For myself I hold to the opinion that the qualities of the leading +statesmen in a state, whatever they be, are reproduced in the character +of the constitution itself. (1) + + (1) "Like minister, like government." For the same idea more fully + expressed, see "Cyrop." VIII. i. 8; viii. 5. + +As, however, it has been maintained by certain leading statesmen in +Athens that the recognised standard of right and wrong is as high at +Athens as elsewhere, but that, owing to the pressure of poverty on the +masses, a certain measure of injustice in their dealing with the allied +states (2) could not be avoided; I set myself to discover whether by +any manner of means it were possible for the citizens of Athens to be +supported solely from the soil of Attica itself, which was obviously +the most equitable solution. For if so, herein lay, as I believed, the +antidote at once to their own poverty and to the feeling of suspicion +with which they are regarded by the rest of Hellas. + + (2) Lit. "the cities," i.e. of the alliance, {tas summakhidas}. + +I had no sooner begun my investigation than one fact presented itself +clearly to my mind, which is that the country itself is made by nature +to provide the amplest resources. And with a view to establishing the +truth of this initial proposition I will describe the physical features +of Attica. + +In the first place, the extraordinary mildness of the climate is proved +by the actual products of the soil. Numerous plants which in many parts +of the world appear as stunted leafless growths are here fruit-bearing. +And as with the soil so with the sea indenting our coasts, the varied +productivity of which is exceptionally great. Again with regard to those +kindly fruits of earth (3) which Providence bestows on man season by +season, one and all they commence earlier and end later in this land. +Nor is the supremacy of Attica shown only in those products which year +after year flourish and grow old, but the land contains treasures of +a more perennial kind. Within its folds lies imbedded by nature an +unstinted store of marble, out of which are chiselled (4) temples and +altars of rarest beauty and the glittering splendour of images sacred +to the gods. This marble, moreover, is an object of desire to many +foreigners, Hellenes and barbarians alike. Then there is land which, +although it yields no fruit to the sower, needs only to be quarried +in order to feed many times more mouths than it could as corn-land. +Doubtless we owe it to a divine dispensation that our land is veined +with silver; if we consider how many neighbouring states lie round us +by land and sea and yet into none of them does a single thinnest vein of +silver penetrate. + + (3) Lit. "those good things which the gods afford in their seasons." + + (4) Or, "arise," or "are fashioned." + +Indeed it would be scarcely irrational to maintain that the city of +Athens lies at the navel, not of Hellas merely, but of the habitable +world. So true is it, that the farther we remove from Athens the +greater the extreme of heat or cold to be encountered; or to use another +illustration, the traveller who desires to traverse the confines of +Hellas from end to end will find that, whether he voyages by sea or by +land, he is describing a circle, the centre of which is Athens. (5) + + (5) See "Geog. of Brit. Isles." J. R. and S. A. Green, ch. i. p. 7: + "London, in fact, is placed at what is very nearly the geometrical + centre of those masses of land which make up the earth surface of + the globe, and is thus more than any city of the world the natural + point of convergence for its different lines of navigation," etc. + The natural advantages of Boeotia are similarly set forth by + Ephorus. Cf. Strab. ix. 2, p. 400. + +Once more, this land though not literally sea-girt has all the +advantages of an island, being accessible to every wind that blows, and +can invite to its bosom or waft from its shore all products, since it is +peninsular; whilst by land it is the emporium of many markets, as being +a portion of the continent. + +Lastly, while the majority of states have barbarian neighbours, +the source of many troubles, Athens has as her next-door neighbours +civilised states which are themselves far remote from the barbarians. + + + +II + +All these advantages, to repeat what I have said, may, I believe, be +traced primarily to the soil and position of Attica itself. But these +natural blessings may be added to: in the first place, by a careful +handling of our resident alien (1) population. And, for my part, I can +hardly conceive of a more splendid source of revenue than lies open +in this direction. Here you have a self-supporting class of residents +conferring large benefits upon the state, and instead of receiving +payment (2) themselves, contributing on the contrary to the gain of +the exchequer by the sojourners' tax. (3) Nor, under the term careful +handling, do I demand more than the removal of obligations which, whilst +they confer no benefit on the state, have an air of inflicting various +disabilities on the resident aliens. (4) And I would further relieve +them from the obligation of serving as hoplites side by side with the +citizen proper; since, beside the personal risk, which is great, the +trouble of quitting trades and homesteads is no trifle. (5) Incidentally +the state itself would benefit by this exemption, if the citizens were +more in the habit of campaigning with one another, rather than (6) +shoulder to shoulder with Lydians, Phrygians, Syrians, and barbarians +from all quarters of the world, who form the staple of our resident +alien class. Besides the advantage (of so weeding the ranks), (7) it +would add a positive lustre to our city, were it admitted that the +men of Athens, her sons, have reliance on themselves rather than on +foreigners to fight her battles. And further, supposing we offered our +resident aliens a share in various other honourable duties, including +the cavalry service, (8) I shall be surprised if we do not increase +the goodwill of the aliens themselves, whilst at the same time we add +distinctly to the strength and grandeur of our city. + + (1) Lit. "metics" or "metoecs." + + (2) {misthos}, e.g. of the assembly, the senate, and the dicasts. + + (3) The {metoikion}. See Plat. "Laws," 850 B; according to Isaeus, ap. + Harpocr. s.v., it was 12 drachmae per annum for a male and 6 + drachmae for a female. + + (4) Or, "the class in question." According to Schneider (who cites the + {atimetos metanastes} of Homer, "Il." ix. 648), the reference is + not to disabilities in the technical sense, but to humiliating + duties, such as the {skaphephoria} imposed on the men, or the + {udriaphoria} and {skiadephoria} imposed on their wives and + daughters in attendance on the {kanephoroi} at the Panathenaic and + other festival processions. See Arist. "Eccles." 730 foll.; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x. (Eng. tr. G. Cornewall Lewis, p. 538). + + (5) Or, reading {megas men gar o agon, mega de kai to apo ton tekhnon + kai ton oikeion apienai}, after Zurborg ("Xen. de Reditibus + Libellus," Berolini, MDCCCLXXVI.), transl. "since it is severe + enough to enter the arena of war, but all the worse when that + implies the abandonment of your trade and your domestic concerns." + + (6) Or, "instead of finding themselves brigaded as nowadays with a + motley crew of Lydians," etc. + + (7) Zurborg, after Cobet, omits the words so rendered. + + (8) See "Hipparch." ix. 3, where Xenophon in almost identical words + recommends that reform. + +In the next place, seeing that there are at present numerous building +sites within the city walls as yet devoid of houses, supposing the state +were to make free grants of such land (9) to foreigners for building +purposes in cases where there could be no doubt as to the respectability +of the applicant, if I am not mistaken, the result of such a measure +will be that a larger number of persons, and of a better class, will be +attracted to Athens as a place of residence. + + (9) Or, "offer the fee simple of such property to." + +Lastly, if we could bring ourselves to appoint, as a new government +office, a board of guardians of foreign residents like our Guardians of +Orphans, (10) with special privileges assigned to those guardians who +should show on their books the greatest number of resident aliens--such +a measure would tend to improve the goodwill of the class in question, +and in all probability all people without a city of their own would +aspire to the status of foreign residents in Athens, and so further +increase the revenues of the city. (11) + + (10) "The Archon was the legal protector of all orphans. It was his + duty to appoint guardians, if none were named in the father's + will."--C. R. Kennedy, Note to "Select Speeches of Demosthenes." + The orphans of those who had fallen in the war (Thuc. ii. 46) were + specially cared for. + + (11) Or, "help to swell the state exchequer." + + + +III + +At this point I propose to offer some remarks in proof of the +attractions and advantages of Athens as a centre of commercial +enterprise. In the first place, it will hardly be denied that we possess +the finest and safest harbourage for shipping, where vessels of all +sorts can come to moorings and be laid up in absolute security (1) as +far as stress of weather is concerned. But further than that, in most +states the trader is under the necessity of lading his vessel with some +merchandise (2) or other in exchange for his cargo, since the current +coin (3) has no circulation beyond the frontier. But at Athens he has a +choice: he can either in return for his wares export a variety of goods, +such as human beings seek after, or, if he does not desire to take goods +in exchange for goods, he has simply to export silver, and he cannot +have a more excellent freight to export, since wherever he likes to sell +it he may look to realise a large percentage on his capital. (4) + + (1) Reading {adeos} after Cobet, or if {edeos}, transl. "in perfect + comfort." + + (2) Or, "of exchanging cargo for cargo to the exclusion of specie." + + (3) I.e. of the particular locality. See "The Types of Greek Coins," + Percy Gardner, ch. ii. "International Currencies among the + Greeks." + + (4) Or, "on the original outlay." + +Or again, supposing prizes (5) were offered to the magistrates in charge +of the market (6) for equitable and speedy settlements of points in +dispute (7) to enable any one so wishing to proceed on his voyage +without hindrance, the result would be that far more traders would trade +with us and with greater satisfaction. + + (5) Cf. "Hiero," ix. 6, 7, 11; "Hipparch." i. 26. + + (6) {to tou emporiou arkhe}. Probably he is referring to the + {epimeletai emporiou} (overseers of the market). See Harpocr. + s.v.; Aristot. "Athenian Polity," 51. + + (7) For the sort of case, see Demosth. (or Deinarch.) "c. Theocr." + 1324; Zurborg ad loc.; Boeckh, I. ix. xv. (pp. 48, 81, Eng. tr.) + +It would indeed be a good and noble institution to pay special marks +of honour, such as the privilege of the front seat, to merchants and +shipowners, and on occasion to invite to hospitable entertainment those +who, through something notable in the quality of ship or merchandise, +may claim to have done the state a service. The recipients of these +honours will rush into our arms as friends, not only under the incentive +of gain, but of distinction also. + +Now the greater the number of people attracted to Athens either as +visitors or as residents, clearly the greater the development of imports +and exports. More goods will be sent out of the country, (8) there will +be more buying and selling, with a consequent influx of money in +the shape of rents to individuals and dues and customs to the state +exchequer. And to secure this augmentation of the revenues, mind you, +not the outlay of one single penny; nothing needed beyond one or two +philanthropic measures and certain details of supervision. (9) + + (8) See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 24. + + (9) See Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, 3. + +With regard to the other sources of revenue which I contemplate, I +admit, it is different. For these I recognise the necessity of a capital +(10) to begin with. I am not, however, without good hope that the +citizens of this state will contribute heartily to such an object, when +I reflect on the large sums subscribed by the state on various late +occasions, as, for instance, when reinforcements were sent to the +Arcadians under the command of Lysistratus, (11) and again at the date +of the generalship of Hegesileos. (12) I am well aware that ships of +war are frequently despatched and that too (13) although it is uncertain +whether the venture will be for the better or for the worse, and +the only certainty is that the contributor will not recover the sum +subscribed nor have any further share in the object for which he gave +his contribution. (14) + + (10) "A starting-point." + + (11) B.C. 366; cf. "Hell." VII. iv. 3. + + (12) B.C. 362; cf. "Hell." VII. v. 15. See Grote, "H. G." x. 459; + Ephor. ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 54; Diod. Sic. xv. 84; Boeckh, ap. L. + Dindorf. Xenophon's son Gryllus served under him and was slain. + + (13) Reading {kai tauta toutout men adelou ontos}, after Zurborg. + + (14) Reading { (uper) on an eisenegkosi} with Zurborg. See his note, + "Comm." p. 25. + +But for a sound investment (15) I know of nothing comparable with +the initial outlay to form this fund. (16) Any one whose contribution +amounts to ten minae (17) may look forward to a return as high as he +would get on bottomry, of nearly one-fifth, (18) as the recipient of +three obols a day. The contributor of five minae (19) will on the same +principle get more than a third, (20) while the majority of Athenians +will get more than cent per cent on their contribution. That is to say, +a subscription of one mina (21) will put the subscriber in possession +of nearly double that sum, (22) and that, moreover, without setting +foot outside Athens, which, as far as human affairs go, is as sound and +durable a security as possible. + + (15) "A good substantial property." + + (16) Or, "on the other hand, I affirm that the outlay necessary to + form the capital for my present project will be more remunerative + than any other that can be named." As to the scheme itself see + Grote, "Plato," III. ch. xxxix.; Boeckh, op. cit. (pp. 4, 37, 136, + 600 seq. Eng. tr.) Cf. Demosth. "de Sym." for another scheme, 354 + B.C., which shows the "sound administrative and practical + judgment" of the youthful orator as compared with "the benevolent + dreams and ample public largess in which Xenophon here indulges." + --Grote, op. cit. p. 601. + + (17) L40:12:4 = 1000 drachmae. + + (18) I.e. exactly 18 or nearly 20 per cent. The following table will + make the arithmetic clear:-- + + 6 ob. = 1 drachma 10 minae = 6000 ob. + 100 dr. = 1 mina = 1000 dr. + + 600 ob. = 1 mina 1000 dr.:180 dr.::100:18 therefore nearly 1/5 + 3 ob. (a day) x 360 = 1080 ob. p.a. = nearly 20 per cent. + = 180 dr. p.a. + + As to the 3 obols a day (= 180 dr. p.a.) which as an Athenian + citizen he is entitled to, see Grote, op. cit. p. 597: "There will + be a regular distribution among all citizens, per head and + equally. Three oboli, or half a drachma, will be allotted daily to + each, to poor and rich alike" (on the principle of the Theorikon). + "For the poor citizens this will provide a comfortable + subsistence, without any contribution on their part; the poverty + now prevailing will thus be alleviated. The rich, like the poor, + receive the daily triobolon as a free gift; but if they compute it + as interest for their investments, they will find that the rate of + interest is full and satisfactory, like the rate on bottomry." + Zurborg, "Comm." p. 25; Boeckh, op. cit. IV. xxi. (p. 606, Eng. + tr.); and Grote's note, op. cit. p. 598. + + (19) = L20:6:3 = 500 drachmae. + + (20) = I.e. 36 per cent. + + (21) = L4:1:3 = 100 drachmae. + + (22) I.e. 180 per cent. + +Moreover, I am of opinion that if the names of contributors were to be +inscribed as benefactors for all time, many foreigners would be induced +to contribute, and possibly not a few states, in their desire to obtain +the right of inscription; indeed I anticipate that some kings, (23) +tyrants, (24) and satraps will display a keen desire to share in such a +favour. + + (23) Zurborg suggests (p. 5) "Philip or Cersobleptes." Cf. Isocr. "On + the Peace," S. 23. + + (24) I.e. despotic monarchs. + +To come to the point. Were such a capital once furnished, it would be a +magnificent plan to build lodging-houses for the benefit of shipmasters +in the neighbourhood of the harbours, in addition to those which +exist; and again, on the same principle, suitable places of meeting for +merchants, for the purposes (25) of buying and selling; and thirdly, +public lodging-houses for persons visiting the city. Again, supposing +dwelling-houses and stores for vending goods were fitted up for retail +dealers in Piraeus and the city, they would at once be an ornament to +the state and a fertile source of revenue. Also it seems to me it would +be a good thing to try and see if, on the principle on which at present +the state possesses public warships, it would not be possible to secure +public merchant vessels, to be let out on the security of guarantors +just like any other public property. If the plan were found feasible +this public merchant navy would be a large source of extra revenue. + + (25) Reading, with Zurborg, {epi one te}. + + + +IV + +I come to a new topic. I am persuaded that the establishment of the +silver mines on a proper footing (1) would be followed by a large +increase in wealth apart from the other sources of revenue. And I would +like, for the benefit of those who may be ignorant, to point out what +the capacity of these mines really is. You will then be in a position +to decide how to turn them to better account. It is clear, I presume, +to every one that these mines have for a very long time been in active +operation; at any rate no one will venture to fix the date at which they +first began to be worked. (2) Now in spite of the fact that the silver +ore has been dug and carried out for so long a time, I would ask you to +note that the mounds of rubbish so shovelled out are but a fractional +portion of the series of hillocks containing veins of silver, and as +yet unquarried. Nor is the silver-bearing region gradually becoming +circumscribed. On the contrary it is evidently extending in wider area +from year to year. That is to say, during the period in which thousands +of workers (3) have been employed within the mines no hand was ever +stopped for want of work to do. Rather, at any given moment, the work to +be done was more than enough for the hands employed. And so it is +to-day with the owners of slaves working in the mines; no one dreams +of reducing the number of his hands. On the contrary, the object is +perpetually to acquire as many additional hands as the owner possibly +can. The fact is that with few hands to dig and search, the find of +treasure will be small, but with an increase in labour the discovery of +the ore itself is more than proportionally increased. So much so, that +of all operations with which I am acquainted, this is the only one +in which no sort of jealousy is felt at a further development of the +industry. (4) I may go a step farther; every proprietor of a farm will +be able to tell you exactly how many yoke of oxen are sufficient for the +estate, and how many farm hands. To send into the field more than the +exact number requisite every farmer would consider a dead loss. (5) But +in silver mining (operations) the universal complaint is the want of +hands. Indeed there is no analogy between this and other industries. +With an increase in the number of bronze-workers articles of bronze may +become so cheap that the bronze-worker has to retire from the field. And +so again with ironfounders. Or again, in a plethoric condition of the +corn and wine market these fruits of the soil will be so depreciated in +value that the particular husbandries cease to be remunerative, and many +a farmer will give up his tillage of the soil and betake himself to the +business of a merchant, or of a shopkeeper, to banking or money-lending. +But the converse is the case in the working of silver; there the larger +the quantity of ore discovered and the greater the amount of silver +extracted, the greater the number of persons ready to engage in the +operation. One more illustration: take the case of movable property. No +one when he has got sufficient furniture for his house dreams of making +further purchases on this head, but of silver no one ever yet possessed +so much that he was forced to cry "enough." On the contrary, if ever +anybody does become possessed of an immoderate amount he finds as much +pleasure in digging a hole in the ground and hoarding it as in the +actual employment of it. And from a wider point of view: when a state is +prosperous there is nothing which people so much desire as silver. +The men want money to expend on beautiful armour and fine horses, and +houses, and sumptuous paraphernalia (6) of all sorts. The women betake +themselves to expensive apparel and ornaments of gold. Or when states +are sick, (7) either through barrenness of corn and other fruits, or +through war, the demand for current coin is even more imperative (whilst +the ground lies unproductive), to pay for necessaries or military aid. + + (1) Or, "on a sound basis." + + (2) "Exploited." + + (3) Or, "at the date when the maximum of hands was employed." + + (4) Reading {epikataskeuazumenois}, or, if {episkeuazomenoi}, transl. + "at the rehabilitation of old works." + + (5) Cf. "Oecon." xvii. 12. + + (6) "The thousand and one embellishments of civil life." + + (7) "When a state is struck down with barrenness," etc. See "Mem." II. + vii. + +And if it be asserted that gold is after all just as useful as silver, +without gainsaying the proposition I may note this fact (8) about gold, +that, with a sudden influx of this metal, it is the gold itself which +is depreciated whilst causing at the same time a rise in the value of +silver. + + (8) Lit. "I know, however." + +The above facts are, I think, conclusive. They encourage us not only to +introduce as much human labour as possible into the mines, but to extend +the scale of operations within, by increase of plant, etc., in full +assurance that there is no danger either of the ore itself being +exhausted or of silver becoming depreciated. And in advancing these +views I am merely following a precedent set me by the state herself. So +it seems to me, since the state permits any foreigner who desires it to +undertake mining operations on a footing of equality (9) with her own +citizens. + + (9) Or, "at an equal rent with that which she imposes on her own + citizens." See Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x. (p. 540, Eng. tr.) + +But, to make my meaning clearer on the question of maintenance, I will +at this point explain in detail how the silver mines may be furnished +and extended so as to render them much more useful to the state. Only I +would premise that I claim no sort of admiration for anything which I am +about to say, as though I had hit upon some recondite discovery. Since +half of what I have to say is at the present moment still patent to the +eyes of all of us, and as to what belongs to past history, if we are to +believe the testimony of our fathers, (10) things were then much of a +piece with what is going on now. No, what is really marvellous is that +the state, with the fact of so many private persons growing wealthy +at her expense, and under her very eyes, should have failed to imitate +them. It is an old story, trite enough to those of us who have cared to +attend to it, how once on a time Nicias, the son of Niceratus, owned +a thousand men in the silver mines, (11) whom he let out to Sosias, a +Thracian, on the following terms. Sosias was to pay him a net obol a +day, without charge or deduction, for every slave of the thousand, +and be (12) responsible for keeping up the number perpetually at that +figure. So again Hipponicus (13) had six hundred slaves let out on +the same principle, which brought him in a net mina (14) a day without +charge or deduction. Then there was Philemonides, with three hundred, +bringing him in half a mina, and others, I make no doubt there were, +making profits in proportion to their respective resources and capital. +(15) But there is no need to revert to ancient history. At the present +moment there are hundreds of human beings in the mines let out on +the same principle. (16) And given that my proposal were carried into +effect, the only novelty in it is that, just as the individual in +acquiring the ownership of a gang of slaves finds himself at once +provided with a permanent source of income, so the state, in like +fashion, should possess herself of a body of public slaves, to the +number, say, of three for every Athenian citizen. (17) As to the +feasibility of our proposals, I challenge any one whom it may concern to +test the scheme point by point, and to give his verdict. + + (10) Reading {para ton pateron}, with Zurborg, after Wilamowitz- + Mollendorf. + + (11) See "Mem." II. v. 2; Plut. "Nicias," 4; "Athen." vi. 272. See an + important criticism of Boeckh's view by Cornewall Lewis, + translation of "P. E. A." p. 675 foll. + + (12) Reading {parekhein}, or if {pareikhen}, transl. "whilst he + himself kept up the number." See H. hagen in "Journ. Philol." x. + 19, pp. 34-36; also Zurborg, "Comm." p. 28. + + (13) Son of Callias. + + (14) = L4:1:3 = 600 ob. + + (15) Or, "whose incomes would vary in proportion to their working + capital." + + (16) See Jebb, "Theophr." xxvi. 21. + + (17) According to the ancient authorities the citizens of Athens + numbered about 21,000 at this date, which would give about 63,000 + as the number of state-slaves contemplated for the purposes of the + scheme. See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 29. "At a census taken in B.C. 309 + the number of slaves was returned at 400,000, and it does not seem + likely that there were fewer at any time during the classical + period."--"A Companion to School Classics" (James Gow), p. 101, + xiii. "Population of Attica." + +With regard to the price then of the men themselves, it is obvious that +the public treasury is in a better position to provide funds than any +private individuals. What can be easier than for the Council (18) to +invite by public proclamation all whom it may concern to bring their +slaves, and to buy up those produced? Assuming the purchase to be +effected, is it credible that people will hesitate to hire from the +state rather than from the private owner, and actually on the same +terms? People have at all events no hesitation at present in hiring +consecrated grounds, sacred victims, (19) houses, etc., or in purchasing +the right of farming taxes from the state. To ensure the preservation +of the purchased property, the treasury can take the same securities +precisely from the lessee as it does from those who purchase the right +of farming its taxes. Indeed, fraudulent dealing is easier on the part +of the man who has purchased such a right than of the man who hires +slaves. Since it is not easy to see how the exportation (20) of public +money is to be detected, when it differs in no way from private money. +Whereas it will take a clever thief to make off with these slaves, +marked as they will be with the public stamp, and in face of a heavy +penalty attached at once to the sale and exportation of them. Up to +this point then it would appear feasible enough for the state to acquire +property in men and to keep a safe watch over them. (21) + + (18) Or, "senate." See Aristot. "Athen. Pol." for the functions of the + Boule. + + (19) So Zurborg. See Demosth. "in Mid." 570; Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. + xii. (p. 212, Eng. tr.) See Arnold's note to "Thuc." iii. 50, 7. + + (20) Or, "diversation," "defalcation." + + (21) Or, "as far as that goes, then, there is nothing apparently to + prevent the state from acquiring property in slaves, and + safeguarding the property so acquired." + +But with reference to an opposite objection which may present itself +to the mind of some one: what guarantee is there that, along with the +increase in the supply of labourers, there will be a corresponding demand +for their services on the part of contractors? (22) It may be reassuring +to note, first of all, that many of those who have already embarked +on mining operations (23) will be anxious to increase their staff of +labourers by hiring some of these public slaves (remember, they have a +large capital at stake; (24) and again, many of the actual labourers now +engaged are growing old); and secondly, there are many others, Athenians +and foreigners alike, who, though unwilling and indeed incapable +of working physically in the mines, will be glad enough to earn a +livelihood by their wits as superintendents. (25) + + (22) Or, "with this influx (multiplying) of labourers there will be a + corresponding increase in the demand for labour on the part of the + lessees." + + (23) Or, "got their mining establishments started." + + (24) Or, "of course they will, considering the amount of fixed capital + at stake," or, "since they have large resources at their back." I + have adopted Zurborg's stopping of this sentence. + + (25) See "Mem." II. viii. 1, for an illustrative case. + +Let it be granted, however, that at first a nucleus of twelve hundred +slaves is formed. It is hardly too sanguine a supposition that out of +the profits alone, (26) within five or six years this number may be +increased to at least six thousand. Again, out of that number of six +thousand--supposing each slave to being in an obol a day clear of all +expenses--we get a revenue of sixty talents a year. And supposing twenty +talents out of this sum laid out on the purchase of more slaves, there +will be forty talents left for the state to apply to any other purpose +it may find advisable. By the time the round number (27) of ten thousand +is reached the yearly income will amount to a hundred talents. + + (26) "Out of the income so derived." + + (27) Or, "full complement." + +As a matter of fact, the state will receive much more than these figures +represent, (28) as any one here will bear me witness who can remember +what the dues (29) derived from slaves realised before the troubles at +Decelea. (30) Testimony to the same effect is borne by the fact, that +in spite of the countless number of human beings employed in the silver +mines within the whole period, (31) the mines present exactly the +same appearance to-day as they did within the recollection of our +forefathers. (32) And once more everything that is taking place to-day +tends to prove that, whatever the number of slaves employed, you will +never have more than the works can easily absorb. The miners find no +limit of depth in sinking shafts or laterally in piercing galleries. To +open cuttings in new directions to-day is just as possible as it was in +former times. In fact no one can take on himself to say whether there is +more ore in the regions already cut into, or in those where the pick has +not yet struck. (33) Well then, it may be asked, why is it that there +is not the same rush to make new cuttings now as in former times? +The answer is, because the people concerned with the mines are poorer +nowadays. The attempt to restart operations, renew plant, etc., is +of recent date, and any one who ventures to open up a new area runs a +considerable risk. Supposing he hits upon a productive field, he becomes +a rich man, but supposing he draws a blank, he loses the whole of his +outlay; and that is a danger which people of the present time are shy of +facing. + + (28) Or, "a very much larger sum than we have calculated on." Lit. + "many times over that sum." + + (29) Or, "tax." See below, S. 49; for the whole matter see Thuc. vii. + 27, vi. 91; Xen. "Mem." III. vi. 12, in reference to B.C. 413, + when Decelea had been fortified. As to the wholesale desertion of + slaves, "more than twenty thousand slaves had deserted, many of + them artisans," according to Thucydides. + + (30) Or, "the days of Decelea." Lit. "the incidents of Decelea." + + (31) I.e. "of their working since mining began." + + (32) Lit. "are just the same to-day as our forefathers recollected + them to be in their time." + + (33) Or, "whether the tracts already explored or those not yet opened + are the more prolific." + +It is a difficulty, but it is one on which, I believe, I can offer some +practical advice. I have a plan to suggest which will reduce the risk of +opening up new cuttings to a minimum. (34) + + (34) Or, "I have a plan to make the opening of new cuttings as safe as + possible." + +The citizens of Athens are divided, as we all know, into ten tribes. +Let the state then assign to each of these ten tribes an equal number of +slaves, and let the tribes agree to associate their fortunes and proceed +to open new cuttings. What will happen? Any single tribe hitting upon a +productive lode will be the means of discovering what is advantageous to +all. Or, supposing two or three, or possibly the half of them, hit upon +a lode, clearly these several operations will proportionally be more +remunerative still. That the whole ten will fail is not at all in +accordance with what we should expect from the history of the past. It +is possible, of course, for private persons to combine in the same way, +(35) and share their fortunes and minimise their risks. Nor need you +apprehend, sirs, that a state mining company, established on this +principle, will prove a thorn in the side (36) of the private owner, or +the private owner prove injurious to the state. But rather like allies +who render each other stronger the more they combine, (37) so in these +silver mines, the greater number of companies at work (38) the larger +the riches they will discover and disinter. (39) + + (35) "To form similar joint-stock companies." + + (36) See "Cyneg." v. 5. + + (37) Or, "deriving strength from combination." + + (38) Co-operators. + + (39) Reading {ekphoresousi}, after Cobet. + +This then is a statement, as far as I can make it clear, of the method +by which, with the proper state organisation, every Athenian may be +supplied with ample maintenance at the public expense. Possibly some of +you may be calculating that the capital (40) requisite will be enormous. +They may doubt if a sufficient sum will ever be subscribed to meet all +the needs. All I can say is, even so, do not despond. It is not as if it +were necessary that every feature of the scheme should be carried out at +once, or else there is to be no advantage in it at all. On the contrary, +whatever number of houses are erected, or ships are built, or slaves +purchased, etc., these portions will begin to pay at once. In fact, +the bit-by-bit method of proceeding will be more advantageous than a +simultaneous carrying into effect of the whole plan, to this extent: +if we set about erecting buildings wholesale (41) we shall make a more +expensive and worse job of it than if we finish them off gradually. +Again, if we set about bidding for hundreds of slaves at once we shall +be forced to purchase an inferior type at a higher cost. Whereas, if we +proceed tentatively, as we find ourselves able, (42) we can complete any +well-devised attempt at our leisure, (43) and, in case of any obvious +failure, take warning and not repeat it. Again, if everything were to be +carried out at once, it is we, sirs, who must make the whole provision +at our expense. (44) Whereas, if part were proceeded with and part +stood over, the portion of revenue in hand will help to furnish what is +necessary to go on with. But to come now to what every one probably will +regard as a really grave danger, lest the state may become possessed of +an over large number of slaves, with the result that the works will be +overstocked. That again is an apprehension which we may escape if we are +careful not to put into the works more hands from year to year than +the works themselves demand. Thus (45) I am persuaded that the easiest +method of carrying out this scheme, as a whole, is also the best. If, +however, you are persuaded that, owing to the extraordinary property +taxes (46) to which you have been subjected during the present war, you +will not be equal to any further contributions at present, (47) what you +should do is this: (48) during the current year resolve to carry on +the financial administration of the state within the limits of a sum +equivalent to that which your dues (49) realised before the peace. +That done, you are at liberty to take any surplus sum, whether directly +traceable to the peace itself, or to the more courteous treatment of +our resident aliens and traders, or to the growth of the imports and +exports, coincident with the collecting together of larger masses of +human beings, or to an augmentation of harbour (50) and market dues: +this surplus, I say, however derived, you should take and invest (51) so +as to bring in the greatest revenue. (52) + + (40) Or, "sinking fund." + + (41) {athrooi}--"in a body." It is a military phrase, I think. In + close order, as it were, not in detachments. + + (42) "According to our ability," a favourite Socratic phrase. + + (43) {authis}. See for this corrupt passage Zurborg, "Comm." p. 31. He + would insert, "and a little delay will not be prejudicial to our + interests, but rather the contrary," or to that effect, thus: {kai + authis an (anutoimen ou gar toiaute te anabole blaben genesthai + an) emin oiometha} "vel simile aliquid." + + (44) Or, "it is we who must bear the whole burthen of the outlay." + + (45) {outos}, "so far, unless I am mistaken, the easiest method is the + best." + + (46) Or, "heavy contributions, subscriptions incidental to," but the + word {eisphoras} is technical. For the exhaustion of the treasury + see Dem. "Lept." 464; Grote, "H. G."xi. 326. + + (47) Or, "you will not be able to subscribe a single penny more." + + (48) {umeis de}, you are masters of the situation. It lies with you to + carry on, etc.; {dioikeite} is of course imperative. + + (49) Or, "taxes." + + (50) Reading, after Zurborg, {dia ta ellimenia}. Or, if the vulg. {dia + en limeni}, transl. "an augmentation of market dues at Piraeus." + + (51) I.e. as fixed capital, or, "you should expend on plant." + + (52) Or, adopting Zurborg's emend, {os an pleista eggignetai}, transl. + "for the purposes of the present scheme as far as it may be + available." + +Again, if there is an apprehension on the part of any that the whole +scheme (53) will crumble into nothing on the first outbreak of war, +I would only beg these alarmists to note that, under the condition of +things which we propose to bring about, war will have more terrors for +the attacking party than for this state. Since what possession I should +like to know can be more serviceable for war than that of men? Think of +the many ships which they will be capable of manning on public service. +Think of the number who will serve on land as infantry (in the +public service) and will bear hard upon the enemy. Only we +must treat them with courtesy. (54) For myself, my calculation is, that +even in the event of war we shall be quite able to keep a firm hold of +the silver mines. I may take it, we have in the neighbourhood of the +mines certain fortresses--one on the southern slope in Anaphlystus; +(55) and we have another on the northern side in Thoricus, the two being +about seven and a half miles (56) apart. Suppose then a third breastwork +were to be placed between these, on the highest point of Besa, +that would enable the operatives to collect into one out of all the +fortresses, and at the first perception of a hostile movement it would +only be a short distance for each to retire into safety. (57) In the +event of an enemy advancing in large numbers they might certainly make +off with whatever corn or wine or cattle they found outside. But even if +they did get hold of the silver ore, it would be little better to them +than a heap of stones. (58) But how is an enemy ever to march upon the +mines in force? The nearest state, Megara, is distant, I take it, a good +deal over sixty miles; (59) and the next closest, Thebes, a good deal +nearer seventy. (60) Supposing then an enemy to advance from some such +point to attack the mines, he cannot avoid passing Athens; and presuming +his force to be small, we may expect him to be annihilated by our +cavalry and frontier police. (61) I say, presuming his force to be +small, since to march with anything like a large force, and thereby +leave his own territory denuded of troops, would be a startling +achievement. Why, the fortified city of Athens will be much closer the +states of the attacking parties than they themselves will be by the +time they have got to the mines. But, for the sake of argument, let us +suppose an enemy to have arrived in the neighbourhood of Laurium; how +is he going to stop there without provisions? To go out in search of +supplies with a detachment of his force would imply risk, both for the +foraging party and for those who have to do the fighting; (62) whilst, +if they are driven to do so in force each time, they may call themselves +besiegers, but they will be practically in a state of siege themselves. + + (53) Or, "the proposed organisation." + + (54) See ch. ii. above. + + (55) Or, reading {en te pros mesembrian thalatte}, "on the southern + Sea." For Anaphlystus see "Hell." I. ii. 1; "Mem." III. v. 25. It + was Eubulus's deme, the leading statesman at this date. + + (56) Lit. "60 stades." + + (57) The passage {sunekoi t an erga}, etc., is probably corrupt. {Ta + erga} seems to mean "the operatives;" cf. Latin "operae." Others + take it of "the works themselves." Possibly it may refer to + military works connecting the three fortresses named. "There might + be a system of converging (works or) lines drawn to a single point + from all the fortresses, and at the first sign of any thing + hostile," etc. + + (58) I.e. "they might as well try to carry off so many tons of stone." + + (59) Lit. "500 stades." + + (60) Lit. "more than 600 stades." + + (61) The {peripoloi}, or horse patrol to guard the frontier. See Thuc. + iv. 57, viii. 92; Arist. "Birds,"ii. 76. Young Athenians between + eighteen and twenty were eligible for the service. + + (62) Or, "for the very object of the contest." The construction is in + any case unusual. {peri on agonizontai} = {peri touton oi}. + Zurborg suggests {peri ton agonizomenon}. + +But it is not the income (63) derived from the slaves alone to which +we look to help the state towards the effective maintenance of her +citizens, but with the growth and concentration of a thick population in +the mining district various sources of revenue will accrue, whether from +the market at Sunium, or from the various state buildings in connection +with the silver mines, from furnaces and all the rest. Since we must +expect a thickly populated city to spring up here, if organised in the +way proposed, and plots of land will become as valuable to owners out +there as they are to those who possess them in the neighbourhood of the +capital. + + (63) I adopt Zurborg's correction, {prosphora} for {eisphora}, as + obviously right. See above, iv. 23. + +If, at this point, I may assume my proposals to have been carried into +effect, I think I can promise, not only that our city shall be relieved +from a financial strain, but that she shall make a great stride in +orderliness and in tactical organisation, she shall grow in martial +spirit and readiness for war. I anticipate that those who are under +orders to go through gymnastic training will devote themselves with +a new zeal to the details of the training school, now that they will +receive a larger maintenance whilst (64) under the orders of the trainer +in the torch race. So again those on garrison duty in the various +fortresses, those enrolled as peltasts, or again as frontier police to +protect the rural districts, one and all will carry out their respective +duties more ardently when the maintenance (64) appropriate to these +several functions is duly forthcoming. + + (64) I follow Zurborg in omitting {e}. If {e} is to stand, transl. + "than they get whilst supplied by the gymnasiarch in the torch + race," or "whilst exercising the office of gymnasiarchs + themselves." See "Pol. Ath." i. 13. + + (65) "State aid." + + + +V + +But now, if it is evident that, in order to get the full benefit of all +these sources of revenue, (1) peace is an indispensable condition--if +that is plain, I say, the question suggests itself, would it not be +worth while to appoint a board to act as guardians of peace? Since no +doubt the election of such a magistracy would enhance the charm of this +city in the eyes of the whole world, and add largely to the number +of our visitors. But if any one is disposed to take the view, that by +adopting a persistent peace policy, (2) this city will be shorn of +her power, that her glory will dwindle and her good name be forgotten +throughout the length and breadth of Hellas, the view so taken by our +friends here (3) is in my poor judgment somewhat unreasonable. For +they are surely the happy states, they, in popular language, are most +fortune-favoured, which endure in peace the longest season. And of all +states Athens is pre-eminently adapted by nature to flourish and wax +strong in peace. The while she abides in peace she cannot fail to +exercise an attractive force on all. From the mariner and the merchant +upwards, all seek her, flocking they come; the wealthy dealers in corn +and wine (4) and oil, the owner of many cattle. And not these only, but +the man who depends upon his wits, whose skill it is to do business and +make gain out of money (5) and its employment. And here another crowd, +artificers of all sorts, artists and artisans, professors of wisdom, +(6) philosophers, and poets, with those who exhibit and popularise their +works. (7) And next a new train of pleasure-seekers, eager to feast on +everything sacred or secular, (8) which may captivate and charm eye and +ear. Or once again, where are all those who seek to effect a rapid sale +or purchase of a thousand commodities, to find what they want, if not at +Athens? + + (1) Or, "to set these several sources of revenue flowing in full + stream." + + (2) Cf. "a policy of peace at any price," or, "by persisting for any + length of time in the enjoyment of peace." + + (3) {kai outoi ge}. The speaker waves his hand to the quarter of the + house where the anti-peace party is seated. + + (4) After Zurborg, I omit {oukh oi eduoinoi}. + + (5) Reading {kai ap arguriou}, with Zurborg. + + (6) Lit. "Sophists." See Grote, "H. G." viii. lxvii. note, p. 497. + + (7) E.g. chorus-trainers, musicians, grammarians, rhapsodists, and + actors. + + (8) Or, "sacred and profane." + +But if there is no desire to gainsay these views--only that certain +people, in their wish to recover that headship (9) which was once the +pride of our city, are persuaded that the accomplishment of their hopes +is to be found, not in peace but in war, I beg them to reflect on some +matters of history, and to begin at the beginning, (10) the Median war. +Was it by high-handed violence, or as benefactors of the Hellenes, that +we obtained the headship of the naval forces, and the trusteeship of the +treasury of Hellas? (11) Again, when through the too cruel exercise of +her presidency, as men thought, Athens was deprived of her empire, is it +not the case that even in those days, (12) as soon as we held aloof from +injustice we were once more reinstated by the islanders, of their own +free will, as presidents of the naval force? Nay, did not the very +Thebans, in return for certain benefits, grant to us Athenians +to exercise leadership over them? (13) And at another date the +Lacedaemonans suffered us Athenians to arrange the terms of hegemony +(14) at our discretion, not as driven to such submission, but in +requital of kindly treatment. And to-day, owing to the chaos (15) which +reigns in Hellas, if I mistake not, an opportunity has fallen to this +city of winning back our fellow-Hellenes without pain or peril or +expense of any sort. It is given to us to try and harmonise states +which are at war with one another: it is given to us to reconcile the +differences of rival factions within those states themselves, wherever +existing. + + (9) Lit. "her hegemony for the city," B.C. 476. + + (10) "And first of all." + + (11) See Thuc. i. 96. + + (12) B.C. 378. Second confederacy of Delos. See Grote, "H. G." x. 152. + + (13) B.C. 375. Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 62; Grote, "H. G." x. 139; Isocr. + "Or." xiv. 20; Diod. Sic. xv. 29. + + (14) B.C. 369 (al. B.C. 368). Cf. "Hell." VII. i. 14. + + (15) See "Hell."VII. v. 27. + +Make it but evident that we are minded to preserve the independence (16) +of the Delphic shrine in its primitive integrity, not by joining in +any war but by the moral force of embassies throughout the length and +breadth of Hellas--and I for one shall not be astonished if you find our +brother Hellenes of one sentiment and eager under seal of solemn oaths +(17) to proceed against those, whoever they may be, who shall seek (18) +to step into the place vacated by the Phocians and to occupy the sacred +shrine. Make it but evident that you intend to establish a general +peace by land and sea, and, if I mistake not, your efforts will find +a response in the hearts of all. There is no man but will pray for the +salvation of Athens next to that of his own fatherland. + + (16) "Autonomy." + + (17) See Thuc. v. 18, clause 2 of the Treaty of Peace, B.C. 422-421. + + (18) Reading, with Zurborg, {peironto}. Or, if the vulgate + {epeironto}, transl. "against those who sought to step." + +Again, is any one persuaded that, looking solely to riches and +money-making, the state may find war more profitable than peace? If so, +I cannot conceive a better method to decide that question than to allow +the mind to revert (19) to the past history of the state and to note +well the sequence of events. He will discover that in times long gone by +during a period of peace vast wealth was stored up in the acropolis, the +whole of which was lavishly expended during a subsequent period of war. +He will perceive, if he examines closely, that even at the present time +we are suffering from its ill effects. Countless sources of revenue have +failed, or if they have still flowed in, been lavishly expended on a +multiplicity of things. Whereas, (20) now that peace is established by +sea, our revenues have expanded and the citizens of Athens have it in +their power to turn these to account as they like best. + + (19) Reading {epanoskopoin}. + + (20) Or, "But the moment peace has been restored." + +But if you turn on me with the question, "Do you really mean that even +in the event of unjust attacks upon our city on the part of any, we +are still resolutely to observe peace towards that offender?" I answer +distinctly, No! But, on the contrary, I maintain that we shall all the +more promptly retaliate on such aggression in proportion as we have done +no wrong to any one ourselves. Since that will be to rob the aggressor +of his allies. (21) + + (21) Reading, after Cobet, {ei medena uparkhoimen adikountes}. Or, if + the vulgate {ei medena parakhoimen adikounta}, transl. "if we can + show complete innocence on our own side." + + + +VI + +But now, if none of these proposals be impracticable or even difficult +of execution; if rather by giving them effect we may conciliate further +the friendship of Hellas, whilst we strengthen our own administration +and increase our fame; if by the same means the people shall be +provided with the necessaries of life, and our rich men be relieved of +expenditure on war; if with the large surplus to be counted on, we are +in a position to conduct our festivals on an even grander scale than +heretofore, to restore our temples, to rebuild our forts and docks, and +to reinstate in their ancient privileges our priests, our senators, our +magistrates, and our knights--surely it were but reasonable to enter +upon this project speedily, so that we too, even in our own day, may +witness the unclouded dawn of prosperity in store for our city. + +But if you are agreed to carry out this plan, there is one further +counsel which I would urge upon you. Send to Dodona and to Delphi, I +would beg you, and consult the will of Heaven whether such a provision +and such a policy on our part be truly to the interest of Athens both +for the present and for the time to come. If the consent of Heaven be +thus obtained, we ought then, I say, to put a further question: whose +special favour among the gods shall we seek to secure with a view to the +happier execution of these measures? + +And in accordance with that answer, let us offer a sacrifice of happy +omen to the deities so named, and commence the work; since if these +transactions be so carried out with the will of God, have we not the +right to prognosticate some further advance in the path of political +progress for this whole state? + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Revenues, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON REVENUES *** + +***** This file should be named 1179.txt or 1179.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/1/7/1179/ + +Produced by John Bickers + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Sparta gave him land +and property in Scillus, where he lived for many +years before having to move once more, to settle +in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + +Revenues describes Xenophon's ideas to solve the +problem of poverty in Athens, and thus remove an +excuse to mistreat the Athenian allies. + + + + +PREPARER'S NOTE + +This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a +four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though +there is doubt about some of these) is: + +Work Number of books + +The Anabasis 7 +The Hellenica 7 +The Cyropaedia 8 +The Memorabilia 4 +The Symposium 1 +The Economist 1 +On Horsemanship 1 +The Sportsman 1 +The Cavalry General 1 +The Apology 1 +On Revenues 1 +The Hiero 1 +The Agesilaus 1 +The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + +Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into +English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The +diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + +WAYS AND MEANS + +A Pamphlet On Revenues + + + +I + +For myself I hold to the opinion that the qualities of the leading +statesmen in a state, whatever they be, are reproduced in the +character of the constitution itself.[1] + +[1] "Like minister, like government." For the same idea more fully + expressed, see "Cyrop." VIII. i. 8; viii. 5. + +As, however, it has been maintained by certain leading statesmen in +Athens that the recognised standard of right and wrong is as high at +Athens as elsewhere, but that, owing to the pressure of poverty on the +masses, a certain measure of injustice in their dealing with the +allied states[2] could not be avoided; I set myself to discover +whether by any manner of means it were possible for the citizens of +Athens to be supported solely from the soil of Attica itself, which +was obviously the most equitable solution. For if so, herein lay, as I +believed, the antidote at once to their own poverty and to the feeling +of suspicion with which they are regarded by the rest of Hellas. + +[2] Lit. "the cities," i.e. of the alliance, {tas summakhidas}. + +I had no sooner begun my investigation than one fact presented itself +clearly to my mind, which is that the country itself is made by nature +to provide the amplest resources. And with a view to establishing the +truth of this initial proposition I will describe the physical +features of Attica. + +In the first place, the extraordinary mildness of the climate is +proved by the actual products of the soil. Numerous plants which in +many parts of the world appear as stunted leafless growths are here +fruit-bearing. And as with the soil so with the sea indenting our +coasts, the varied productivity of which is exceptionally great. Again +with regard to those kindly fruits of earth[3] which Providence +bestows on man season by season, one and all they commence earlier and +end later in this land. Nor is the supremacy of Attica shown only in +those products which year after year flourish and grow old, but the +land contains treasures of a more perennial kind. Within its folds +lies imbedded by nature an unstinted store of marble, out of which are +chiselled[4] temples and altars of rarest beauty and the glittering +splendour of images sacred to the gods. This marble, moreover, is an +obejct of desire to many foreigners, Hellenes and barbarians alike. +Then there is land which, although it yields no fruit to the sower, +needs only to be quarried in order to feed many times more mouths than +it could as corn-land. Doubtless we owe it to a divine dispensation +that our land is veined with silver; if we consider how many +neighbouring states lie round us by land and sea and yet into none of +them does a single thinnest vein of silver penetrate. + +[3] Lit. "those good things which the gods afford in their seasons." + +[4] Or, "arise," or "are fashioned." + +Indeed it would be scarcely irrational to maintain that the city of +Athens lies at the navel, not of Hellas merely, but of the habitable +world. So true is it, that the farther we remove from Athens the +greater the extreme of heat or cold to be encountered; or to use +another illustration, the traveller who desires to traverse the +confines of Hellas from end to end will find that, whether he voyages +by sea or by land, he is describing a circle, the centre of which is +Athens.[5] + +[5] See "Geog. of Brit. Isles." J. R. and S. A. Green, ch. i. p. 7: + "London, in fact, is placed at what is very nearly the geometrical + centre of those masses of land which make up the earth surface of + the globe, and is thus more than any city of the world the natural + point of convergence for its different lines of navigation," etc. + The natural advantages of Boeotia are similarly set forth by + Ephorus. Cf. Strab. ix. 2, p. 400. + +Once more, this land though not literally sea-girt has all the +advantages of an island, being accessible to every wind that blows, +and can invite to its bosom or waft from its shore all products, since +it is peninsular; whilst by land it is the emporium of many markets, +as being a portion of the continent. + +Lastly, while the majority of states have barbarian neighbours, the +source of many troubles, Athens has as her next-door neighbours +civilised states which are themselves far remote from the barbarians. + + + +II + +All these advantages, to repeat what I have said, may, I believe, be +traced primarily to the soil and position of Attica itself. But these +natural blessings may be added to: in the first place, by a careful +handling of our resident alien[1] population. And, for my part, I can +hardly conceive of a more splendid source of revenue than lies open in +this direction. Here you have a self-supporting class of residents +confering large benefits upon the state, and instead of receiving +payment[2] themselves, contributing on the contrary to the gain of the +exchequer by the sojourners' tax.[3] Nor, under the term careful +handling, do I demand more than the removal of obligations which, +whilst they confer no benefit on the state, have an air of inflicting +various disabilities on the resident aliens.[4] And I would further +relieve them from the obligation of serving as hoplites side by side +with the citizen proper; since, beside the personal risk, which is +great, the trouble of quitting trades and homesteads is no trifle.[5] +Incidentally the state itself would benefit by this exemption, if the +citizens were more in the habit of campaigning with one another, +rather than[6] shoulder to shoulder with Lydians, Phrygians, Syrians, +and barbarians from all quarters of the world, who form the staple of +our resident alien class. Besides the advantage [of so weeding the +ranks],[7] it would add a positive lustre to our city, were it +admitted that the men of Athens, her sons, have reliance on themselves +rather than on foreigners to fight her battles. And further, supposing +we offered our resident aliens a share in various other honourable +duties, including the cavalry service,[8] I shall be surprised if we +do not increase the goodwill of the aliens themselves, whilst at the +same time we add distinctly to the strength and grandeur of our city. + +[1] Lit. "metics" or "metoecs." + +[2] {misthos}, e.g. of the assembly, the senate, and the dicasts. + +[3] The {metoikion}. See Plat. "Laws," 850 B; according to Isaeus, ap. + Harpocr. s.v., it was 12 drachmae per annum for a male and 6 + drachmae for a female. + +[4] Or, "the class in question." According to Schneider (who cites the + {atimetos metanastes} of Homer, "Il." ix. 648), the reference is + not to disabilities in the technical sense, but to humiliating + duties, such as the {skaphephoria} imposed on the men, or the + {udriaphoria} and {skiadephoria} imposed on their wives and + daughters in attendance on the {kanephoroi} at the Panathenaic and + other festival processions. See Arist. "Eccles." 730 foll.; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x. (Eng. tr. G. Cornewall Lewis, p. 538). + +[5] Or, reading {megas men gar o agon, mega de kai to apo ton tekhnon + kai ton oikeion apienai}, after Zurborg ("Xen. de Reditibus + Libellus," Berolini, MDCCCLXXVI.), transl. "since it is severe + enough to enter the arena of war, but all the worse when that + implies the abandonment of your trade and your domestic concerns." + +[6] Or, "instead of finding themselves brigaded as nowadays with a + motley crew of Lydians," etc. + +[7] Zurborg, after Cobet, omits the words so rendered. + +[8] See "Hipparch." ix. 3, where Xenophon in almost identical words + recommends that reform. + +In the next place, seeing that there are at present numerous building +sites within the city walls as yet devoid of houses, supposing the +state were to make free grants of such land[9] to foreigners for +building purposes in cases where there could be no doubt as to the +respectability of the applicant, if I am not mistaken, the result of +such a measure will be that a larger number of persons, and of a +better class, will be attracted to Athens as a place of residence. + +[9] Or, "offer the fee simple of such property to." + +Lastly, if we could bring ourselves to appoint, as a new government +office, a board of guardians of foreign residents like our Guardians +of Orphans,[10] with special privileges assigned to those guardians +who should show on their books the greatest number of resident aliens +--such a measure would tend to improve the goodwill of the class in +question, and in all probability all people without a city of their +own would aspire to the status of foreign residents in Athens, and so +further increase the revenues of the city.[11] + +[10] "The Archon was the legal protector of all orphans. It was his + duty to appoint guardians, if none were named in the father's + will."--C. R. Kennedy, Note to "Select Speeches of Demosthenes." + The orphans of those who had fallen in the war (Thuc. ii. 46) were + specially cared for. + +[11] Or, "help to swell the state exchequer." + + + +III + +At this point I propose to offer some remarks in proof of the +attractions and advantages of Athens as a centre of commercial +enterprise. In the first place, it will hardly be denied that we +possess the finest and safest harbourage for shipping, where vessels +of all sorts can come to moorings and be laid up in absolute +security[1] as far as stress of weather is concerned. But further than +that, in most states the trader is under the necessity of lading his +vessel with some merchandise[2] or other in exchange for his cargo, +since the current coin[3] has no circulation beyond the frontier. But +at Athens he has a choice: he can either in return for his wares +export a variety of goods, such as human beings seek after, or, if he +does not desire to take goods in exchange for goods, he has simply to +export silver, and he cannot have a more excellent freight to export, +since wherever he likes to sell it he may look to realise a large +percentage on his capital.[4] + +[1] Reading {adeos} after Cobet, or if {edeos}, transl. "in perfect + comfort." + +[2] Or, "of exchanging cargo for cargo to the exclusion of specie." + +[3] I.e. of the particular locality. See "The Types of Greek Coins," + Percy Gardner, ch. ii. "International Currencies among the + Greeks." + +[4] Or, "on the original outlay." + +Or again, supposing prizes[5] were offered to the magistrates in +charge of the market[6] for equitable and speedy settlements of points +in dispute[7] to enable any one so wishing to proceed on his voyage +without hindrance, the result would be that far more traders would +trade with us and with greater satisfaction. + +[5] Cf. "Hiero," ix. 6, 7, 11; "Hipparch." i. 26. + +[6] {to tou emporiou arkhe}. Probably he is referring to the + {epimeletai emporiou} (overseers of the market). See Harpocr. + s.v.; Aristot. "Athenian Polity," 51. + +[7] For the sort of case, see Demosth. (or Deinarch.) "c. Theocr." + 1324; Zurborg ad loc.; Boeckh, I. ix. xv. (pp. 48, 81, Eng. tr.) + +It would indeed be a good and noble institution to pay special marks +of honour, such as the privilege of the front seat, to merchants and +shipowners, and on occasion to invite to hospitable entertainment +those who, through something notable in the quality of ship or +merchandise, may claim to have done the state a service. The +recipients of these honours will rush into our arms as friends, not +only under the incentive of gain, but of distinction also. + +Now the greater the number of people attracted to Athens either as +visitors or as residents, clearly the greater the development of +imports and exports. More goods will be sent out of the country,[8] +there will be more buying and selling, with a consequent influx of +money in the shape of rents to individuals and dues and customs to the +state exchequer. And to secure this augmentation of the revenues, mind +you, not the outlay of one single penny; nothing needed beyond one or +two philanthropic measures and certain details of supervision.[9] + +[8] See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 24. + +[9] See Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, 3. + +With regard to the other sources of revenue which I contemplate, I +admit, it is different. For these I recognise the necessity of a +capital[10] to begin with. I am not, however, without good hope that +the citizens of this state will contribute heartily to such an object, +when I reflect on the large sums subscribed by the state on various +late occasions, as, for instance, when reinforcements were sent to the +Arcadians under the command of Lysistratus,[11] and again at the date +of the generalship of Hegesileos.[12] I am well aware that ships of +war are frequently despatched and that too[13] although it is +uncertain whether the venture will be for the better or for the worse, +and the only certainty is that the contributor will not recover the +sum subscribed nor have any further share in the object for which he +gave his contribution.[14] + +[10] "A starting-point." + +[11] B.C. 366; cf. "Hell." VII. iv. 3. + +[12] B.C. 362; cf. "Hell." VII. v. 15. See Grote, "H. G." x. 459; + Ephor. ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 54; Diod. Sic. xv. 84; Boeckh, ap. L. + Dindorf. Xenophon's son Gryllus served under him and was slain. + +[13] Reading {kai tauta toutout men adelou ontos}, after Zurborg. + +[14] Reading {[uper] on an eisenegkosi} with Zurborg. See his note, + "Comm." p. 25. + +But for a sound investment[15] I know of nothing comparable with the +initial outlay to form this fund.[16] Any one whose contribution +amounts to ten minae[17] may look forward to a return as high as he +would get on bottomry, of nearly one-fifth,[18] as the recipient of +three obols a day. The contributor of five minae[19] will on the same +principle get more than a third,[20] while the majority of Athenians +will get more than cent per cent on their contribution. That is to +say, a subscription of one mina[21] will put the subscriber in +possession of nearly double that sum,[22] and that, moreover, without +setting foot outside Athens, which, as far as human affairs go, is as +sound and durable a security as possible. + +[15] "A good substantial property." + +[16] Or, "on the other hand, I affirm that the outlay necessary to + form the capital for my present project will be more remunerative + than any other that can be named." As to the scheme itself see + Grote, "Plato," III. ch. xxxix.; Boeckh, op. cit. (pp. 4, 37, 136, + 600 seq. Eng. tr.) Cf. Demosth. "de Sym." for another scheme, 354 + B.C., which shows the "sound administrative and practical + judgment" of the youthful orator as compared with "the benevolent + dreams and ample public largess in which Xenophon here indulges." + --Grote, op. cit. p. 601. + +[17] L40:12:4 = 1000 drachmae. + +[18] I.e. exactly 18 or nearly 20 per cent. The following table will + make the arithmetic clear:-- + + 6 ob. = 1 drachma 10 minae = 6000 ob. + 100 dr. = 1 mina = 1000 dr. + 600 ob. = 1 mina 1000 dr.:180 dr.::100:18 therefore nearly 1/5 + 3 ob. (a day) x 360 = 1080 ob. p.a. = nearly 20 per cent. + = 180 dr. p.a. + + As to the 3 obols a day (= 180 dr. p.a.) which as an Athenian + citizen he is entitled to, see Grote, op. cit. p. 597: "There will + be a regular distribution among all citizens, per head and + equally. Three oboli, or half a drachma, will be allotted daily to + each, to poor and rich alike" [on the principle of the Theorikon]. + "For the poor citizens this will provide a comfortable + subsistence, without any contribution on their part; the poverty + now prevailing will thus be alleviated. The rich, like the poor, + receive the daily triobolon as a free gift; but if they compute it + as interest for their investments, they will find that the rate of + interest is full and satisfactory, like the rate on bottomry." + Zurborg, "Comm." p. 25; Boeckh, op. cit. IV. xxi. (p. 606, Eng. + tr.); and Grote's note, op. cit. p. 598. + +[19] = L20:6:3 = 500 drachmae. + +[20] = I.e. 36 per cent. + +[21] = L4:1:3 = 100 drachmae. + +[22] I.e. 180 per cent. + +Moreover, I am of opinion that if the names of contributors were to be +inscribed as benefactors for all time, many foreigners would be +induced to contribute, and possibly not a few states, in their desire +to obtain the right of inscription; indeed I anticipate that some +kings,[23] tyrants,[24] and satraps will display a keen desire to +share in such a favour. + +[23] Zurborg suggests (p. 5) "Philip or Cersobleptes." Cf. Isocr. "On + the Peace," S. 23. + +[24] I.e. despotic monarchs. + +To come to the point. Were such a capital once furnished, it would be +a magnificent plan to build lodging-houses for the benefit of +shipmasters in the neighbourhood of the harbours, in addition to those +which exist; and again, on the same principle, suitable places of +meeting for merchants, for the purposes[25] of buying and selling; and +thirdly, public lodging-houses for persons visiting the city. Again, +supposing dwelling-houses and stores for vending goods were fitted up +for retail dealers in Piraeus and the city, they would at once be an +ornament to the state and a fertile source of revenue. Also it seems +to me it would be a good thing to try and see if, on the principle on +which at present the state possesses public warships, it would not be +possible to secure public merchant vessels, to be let out on the +security of guarantors just like any other public property. If the +plan were found feasible this public merchant navy would be a large +source of extra revenue. + +[25] Reading, with Zurborg, {epi one te}. + + + +IV + +I come to a new topic. I am persuaded that the establishment of the +silver mines on a proper footing[1] would be followed by a large +increase in wealth apart from the other sources of revenue. And I +would like, for the benefit of those who may be ignorant, to point out +what the capacity of these mines really is. You will then be in a +position to decide how to turn them to better account. It is clear, I +presume, to every one that these mines have for a very long time been +in active operation; at any rate no one will venture to fix the date +at which they first began to be worked.[2] Now in spite of the fact +that the silver ore has been dug and carried out for so long a time, I +would ask you to note that the mounds of rubbish so shovelled out are +but a fractional portion of the series of hillocks containing veins of +silver, and as yet unquarried. Nor is the silver-bearing region +gradually becoming circumscribed. On the contrary it is evidently +extending in wider area from year to year. That is to say, during the +period in which thousands of workers[3] have been employed within the +mines no hand was ever stopped for want of work to do. Rather, at any +given moment, the work to be done was more than enough for the hands +employed. And so it is to-day with the owners of slaves working in the +mines; no one dreams of reducing the number of his hands. On the +contrary, the object is perpetually to acquire as many additional +hands as the owner possibly can. The fact is that with few hands to +dig and search, the find of treasure will be small, but with an +increase in labour the discovery of the ore itself is more than +proportionally increased. So much so, that of all operations with +which I am acquainted, this is the only one in which no sort of +jealousy is felt at a further development of the industry.[4] I may go +a step farther; every proprietor of a farm will be able to tell you +exactly how many yoke of oxen are sufficient for the estate, and how +many farm hands. To send into the field more than the exact number +requisite every farmer would consider a dead loss.[5] But in silver +mining [operations] the universal complaint is the want of hands. +Indeed there is no analogy between this and other industries. With an +increase in the number of bronze-workers articles of bronze may become +so cheap that the bronze-worker has to retire from the field. And so +again with ironfounders. Or again, in a plethoric condition of the +corn and wine market these fruits of the soil will be so depreciated +in value that the particular husbandries cease to be remunerative, and +many a farmer will give up his tillage of the soil and betake himself +to the business of a merchant, or of a shopkeeper, to banking or +money-lending. But the converse is the case in the working of silver; +there the larger the quantity of ore discovered and the greater the +amount of silver extracted, the greater the number of persons ready to +engage in the operation. One more illustration: take the case of +movable property. No one when he has got sufficient furniture for his +house dreams of making further purchases on this head, but of silver +no one ever yet possessed so much that he was forced to cry "enough." +On the contrary, if ever anybody does become possessed of an +immoderate amount he finds as much pleasure in digging a hole in the +ground and hoarding it as in the actual employment of it. And from a +wider point of view: when a state is prosperous there is nothing which +people so much desire as silver. The men want money to expend on +beautiful armour and fine horses, and houses, and sumptuous +paraphenalia[6] of all sorts. The women betake themselves to expensive +apparel and ornaments of gold. Or when states are sick,[7] either +through barrenness of corn and other fruits, or through war, the +demand for current coin is even more imperative (whilst the ground +lies unproductive), to pay for necessaries or military aid. + +[1] Or, "on a sound basis." + +[2] "Exploited." + +[3] Or, "at the date when the maximum of hands was employed." + +[4] Reading {epikataskeuazumenois}, or, if {episkeuazomenoi}, transl. + "at the rehabilitation of old works." + +[5] Cf. "Oecon." xvii. 12. + +[6] "The thousand and one embellishments of civil life." + +[7] "When a state is struck down with barrenness," etc. See "Mem." II. + vii. + +And if it be asserted that gold is after all just as useful as silver, +without gainsaying the proposition I may note this fact[8] about gold, +that, with a sudden influx of this metal, it is the gold itself which +is depreciated whilst causing at the same time a rise in the value of +silver. + +[8] Lit. "I know, however." + +The above facts are, I think, conclusive. They encourage us not only +to introduce as much human labour as possible into the mines, but to +extend the scale of operations within, by increase of plant, etc., in +full assurance that there is no danger either of the ore itself being +exhausted or of silver becoming depreciated. And in advancing these +views I am merely following a precedent set me by the state herself. +So it seems to me, since the state permits any foreigner who desires +it to undertake mining operations on a footing of equality[9] with her +own citizens. + +[9] Or, "at an equal rent with that which she imposes on her own + citizens." See Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x. (p. 540, Eng. tr.) + +But, to make my meaning clearer on the question of maintenance, I will +at this point explain in detail how the silver mines may be furnished +and extended so as to render them much more useful to the state. Only +I would premise that I claim no sort of admiration for anything which +I am about to say, as though I had hit upon some recondite discovery. +Since half of what I have to say is at the present moment still patent +to the eyes of all of us, and as to what belongs to past history, if +we are to believe the testimony of our fathers,[10] things were then +much of a piece with what is going on now. No, what is really +marvellous is that the state, with the fact of so many private persons +growing wealthy at her expense, and under her very eyes, should have +failed to imitate them. It is an old story, trite enough to those of +us who have cared to attend to it, how once on a time Nicias, the son +of Niceratus, owned a thousand men in the silver mines,[11] whom he +let out to Sosias, a Thracian, on the following terms. Sosias was to +pay him a net obol a day, without charge or deduction, for every slave +of the thousand, and be[12] responsible for keeping up the number +perpetually at that figure. So again Hipponicus[13] had six hundred +slaves let out on the same principle, which brought him in a net +mina[14] a day without charge or deduction. Then there was +Philemonides, with three hundred, bringing him in half a mina, and +others, I make no doubt there were, making profits in proportion to +their respective resources and capital.[15] But there is no need to +revert to ancient history. At the present moment there are hundreds of +human beings in the mines let out on the same principle.[16] And given +that my proposal were carried into effect, the only novelty in it is +that, just as the individual in acquiring the ownership of a gang of +slaves finds himself at once provided with a permanent source of +income, so the state, in like fashion, should possess herself of a +body of public slaves, to the number, say, of three for every Athenian +citizen.[17] As to the feasability of our proposals, I challenge any +one whom it may concern to test the scheme point by point, and to give +his verdict. + +[10] Reading {para ton pateron}, with Zurborg, after Wilamowitz- + Mollendorf. + +[11] See "Mem." II. v. 2; Plut. "Nicias," 4; "Athen." vi. 272. See an + important criticism of Boeckh's view by Cornewall Lewis, + translation of "P. E. A." p. 675 foll. + +[12] Reading {parekhein}, or if {pareikhen}, transl. "whilst he + himself kept up the number." See H. hagen in "Journ. Philol." x. + 19, pp. 34-36; also Zurborg, "Comm." p. 28. + +[13] Son of Callias. + +[14] = L4:1:3 = 600 ob. + +[15] Or, "whose incomes would vary in proportion to their working + capital." + +[16] See Jebb, "Theophr." xxvi. 21. + +[17] According to the ancient authorities the citizens of Athens + numbered about 21,000 at this date, which would give about 63,000 + as the number of state-slaves contemplated for the purposes of the + scheme. See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 29. "At a census taken in B.C. 309 + the number of slaves was returned at 400,000, and it does not seem + likely that there were fewer at any time during the classical + period."--"A Companion to School Classics" (James Gow), p. 101, + xiii. "Population of Attica." + +With regard to the price then of the men themselves, it is obvious +that the public treasury is in a better position to provide funds than +any private individuals. What can be easier than for the Council[18] +to invite by public proclamation all whom it may concern to bring +their slaves, and to buy up those produced? Assuming the purchase to +be effected, is it credible that people will hesitate to hire from the +state rather than from the private owner, and actually on the same +terms? People have at all events no hesitation at present in hiring +consecrated grounds, sacred victims,[19] houses, etc., or in +purchasing the right of farming taxes from the state. To ensure the +preservation of the purchased property, the treasury can take the same +securities precisely from the lessee as it does from those who +purchase the right of farming its taxes. Indeed, fraudulent dealing is +easier on the part of the man who has purchased such a right than of +the man who hires slaves. Since it is not easy to see how the +exportation[20] of public money is to be detected, when it differs in +no way from private money. Whereas it will take a clever thief to make +off with these slaves, marked as they will be with the public stamp, +and in face of a heavy penalty attached at once to the sale and +exportation of them. Up to this point then it would appear feasible +enough for the state to acquire property in men and to keep a safe +watch over them.[21] + +[18] Or, "senate." See Aristot. "Athen. Pol." for the functions of the + Boule. + +[19] So Zurborg. See Demosth. "in Mid." 570; Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. + xii. (p. 212, Eng. tr.) See Arnold's note to "Thuc." iii. 50, 7. + +[20] Or, "diversation," "defalcation." + +[21] Or, "as far as that goes, then, there is nothing apparently to + prevent the state from acquiring property in slaves, and + safeguarding the property so acquired." + +But with reference to an opposite objection which may present itself +to the mind of some one: what guarantee is there that, along with the +increase in the supply of labourers, there will be a corrsponding +demand for their services on the part of contractors?[22] It may be +reassuring to note, first of all, that many of those who have already +embarked on mining operations[23] will be anxious to increase their +staff of labourers by hiring some of these public slaves (remember, +they have a large capital at stake;[24] and again, many of the actual +labourers now engaged are growing old); and secondly, there are many +others, Athenians and foreigners alike, who, though unwilling and +indeed incapable of working physically in the mines, will be glad +enough to earn a livelihood by their wits as superintendents.[25] + +[22] Or, "with this influx (multiplying) of labourers there will be a + corresponding increase in the demand for labour on the part of the + lessees." + +[23] Or, "got their mining establishments started." + +[24] Or, "of course they will, considering the amount of fixed capital + at stake," or, "since they have large resources at their back." I + have adopted Zurborg's stopping of this sentence. + +[25] See "Mem." II. viii. 1, for an illustrative case. + +Let it be granted, however, that at first a nucleus of twelve hundred +slaves is formed. It is hardly too sanguine a supposition that out of +the profits alone,[26] within five or six years this number may be +increased to at least six thousand. Again, out of that number of six +thousand--supposing each slave to being in an obol a day clear of all +expenses--we get a revenue of sixty talents a year. And supposing +twenty talents out of this sum laid out on the purchase of more +slaves, there will be forty talents left for the state to apply to any +other purpose it may find advisable. By the time the round number[27] +of ten thousand is reached the yearly income will amount to a hundred +talents. + +[26] "Out of the income so derived." + +[27] Or, "full complement." + +As a matter of fact, the state will receive much more than these +figures represent,[28] as any one here will bear me witness who can +remember what the dues[29] derived from slaves realised before the +troubles at Decelea.[30] Testimony to the same effect is borne by the +fact, that in spite of the countless number of human beings employed +in the silver mines within the whole period,[31] the mines present +exactly the same appearance to-day as they did within the recollection +of our forefathers.[32] And once more everything that is taking place +to-day tends to prove that, whatever the number of slaves employed, +you will never have more than the works can easily absorb. The miners +find no limit of depth in sinking shafts or laterally in piercing +galleries. To open cuttings in new directions to-day is just as +possible as it was in former times. In fact no one can take on himself +to say whether there is more ore in the regions already cut into, or +in those where the pick has not yet struck.[33] Well then, it may be +asked, why is it that there is not the same rush to make new cuttings +now as in former times? The answer is, because the people concerned +with the mines are poorer nowadays. The attempt to restart operations, +renew plant, etc., is of recent date, and any one who ventures to open +up a new area runs a considerable risk. Supposing he hits upon a +productive field, he becomes a rich man, but supposing he draws a +blank, he loses the whole of his outlay; and that is a danger which +people of the present time are shy of facing. + +[28] Or, "a very much larger sum than we have calculated on." Lit. + "many times over that sum." + +[29] Or, "tax." See below, S. 49; for the whole matter see Thuc. vii. + 27, vi. 91; Xen. "Mem." III. vi. 12, in reference to B.C. 413, + when Decelea had been fortified. As to the wholesale desertion of + slaves, "more than twenty thousand slaves had deserted, many of + them artisans," according to Thucydides. + +[30] Or, "the days of Decelea." Lit. "the incidents of Decelea." + +[31] I.e. "of their working since mining began." + +[32] Lit. "are just the same to-day as our forefathers recollected + them to be in their time." + +[33] Or, "whether the tracts already explored or those not yet opened + are the more prolific." + +It is a difficulty, but it is one on which, I believe, I can offer +some practical advice. I have a plan to suggest which will reduce the +risk of opening up new cuttings to a minimum.[34] + +[34] Or, "I have a plan to make the opening of new cuttings as safe as + possible." + +The citizens of Athens are divided, as we all know, into ten tribes. +Let the state then assign to each of these ten tribes an equal number +of slaves, and let the tribes agree to associate their fortunes and +proceed to open new cuttings. What will happen? Any single tribe +hitting upon a productive lode will be the means of discovering what +is advantageous to all. Or, supposing two or three, or possibly the +half of them, hit upon a lode, clearly these several operations will +proportionally be more remunerative still. That the whole ten will +fail is not at all in accordance with what we should expect from the +history of the past. It is possible, of course, for private persons to +combine in the same way,[35] and share their fortunes and minimise +their risks. Nor need you apprehend, sirs, that a state mining +company, established on this principle, will prove a thorn in the +side[36] of the private owner, or the private owner prove injurious to +the state. But rather like allies who render each other stronger the +more they combine,[37] so in these silver mines, the greater number of +companies at work[38] the larger the riches they will discover and +disinter.[39] + +[35] "To form similar joint-stock companies." + +[36] See "Cyneg." v. 5. + +[37] Or, "deriving strength from combination." + +[38] Co-operators. + +[39] Reading {ekphoresousi}, after Cobet. + +This then is a statement, as far as I can make it clear, of the method +by which, with the proper state organisation, every Athenian may be +supplied with ample maintenance at the public expense. Possibly some +of you may be calculating that the capital[40] requisite will be +enormous. They may doubt if a sufficient sum will ever be subscribed +to meet all the needs. All I can say is, even so, do not dispond. It +is not as if it were necessary that every feature of the scheme should +be carried out at once, or else there is to be no advantage in it at +all. On the contrary, whatever number of houses are erected, or ships +are built, or slaves purchased, etc., these portions will begin to pay +at once. In fact, the bit-by-bit method of proceeding will be more +advantageous than a simultaneous carrying into effect of the whole +plan, to this extent: if we set about erecting buildings wholesale[41] +we shall make a more expensive and worse job of it than if we finish +them off gradually. Again, if we set about bidding for hundreds of +slaves at once we shall be forced to purchase an inferior type at a +higher cost. Whereas, if we proceed tentatively, as we find ourselves +able,[42] we can complete any well-devised attempt at our leisure,[43] +and, in case of any obvious failure, take warning and not repeat it. +Again, if everything were to be carried out at once, it is we, sirs, +who must make the whole provision at our expense.[44] Whereas, if part +were proceeded with and part stood over, the portion of revenue in +hand will help to furnish what is necessary to go on with. But to come +now to what every one probably will regard as a really grave danger, +lest the state may become possessed of an over large number of slaves, +with the result that the works will be overstocked. That again is an +apprehension which we may escape if we are careful not to put into the +works more hands from year to year than the works themselves demand. +Thus[45] I am persuaded that the easiest method of carrying out this +scheme, as a whole, is also the best. If, however, you are persuaded +that, owing to the extraordinary property taxes[46] to which you have +been subjected during the present war, you will not be equal to any +further contributions at present,[47] what you should do is this:[48] +during the current year resolve to carry on the financial +administration of the state within the limits of a sum equivalent to +that which your dues[49] realised before the peace. That done, you are +at liberty to take any surplus sum, whether directly traceable to the +peace itself, or to the more courteous treatment of our resident +aliens and traders, or to the growth of the imports and exports, +coincident with the collecting together of larger masses of human +beings, or to an augmentation of harbour[50] and market dues: this +surplus, I say, however derived, you should take and invest[51] so as +to bring in the greatest revenue.[52] + +[40] Or, "sinking fund." + +[41] {athrooi}--"in a body." It is a military phrase, I think. In + close order, as it were, not in detachments. + +[42] "According to our ability," a favourite Socratic phrase. + +[43] {authis}. See for this corrupt passage Zurborg, "Comm." p. 31. He + would insert, "and a little delay will not be prejudicial to our + interests, but rather the contrary," or to that effect, thus: {kai + authis an [anutoimen ou gar toiaute te anabole blaben genesthai + an] emin oiometha} "vel simile aliquid." + +[44] Or, "it is we who must bear the whole burthen of the outlay." + +[45] {outos}, "so far, unless I am mistaken, the easiest method is the + best." + +[46] Or, "heavy contributions, subscriptions incidental to," but the + word {eisphoras} is technical. For the exhaustion of the treasury + see Dem. "Lept." 464; Grote, "H. G."xi. 326. + +[47] Or, "you will not be able to subscribe a single penny more." + +[48] {umeis de}, you are masters of the situation. It lies with you to + carry on, etc.; {dioikeite} is of course imperative. + +[49] Or, "taxes." + +[50] Reading, after Zurborg, {dia ta ellimenia}. Or, if the vulg. {dia + en limeni}, transl. "an augmentation of market dues at Piraeus." + +[51] I.e. as fixed capital, or, "you should expend on plant." + +[52] Or, adopting Zurborg's emend, {os an pleista eggignetai}, transl. + "for the purposes of the present scheme as far as it may be + available." + +Again, if there is an apprehension on the part of any that the whole +scheme[53] will crumble into nothing on the first outbreak of war, I +would only beg these alarmists to note that, under the condition of +things which we propose to bring about, war will have more terrors for +the attacking party than for this state. Since what possession I +should like to know can be more serviceable for war than that of men? +Think of the many ships which they will be capable of manning on +public service. Think of the number who will serve on land as infantry +[in the public service] and will bear hard upon the enemy. Only we +must treat them with courtesy.[54] For myself, my calculation is, that +even in the event of war we shall be quite able to keep a firm hold of +the silver mines. I may take it, we have in the neighbourhood of the +mines certain fortresses--one on the southern slope in +Anaphlystus;[55] and we have another on the northern side in Thoricus, +the two being about seven and a half miles[56] apart. Suppose then a +third breastwork were to be placed between these, on the highest point +of Besa, that would enable the operatives to collect into one out of +all the fortresses, and at the first perception of a hostile movement +it would only be a short distance for each to retire into safety.[57] +In the event of an enemy advancing in large numbers they might +certainly make off with whatever corn or wine or cattle they found +outside. But even if they did get hold of the silver ore, it would be +little better to them than a heap of stones.[58] But how is an enemy +ever to march upon the mines in force? The nearest state, Megara, is +distant, I take it, a good deal over sixty miles;[59] and the next +closest, Thebes, a good deal nearer seventy.[60] Supposing then an +enemy to advance from some such point to attack the mines, he cannot +avoid passing Athens; and presuming his force to be small, we may +expect him to be annihilated by our cavalry and frontier police.[61] I +say, presuming his force to be small, since to march with anything +like a large force, and thereby leave his own territory denuded of +troops, would be a startling achievement. Why, the fortified city of +Athens will be much closer the states of the attacking parties than +they themselves will be by the time they have got to the mines. But, +for the sake of argument, let us suppose an enemy to have arrived in +the neighbourhood of Laurium; how is he going to stop there without +provisions? To go out in search of supplies with a detachment of his +force would imply risk, both for the foraging party and for those who +have to do the fighting;[62] whilst, if they are driven to do so in +force each time, they may call themselves besiegers, but they will be +practically in a state of siege themselves. + +[53] Or, "the proposed organisation." + +[54] See ch. ii. above. + +[55] Or, reading {en te pros mesembrian thalatte}, "on the southern + Sea." For Anaphlystus see "Hell." I. ii. 1; "Mem." III. v. 25. It + was Eubulus's deme, the leading statesman at this date. + +[56] Lit. "60 stades." + +[57] The passage {sunekoi t an erga}, etc., is probably corrupt. {Ta + erga} seems to mean "the operatives;" cf. Latin "operae." Others + take it of "the works themselves." Possibly it may refer to + military works connecting the three fortresses named. "There might + be a system of converging (works or) lines drawn to a single point + from all the fortresses, and at the first sign of any thing + hostile," etc. + +[58] I.e. "they might as well try to carry off so many tons of stone." + +[59] Lit. "500 stades." + +[60] Lit. "more than 600 stades." + +[61] The {peripoloi}, or horse patrol to guard the frontier. See Thuc. + iv. 57, viii. 92; Arist. "Birds,"ii. 76. Young Athenians between + eighteen and twenty were eligible for the service. + +[62] Or, "for the very object of the contest." The construction is in + any case unusual. {peri on agonizontai} = {peri touton oi}. + Zurborg suggests {peri ton agonizomenon}. + +But it is not the income[63] derived from the slaves alone to which we +look to help the state towards the effective maintenance of her +citizens, but with the growth and concentration of a thick population +in the mining district various sources of revenue will accrue, whether +from the market at Sunium, or from the various state buildings in +connection with the silver mines, from furnaces and all the rest. +Since we must expect a thickly populated city to spring up here, if +organised in the way proposed, and plots of land will become as +valuable to owners out there as they are to those who possess them in +the neighbourhood of the capital. + +[63] I adopt Zurborg's correction, {prosphora} for {eisphora}, as + obviously right. See above, iv. 23. + +If, at this point, I may assume my proposals to have been carried into +effect, I think I can promise, not only that our city shall be +relieved from a financial strain, but that she shall make a great +stride in orderliness and in tactical organisation, she shall grow in +martial spirit and readiness for war. I anticipate that those who are +under orders to go through gymnastic training will devote themselves +with a new zeal to the details of the training school, now that they +will receive a larger maintenance whilst[64] under the orders of the +trainer in the torch race. So again those on garrison duty in the +various fortresses, those enrolled as peltasts, or again as frontier +police to protect the rural districts, one and all will carry out +their respective duties more ardently when the maintenance[64] +appropriate to these several functions is duly forthcoming. + +[64] I follow Zurborg in omitting {e}. If {e} is to stand, transl. + "than they get whilst supplied by the gymnasiarch in the torch + race," or "whilst exercising the office of gymnasiarchs + themselves." See "Pol. Ath." i. 13. + +[65] "State aid." + + + +V + +But now, if it is evident that, in order to get the full benefit of +all these sources of revenue,[1] peace is an indispensable condition-- +if that is plain, I say, the question suggests itself, would it not be +worth while to appoint a board to act as guardians of peace? Since no +doubt the election of such a magistracy would enhance the charm of +this city in the eyes of the whole world, and add largely to the +number of our visitors. But if any one is disposed to take the view, +that by adopting a persistent peace policy,[2] this city will be shorn +of her power, that her glory will dwindle and her good name be +forgotten throughout the length and breadth of Hellas, the view so +taken by our friends here[3] is in my poor judgment somewhat +unreasonable. For they are surely the happy states, they, in popular +language, are most fortune-favoured, which endure in peace the longest +season. And of all states Athens is pre-eminently adapted by nature to +flourish and wax strong in peace. The while she abides in peace she +cannot fail to exercise an attractive force on all. From the mariner +and the merchant upwards, all seek her, flocking they come; the +wealthy dealers in corn and wine[4] and oil, the owner of many cattle. +And not these only, but the man who depends upon his wits, whose skill +it is to do business and make gain out of money[5] and its employment. +And here another crowd, artificers of all sorts, artists and artisans, +professors of wisdom,[6] philosophers, and poets, with those who +exhibit and popularise their works.[7] And next a new train of +pleasure-seekers, eager to feast on everything sacred or secular,[8] +which may captivate and charm eye and ear. Or once again, where are +all those who seek to effect a rapid sale or purchase of a thousand +commodities, to find what they want, if not at Athens? + +[1] Or, "to set these several sources of revenue flowing in full + stream." + +[2] Cf. "a policy of peace at any price," or, "by persisting for any + length of time in the enjoyment of peace." + +[3] {kai outoi ge}. The speaker waves his hand to the quarter of the + house where the anti-peace party is seated. + +[4] After Zurborg, I omit {oukh oi eduoinoi}. + +[5] Reading {kai ap arguriou}, with Zurborg. + +[6] Lit. "Sophists." See Grote, "H. G." viii. lxvii. note, p. 497. + +[7] E.g. chorus-trainers, musicians, grammarians, rhapsodists, and + actors. + +[8] Or, "sacred and profane." + +But if there is no desire to gainsay these views--only that certain +people, in their wish to recover that headship[9] which was once the +pride of our city, are persuaded that the accomplishment of their +hopes is to be found, not in peace but in war, I beg them to reflect +on some matters of history, and to begin at the beginning,[10] the +Median war. Was it by high-handed violence, or as benefactors of the +Hellenes, that we obtained the headship of the naval forces, and the +trusteeship of the treasury of Hellas?[11] Again, when through the too +cruel exercise of her presidency, as men thought, Athens was deprived +of her empire, is it not the case that even in those days,[12] as soon +as we held aloof from injustice we were once more reinstated by the +islanders, of their own free will, as presidents of the naval force? +Nay, did not the very Thebans, in return for certain benefits, grant +to us Athenians to exercise leadership over them?[13] And at another +date the Lacedaemonans suffered us Athenians to arrange the terms of +hegemony[14] at our discretion, not as driven to such submission, but +in requital of kindly treatment. And to-day, owing to the chaos[15] +which reigns in Hellas, if I mistake not, an opportunity has fallen to +this city of winning back our fellow-Hellenes without pain or peril or +expense of any sort. It is given to us to try and harmonise states +which are at war with one another: it is given to us to reconcile the +differences of rival factions within those states themselves, wherever +existing. + +[9] Lit. "her hegemony for the city," B.C. 476. + +[10] "And first of all." + +[11] See Thuc. i. 96. + +[12] B.C. 378. Second confederacy of Delos. See Grote, "H. G." x. 152. + +[13] B.C. 375. Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 62; Grote, "H. G." x. 139; Isocr. + "Or." xiv. 20; Diod. Sic. xv. 29. + +[14] B.C. 369 (al. B.C. 368). Cf. "Hell." VII. i. 14. + +[15] See "Hell."VII. v. 27. + +Make it but evident that we are minded to preserve the +independence[16] of the Delphic shrine in its primitive integrity, not +by joining in any war but by the moral force of embassies throughout +the length and breadth of Hellas--and I for one shall not be +astonished if you find our brother Hellenes of one sentiment and eager +under seal of solemn oaths[17] to proceed against those, whoever they +may be, who shall seek[18] to step into the place vacated by the +Phocians and to occupy the sacred shrine. Make it but evident that you +intend to establish a general peace by land and sea, and, if I mistake +not, your efforts will find a response in the hearts of all. There is +no man but will pray for the salvation of Athens next to that of his +own fatherland. + +[16] "Autonomy." + +[17] See Thuc. v. 18, clause 2 of the Treaty of Peace, B.C. 422-421. + +[18] Reading, with Zurborg, {peironto}. Or, if the vulgate + {epeironto}, transl. "against those who sought to step." + +Again, is any one persuaded that, looking solely to riches and money- +making, the state may find war more profitable than peace? If so, I +cannot conceive a better method to decide that question than to allow +the mind to revert[19] to the past history of the state and to note +well the sequence of events. He will discover that in times long gone +by during a period of peace vast wealth was stored up in the +acropolis, the whole of which was lavishly expended during a +subsequent period of war. He will perceive, if he examines closely, +that even at the present time we are suffering from its ill effects. +Countless sources of revenue have failed, or if they have still flowed +in, been lavishly expended on a multiplicity of things. Whereas,[20] +now that peace is established by sea, our revenues have expanded and +the citizens of Athens have it in their power to turn these to account +as they like best. + +[19] Reading {epanoskopoin}. + +[20] Or, "But the moment peace has been restored." + +But if you turn on me with the question, "Do you really mean that even +in the event of unjust attacks upon our city on the part of any, we +are still resolutely to observe peace towards that offender?" I answer +distinctly, No! But, on the contrary, I maintain that we shall all the +more promptly retaliate on such aggression in proportion as we have +done no wrong to any one ourselves. Since that will be to rob the +aggressor of his allies.[21] + +[21] Reading, after Cobet, {ei medena uparkhoimen adikountes}. Or, if + the vulgate {ei medena parakhoimen adikounta}, transl. "if we can + show complete innocence on our own side." + + + +VI + +But now, if none of these proposals be impracticable or even difficult +of execution; if rather by giving them effect we may conciliate +further the friendship of Hellas, whilst we strengthen our own +administration and increase our fame; if by the same means the people +shall be provided with the necessaries of life, and our rich men be +relieved of expenditure on war; if with the large surplus to be +counted on, we are in a position to conduct our festivals on an even +grander scale than heretofore, to restore our temples, to rebuild our +forts and docks, and to reinstate in their ancient privileges our +priests, our senators, our magistrates, and our knights--surely it +were but reasonable to enter upon this project speedily, so that we +too, even in our own day, may witness the unclouded dawn of prosperity +in store for our city. + +But if you are agreed to carry out this plan, there is one further +counsel which I would urge upon you. Send to Dodona and to Delphi, I +would beg you, and consult the will of Heaven whether such a provision +and such a policy on our part be truly to the interest of Athens both +for the present and for the time to come. If the consent of Heaven be +thus obtained, we ought then, I say, to put a further question: whose +special favour among the gods shall we seek to secure with a view to +the happier execution of these measures? + +And in accordance with that answer, let us offer a sacrifice of happy +omen to the deities so named, and commence the work; since if these +transactions be so carried out with the will of God, have we not the +right to prognosticate some further advance in the path of political +progress for this whole state? + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of On Revenues by Xenophon + diff --git a/old/old/rvnue10.zip b/old/old/rvnue10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..caa238a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old/rvnue10.zip |