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diff --git a/1178-0.txt b/1178-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0b6d25 --- /dev/null +++ b/1178-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2278 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1178 *** + +THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS AND THE LACEDAEMONIANS + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + + + + + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS + + + +I + +Now, as concerning the Polity of the Athenians, (1) and the type or +manner of constitution which they have chosen, (2) I praise it not, +in so far as the very choice involves the welfare of the baser folk as +opposed to that of the better class. I repeat, I withhold my praise so +far; but, given the fact that this is the type agreed upon, I propose +to show that they set about its preservation in the right way; and that +those other transactions in connection with it, which are looked upon as +blunders by the rest of the Hellenic world, are the reverse. + + (1) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 47 foll.; Thuc. i. 76, 77; viii. 48; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." passim; Hartman, "An. Xen. N." cap. viii.; + Roquette, "Xen. Vit." S. 26; Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 538; and + "Xenophontis qui fertur libellus de Republica Atheniensium," ed. + A. Kirchhoff (MDCCCLXXIV), whose text I have chiefly followed. + + (2) Lit. "I do not praise their choice of the (particular) type, in so + far as..." + +In the first place, I maintain, it is only just that the poorer classes +(3) and the People of Athens should be better off than the men of birth +and wealth, seeing that it is the people who man the fleet, (4) and put +round the city her girdle of power. The steersman, (5) the boatswain, +the lieutenant, (6) the look-out-man at the prow, the shipright--these +are the people who engird the city with power far rather than her heavy +infantry (7) and men of birth of quality. This being the case, it seems +only just that offices of state should be thrown open to every one both +in the ballot (8) and the show of hands, and that the right of speech +should belong to any one who likes, without restriction. For, observe, +(9) there are many of these offices which, according as they are in good +or in bad hands, are a source of safety or of danger to the People, and +in these the People prudently abstains from sharing; as, for instance, +it does not think it incumbent on itself to share in the functions of +the general or of the commander of cavalry. (10) The sovereign People +recognises the fact that in forgoing the personal exercise of these +offices, and leaving them to the control of the more powerful (11) +citizens, it secures the balance of advantage to itself. It is only +those departments of government which bring emolument (12) and assist +the private estate that the People cares to keep in its own hands. + + (3) Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 58 foll. + + (4) Lit. "ply the oar and propel the galleys." + + (5) See "Econ." viii. 14; Pollux, i. 96; Arist. "Knights," 543 foll.; + Plat. "Laws," v. 707 A; Jowett, "Plat." v. 278 foll.; Boeckh, "P. + E. A." bk. ii. ch. xxi. + + (6) Lit. "pentecontarch;" see Dem. "In Pol." 1212. + + (7) Aristot. "Pol." vi. 7; Jowett, "The Politics of Aristotle," vol. + i. p. 109. + + (8) {klerotoi}, {airetoi}. + + (9) Reading with Kirchhoff, {epeo tou}, or if {epeita}, "in the next + place." + + (10) Hipparch. + + (11) Cf. "Hipparch." i. 9; "Econ." ii. 8. + + (12) E.g. the {dikasteria}. + +In the next place, in regard to what some people are puzzled to +explain--the fact that everywhere greater consideration is shown to +the base, to poor people and to common folk, than to persons of good +quality--so far from being a matter of surprise, this, as can be shown, +is the keystone of the preservation of the democracy. It is these +poor people, this common folk, this riff-raff, (13) whose prosperity, +combined with the growth of their numbers, enhances the democracy. +Whereas, a shifting of fortune to the advantage of the wealthy and the +better classes implies the establishment on the part of the commonalty +of a strong power in opposition to itself. In fact, all the world over, +the cream of society is in opposition to the democracy. Naturally, since +the smallest amount of intemperance and injustice, together with the +highest scrupulousness in the pursuit of excellence, is to be found in +the ranks of the better class, while within the ranks of the People +will be found the greatest amount of ignorance, disorderliness, +rascality--poverty acting as a stronger incentive to base conduct, not +to speak of lack of education and ignorance, traceable to the lack of +means which afflicts the average of mankind. (14) + + (13) Or, "these inferiors," "these good-for-nothings." + + (14) Or, "some of these folk." The passage is corrupt. + +The objection may be raised that it was a mistake to allow the universal +right of speech (15) and a seat in council. These should have been +reserved for the cleverest, the flower of the community. But here, +again, it will be found that they are acting with wise deliberation in +granting to (16) even the baser sort the right of speech, for supposing +only the better people might speak, or sit in council, blessings would +fall to the lot of those like themselves, but to the commonalty the +reverse of blessings. Whereas now, any one who likes, any base fellow, +may get up and discover something to the advantage of himself and his +equals. It may be retorted: "And what sort of advantage either for +himself or for the People can such a fellow be expected to hit upon?" +The answer to which is, that in their judgment the ignorance and +baseness of this fellow, together with his goodwill, are worth a great +deal more to them than your superior person's virtue and wisdom, coupled +with animosity. What it comes to, therefore, is that a state founded +upon such institutions will not be the best state; (17) but, given a +democracy, these are the right means to procure its preservation. The +People, it must be borne in mind, does not demand that the city should +be well governed and itself a slave. It desires to be free and to be +master. (18) As to bad legislation it does not concern itself about +that. (19) In fact, what you believe to be bad legislation is the very +source of the People's strength and freedom. But if you seek for good +legislation, in the first place you will see the cleverest members of +the community laying down the laws for the rest. And in the next place, +the better class will curb and chastise the lower orders; the +better class will deliberate in behalf of the state, and not suffer +crack-brained fellows to sit in council, or to speak or vote in +Parliament. (20) No doubt; but under the weight of such blessings the +People will in a very short time be reduced to slavery. + + (15) Lit. "everybody to speak in turn." + + (16) Or, "it is a counsel of perfection on their part to grant to," + etc. + + (17) Or, "the ideal state." + + (18) Or, "and to govern and hold office." + + (19) Or, "it will take the risk of that." + + (20) See Grote, "H. G." v. p. 510 note. + +Another point is the extraordinary amount of license (21) granted to +slaves and resident aliens at Athens, where a blow is illegal, and a +slave will not step aside to let you pass him in the street. I will +explain the reason of this peculiar custom. Supposing it were legal +for a slave to be beaten by a free citizen, or for a resident alien or +freedman to be beaten by a citizen, it would frequently happen that +an Athenian might be mistaken for a slave or an alien and receive a +beating; since the Athenian People is no better clothed than the slave +or alien, nor in personal appearance is there any superiority. Or if the +fact itself that slaves in Athens are allowed to indulge in luxury, and +indeed in some cases to live magnificently, be found astonishing, this +too, it can be shown, is done of set purpose. Where you have a naval +power (22) dependent upon wealth (23) we must perforce be slaves to our +slaves, in order that we may get in our slave-rents, (24) and let +the real slave go free. Where you have wealthy slaves it ceases to be +advantageous that my slave should stand in awe of you. In Lacedaemon my +slave stands in awe of you. (25) But if your slave is in awe of me there +will be a risk of his giving away his own moneys to avoid running a risk +in his own person. It is for this reason then that we have established +an equality between our slaves and free men; and again between our +resident aliens and full citizens, (26) because the city stands in need +of her resident aliens to meet the requirements of such a multiplicity +of arts and for the purposes of her navy. That is, I repeat, the +justification for the equality conferred upon our resident aliens. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11 and vi. 4; Jowett, op. cit. vol. i. pp. + 179, 196; Welldon, "The Politics of Aristotle," pp. 394 323; Dem. + "Phil." III. iii. 10; Plaut. "Stich." III. i. 37. + + (22) See Diod. xi. 43. + + (23) Reading, {apo khrematon, anagke}, or (reading, {apo khrematon + anagke}) "considerations of money force us to be slaves." + + (24) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xiii. (Eng. trans. p. 72). "The rights + of property with regard to slaves in no way differed from any + other chattel; they could be given or taken as pledges. They + laboured either on their master's account or their own, in + consideration of a certain sum to be paid to the master, or they + were let out on hire either for the mines or any other kind of + labour, and even for other persons' workshops, or as hired + servants for wages ({apophora}): a similar payment was also + exacted by the masters for their slaves serving in the fleet." Ib. + "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurion," p. 659 (Eng. + trans.) + + (25) See "Pol. Lac." vi. 3. + + (26) Or, "we have given to our slaves the right to talk like equals + with free men, just as to resident aliens the right of so talking + with citizens." See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xiv. 4, note, p. 221. + See Demosth. "against Midias," 529, where the law is cited. "If + any one commit a personal outrage upon man, woman, or child, + whether free-born or slave, or commit any illegal act against any + such person, let any Athenian that chooses" (not being under + disability) "indict him before the judges," etc; and the orator + exclaims: "You know, O Athenians, the humanity of the law, which + allows not even slaves to be insulted in their persons."--C. R. + Kennedy. + +Citizens devoting their time to gymnastics and to the cultivation of +music are not to be found in Athens; (27) the sovereign People has +disestablished them, (28) not from any disbelief in the beauty and +honour of such training, but recognising the fact that these are things +the cultivation of which is beyond its power. On the same principle, in +the case of the coregia, (29) the gymnasiarchy, and the trierarchy, the +fact is recognised that it is the rich man who trains the chorus, and +the People for whom the chorus is trained; it is the rich man who is +trierarch or gymnasiarch, and the People that profits by their labours. +(30) In fact, what the People looks upon as its right is to pocket +the money. (31) To sing and run and dance and man the vessels is well +enough, but only in order that the People may be the gainer, while the +rich are made poorer. And so in the courts of justice, (32) justice is +not more an object of concern to the jurymen than what touches personal +advantage. + + (27) For {mousike} and {gumnastike}, see Becker's "Charicles," Exc. + "Education." + + (28) See "Revenues," iv. 52; Arist. "Frogs," 1069, {e xekenosen tas te + palaistras}, "and the places of exercise vacant and bare."--Frere. + + (29) "The duties of the choregia consisted in finding maintenance and + instruction for the chorus" (in tragedy, usually of fifteen + persons) "as long as they were in training; and in providing the + dresses and equipments for the performance."--Jebb, "Theophr. + Char." xxv. 3. For those of the gymnasiarchy, see "Dict. of + Antiq." "Gymnasium." For that of the trierarchy, see Jebb, op. + cit. xxv. 9; xxix. 16; Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. xi. + + (30) See "Econ." ii. 6; Thuc. vi. 31. + + (31) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. xvi. p. 241. + + (32) For the system of judicature, the {dikasteria}, and the boards of + jurymen or judges, see Aristot. "Constitution of Athens," ch. + lxiii.; "Dict. of Antiq." s.v. + +To speak next of the allies, and in reference to the point that +emissaries (33) from Athens come out, and, according to common opinion, +calumniate and vent their hatred (34) upon the better sort of people, +this is done (35) on the principle that the ruler cannot help being +hated by those whom he rules; but that if wealth and respectability are +to wield power in the subject cities the empire of the Athenian People +has but a short lease of existence. This explains why the better people +are punished with infamy, (36) robbed of their money, driven from their +homes, and put to death, while the baser sort are promoted to honour. On +the other hand, the better Athenians throw their aegis over the better +class in the allied cities. (37) And why? Because they recognise that it +is to the interest of their own class at all times to protect the best +element in the cities. It may be urged (38) that if it comes to strength +and power the real strength of Athens lies in the capacity of her allies +to contribute their money quota. But to the democratic mind (39) it +appears a higher advantage still for the individual Athenian to get hold +of the wealth of the allies, leaving them only enough to live upon +and to cultivate their estates, but powerless to harbour treacherous +designs. + + (33) For {oi ekpleontes}, see Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 41. + + (34) Reading {misousi}; or, if with Kirchhoff, {meiousi}, "in every + way humiliate." + + (35) Or, "(they do so) as recognising the fact." + + (36) {atimia} = the loss of civil rights, either total or partial. See + C. R. Kennedy, "Select Speeches of Demosthenes," Note 13, + Disenfranchisement. + + (37) See Thuc. viii. 48. + + (38) See Grote, "H. G." vi. 53. + + (39) Or, "to a thorough democrat." + +Again, (40) it is looked upon as a mistaken policy on the part of the +Athenian democracy to compel her allies to voyage to Athens in order to +have their cases tried. (41) On the other hand, it is easy to reckon up +what a number of advantages the Athenian People derive from the practice +impugned. In the first place, there is the steady receipt of salaries +throughout the year (42) derived from the court fees. (43) Next, it +enables them to manage the affairs of the allied states while seated +at home without the expense of naval expeditions. Thirdly, they thus +preserve the partisans of the democracy, and ruin her opponents in the +law courts. Whereas, supposing the several allied states tried their +cases at home, being inspired by hostility to Athens, they would destroy +those of their own citizens whose friendship to the Athenian People was +most marked. But besides all this the democracy derives the following +advantages from hearing the cases of her allies in Athens. In the first +place, the one per cent (44) levied in Piraeus is increased to the +profit of the state; again, the owner of a lodging-house (45) does +better, and so, too, the owner of a pair of beasts, or of slaves to +be let out on hire; (46) again, heralds and criers (47) are a class of +people who fare better owing to the sojourn of foreigners at Athens. +Further still, supposing the allies had not to resort to Athens for the +hearing of cases, only the official representative of the imperial +state would be held in honour, such as the general, or trierarch, or +ambassador. Whereas now every single individual among the allies is +forced to pay flattery to the People of Athens because he knows that he +must betake himself to Athens and win or lose (48) his case at the bar, +not of any stray set of judges, but of the sovereign People itself, +such being the law and custom at Athens. He is compelled to behave as +a suppliant (49) in the courts of justice, and when some juryman comes +into court, to grasp his hand. For this reason, therefore, the allies +find themselves more and more in the position of slaves to the people of +Athens. + + (40) Grote, "H. G." vi. 61. + + (41) See Isocr. "Panath." 245 D. + + (42) See Arist. "Clouds," 1196; Demosth. "c. Timoc." 730. + + (43) For the "Prytaneia," see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 12, 4. "Ephialtes + and Pericles curtailed the privileges of the Areopagus, Pericles + converted the Courts of Law into salaried bodies, and so each + succeeding demagogue outdid his predecessor in the privileges he + conferred upon the commons, until the present democracy was the + result" (Welldon). "The writer of this passage clearly intended to + class Pericles among the demagogues. He judges him in the same + deprecatory spirit as Plato in the 'Gorgias,' pp. 515, 516."-- + Jowett, "Pol. of Aristot." vol. ii. p. 101. But see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. xxv., a portion of the newly- + discovered treatise, which throws light on an obscure period in + the history of Athens; and Mr. Kenyon's note ad loc.; and Mr. + Macan's criticism, "Journal of Hellenic Studies," vol. xii. No. 1. + + (44) For the {ekatoste}, see Thuc. vii. 28, in reference to the year + B.C. 416; Arist. "Wasps," 658; "Frogs," 363. + + (45) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xii. p. 65 (Eng. trans.); I. xxiv. p. + 141. + + (46) See "Revenues," iv. 20, p. 338; Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xxvi. 16. + + (47) For these functionaries, see Jebb, op. cit. xvi. 10. + + (48) Lit. "pay or get justice." + + (49) Se Arist. "Wasps," 548 foll.; Grote, "H. G." v. 520 note; Newman, + op. cit. i. 383. + +Furthermore, owing to the possession of property beyond the limits +of Attica, (50) and the exercise of magistracies which take them into +regions beyond the frontier, they and their attendants have insensibly +acquired the art of navigation. (51) A man who is perpetually voyaging +is forced to handle the oar, he and his domestics alike, and to learn +the terms familiar in seamanship. Hence a stock of skilful mariners is +produced, bred upon a wide experience of voyaging and practice. They +have learnt their business, some in piloting a small craft, others a +merchant vessel, whilst others have been drafted off from these for +service on a ship-of-war. So that the majority of them are able to row +the moment they set foot on board a vessel, having been in a state of +preliminary practice all their lives. + + (50) See "Mem." II. viii. 1. + + (51) See "Hell." VII. i. 4. + + + +II + +As to the heavy infantry, an arm the deficiency of which at Athens is +well recognised, this is how the matter stands. They recognise the fact +that, in reference to the hostile power, they are themselves inferior, +and must be, even if their heavy infantry were more numerous. (1) But +relatively to the allies, who bring in the tribute, their strength even +on land is enormous. And they are persuaded that their heavy infantry is +sufficient for all purposes, provided they retain this superiority. +(2) Apart from all else, to a certain extent fortune must be held +responsible for the actual condition. The subjects of a power which is +dominant by land have it open to them to form contingents from several +small states and to muster in force for battle. But with the subjects of +a naval power it is different. As far as they are groups of islanders it +is impossible for their states to meet together for united action, for +the sea lies between them, and the dominant power is master of the sea. +And even if it were possible for them to assemble in some single island +unobserved, they would only do so to perish by famine. And as to the +states subject to Athens which are not islanders, but situated on the +continent, the larger are held in check by need (3) and the small ones +absolutely by fear, since there is no state in existence which does not +depend upon imports and exports, and these she will forfeit if she does +not lend a willing ear to those who are masters by sea. In the next +place, a power dominant by sea can do certain things which a land power +is debarred from doing; as for instance, ravage the territory of a +superior, since it is always possible to coast along to some point, +where either there is no hostile force to deal with or merely a small +body; and in case of an advance in force on the part of the enemy they +can take to their ships and sail away. Such a performance is attended +with less difficulty than that experienced by the relieving force on +land. (4) Again, it is open to a power so dominating by sea to leave its +own territory and sail off on as long a voyage as you please. Whereas +the land power cannot place more than a few days' journey between itself +and its own territory, for marches are slow affairs; and it is not +possible for an army on the march to have food supplies to last for any +great length of time. Such an army must either march through friendly +territory or it must force a way by victory in battle. The voyager +meanwhile has it in his power to disembark at any point where he finds +himself in superior force, or, at the worst, to coast by until he +reaches either a friendly district or an enemy too weak to resist. +Again, those diseases to which the fruits of the earth are liable as +visitations from heaven fall severely on a land power, but are scarcely +felt by the navel power, for such sicknesses do not visit the whole +earth everywhere at once. So that the ruler of the sea can get in +supplies from a thriving district. And if one may descend to more +trifling particulars, it is to this same lordship of the sea that the +Athenians owe the discovery, in the first place, of many of the luxuries +of life through intercourse with other countries. So that the choice +things of Sicily and Italy, of Cyprus and Egypt and Lydia, of Pontus or +Peloponnese, or wheresoever else it be, are all swept, as it were, +into one centre, and all owing, as I say, to their maritime empire. And +again, in process of listening to every form of speech, (5) they have +selected this from one place and that from another--for themselves. So +much so that while the rest of the Hellenes employ (6) each pretty much +their own peculiar mode of speech, habit of life, and style of dress, +the Athenians have adopted a composite type, (7) to which all sections +of Hellas, and the foreigner alike, have contributed. + + (1) Reading after Kirchhoff, {ettous ge... kan ei meizon en, ton + dia k.t.l.} See Thuc. i. 143; Isocr. "de Pace," 169 A; Plut. + "Them." 4 (Clough, i. 235). + + (2) Lit. "they are superior to their allies." + + (3) Reading with Kirchhoff, {dia khreian... dia deos}. + + (4) Or, "the army marching along the seaboard to the rescue." + + (5) Or, "a variety of dialects." + + (6) Or, "maintain somewhat more." + + (7) Or, "have contracted a mixed style, bearing traces of Hellenic and + foreign influence alike." See Mahaffy, "Hist. of Greek Lit." vol. + ii. ch. x. p. 257 (1st ed.); cf. Walt Whitman, "Preface to" + original edition of "Leaves of Grass," p. 29--"The English + language befriends the grand American expression: it is brawny + enough and limber and full enough, on the tough stock of a race, + who through all change of circumstances was never without the idea + of a political liberty, which is the animus of all liberty; it has + attracted the terms of daintier and gayer and subtler and more + elegant tongues." + +As regards sacrifices and temples and festivals and sacred enclosures, +the People sees that it is not possible for every poor citizen to do +sacrifice and hold festival, or to set up (8) temples and to inhabit +a large and beautiful city. But it has hit upon a means of meeting the +difficulty. They sacrifice--that is, the whole state sacrifices--at the +public cost a large number of victims; but it is the People that keeps +holiday and distributes the victims by lot amongst its members. Rich men +have in some cases private gymnasia and baths with dressing-rooms, (9) +but the People takes care to have built at the public cost (10) a number +of palaestras, dressing-rooms, and bathing establishments for its own +special use, and the mob gets the benefit of the majority of these, +rather than the select few or the well-to-do. + + (8) Reading with Kirchhoff, {istasthai}. + + (9) See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." vii. 18, p. 202. + + (10) Reading with Kirchhoff, {demosia}. + +As to wealth, the Athenians are exceptionally placed with regard to +Hellenic and foreign communities alike, (11) in their ability to +hold it. For, given that some state or other is rich in timber for +shipbuilding, where is it to find a market (12) for the product except +by persuading the ruler of the sea? Or, suppose the wealth of some state +or other to consist of iron, or may be of bronze, (13) or of linen yarn, +where will it find a market except by permission of the supreme maritime +power? Yet these are the very things, you see, which I need for my +ships. Timber I must have from one, and from another iron, from a third +bronze, from a fourth linen yarn, from a fifth wax, etc. Besides which +they will not suffer their antagonists in those parts (14) to carry +these products elsewhither, or they will cease to use the sea. +Accordingly I, without one stroke of labour, extract from the land and +possess all these good things, thanks to my supremacy on the sea; whilst +not a single other state possesses the two of them. Not timber, for +instance, and yarn together, the same city. But where yarn is abundant, +the soil will be light and devoid of timber. And in the same way bronze +and iron will not be products of the same city. And so for the rest, +never two, or at best three, in one state, but one thing here and +another thing there. Moreover, above and beyond what has been said, the +coast-line of every mainland presents, either some jutting promontory, +or adjacent island, or narrow strait of some sort, so that those who are +masters of the sea can come to moorings at one of these points and wreak +vengeance (15) on the inhabitants of the mainland. + + (11) Or, "they have a practical monopoly." + + (12) Or, "how is it to dispose of the product?" + + (13) Or, "coppert." + + (14) Reading {ekei}. For this corrupt passage see L. Dindorf, ad. + loc.; also Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. ix. p. 55. Perhaps (as my friend + Mr. J. R. Mozley suggests) the simplest supposition is to suppose + that there is an ellipsis before {e ou khresontai te thalatte}: + thus, "Besides which they will not suffer their antagonists to + transport goods to countries outside Attica; they must yield, or + they shall not have the use of the sea." + + (15) {lobasthai}. This "poetical" word comes to mean "harry," + "pillage," in the common dialect. + +There is just one thing which the Athenians lack. Supposing that they +were the inhabitants of an island, (16) and were still, as now, rulers +of the sea, they would have had it in their power to work whatever +mischief they liked, and to suffer no evil in return (as long as they +kept command of the sea), neither the ravaging of their territory nor +the expectation of an enemy's approach. Whereas at present the farming +portion of the community and the wealthy landowners are ready (17) to +cringe before the enemy overmuch, whilst the People, knowing full well +that, come what may, not one stock or stone of their property will +suffer, nothing will be cut down, nothing burnt, lives in freedom from +alarm, without fawning at the enemy's approach. Besides this, there +is another fear from which they would have been exempt in an island +home--the apprehension of the city being at any time betrayed by their +oligarchs (18) and the gates thrown open, and an enemy bursting suddenly +in. How could incidents like these have taken place if an island had +been their home? Again, had they inhabited an island there would have +been no stirring of sedition against the people; whereas at present, +in the event of faction, those who set it in foot base their hopes of +success on the introduction of an enemy by land. But a people inhabiting +an island would be free from all anxiety on that score. Since, however, +they did not chance to inhabit an island from the first, what they now +do is this--they deposit their property in the islands, (19) trusting +to their command of the sea, and they suffer the soil of Aticca to be +ravaged without a sigh. To expend pity on that, they know, would be to +deprive themselves of other blessings still more precious. (20) + + (16) See Thuc. i. 143. Pericles says: "Reflect, if we were islanders, + who would be more invulnerable? Let us imagine that we are." + + (17) Or, "are the more ready to cringe." See, for the word + {uperkhontai}, "Pol. Lac." viii. 2; Plat. "Crit." 53 E; + Rutherford, "New Phrynichus," p. 110. + + (18) Or, "by the minority"; or, "by a handful of people." + + (19) As they did during the Peloponnesian war; and earlier still, + before the battle of Salamis, in the case of that one island. + + (20) Or, "but mean the forfeiture of others." + +Further, states oligarchically governed are forced to ratify their +alliances and solemn oaths, and if they fail to abide by their +contracts, the offence, by whomsoever committed, (21) lies nominally at +the door of the oligarchs who entered upon the contract. But in the case +of engagements entered into by a democracy it is open to the People to +throw the blame on the single individual who spoke in favour of some +measure, or put it to the vote, and to maintain to the rest of the +world, "I was not present, nor do I approve of the terms of the +agreement." Inquiries are made in a full meeting of the People, and +should any of these things be disapproved of, it can at once discover +ten thousand excuses to avoid doing whatever they do not wish. And if +any mischief should spring out of any resolutions which the People has +passed in council, the People can readily shift the blame from its own +shoulders. "A handful of oligarchs (22) acting against the interests +of the People have ruined us." But if any good result ensue, they, the +People, at once take the credit of that to themselves. + + (21) Reading {uph otououn adikeitai onomati upo ton oligon}, which I + suggest as a less violent emendation of this corrupt passage than + any I have seen; or, reading with Sauppe, {uph otou adikei + anomeitai apo ton oligon}, "the illegality lies at the door of." + + (22) Or, "a few insignificant fellows." + +In the same spirit it is not allowed to caricature on the comic stage +(23) or otherwise libel the People, because (24) they do not care to +hear themselves ill spoken of. But if any one has a desire to satirise +his neighbour he has full leave to do so. And this because they are well +aware that, as a general rule, this person caricatured (25) does not +belong to the People, or the masses. He is more likely to be some +wealthy or well-born person, or man of means and influence. In fact, +but few poor people and of the popular stamp incur the comic lash, or if +they do they have brought it on themselves by excessive love of meddling +or some covetous self-seeking at the expense of the People, so that no +particular annoyance is felt at seeing such folk satirised. + + (23) See Grote, "H. G." viii. 446, especially p. 449, "growth and + development of comedy at Athens"; Curtius, "H. G." iii. pp. 242, + 243; Thirlwall, "H. G." ch. xviii. vol. iii. p. 42. + + (24) Or, more lit. "it would not do for the People to hear," etc. + + (25) Or, "the butt of comedy." + +What, then, I venture to assert is, that the People of Athens has no +difficulty in recognising which of its citizens are of the better +sort and which the opposite. (26) And so recognising those who are +serviceable and advantageous (27) to itself, even though they be base, +the People loves them; but the good folk they are disposed rather to +hate. This virtue of theirs, the People holds, is not engrained in their +nature for any good to itself, but rather for its injury. In direct +opposition to this, there are some persons who, being (28) born of the +People, are yet by natural instinct not commoners. For my part I pardon +the People its own democracy, as, indeed, it is pardonable in any one to +do good to himself. (29) But the man who, not being himself one of the +People, prefers to live in a state democratically governed rather than +in an oligarchical state may be said to smooth his own path towards +iniquity. He knows that a bad man has a better chance of slipping +through the fingers of justice in a democratic than in an oligarchical +state. + + (26) Or, "and which are good for nothing." + + (27) Or,"its own friends and supporters." + + (28) Reading {ontes} or (if {gnontes}), "who, recognising the nature + of the People, have no popular leaning." Gutschmidt conj. {enioi + egguoi ontes}, i.e. Pericles. + + (29) On the principle that "the knee is nearer than the shin-bone," + {gonu knemes}, or, as we say, "charity begins at home." + + + +III + +I repeat that my position concerning the polity of the Athenians is +this: the type (1) of polity is not to my taste, but given that a +democratic form of government has been agreed upon, they do seem to me +to go the right way to preserve the democracy by the adoption of the +particular type (2) which I have set forth. + + (1) Or, "manner." + + (2) Or, "manner." + +But there are other objections brought, as I am aware, against the +Athenians, by certain people, and to this effect. It not seldom happens, +they tell us, that a man is unable to transact a piece of business with +the senate or the People, even if he sit waiting a whole year. Now this +does happen at Athens, and for no other reason save that, owing to the +immense mass of affairs they are unable to work off all the business on +hand, and dismiss the applicants. And how in the world should they be +able, considering in the first place, that they, the Athenians, have +more festivals (3) to celebrate than any other state throughout the +length and breadth of Hellas? (During these festivals, of course, the +transaction of any sort of affairs of state is still more out of the +question.) (4) In the next place, only consider the number of cases they +have to decide--what with private suits and public causes and scrutinies +of accounts, etc., more than the whole of the rest of mankind put +together; while the senate has multifarious points to advise upon +concerning peace and war, (5) concerning ways and means, concerning the +framing and passing of laws, (6) and concerning the thousand and one +matters affecting the state perpetually occurring, and endless +questions touching the allies; besides the receipt of the tribute, the +superintendence of dockyards and temples, etc. Can, I ask again, any one +find it at all surprising that, with all these affairs on their hands, +they are unequal to doing business with all the world? + + (3) See Arist. "Wasps," 661. + + (4) This sentence is perhaps a gloss. + + (5) Or, "about the war," {peri tou polemou}. + + (6) See Thirlwall, ch. xxxii. vol. iv. p. 221, note 3. + +But some people tell us that if the applicant will only address himself +to the senate or the People with a fee in his hand he will do a good +stroke of business. And for my part I am free to confess to these +gainsayers that a good many things may be done at Athens by dint of +money; and I will add, that a good many more still might be done, if +the money flowed still more freely and from more pockets. One thing, +however, I know full well, that as to transacting with every one of +these applicants all he wants, the state could not do it, not even if +all the gold and silver in the world were the inducement offered. + +Here are some of the cases which have to be decided on. Some one fails +to fit out a ship: judgement must be given. Another puts up a building +on a piece of public land: again judgement must be given. Or, to take +another class of cases: adjudication has to be made between the choragi +for the Dionysia, the Thargelia, the Panathenaea, year after year. ( (7) +And again in behalf of the gymnasiarchs a similar adjudication for the +Panathenaea, the Prometheia, and the Hephaestia, also year after year.) +Also as between the trierarchs, four hundred of whom are appointed each +year, of these, too, any who choose must have their cases adjudicated +on, year after year. But that is not all. There are various magistrates +to examine and approve (8) and decide between; there are orphans (9) +whose status must be examined; and guardians of prisoners to appoint. +These, be it borne in mind, are all matters of yearly occurrence; while +at intervals there are exemptions and abstentions from military service +(10) which call for adjudication, or in connection with some other +extraordinary misdemeanour, some case of outrage and violence of an +exceptional character, or some charge of impiety. A whole string of +others I simply omit; I am content to have named the most important part +with the exception of the assessments of tribute which occur, as a rule, +at intervals of five years. (11) + + (7) Adopting the emendation of Kirchhoff, who inserts the sentence in + brackets. For the festivals in question, see "Dict. of Antiq." + "Lampadephoria"; C. R. Kenney, "Demosth. against Leptines," etc., + App. vi. + + (8) For the institution called the {dokimasia}, see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. lv. + + (9) See Dem. "against Midias," 565, 17; "against Apholus" (1), 814, + 20. + + (10) See Lys. "Or." xiv. and xv. + + (11) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 48; Thuc. vii. 78; i. 96; Arist. + "Wasps," 707; Aristot. "Pol." v. 8. + +I put it to you, then: can any one suppose that all, or any, of these +may dispense with adjudication? (12) If so, will any one say which +ought, and which ought not, to be adjudicated on, there and then? If, on +the other hand, we are forced to admit that these are all fair cases for +adjudication, it follows of necessity that they should be decided during +the twelve-month; since even now the boards of judges sitting right +through the year are powerless to stay the tide of evildoing by reason +of the multitude of the people. + + (12) Reading with Kirchhoff. Cf. for {oiesthai khre}, "Hell." VI. iv. + 23; "Cyr." IV. ii. 28. + +So far so good. (13) "But," some one will say, "try the cases you +certainly must, but lessen the number of the judges." But if so, it +follows of necessity that unless the number of courts themselves are +diminished in number there will only be a few judges sitting in each +court, (14) with the further consequence that in dealing with so small +a body of judges it will be easier for a litigant to present an +invulnerable front (15) to the court, and to bribe (16) the whole body, +to the great detriment of justice. (17) + + (13) See Grote, "H. G." v. 514, 520; Machiavelli, "Disc. s. Livio," i. + 7. + + (14) Reading with Sauppe, {anagke toinun, ean me} (for the vulgate + {ean men oliga k.t.l.}) {oliga poiontai dikasteria, oligoi en + ekasto esontai to dikasterio}. Or, adopting Weiske's emendation, + {ean men polla poiontai dikasteria k.t.l.} Translate, "Then, if by + so doing they manage to multiply the law courts, there will be + only a few judges sitting," etc. + + (15) Or, as Liddell and Scott, "to prepare all his tricks." + + (16) {sundekasoi}, "to bribe in the lump." This is Schneider's happy + emendation of the MS. {sundikasai}; see Demosthenes, 1137, 1. + + (17) Reading {oste}, lit. "so as to get a far less just judgment." + +But besides this we cannot escape the conclusion that the Athenians have +their festivals to keep, during which the courts cannot sit. (18) As +a matter of fact these festivals are twice as numerous as those of any +other people. But I will reckon them as merely equal to those of the +state which has the fewest. + + (18) Lit. "it is not possible to give judgment"; or, "for juries to + sit." + +This being so, I maintain that it is not possible for business affairs +at Athens to stand on any very different footing from the present, +except to some slight extent, by adding here and deducting there. +Any large modification is out of the question, short of damaging the +democracy itself. No doubt many expedients might be discovered for +improving the constitution, but if the problem be to discover some +adequate means of improving the constitution, while at the same time the +democracy is to remain intact, I say it is not easy to do this, except, +as I have just stated, to the extent of some trifling addition here or +deduction there. + +There is another point in which it is sometimes felt that the Athenians +are ill advised, in their adoption, namely, of the less respectable +party, in a state divided by faction. But if so, they do it advisedly. +If they chose the more respectable, they would be adopting those whose +views and interests differ from their own, for there is no state in +which the best element is friendly to the people. It is the worst +element which in every state favours the democracy--on the principle +that like favours like. (19) It is simple enough then. The Athenians +choose what is most akin to themselves. Also on every occasion on which +they have attempted to side with the better classes, it has not fared +well with them, but within a short interval the democratic party has +been enslaved, as for instance in Boeotia; (20) or, as when they chose +the aristocrats of the Milesians, and within a short time these revolted +and cut the people to pieces; or, as when they chose the Lacedaemonians +as against the Messenians, and within a short time the Lacedaemonians +subjugated the Messenians and went to war against Athens. + + (19) I.e. "birds of a feather." + + (20) The references are perhaps (1) to the events of the year 447 + B.C., see Thuc. i. 113; cf. Aristot. "Pol." v. 3, 5; (2) to 440 + B.C., Thuc. i. 115; Diod. xii. 27, 28; Plut. "Pericl." c. 24; (3) + to those of 464 B.C., followed by 457 B.C., Thuc. i. 102; Plut. + "Cimon," c. 16; and Thuc. i. 108. + +I seem to overhear a retort, "No one, of course, is deprived of his +civil rights at Athens unjustly." My answer is, that there are some +who are unjustly deprived of their civil rights, though the cases are +certainly rare. But it will take more than a few to attack the democracy +at Athens, since you may take it as an established fact, it is not the +man who has lost his civil rights justly that takes the matter to heart, +but the victims, if any, of injustice. But how in the world can any one +imagine that many are in a state of civil disability at Athens, where +the People and the holders of office are one and the same? It is from +iniquitous exercise of office, from iniquity exhibited either in speech +or action, and the like circumstances, that citizens are punished with +deprivation of civil rights in Athens. Due reflection on these matters +will serve to dispel the notion that there is any danger at Athens from +persons visited with disenfranchisement. + + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS + + + +I + +I recall the astonishment with which I (1) first noted the unique +position (2) of Sparta amongst the states of Hellas, the relatively +sparse population, (3) and at the same time the extraordinary power and +prestige of the community. I was puzzled to account for the fact. It was +only when I came to consider the peculiar institutions of the Spartans +that my wonderment ceased. Or rather, it is transferred to the +legislator who gave them those laws, obedience to which has been the +secret of their prosperity. This legislator, Lycurgus, I must needs +admire, and hold him to have been one of the wisest of mankind. +Certainly he was no servile imitator of other states. It was by a +stroke of invention rather, and on a pattern much in opposition to the +commonly-accepted one, that he brought his fatherland to this pinnacle +of prosperity. + + (1) See the opening words of the "Cyrop." and of the "Symp." + + (2) Or, "the phenomenal character." See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320 foll.; + Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 202. + + (3) See Herod. vii. 234; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 14 foll.; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10 (vol. i. p. 203, Eng. tr.) + +Take for example--and it is well to begin at the beginning (4)--the +whole topic of the begetting and rearing of children. Throughout the +rest of the world the young girl, who will one day become a mother (and +I speak of those who may be held to be well brought up), is nurtured +on the plainest food attainable, with the scantiest addition of meat +or other condiments; whilst as to wine they train them either to total +abstinence or to take it highly diluted with water. And in imitation, +as it were, of the handicraft type, since the majority of artificers are +sedentary, (5) we, the rest of the Hellenes, are content that our girls +should sit quietly and work wools. That is all we demand of them. But +how are we to expect that women nurtured in this fashion should produce +a splendid offspring? + + (4) Cf. a fragment of Critias cited by Clement, "Stromata," vi. p. + 741, 6; Athen. x. 432, 433; see "A Fragment of Xenophon" (?), ap. + Stob. "Flor." 88. 14, translated by J. Hookham Frere, "Theognis + Restitutus," vol. i. 333; G. Sauppe, "Append. de Frag. Xen." p. + 293; probably by Antisthenes (Bergk. ii. 497). + + (5) Or, "such technical work is for the most part sedentary." + +Lycurgus pursued a different path. Clothes were things, he held, the +furnishing of which might well enough be left to female slaves. And, +believing that the highest function of a free woman was the bearing of +children, in the first place he insisted on the training of the body +as incumbent no less on the female than the male; and in pursuit of the +same idea instituted rival contests in running and feats of strength +for women as for men. His belief was that where both parents were strong +their progeny would be found to be more vigorous. + +And so again after marriage. In view of the fact that immoderate +intercourse is elsewhere permitted during the earlier period of +matrimony, he adopted a principle directly opposite. He laid it down +as an ordinance that a man should be ashamed to be seen visiting the +chamber of his wife, whether going in or coming out. When they did meet +under such restraint the mutual longing of these lovers could not but be +increased, and the fruit which might spring from such intercourse +would tend to be more robust than theirs whose affections are cloyed +by satiety. By a farther step in the same direction he refused to allow +marriages to be contracted (6) at any period of life according to the +fancy of the parties concerned. Marriage, as he ordained it, must only +take place in the prime of bodily vigour, (7) this too being, as he +believed, a condition conducive to the production of healthy offspring. +Or again, to meet the case which might occur of an old man (8) wedded to +a young wife. Considering the jealous watch which such husbands are apt +to keep over their wives, he introduced a directly opposite custom; that +is to say, he made it incumbent on the aged husband to introduce +some one whose qualities, physical and moral, he admired, to play the +husband's part and to beget him children. Or again, in the case of a +man who might not desire to live with a wife permanently, but yet +might still be anxious to have children of his own worthy the name, the +lawgiver laid down a law (9) in his behalf. Such a one might select +some woman, the wife of some man, well born herself and blest with fair +offspring, and, the sanction and consent of her husband first obtained, +raise up children for himself through her. + + (6) "The bride to be wooed and won." The phrase {agesthai} perhaps + points to some primitive custom of capturing and carrying off the + bride, but it had probably become conventional. + + (7) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg," 15 (Clough, i. 101). "In their marriages the + husband carried off his bride by a sort of force; nor were their + brides ever small and of tender years, but in their full bloom and + ripeness." + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 103). + + (9) Or, "established a custom to suit the case." + +These and many other adaptations of a like sort the lawgiver sanctioned. +As, for instance, at Sparta a wife will not object to bear the burden +of a double establishment, (10) or a husband to adopt sons as +foster-brothers of his own children, with a full share in his family and +position, but possessing no claim to his wealth and property. + + (10) Cf. Plut. "Comp. of Numa with Lycurgus," 4; "Cato mi." 25 + (Clough, i. 163; iv. 395). + +So opposed to those of the rest of the world are the principles which +Lycurgus devised in reference to the production of children. Whether +they enabled him to provide Sparta with a race of men superior to all in +size and strength I leave to the judgment of whomsoever it may concern. + + + +II + +With this exposition of the customs in connection with the birth of +children, I wish now to explain the systems of education in fashion here +and elsewhere. Throughout the rest of Hellas the custom on the part of +those who claim to educate their sons in the best way is as follows. As +soon as the children are of an age to understand what is said to them +they are immediately placed under the charge of Paidagogoi (1) (or +tutors), who are also attendants, and sent off to the school of some +teacher to be taught "grammar," "music," and the concerns of the +palestra. (2) Besides this they are given shoes (3) to wear which tend +to make their feet tender, and their bodies are enervated by various +changes of clothing. And as for food, the only measure recognised is +that which is fixed by appetite. + + (1) = "boy-leaders." Cf. St. Paul, "Ep. Gal." iii. 24; The Law was our + schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ. + + (2) Cf. Plato, "Alc. maj." 106 E; "Theages," 122 E; Aristot. "Pol." + viii. 3. + + (3) Or, "sandals." + +But when we turn to Lycurgus, instead of leaving it to each member of +the state privately to appoint a slave to be his son's tutor, he +set over the young Spartans a public guardian, the Paidonomos (4) or +"pastor," to give them his proper title, (5) with complete authority +over them. This guardian was selected from those who filled the highest +magistracies. He had authority to hold musters of the boys, (6) and as +their overseer, in case of any misbehaviour, to chastise severely. The +legislator further provided his pastor with a body of youths in the +prime of life, and bearing whips, (7) to inflict punishment when +necessary, with this happy result that in Sparta modesty and obedience +ever go hand in hand, nor is there lack of either. + + (4) = "boyherd." + + (5) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 107); Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, + 13; vii. 17, 5. + + (6) Or, "assemble the boys in flocks." + + (7) {mastigophoroi} = "flagellants." + +Instead of softening their feet with shoe or sandal, his rule was to +make them hardy through going barefoot. (8) This habit, if practised, +would, as he believed, enable them to scale heights more easily and +clamber down precipices with less danger. In fact, with his feet so +trained the young Spartan would leap and spring and run faster unshod +than another shod in the ordinary way. + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 16 (Clough, i. 106). + +Instead of making them effeminate with a variety of clothes, his rule +was to habituate them to a single garment the whole year through, +thinking that so they would be better prepared to withstand the +variations of heat and cold. + +Again, as regards food, according to his regulation the Eiren, (9) or +head of the flock, must see that his messmates gathered to the club +meal, (10) with such moderate food as to avoid that heaviness (11) +which is engendered by repletion, and yet not to remain altogether +unacquainted with the pains of penurious living. His belief was that by +such training in boyhood they would be better able when occasion demanded +to continue toiling on an empty stomach. They would be all the fitter, +if the word of command were given, to remain on the stretch for a long +time without extra dieting. The craving for luxuries (12) would be +less, the readiness to take any victual set before them greater, and, +in general, the regime would be found more healthy. (13) Under it he +thought the lads would increase in stature and shape into finer men, +since, as he maintained, a dietary which gave suppleness to the limbs +must be more conducive to both ends than one which added thickness to +the bodily parts by feeding. (14) + + (9) For the Eiren, see Plut. "Lycurg." (Clough, i. 107). + + (10) Reading {sumboleuein} (for the vulg. {sumbouleuein}). The + emendation is now commonly adopted. For the word itself, see L. + Dindorf, n. ad loc., and Schneider. {sumbolon} = {eranos} or club + meal. Perhaps we ought to read {ekhontas} instead of {ekhonta}. + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 108). + + (12) Lit. "condiments," such as "meat," "fish," etc. See "Cyrop." I. + ii. 8. + + (13) Or, "and in general they would live more healthily and increase + in stature." + + (14) See L. Dindorf's emendation of this corrupt passage, n. ad loc. + (based upon Plut. "Lycurg." 17 and Ps. Plut. "Moral." 237), {kai + eis mekos d' an auxanesthai oeto kai eueidesterous} vel {kallious + gignesthai, pros amphotera ton radina ta somata poiousan trophen + mallon sullambanein egesamenos e ten diaplatunousan}. Otherwise I + would suggest to read {kai eis mekos an auxanesthai ten (gar) + radina... egesato k.t.l.}, which is closer to the vulgate, and + gives nearly the same sense. + +On the other hand, in order to guard against a too great pinch of +starvation, though he did not actually allow the boys to help themselves +without further trouble to what they needed more, he did give them +permission to steal (15) this thing or that in the effort to alleviate +their hunger. It was not of course from any real difficulty how else to +supply them with nutriment that he left it to them to provide themselves +by this crafty method. Nor can I conceive that any one will so +misinterpret the custom. Clearly its explanation lies in the fact that +he who would live the life of a robber must forgo sleep by night, and in +the daytime he must employ shifts and lie in ambuscade; he must +prepare and make ready his scouts, and so forth, if he is to succeed in +capturing the quarry. (16) + + (15) See "Anab." IV. vi. 14. + + (16) For the institution named the {krupteia}, see Plut. "Lycurg." 28 + (Clough, i. 120); Plato, "Laws," i. 633 B; for the {klopeia}, ib. + vii. 823 E; Isocr. "Panathen." 277 B. + +It is obvious, I say, that the whole of this education tended, and was +intended, to make the boys craftier and more inventive in getting in +supplies, whilst at the same time it cultivated their warlike instincts. +An objector may retort: "But if he thought it so fine a feat to steal, +why did he inflict all those blows on the unfortunate who was caught?" +My answer is: for the self-same reason which induces people, in other +matters which are taught, to punish the mal-performance of a service. +So they, the Lacedaemonians, visit penalties on the boy who is detected +thieving as being but a sorry bungler in the art. So to steal as many +cheeses as possible (off the shrine of Orthia (17)) was a feat to be +encouraged; but, at the same moment, others were enjoined to scourge the +thief, which would point a moral not obscurely, that by pain endured for +a brief season a man may earn the joyous reward of lasting glory. (18) +Herein, too, it is plainly shown that where speed is requisite the +sluggard will win for himself much trouble and scant good. + + (17) I.e. "Artemis of the Steep"--a title connecting the goddess with + Mount Orthion or Orthosion. See Pausan. VIII. xxiii. 1; and for + the custom, see Themistius, "Or." 21, p. 250 A. The words have + perhaps got out of their right place. See Schneider's Index, s.v. + + (18) See Plut. "Lycurg." 18; "Morals," 239 C; "Aristid." 17; Cic. + "Tusc." ii. 14. + +Furthermore, and in order that the boys should not want a ruler, even +in case the pastor (19) himself were absent, he gave to any citizen who +chanced to be present authority to lay upon them injunctions for their +good, and to chastise them for any trespass committed. By so doing he +created in the boys of Sparta a most rare modesty and reverence. And +indeed there is nothing which, whether as boys or men, they respect more +highly than the ruler. Lastly, and with the same intention, that the +boys must never be reft of a ruler, even if by chance there were no +grown man present, he laid down the rule that in such a case the most +active of the Leaders or Prefects (20) was to become ruler for the +nonce, each of his own division. The conclusion being that under no +circumstances whatever are the boys of Sparta destitute of one to rule +them. + + (19) Lit. "Paidonomos." + + (20) Lit. "Eirens." + +I ought, as it seems to me, not to omit some remark on the subject of +boy attachments, (21) it being a topic in close connection with that of +boyhood and the training of boys. + + (21) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 109). + +We know that the rest of the Hellenes deal with this relationship in +different ways, either after the manner of the Boeotians, (22) where man +and boy are intimately united by a bond like that of wedlock, or after +the manner of the Eleians, where the fruition of beauty is an act of +grace; whilst there are others who would absolutely debar the lover from +all conversation (23) and discourse with the beloved. + + (22) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 34; Plato, "Symp." 182 B (Jowett, II. p. + 33). + + (23) {dialegesthai} came to mean philosophic discussion and debate. Is + the author thinking of Socrates? See "Mem." I. ii. 35; IV. v. 12. + +Lycurgus adopted a system opposed to all of these alike. Given that some +one, himself being all that a man ought to be, should in admiration of +a boy's soul (24) endeavour to discover in him a true friend without +reproach, and to consort with him--this was a relationship which +Lycurgus commended, and indeed regarded as the noblest type of bringing +up. But if, as was evident, it was not an attachment to the soul, but +a yearning merely towards the body, he stamped this thing as foul and +horrible; and with this result, to the credit of Lycurgus be it said, +that in Lacedaemon the relationship of lover and beloved is like that +of parent and child or brother and brother where carnal appetite is in +abeyance. + + (24) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 35; Plut. "Lycurg." 18. + +That this, however, which is the fact, should be scarcely credited in +some quarters does not surprise me, seeing that in many states the laws +(25) do not oppose the desires in question. + + (25) I.e. "law and custom." + +I have now described the two chief methods of education in vogue; that +is to say, the Lacedaemonian as contrasted with that of the rest of +Hellas, and I leave it to the judgment of him whom it may concern, which +of the two has produced the finer type of men. And by finer I mean the +better disciplined, the more modest and reverential, and, in matters +where self-restraint is a virtue, the more continent. + + + +III + +Coming to the critical period at which a boy ceases to be a boy and +becomes a youth, (1) we find that it is just then that the rest of the +world proceed to emancipate their children from the private tutor and +the schoolmaster, and, without substituting any further ruler, are +content to launch them into absolute independence. + + (1) {eis to meirakiousthai}, "with reference to hobbledehoy-hood." + Cobet erases the phrase as post-Xenophontine. + +Here, again, Lycurgus took an entirely opposite view of the matter. +This, if observation might be trusted, was the season when the tide +of animal spirits flows fast, and the froth of insolence rises to the +surface; when, too, the most violent appetites for divers pleasures, in +serried ranks, invade (2) the mind. This, then, was the right moment at +which to impose tenfold labours upon the growing youth, and to devise +for him a subtle system of absorbing occupation. And by a crowning +enactment, which said that "he who shrank from the duties imposed on +him would forfeit henceforth all claim to the glorious honours of the +state," he caused, not only the public authorities, but those personally +interested (3) in the several companies of youths to take serious +pains so that no single individual of them should by an act of craven +cowardice find himself utterly rejected and reprobate within the body +politic. + + (2) Lit. "range themselves." For the idea, see "Mem." I. ii. 23; + Swinburne, "Songs before Sunrise": Prelude, "Past youth where + shoreward shallows are." + + (3) Or, "the friends and connections." + +Furthermore, in his desire to implant in their youthful souls a root of +modesty he imposed upon these bigger boys a special rule. In the very +streets they were to keep their two hands (4) within the folds of the +cloak; they were to walk in silence and without turning their heads to +gaze, now here, now there, but rather to keep their eyes fixed upon the +ground before them. And hereby it would seem to be proved conclusively +that, even in the matter of quiet bearing and sobriety, (5) the +masculine type may claim greater strength than that which we attribute +to the nature of women. At any rate, you might sooner expect a stone +image to find voice than one of those Spartan youths; to divert the eyes +of some bronze stature were less difficult. And as to quiet bearing, no +bride ever stepped in bridal bower (6) with more natural modesty. Note +them when they have reached the public table. (7) The plainest answer to +the question asked--that is all you need expect to hear from their lips. + + (4) See Cic. "pro Coelio," 5. + + (5) See Plat. "Charmid." 159 B; Jowett, "Plato," I. 15. + + (6) Longinus, {peri ups}, iv. 4, reading {ophthalmois} for + {thalamois}, says: "Yet why speak of Timaeus, when even men like + Xenophon and Plato, the very demigods of literature, though they + had sat at the feet of Socrates, sometimes forget themselves in + the pursuit of such pretty conceits? The former in his account of + the Spartan Polity has these words: 'Their voice you would no more + hear, than if they were of marble, their gaze is as immovable as + if they were cast in bronze. You would deem them more modest than + the very maidens in their eyes.' To speak of the pupils of the + eyes as modest maidens was a piece of absurdity becoming + Amphicrates rather than Xenophon; and then what a strange notion + to suppose that modesty is always without exception, expressed in + the eye!"--H. L. Howell, "Longinus," p. 8. See "Spectator," No. + 354. + + (7) See Paus. VII. i. 8, the {phidition} or {philition}; "Hell." V. + iv. 28. + + + +IV + +But if he was thus careful in the education of the stripling, (1) the +Spartan lawgiver showed a still greater anxiety in dealing with those +who had reached the prime of opening manhood; considering their immense +importance to the city in the scale of good, if only they proved +themselves the men they should be. He had only to look around to see +what wherever the spirit of emulation (2) is most deeply seated, there, +too, their choruses and gymnastic contests will present alike a far +higher charm to eye and ear. And on the same principle he persuaded +himself that he needed only to confront (3) his youthful warriors in +the strife of valour, and with like result. They also, in their degree, +might be expected to attain to some unknown height of manly virtue. + + (1) See "Hell." V. iv. 32. + + (2) Cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22. + + (3) Or, "pit face to face." + +What method he adopted to engage these combatants I will now explain. It +is on this wise. Their ephors select three men out of the whole body of +the citizens in the prime of life. These three are named Hippagretai, +or masters of the horse. Each of these selects one hundred others, +being bound to explain for what reason he prefers in honour these and +disapproves of those. The result is that those who fail to obtain the +distinction are now at open war, not only with those who rejected them, +but with those who were chosen in their stead; and they keep ever a +jealous eye on one another to detect some slip of conduct contrary to +the high code of honour there held customary. And so is set on foot that +strife, in truest sense acceptable to heaven, and for the purposes of +state most politic. It is a strife in which not only is the pattern of a +brave man's conduct fully set forth, but where, too, each against other +and in separate camps, the rival parties train for victory. One day the +superiority shall be theirs; or, in the day of need, one and all to +the last man, they will be ready to aid the fatherland with all their +strength. + +Necessity, moreover, is laid upon them to study a good habit of the +body, coming as they do to blows with their fists for very strife's sake +whenever they meet. Albeit, any one present has a right to separate the +combatants, and, if obedience is not shown to the peacemaker, the Pastor +of youth (4) hales the delinquent before the ephors, and the ephors +inflict heavy damages, since they will have it plainly understood that +rage must never override obedience to law. + + (4) Lit. "the Paidonomos." + +With regard to those who have already passed (5) the vigour of early +manhood, and on whom the highest magistracies henceforth devolve, there +is a like contrast. In Hellas generally we find that at this age the +need of further attention to physical strength is removed, although the +imposition of military service continues. But Lycurgus made it customary +for that section of his citizens to regard hunting as the highest honour +suited to their age; albeit, not to the exclusion of any public duty. +(6) And his aim was that they might be equally able to undergo the +fatigues of war with those in the prime of early manhood. + + (5) Probably the {agathoergoi}, technically so called. See Herod. i. + 67; Schneider, ap. Dindorf. + + (6) Lit. "save only if some public duty intervened." See "Cyrop." I. + ii. + + + +V + +The above is a fairly exhaustive statement of the institutions traceable +to the legislation of Lycurgus in connection with the successive stages +(1) of a citizen's life. It remains that I should endeavour to +describe the style of living which he established for the whole body, +irrespective of age. It will be understood that, when Lycurgus first +came to deal with the question, the Spartans like the rest of the +Hellenes, used to mess privately at home. Tracing more than half the +current misdemeanours to this custom, (2) he was determined to drag +his people out of holes and corners into the broad daylight, and so +he invented the public mess-rooms. Whereby he expected at any rate to +minimise the transgression of orders. + + (1) Lit. "with each age."; see Plut. "Lycurg." 25; Hesychius, {s. u. + irinies}; "Hell." VI. iv. 17; V. iv. 13. + + (2) Reading after Cobet, {en touto}. + +As to food, (3) his ordinance allowed them so much as, while not +inducing repletion, should guard them from actual want. And, in fact, +there are many exceptional (4) dishes in the shape of game supplied +from the hunting field. Or, as a substitute for these, rich men will +occasionally garnish the feast with wheaten loaves. So that from +beginning to end, till the mess breaks up, the common board is never +stinted for viands, nor yet extravagantly furnished. + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 97). + + (4) {paraloga}, i.e. unexpected dishes, technically named {epaikla} + (hors d'oeuvres), as we learn from Athenaeus, iv. 140, 141. + +So also in the matter of drink. Whilst putting a stop to all unnecessary +potations, detrimental alike to a firm brain and a steady gait, (5) he +left them free to quench thirst when nature dictated (6); a method which +would at once add to the pleasure whilst it diminished the danger of +drinking. And indeed one may fairly ask how, on such a system of common +meals, it would be possible for any one to ruin either himself or his +family either through gluttony or wine-bibbing. + + (5) Or, "apt to render brain and body alike unsteady." + + (6) See "Agesilaus"; also "Mem." and "Cyrop." + +This too must be borne in mind, that in other states equals in age, (7) +for the most part, associate together, and such an atmosphere is little +conducive to modesty. (8) Whereas in Sparta Lycurgus was careful so +to blend the ages (9) that the younger men must benefit largely by the +experience of the elder--an education in itself, and the more so since +by custom of the country conversation at the common meal has reference +to the honourable acts which this man or that man may have performed in +relation to the state. The scene, in fact, but little lends itself to +the intrusion of violence or drunken riot; ugly speech and ugly deeds +alike are out of place. Amongst other good results obtained through this +out-door system of meals may be mentioned these: There is the necessity +of walking home when the meal is over, and a consequent anxiety not to +be caught tripping under the influence of wine, since they all know of +course that the supper-table must be presently abandoned, (10) and that +they must move as freely in the dark as in the day, even the help of a +torch (11) to guide the steps being forbidden to all on active service. + + (7) Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 240 C; {elix eklika terpei}, "Equals delight + in equals." + + (8) Or, "these gatherings for the most part consist of equals in age + (young fellows), in whose society the virtue of modesty is least + likely to display itself." + + (9) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 98). + + (10) Or, "that they are not going to stay all night where they have + supped." + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 99). + +In connection with this matter, Lycurgus had not failed to observe the +effect of equal amounts of food on different persons. The hardworking +man has a good complexion, his muscles are well fed, he is robust +and strong. The man who abstains from work, on the other hand, may be +detected by his miserable appearance; he is blotched and puffy, and +devoid of strength. This observation, I say, was not wasted on him. On +the contrary, turning it over in his mind that any one who chooses, as +a matter of private judgment, to devote himself to toil may hope to +present a very creditable appearance physically, he enjoined upon the +eldest for the time being in every gymnasium to see to it that the +labours of the class were proportional to the meats. (12) And to my mind +he was not out of his reckoning in this matter more than elsewhere. At +any rate, it would be hard to discover a healthier or more completely +developed human being, physically speaking, than the Spartan. Their +gymnastic training, in fact, makes demands alike on the legs and arms +and neck, (13) etc., simultaneously. + + (12) I.e. "not inferior in excellence to the diet which they enjoyed." + The reading here adopted I owe to Dr. Arnold Hug, {os me ponous + auton elattous ton sition gignesthai}. + + (13) See Plat. "Laws," vii. 796 A; Jowett, "Plato," v. p. 365; Xen. + "Symp." ii. 7; Plut. "Lycurg." 19. + + + +VI + +There are other points in which this legislator's views run counter to +those commonly accepted. Thus: in other states the individual citizen +is master over his own children, domestics, (1) goods and chattels, and +belongings generally; but Lycurgus, whose aim was to secure to all the +citizens a considerable share in one another's goods without mutual +injury, enacted that each one should have an equal power of his +neighbour's children as over his own. (2) The principle is this. When a +man knows that this, that, and the other person are fathers of children +subject to his authority, he must perforce deal by them even as he +desires his own child to be dealt by. And, if a boy chance to have +received a whipping, not from his own father but some other, and goes +and complains to his own father, it would be thought wrong on the part +of that father if he did not inflict a second whipping on his son. A +striking proof, in its way, how completely they trust each other not to +impose dishonourable commands upon their children. (3) + + (1) Or rather, "members of his household." + + (2) See Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 104). + + (3) See Plut. "Moral." 237 D. + +In the same way he empowered them to use their neighbour's (4) domestics +in case of need. This communism he applied also to dogs used for the +chase; in so far that a party in need of dogs will invite the owner to +the chase, and if he is not at leisure to attend himself, at any rate he +is happy to let his dogs go. The same applies to the use of horses. +Some one has fallen sick perhaps, or is in want of a carriage, (5) or +is anxious to reach some point or other quickly--in any case he has a +right, if he sees a horse anywhere, to take and use it, and restores it +safe and sound when he has done with it. + + (4) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 5 (Jowett, i. pp. xxxi. and 34; ii. p. + 53); Plat. "Laws," viii. 845 A; Newman, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 249 + foll. + + (5) "Has not a carriage of his own." + +And here is another institution attributed to Lycurgus which scarcely +coincides with the customs elsewhere in vogue. A hunting party returns +from the chase, belated. They want provisions--they have nothing +prepared themselves. To meet this contingency he made it a rule that +owners (6) are to leave behind the food that has been dressed; and the +party in need will open the seals, take out what they want, seal up the +remainder, and leave it. Accordingly, by his system of give-and-take +even those with next to nothing (7) have a share in all that the country +can supply, if ever they stand in need of anything. + + (6) Reading {pepamenous}, or if {pepasmenous}, "who have already + finished their repasts." + + (7) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9 (Jowett, i. pp. xlii. and 52); Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10, 1 (vol. ii. 197, Eng. tr.) + + + +VII + +There are yet other customs in Sparta which Lycurgus instituted in +opposition to those of the rest of Hellas, and the following among them. +We all know that in the generality of states every one devotes his full +energy to the business of making money: one man as a tiller of the soil, +another as a mariner, a third as a merchant, whilst others depend +on various arts to earn a living. But at Sparta Lycurgus forbade his +freeborn citizens to have anything whatsoever to do with the concerns +of money-making. As freemen, he enjoined upon them to regard as their +concern exclusively those activities upon which the foundations of civic +liberty are based. + +And indeed, one may well ask, for what reason should wealth be regarded +as a matter for serious pursuit (1) in a community where, partly by a +system of equal contributions to the necessaries of life, and partly by +the maintenance of a common standard of living, the lawgiver placed so +effectual a check upon the desire of riches for the sake of luxury? What +inducement, for instance, would there be to make money, even for the +sake of wearing apparel, in a state where personal adornment is held to +lie not in the costliness of the clothes they wear, but in the healthy +condition of the body to be clothed? Nor again could there be much +inducement to amass wealth, in order to be able to expend it on the +members of a common mess, where the legislator had made it seem far more +glorious that a man should help his fellows by the labour of his body +than by costly outlay. The latter being, as he finely phrased it, the +function of wealth, the former an activity of the soul. + + (1) See Plut. "Lycurg." 10 (Clough, i. 96). + +He went a step further, and set up a strong barrier (even in a society +such as I have described) against the pursuance of money-making by +wrongful means. (2) In the first place, he established a coinage (3) of +so extraordinary a sort, that even a single sum of ten minas (4) could +not come into a house without attracting the notice, either of the +master himself, or of some member of his household. In fact, it would +occupy a considerable space, and need a waggon to carry it. Gold and +silver themselves, moreover, are liable to search, (5) and in case of +detection, the possessor subjected to a penalty. In fact, to repeat +the question asked above, for what reason should money-making become an +earnest pursuit in a community where the possession of wealth entails +more pain than its employment brings satisfaction? + + (2) Or, "against illegitimate commerce." + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 9 (Clough, i. 94). + + (4) = 40 pounds, circa. + + (5) See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 37. + + + +VIII + +But to proceed. We are all aware that there is no state (1) in the world +in which greater obedience is shown to magistrates, and to the laws +themselves, than Sparta. But, for my part, I am disposed to think that +Lycurgus could never have attempted to establish this healthy condition, +(2) until he had first secured the unanimity of the most powerful +members of the state. I infer this for the following reasons. (3) In +other states the leaders in rank and influence do not even desire to be +thought to fear the magistrates. Such a thing they would regard as in +itself a symbol of servility. In Sparta, on the contrary, the stronger +a man is the more readily does he bow before constituted authority. +And indeed, they magnify themselves on their humility, and on a prompt +obedience, running, or at any rate not crawling with laggard step, +at the word of command. Such an example of eager discipline, they are +persuaded, set by themselves, will not fail to be followed by the rest. +And this is precisely what has taken place. It (4) is reasonable to +suppose that it was these same noblest members of the state who combined +(5) to lay the foundation of the ephorate, after they had come to the +conclusion themselves, that of all the blessings which a state, or an +army, or a household, can enjoy, obedience is the greatest. Since, as +they could not but reason, the greater the power with which men fence +about authority, the greater the fascination it will exercise upon the +mind of the citizen, to the enforcement of obedience. + + (1) See Grote, "H. G." v. 516; "Mem." III. v. 18. + + (2) Or, reading after L. Dindorf, {eutaxian}, "this world-renowned + orderliness." + + (3) Or, "from these facts." + + (4) Or, "It was only natural that these same..." + + (5) Or, "helped." See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11, 3; ii. 9, 1 (Jowett, ii. + 224); Plut. "Lycurg." 7, 29; Herod. i. 65; Muller, "Dorians," iii. + 7, 5 (vol. ii. p. 125, Eng. tr.) + +Accordingly the ephors are competent to punish whomsoever they choose; +they have power to exact fines on the spur of the moment; they have +power to depose magistrates in mid career (6)--nay, actually to imprison +them and bring them to trial on the capital charge. Entrusted with +these vast powers, they do not, as do the rest of states, allow the +magistrates elected to exercise authority as they like, right through +the year of office; but, in the style rather of despotic monarchs, or +presidents of the games, at the first symptom of an offence against the +law they inflict chastisement without warning and without hesitation. + + (6) Or, "before the expiration of their term of office." See Plut. + "Agis," 18 (Clough, iv. 464); Cic. "de Leg." iii. 7; "de Rep." ii. + 33. + +But of all the many beautiful contrivances invented by Lycurgus to +kindle a willing obedience to the laws in the hearts of the citizens, +none, to my mind, was happier or more excellent than his unwillingness +to deliver his code to the people at large, until, attended by the most +powerful members of the state, he had betaken himself to Delphi, (7) +and there made inquiry of the god whether it were better for Sparta, and +conducive to her interests, to obey the laws which he had framed. And +not until the divine answer came: "Better will it be in every way," +did he deliver them, laying it down as a last ordinance that to refuse +obedience to a code which had the sanction of the Pythian god himself +(8) was a thing not illegal only, but profane. + + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 5, 6, 29 (Clough, i. 89, 122); Polyb. x. 2, 9. + + (8) Or, "a code delivered in Pytho, spoken by the god himself." + + + +IX + +The following too may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus. I speak +of the consummate skill with which he induced the whole state of Sparta +to regard an honourable death as preferable to an ignoble life. And +indeed if any one will investigate the matter, he will find that by +comparison with those who make it a principle to retreat in face of +danger, actually fewer of these Spartans die in battle, since, to speak +truth, salvation, it would seem, attends on virtue far more frequently +than on cowardice--virtue, which is at once easier and sweeter, richer +in resource and stronger of arm, (1) than her opposite. And that virtue +has another familiar attendant--to wit, glory--needs no showing, since +the whole world would fain ally themselves after some sort in battle +with the good. + + (1) See Homer, "Il." v. 532; Tyrtaeus, 11, 14, {tressanton d' andron + pas' apolol arete}. + +Yet the actual means by which he gave currency to these principles is a +point which it were well not to overlook. It is clear that the lawgiver +set himself deliberately to provide all the blessings of heaven for the +good man, and a sorry and ill-starred existence for the coward. + +In other states the man who shows himself base and cowardly wins to +himself an evil reputation and the nickname of a coward, but that is +all. For the rest he buys and sells in the same market-place as the +good man; he sits beside him at play; he exercises with him in the same +gymnasium, and all as suits his humour. But at Lacedaemon there is not +one man who would not feel ashamed to welcome the coward at the common +mess-tabe, or to try conclusions with such an antagonist in a wrestling +bout. Consider the day's round of his existence. The sides are being +picked up in a football match, (2) but he is left out as the odd man: +there is no place for him. During the choric dance (3) he is driven away +into ignominious quarters. Nay, in the very streets it is he who must +step aside for others to pass, or, being seated, he must rise and make +room, even for a younger man. At home he will have his maiden relatives +to support in isolation (and they will hold him to blame for their +unwedded lives). (4) A hearth with no wife to bless it--that is a +condition he must face, (5) and yet he will have to pay damages to the +last farthing for incurring it. Let him not roam abroad with a smooth +and smiling countenance; (6) let him not imitate men whose fame is +irreproachable, or he shall feel on his back the blows of his superiors. +Such being the weight of infamy which is laid upon all cowards, I, for +my part, am not surprised if in Sparta they deem death preferable to a +life so steeped in dishonour and reproach. + + (2) See Lucian, "Anacharsis," 38; Muller, "Dorians," (vol. ii. 309, + Eng. tr.) + + (3) The {khoroi}, e.g. of the Gymnopaedia. See Muller, op. cit. iv. 6, + 4 (vol. ii. 334, Eng. tr.) + + (4) {tes anandrias}, cf. Plut. "Ages." 30; or, {tes anandreias}, "they + must bear the reproach of his cowardice." + + (5) Omitting {ou}, or translate, "that is an evil not to be + disregarded." See Dindorf, ad loc.; Sturz, "Lex. Xen." {Estia}. + + (6) See Plut. "Ages." 30 (Clough, iv. 36); "Hell." VI. iv. 16. + + + +X + +That too was a happy enactment, in my opinion, by which Lycurgus +provided for the continual cultivation of virtue, even to old age. By +fixing (1) the election to the council of elders (2) as a last ordeal at +the goal of life, he made it impossible for a high standard of virtuous +living to be disregarded even in old age. (So, too, it is worthy of +admiration in him that he lent his helping hand to virtuous old age. +(3) Thus, by making the elders sole arbiters in the trial for life, he +contrived to charge old age with a greater weight of honour than that +which is accorded to the strength of mature manhood.) And assuredly +such a contest as this must appeal to the zeal of mortal man beyond all +others in a supreme degree. Fair, doubtless, are contests of gymnastic +skill, yet are they but trials of bodily excellence, but this contest +for the seniority is of a higher sort--it is an ordeal of the soul +itself. In proportion, therefore, as the soul is worthier than the body, +so must these contests of the soul appeal to a stronger enthusiasm than +their bodily antitypes. + + (1) Reading {protheis}. See Plut. "Lycurg." 26 (Clough. i. 118); + Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 25. + + (2) Or, "seniory," or "senate," or "board of elders"; lit. "the + Gerontia." + + (3) Or, "the old age of the good. Yet this he did when he made... + since he contrived," etc. + +And yet another point may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus +largely. It had not escaped his observation that communities exist +where those who are willing to make virtue their study and delight fail +somehow in ability to add to the glory of their fatherland. (4) That +lesson the legislator laid to heart, and in Sparta he enforced, as a +matter of public duty, the practice of virtue by every citizen. And so +it is that, just as man differs from man in some excellence, according +as he cultivates or neglects to cultivate it, this city of Sparta, with +good reason, outshines all other states in virtue; since she, and she +alone, as made the attainment of a high standard of noble living a +public duty. + + (4) Is this an autobiographical touch? + +And was this not a noble enactment, that whereas other states are +content to inflict punishment only in cases where a man does wrong +against his neighbour, Lycurgus imposed penalties no less severe on him +who openly neglected to make himself as good as possible? For this, it +seems, was his principle: in the one case, where a man is robbed, or +defrauded, or kidnapped, and made a slave of, the injury of the misdeed, +whatever it be, is personal to the individual so maltreated; but in the +other case whole communities suffer foul treason at the hands of the +base man and the coward. So that it was only reasonable, in my opinion, +that he should visit the heaviest penalty upon these latter. + +Moreover, he laid upon them, like some irresistible necessity, the +obligation to cultivate the whole virtue of a citizen. Provided they +duly performed the injunctions of the law, the city belonged to them, +each and all, in absolute possession and on an equal footing. Weakness +of limb or want of wealth (5) was no drawback in his eyes. But as for +him who, out of the cowardice of his heart, shrank from the painful +performance of the law's injunction, the finger of the legislator +pointed him out as there and then disqualified to be regarded longer as +a member of the brotherhood of peers. (6) + + (5) But see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 32. + + (6) Grote, "H. G." viii. 81; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + +It may be added, that there was no doubt as to the great antiquity of +this code of laws. The point is clear so far, that Lycurgus himself is +said to have lived in the days of the Heraclidae. (7) But being of so +long standing, these laws, even at this day, still are stamped in the +eyes of other men with all the novelty of youth. And the most marvellous +thing of all is that, while everybody is agreed to praise these +remarkable institutions, there is not a single state which cares to +imitate them. + + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 1. + + + +XI + +The above form a common stock of blessings, open to every Spartan to +enjoy, alike in peace and in war. But if any one desires to be informed +in what way the legislator improved upon the ordinary machinery of +warfare and in reference to an army in the field, it is easy to satisfy +his curiosity. + +In the first instance, the ephors announce by proclamation the limit of +age to which the service applies (1) for cavalry and heavy infantry; +and in the next place, for the various handicraftsmen. So that, even +on active service, the Lacedaemonians are well supplied with all the +conveniences enjoyed by people living as citizens at home. (2) All +implements and instruments whatsoever, which an army may need in common, +are ordered to be in readiness, (3) some on waggons and others on +baggage animals. In this way anything omitted can hardly escape +detection. + + (1) I.e. "in the particular case." See "Hell." VI. iv. 17; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 12 (vol. ii. 242 foll., Eng. tr.) + + (2) Or, "the conveniences of civil life at home." + + (3) Reading {parekhein}, or if {paragein}, "to be conveyed." Cf. + Pausan. I. xix. 1. See "Cyrop." VI. ii. 34. + +For the actual encounter under arms, the following inventions are +attributed to him. The soldier has a crimson-coloured uniform and a +heavy shield of bronze; his theory being that such an equipment has no +sort of feminine association, and is altogether most warrior-like. (4) +It is most quickly burnished; it is least readily soiled. (5) + + (4) Cf. Aristoph. "Acharn." 320, and the note of the scholiast. + + (5) See Ps. Plut. "Moral." 238 F. + +He further permitted those who were above the age of early manhood to +wear their hair long. (6) For so, he conceived, they would appear +of larger stature, more free and indomitable, and of a more terrible +aspect. + + (6) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). + +So furnished and accoutred, he divided his citizen soldiers into six +morai (7) (or regimental divisions) of cavalry (8) and heavy infantry. +Each of these citizen regiments (political divisions) has one polemarch +(9) (or colonel), four lochagoi (or captains of companies), eight +penteconters (or lieutenants, each in command of half a company), and +sixteen enomotarchs (or commanders of sections). At the word of command +any such regimental division can be formed readily either into enomoties +(i.e. single file) or into threes (i.e. three files abreast), or into +sixes (i.e. six files abreast). (10) + + (7) The {mora}. Jowett, "Thuc." ii. 320, note to Thuc. v. 68, 3. + + (8) See Plut. "Lycurg." 23 (Clough, i. 115); "Hell." VI. iv. 11; Thuc. + v. 67; Paus. IV. viii. 12. + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66, 71. + + (10) See Thuch. v. 68, and Arnold's note ad loc.; "Hell." VI. iv. 12; + "Anab." II. iv. 26; Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 117. + +As to the idea, commonly entertained, that the tactical arrangement of +the Laconian heavy infantry is highly complicated, no conception could +be more opposed to fact. For in the Laconian order the front rank men +are all leaders, (11) so that each file has everything necessary to play +its part efficiently. In fact, this disposition is so easy to understand +that no one who can distinguish one human being from another could fail +to follow it. One set have the privilege of leaders, the other the duty +of followers. The evolutional orders, (12) by which greater depth or +shallowness is given to the battle line, are given by word of mouth by +the enomotarch (or commander of the section), who plays the part of the +herald, and they cannot be mistaken. None of these manouvres presents +any difficulty whatsoever to the understanding. + + (11) See "Anab." IV. iii. 26; "Cyrop." III. iii. 59; VI. iii. 22. + + (12) I.e. "for doubling depth"; e.g. anglice, "form two deep," etc., + when marching to a flank. Grote, "H. G." vii. 108; Thuc. v. 66; + also Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 111, S. 8, note 19; p. 121, + $17, note 41. + +But when it comes to their ability to do battle equally well in spite +of some confusion which has been set up, and whatever the chapter of +accidents may confront them with, (13) I admit that the tactics here are +not so easy to understand, except for people trained under the laws of +Lycurgus. Even movements which an instructor in heavy-armed warfare (14) +might look upon as difficult are performed by the Lacedaemonians with +the utmost ease. (15) Thus, the troops, we will suppose, are marching in +column; one section of a company is of course stepping up behind another +from the rear. (16) Now, if at such a moment a hostile force appears in +front in battle order, the word is passed down to the commander of each +section, "Deploy (into line) to the left." And so throughout the whole +length of the column, until the line is formed facing the enemy. Or +supposing while in this position an enemy appears in the rear. Each file +performs a counter-march (17) with the effect of bringing the best men +face to face with the enemy all along the line. (18) As to the point +that the leader previously on the right finds himself now on the left, +(19) they do not consider that they are necessarily losers thereby, but, +as it may turn out, even gainers. If, for instance, the enemy attempted +to turn their flank, he would find himself wrapping round, not their +exposed, but their shielded flank. (20) Or if, for any reason, it be +thought advisable for the general to keep the right wing, they turn the +corps about, (21) and counter-march by ranks, until the leader is on the +right, and the rear rank on the left. Or again, supposing a division of +the enemy appears on the right whilst they are marching in column, they +have nothing further to do but to wheel each company to the right, like +a trireme, prow forwards, (22) to meet the enemy, and thus the rear +company again finds itself on the right. If, however, the enemy should +attack on the left, either they will not allow of that and push him +aside, (23) or else they wheel their companies to the left to face the +antagonist, and thus the rear company once more falls into position on +the left. + + (13) Or, "alongside of any comrade who may have fallen in their way." + See Plut. "Pelop." 23 (Clough, ii. 222); Thuc. v. 72. + + (14) Or, "drill sergeant." + + (15) See Jebb, note to "Theophr." viii. 3. + + (16) Or, "marching in rear of another." + + (17) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (18) Or, "every time." + + (19) See Thuc. v. 67, 71. + + (20) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (21) For these movements, see "Dict. of Antiq." "Exercitus"; Grote, + "H. G." vii. 111. + + (22) See "Hell." VII. v. 23. + + (23) I am indebted to Professor Jebb for the following suggestions + with regard to this passage: "The words {oude touto eosin, all + apothousin e}, etc., contain some corruption. The sense ought + clearly to be roughly parallel with that of the phrase used a + little before, {ouden allo pragmateuontai e}, etc. Perhaps + {apothousin} is a corruption of {apothen ousin}, and this + corruption occasioned the insertion of {e}. Probably Xenophon + wrote {oude touto eosin, all apothen ousin antipalous}, etc.: + 'while the enemy is still some way off, they turn their companies + so as to face him.' The words {apothen ousin} indirectly suggest + the celerity of the Spartan movement." + + + +XII + +I will now speak of the mode of encampment sanctioned by the regulation +of Lycurgus. To avoid the waste incidental to the angles of a square, +(1) the encampment, according to him, should be circular, except where +there was the security of a hill, (2) or fortification, or where they +had a river in their rear. He had sentinels posted during the day along +the place of arms and facing inwards; (3) since they are appointed not +so much for the sake of the enemy as to keep an eye on friends. The +enemy is sufficiently watched by mounted troopers perched on various +points commanding the widest prospect. + + (1) Or, "Regarding the angles of a square as a useless inconvenience, + he arranged that an encampment should be circular," etc. See + Polyb. vi. 31, 42. + + (2) Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 14; Polyaen. II. iii. 11, ap. Schneider. + + (3) Lit. "these," {tas men}. Or, "He had lines of sentinels posted + throughout the day; one line facing inwards towards the place of + arms (and these were appointed, etc.); while observation of the + enemy was secured by mounted troopers," etc. + +To guard against hostile approach by night, sentinel duty according to +the ordinance was performed by the Sciritae (4) outside the main +body. At the present time the rule is so far modified that the duty is +entrusted to foreigners, (5) if there be a foreign contingent present, +with a leaven of Spartans themselves to keep them company. (6) + + (4) See Muller's "Dorians," ii. 253; "Hell." VI. v. 24; "Cyrop." IV. + ii. 1; Thuc. v. 67, 71; Grote, "H. G." vii. 110. + + (5) See "Hipparch." ix. 4. + + (6) Reading {auton de}. The passage is probably corrupt. See L. + Dindorf ad loc. + +The custom of always taking their spears (7) with them when they go +their rounds must certainly be attributed to the same cause which +makes them exclude their slaves from the place of arms. Nor need we be +surprised if, when retiring for necessary purposes, they only withdraw +just far enough from one another, or from the place of arms itself, not +to create annoyance. The need of precaution is the whole explanation. + + (7) See Critias, ap. Schneider ad loc. + +The frequency with which they change their encampments is another point. +It is done quite as much for the sake of benefiting their friends as of +annoying their enemies. + +Further, the law enjoins upon all Lacedaemonians, during the whole +period of an expedition, the constant practice of gymnastic (8) +exercises, whereby their pride (9) in themselves is increased, and they +appear freer and of a more liberal aspect than the rest of the world. +(10) The walk and the running ground must not exceed in length (11) the +space covered by a regimental division, (12) so that no one may find +himself far from his own stand of arms. After the gymnastic exercises +the senior polemarch gives the order (by herald) to be seated. This +serves all the purposes of an inspection. After this the order is given +"to get breakfast," and for "the outposts (13) to be relieved." After +this, again, come pastimes and relaxations before the evening exercises, +after which the herald's cry is heard "to take the evening meal." When +they have sung a hymn to the gods to whom the offerings of happy omen +had been performed, the final order, "Retire to rest at the place of +arms," (14) is given. + + (8) Cf. Herod. vii. 208; Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 113 foll.) + + (9) Reading {megalophronesterous} (L. Dindorf's emendation) for the + vulg. {megaloprepesterous}. Xen "Opusc. polit." Ox. MDCCCLVI. + + (10) Or, "the proud self-consciousness of their own splendour is + increased, and by comparison with others they bear more notably + the impress of freemen." + + (11) The word {masso} is "poetical" (old Attic?). See "Cyrop." II. iv. + 27, and L. Dindorf ad loc. + + (12) A single mora, or an army corps. + + (13) Or, "vedettes," {proskopon}. See "Cyrop." V. ii. 6. + + (14)? Or, "on your arms." See Sturz, "Lex. Xen." s.v. + +If the story is a little long the reader must not be surprised, since it +would be difficult to find any point in military matters omitted by the +Lacedaemonians which seems to demand attention. + + + +XIII + +I will now give a detailed account of the power and privilege assigned +by Lycurgus to the king during a campaign. To begin with, so long as he +is on active service, the state maintains the king and those with him. +(1) The polemarchs mess with him and share his quarters, so that by dint +of constant intercourse they may be all the better able to consult in +common in case of need. Besides the polemarch three other members of the +peers (2) share the royal quarters, mess, etc. The duty of these is to +attend to all matters of commisariat, (3) in order that the king and the +rest may have unbroken leisure to attend to affairs of actual warfare. + + (1) I.e. "the Thirty." See "Ages." i. 7; "Hell." III. iv. 2; Plut. + "Ages." 6 (Clough, iv. 6); Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 29. + + (2) For these {oi omoioi}, see "Cyrop." I. v. 5; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + + (3) Lit. "supplies and necessaries." + +But I will resume at a somewhat higher point and describe the manner in +which the king sets out on an expedition. As a preliminary step, before +leaving home he offers sacrifice (in company with (4) his staff) to Zeus +Agetor (the Leader), and if the victims prove favourable then and there +the priest, (5) who bears the sacred fire, takes thereof from off the +altar and leads the way to the boundaries of the land. Here for the +second time the king does sacrifice (6) to Zeus and Athena; and as soon +as the offerings are accepted by those two divinities he steps across +the boundaries of the land. And all the while the fire from those +sacrifices leads the way, and is never suffered to go out. Behind follow +beasts for sacrifice of every sort. + + (4) Lit. reading {kai oi sun auto}, after L. Dindorf, "he and those + with him." + + (5) Lit. "the Purphuros." See Nic. Damasc. ap. Stob. "Fl." 44, 41; + Hesych. ap. Schneider, n. ad loc. + + (6) These are the {diabateria}, so often mentioned in the "Hellenica." + +Invariably when he offers sacrifice the king begins the work in the +gloaming ere the day has broken, being minded to anticipate the goodwill +of the god. And round about the place of sacrifice are present the +polemarchs and captains, the lieutenants and sub-lieutenants, with the +commandants of the baggage train, and any general of the states (7) who +may care to assist. There, too, are to be seen two of the ephors, who +neither meddle nor make, save only at the summons of the king, yet have +they their eyes fixed on the proceedings of each one there and keep +all in order, (8) as may well be guessed. When the sacrifices are +accomplished the king summons all and issues his orders (9) as to +what has to be done. And all with such method that, to witness the +proceedings, you might fairly suppose the rest of the world to be +but bungling experimenters, (10) and the Lacedaemonians alone true +handicraftsmen in the art of soldiering. + + (7) I.e. "allied"? or "perioecid"? + + (8) {sophronizousin}, "keep every one in his sober senses." + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66. + + (10) {autoskhediastai, tekhnitai}. See Jebb, "Theophr." x. 3. + +Anon the king puts himself at the head of the troops, and if no enemy +appears he heads the line of march, no one preceding him except the +Sciritae, and the mounted troopers exploring in front. (11) If, however, +there is any reason to anticipate a battle, the king takes the leading +column of the first army corps (12) and wheels to the right until he has +got into position with two army corps and two generals of division on +either flank. The disposition of the supports is assigned to the eldest +of the royal council (13) (or staff corps) acting as brigadier--the +staff consisting of all peers who share the royal mess and quarters, +with the soothsayers, surgeons, (14) and pipers, whose place is in the +front of the troops, (15) with, finally, any volunteers who happen to be +present. So that there is no check or hesitation in anything to be done; +every contingency is provided for. + + (11) Or, "who are on scouting duty. If, however, they expect a + battle," etc. + + (12) Technically, "mora." + + (13) {ton peri damosian}. See "Hell." IV. v. 8; vii. 4. + + (14) See "Anab." III. iv. 30; "Cyrop." I. vi. 15; L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. + + (15) Schneider refers to Polyaenus, i. 10. + +The following details also seem to me of high utility among the +inventions of Lycurgus with a view to the final arbitrament of battle. +Whensoever, the enemy being now close enough to watch the proceedings, +(16) the goat is sacrificed; then, says the law, let all the pipers, +in their places, play upon the pipes, and let every Lacedaemonian don +a wreath. Then, too, so runs the order, let the shields be brightly +polished. The privilege is accorded to the young man to enter battle +with his long locks combed. (17) To be of cheery countenance--that, +too, is of good repute. Onwards they pass the word of command to the +subaltern (18) in command of his section, since it is impossible to hear +along the whole of each section from the particular subaltern posted on +the outside. It devolves, finally, on the polemarch to see that all goes +well. + + (16) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114); and for the goat + sacrificed to Artemis Agrotera, see "Hell." IV. ii. 20; Pause. IX. + xiii. 4; Plut. "Marcell." 22 (Clough, ii. 264). + + (17) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). The passage is corrupt, + and possibly out of its place. I cite the words as they run in the + MSS. with various proposed emendations. See Schneider, n. ad loc. + {exesti de to neo kai kekrimeno eis makhen sunienai kai phaidron + einai kai eudokimon. kai parakeleuontai de k.t.l.} Zeune, + {kekrimeno komen}, after Plut. "Lycurg." 22. Weiske, {kai komen + diakekrimeno}. Cobet, {exesti de to neo liparo kai tas komas + diakekrimeno eis makhen ienai}. + + (18) Lit. "to the enomotarch." + +When the right moment for encamping has come, the king is responsible +for that, and has to point out the proper place. The despatch of +emissaries, however, whether to friends or to foes, is (not) (19) the +king's affair. Petitioners in general wishing to transact anything +treat, in the first instance, with the king. If the case concerns some +point of justice, the king despatches the petitioner to the Hellanodikai +(who form the court-martial); if of money, to the paymasters. (20) If +the petitioner brings booty, he is sent off to the Laphuropolai (or +sellers of spoil). This being the mode of procedure, no other duty is +left to the king, whilst he is on active service, except to play the +part of priest in matters concerning the gods and of commander-in-chief +in his relationship to men. (21) + + (19) The MSS. give {au}, "is again," but the word {mentoi}, "however," + and certain passages in "Hell." II. ii. 12, 13; II. iv. 38 suggest + the negative {ou} in place of {au}. If {au} be right, then we + should read {ephoren} in place of {basileos}, "belongs to the + ephors." + + (20) Technically the {tamiai}. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." iii. 14. + + + +XIV (1) + +Now, if the question be put to me, Do you maintain that the laws of +Lycurgus remain still to this day unchanged? that indeed is an assertion +which I should no longer venture to maintain; knowing, as I do, that in +former times the Lacedaemonians preferred to live at home on moderate +means, content to associate exclusively with themselves rather than +to play the part of governor-general (2) in foreign states and to be +corrupted by flattery; knowing further, as I do, that formerly they +dreaded to be detected in the possession of gold, whereas nowadays there +are not a few who make it their glory and their boast to be possessed of +it. I am very well aware that in former days alien acts (3) were put +in force for this very object. To live abroad was not allowed. And why? +Simply in order that the citizens of Sparta might not take the infection +of dishonesty and light-living from foreigners; whereas now I am very +well aware that those who are reputed to be leading citizens have +but one ambition, and that is to live to the end of their days as +governors-general on a foreign soil. (4) The days were when their sole +anxiety was to fit themselves to lead the rest of Hellas. But nowadays +they concern themselves much more to wield command than to be fit +themselves to rule. And so it has come to pass that whereas in old days +the states of Hellas flocked to Lacedaemon seeking her leadership (5) +against the supposed wrongdoer, now numbers are inviting one another to +prevent the Lacedaemonians again recovering their empire. (6) Yet, if +they have incurred all these reproaches, we need not wonder, seeing that +they are so plainly disobedient to the god himself and to the laws of +their own lawgiver Lycurgus. + + (1) For the relation of this chapter to the rest of the treatise, see + Grote, ix. 325; Ern. Naumann, "de Xen. libro qui" {LAK. POLITEIA} + inscribitur, p. 18 foll.; Newmann, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 326. + + (2) Harmosts. + + (3) "Xenelasies," {xenelasiai} technically called. See Plut. "Lycurg." + 27; "Agis," 10; Thuc. ii. 39, where Pericles contrasts the liberal + spirit of the democracy with Spartan exclusiveness; "Our city is + thrown open to the world, and we never expel a foreigner or + prevent him from seeing or learning anything of which the secret, + if revealed to an enemy, might profit him."--Jowett, i. 118. + + (4) Lit. "harmosts"; and for the taste of living abroad, see what is + said of Dercylidas, "Hell." IV. iii. 2. The harmosts were not + removed till just before Leuctra (371 B.C.), "Hell." VI. iv. 1, + and after, see Paus. VIII. lii. 4; IX. lxiv. + + (5) See Plut. "Lycurg." 30 (Clough, i. 124). + + (6) This passage would seem to fix the date of the chapter xiv. as + about the time of the Athenian confederacy of 378 B.C.; "Hell." V. + iv. 34; "Rev." v. 6. See also Isocr. "Panegyr." 380 B.C.; Grote, + "H. G." ix. 325. See the text of a treaty between Athens, Chios, + Mytilene, and Byzantium; Kohler, "Herm." v. 10; Rangabe, "Antiq. + Hellen." ii. 40, 373; Naumann, op. cit. 26. + + + +XV + +I wish to explain with sufficient detail the nature of the covenant +between king and state as instituted by Lycurgus; for this, I take it, +is the sole type of rule (1) which still preserves the original form +in which it was first established; whereas other constitutions will +be found either to have been already modified or else to be still +undergoing modifications at this moment. + + (1) Or, "magistracy"; the word {arkhe} at once signifies rule and + governmental office. + +Lycurgus laid it down as law that the king shall offer in behalf of the +state all public sacrifices, as being himself of divine descent, (2) and +whithersoever the state shall despatch her armies the king shall take +the lead. He granted him to receive honorary gifts of the things offered +in sacrifice, and he appointed him choice land in many of the provincial +cities, enough to satisfy moderate needs without excess of wealth. And +in order that the kings also might camp and mess in public he appointed +them public quarters; and he honoured them with a double portion (3) +each at the evening meal, not in order that they might actually eat +twice as much as others, but that the king might have wherewithal to +honour whomsoever he desired. He also granted as a gift to each of the +two kings to choose two mess-fellows, which same are called Puthioi. He +also granted them to receive out of every litter of swine one pig, so +that the king might never be at a loss for victims if in aught he wished +to consult the gods. + + (2) I.e. a Heracleid, in whichever line descended, and, through + Heracles, from Zeus himself. The kings are therefore "heroes," + i.e. demigods. See below; and for their privileges, see Herod. vi. + 56, 57. + + (3) See "Ages." v. 1. + +Close by the palace a lake affords an unrestricted supply of water; and +how useful that is for various purposes they best can tell who lack the +luxury. (4) Moreover, all rise from their seats to give place to the +king, save only that the ephors rise not from their thrones of office. +Monthly they exchange oaths, the ephors in behalf of the state, the king +himself in his own behalf. And this is the oath on the king's part: "I +will exercise my kingship in accordance with the established laws of the +state." And on the part of the state the oath runs: "So long as he (5) +(who exercises kingship) shall abide by his oaths we will not suffer his +kingdom to be shaken." (6) + + (4) See Hartman, "An. Xen. N." p. 274; but cf. "Cyneget." v. 34; + "Anab." V. iii. 8. + + (5) Lit. "he yonder." + + (6) Lit. "we will keep it for him unshaken." See L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. and praef. p. 14 D. + +These then are the honours bestowed upon the king during his lifetime +(at home) (7)--honours by no means much exceeding those of private +citizens, since the lawgiver was minded neither to suggest to the kings +the pride of the despotic monarch, (8) nor, on the other hand, to +engender in the heart of the citizen envy of their power. As to those +other honours which are given to the king at his death, (9) the laws of +Lycurgus would seem plainly to signify hereby that these kings of +Lacedaemon are not mere mortals but heroic beings, and that is why they +are preferred in honour. (10) + + (7) The words "at home" look like an insertion. + + (8) Lit. "the tyrant's pride." + + (9) See "Hell." III. iii. 1; "Ages." xi. 16; Herod. vi. 58. + + (10) Intentionally or not on the part of the writer, the concluding + words, in which the intention of the Laws is conveyed, assume a + metrical form: + + {oukh os anthropous all os eroas tous + Lakedaimonion basileis protetimekasin.} + + See Ern. Naumann, op. cit. p. 18. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Polity of the Athenians and the +Lacedaemonians, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1178 *** |