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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:16:37 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/1178-0.txt b/1178-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0b6d25 --- /dev/null +++ b/1178-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2278 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1178 *** + +THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS AND THE LACEDAEMONIANS + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + + + + + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS + + + +I + +Now, as concerning the Polity of the Athenians, (1) and the type or +manner of constitution which they have chosen, (2) I praise it not, +in so far as the very choice involves the welfare of the baser folk as +opposed to that of the better class. I repeat, I withhold my praise so +far; but, given the fact that this is the type agreed upon, I propose +to show that they set about its preservation in the right way; and that +those other transactions in connection with it, which are looked upon as +blunders by the rest of the Hellenic world, are the reverse. + + (1) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 47 foll.; Thuc. i. 76, 77; viii. 48; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." passim; Hartman, "An. Xen. N." cap. viii.; + Roquette, "Xen. Vit." S. 26; Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 538; and + "Xenophontis qui fertur libellus de Republica Atheniensium," ed. + A. Kirchhoff (MDCCCLXXIV), whose text I have chiefly followed. + + (2) Lit. "I do not praise their choice of the (particular) type, in so + far as..." + +In the first place, I maintain, it is only just that the poorer classes +(3) and the People of Athens should be better off than the men of birth +and wealth, seeing that it is the people who man the fleet, (4) and put +round the city her girdle of power. The steersman, (5) the boatswain, +the lieutenant, (6) the look-out-man at the prow, the shipright--these +are the people who engird the city with power far rather than her heavy +infantry (7) and men of birth of quality. This being the case, it seems +only just that offices of state should be thrown open to every one both +in the ballot (8) and the show of hands, and that the right of speech +should belong to any one who likes, without restriction. For, observe, +(9) there are many of these offices which, according as they are in good +or in bad hands, are a source of safety or of danger to the People, and +in these the People prudently abstains from sharing; as, for instance, +it does not think it incumbent on itself to share in the functions of +the general or of the commander of cavalry. (10) The sovereign People +recognises the fact that in forgoing the personal exercise of these +offices, and leaving them to the control of the more powerful (11) +citizens, it secures the balance of advantage to itself. It is only +those departments of government which bring emolument (12) and assist +the private estate that the People cares to keep in its own hands. + + (3) Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 58 foll. + + (4) Lit. "ply the oar and propel the galleys." + + (5) See "Econ." viii. 14; Pollux, i. 96; Arist. "Knights," 543 foll.; + Plat. "Laws," v. 707 A; Jowett, "Plat." v. 278 foll.; Boeckh, "P. + E. A." bk. ii. ch. xxi. + + (6) Lit. "pentecontarch;" see Dem. "In Pol." 1212. + + (7) Aristot. "Pol." vi. 7; Jowett, "The Politics of Aristotle," vol. + i. p. 109. + + (8) {klerotoi}, {airetoi}. + + (9) Reading with Kirchhoff, {epeo tou}, or if {epeita}, "in the next + place." + + (10) Hipparch. + + (11) Cf. "Hipparch." i. 9; "Econ." ii. 8. + + (12) E.g. the {dikasteria}. + +In the next place, in regard to what some people are puzzled to +explain--the fact that everywhere greater consideration is shown to +the base, to poor people and to common folk, than to persons of good +quality--so far from being a matter of surprise, this, as can be shown, +is the keystone of the preservation of the democracy. It is these +poor people, this common folk, this riff-raff, (13) whose prosperity, +combined with the growth of their numbers, enhances the democracy. +Whereas, a shifting of fortune to the advantage of the wealthy and the +better classes implies the establishment on the part of the commonalty +of a strong power in opposition to itself. In fact, all the world over, +the cream of society is in opposition to the democracy. Naturally, since +the smallest amount of intemperance and injustice, together with the +highest scrupulousness in the pursuit of excellence, is to be found in +the ranks of the better class, while within the ranks of the People +will be found the greatest amount of ignorance, disorderliness, +rascality--poverty acting as a stronger incentive to base conduct, not +to speak of lack of education and ignorance, traceable to the lack of +means which afflicts the average of mankind. (14) + + (13) Or, "these inferiors," "these good-for-nothings." + + (14) Or, "some of these folk." The passage is corrupt. + +The objection may be raised that it was a mistake to allow the universal +right of speech (15) and a seat in council. These should have been +reserved for the cleverest, the flower of the community. But here, +again, it will be found that they are acting with wise deliberation in +granting to (16) even the baser sort the right of speech, for supposing +only the better people might speak, or sit in council, blessings would +fall to the lot of those like themselves, but to the commonalty the +reverse of blessings. Whereas now, any one who likes, any base fellow, +may get up and discover something to the advantage of himself and his +equals. It may be retorted: "And what sort of advantage either for +himself or for the People can such a fellow be expected to hit upon?" +The answer to which is, that in their judgment the ignorance and +baseness of this fellow, together with his goodwill, are worth a great +deal more to them than your superior person's virtue and wisdom, coupled +with animosity. What it comes to, therefore, is that a state founded +upon such institutions will not be the best state; (17) but, given a +democracy, these are the right means to procure its preservation. The +People, it must be borne in mind, does not demand that the city should +be well governed and itself a slave. It desires to be free and to be +master. (18) As to bad legislation it does not concern itself about +that. (19) In fact, what you believe to be bad legislation is the very +source of the People's strength and freedom. But if you seek for good +legislation, in the first place you will see the cleverest members of +the community laying down the laws for the rest. And in the next place, +the better class will curb and chastise the lower orders; the +better class will deliberate in behalf of the state, and not suffer +crack-brained fellows to sit in council, or to speak or vote in +Parliament. (20) No doubt; but under the weight of such blessings the +People will in a very short time be reduced to slavery. + + (15) Lit. "everybody to speak in turn." + + (16) Or, "it is a counsel of perfection on their part to grant to," + etc. + + (17) Or, "the ideal state." + + (18) Or, "and to govern and hold office." + + (19) Or, "it will take the risk of that." + + (20) See Grote, "H. G." v. p. 510 note. + +Another point is the extraordinary amount of license (21) granted to +slaves and resident aliens at Athens, where a blow is illegal, and a +slave will not step aside to let you pass him in the street. I will +explain the reason of this peculiar custom. Supposing it were legal +for a slave to be beaten by a free citizen, or for a resident alien or +freedman to be beaten by a citizen, it would frequently happen that +an Athenian might be mistaken for a slave or an alien and receive a +beating; since the Athenian People is no better clothed than the slave +or alien, nor in personal appearance is there any superiority. Or if the +fact itself that slaves in Athens are allowed to indulge in luxury, and +indeed in some cases to live magnificently, be found astonishing, this +too, it can be shown, is done of set purpose. Where you have a naval +power (22) dependent upon wealth (23) we must perforce be slaves to our +slaves, in order that we may get in our slave-rents, (24) and let +the real slave go free. Where you have wealthy slaves it ceases to be +advantageous that my slave should stand in awe of you. In Lacedaemon my +slave stands in awe of you. (25) But if your slave is in awe of me there +will be a risk of his giving away his own moneys to avoid running a risk +in his own person. It is for this reason then that we have established +an equality between our slaves and free men; and again between our +resident aliens and full citizens, (26) because the city stands in need +of her resident aliens to meet the requirements of such a multiplicity +of arts and for the purposes of her navy. That is, I repeat, the +justification for the equality conferred upon our resident aliens. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11 and vi. 4; Jowett, op. cit. vol. i. pp. + 179, 196; Welldon, "The Politics of Aristotle," pp. 394 323; Dem. + "Phil." III. iii. 10; Plaut. "Stich." III. i. 37. + + (22) See Diod. xi. 43. + + (23) Reading, {apo khrematon, anagke}, or (reading, {apo khrematon + anagke}) "considerations of money force us to be slaves." + + (24) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xiii. (Eng. trans. p. 72). "The rights + of property with regard to slaves in no way differed from any + other chattel; they could be given or taken as pledges. They + laboured either on their master's account or their own, in + consideration of a certain sum to be paid to the master, or they + were let out on hire either for the mines or any other kind of + labour, and even for other persons' workshops, or as hired + servants for wages ({apophora}): a similar payment was also + exacted by the masters for their slaves serving in the fleet." Ib. + "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurion," p. 659 (Eng. + trans.) + + (25) See "Pol. Lac." vi. 3. + + (26) Or, "we have given to our slaves the right to talk like equals + with free men, just as to resident aliens the right of so talking + with citizens." See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xiv. 4, note, p. 221. + See Demosth. "against Midias," 529, where the law is cited. "If + any one commit a personal outrage upon man, woman, or child, + whether free-born or slave, or commit any illegal act against any + such person, let any Athenian that chooses" (not being under + disability) "indict him before the judges," etc; and the orator + exclaims: "You know, O Athenians, the humanity of the law, which + allows not even slaves to be insulted in their persons."--C. R. + Kennedy. + +Citizens devoting their time to gymnastics and to the cultivation of +music are not to be found in Athens; (27) the sovereign People has +disestablished them, (28) not from any disbelief in the beauty and +honour of such training, but recognising the fact that these are things +the cultivation of which is beyond its power. On the same principle, in +the case of the coregia, (29) the gymnasiarchy, and the trierarchy, the +fact is recognised that it is the rich man who trains the chorus, and +the People for whom the chorus is trained; it is the rich man who is +trierarch or gymnasiarch, and the People that profits by their labours. +(30) In fact, what the People looks upon as its right is to pocket +the money. (31) To sing and run and dance and man the vessels is well +enough, but only in order that the People may be the gainer, while the +rich are made poorer. And so in the courts of justice, (32) justice is +not more an object of concern to the jurymen than what touches personal +advantage. + + (27) For {mousike} and {gumnastike}, see Becker's "Charicles," Exc. + "Education." + + (28) See "Revenues," iv. 52; Arist. "Frogs," 1069, {e xekenosen tas te + palaistras}, "and the places of exercise vacant and bare."--Frere. + + (29) "The duties of the choregia consisted in finding maintenance and + instruction for the chorus" (in tragedy, usually of fifteen + persons) "as long as they were in training; and in providing the + dresses and equipments for the performance."--Jebb, "Theophr. + Char." xxv. 3. For those of the gymnasiarchy, see "Dict. of + Antiq." "Gymnasium." For that of the trierarchy, see Jebb, op. + cit. xxv. 9; xxix. 16; Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. xi. + + (30) See "Econ." ii. 6; Thuc. vi. 31. + + (31) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. xvi. p. 241. + + (32) For the system of judicature, the {dikasteria}, and the boards of + jurymen or judges, see Aristot. "Constitution of Athens," ch. + lxiii.; "Dict. of Antiq." s.v. + +To speak next of the allies, and in reference to the point that +emissaries (33) from Athens come out, and, according to common opinion, +calumniate and vent their hatred (34) upon the better sort of people, +this is done (35) on the principle that the ruler cannot help being +hated by those whom he rules; but that if wealth and respectability are +to wield power in the subject cities the empire of the Athenian People +has but a short lease of existence. This explains why the better people +are punished with infamy, (36) robbed of their money, driven from their +homes, and put to death, while the baser sort are promoted to honour. On +the other hand, the better Athenians throw their aegis over the better +class in the allied cities. (37) And why? Because they recognise that it +is to the interest of their own class at all times to protect the best +element in the cities. It may be urged (38) that if it comes to strength +and power the real strength of Athens lies in the capacity of her allies +to contribute their money quota. But to the democratic mind (39) it +appears a higher advantage still for the individual Athenian to get hold +of the wealth of the allies, leaving them only enough to live upon +and to cultivate their estates, but powerless to harbour treacherous +designs. + + (33) For {oi ekpleontes}, see Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 41. + + (34) Reading {misousi}; or, if with Kirchhoff, {meiousi}, "in every + way humiliate." + + (35) Or, "(they do so) as recognising the fact." + + (36) {atimia} = the loss of civil rights, either total or partial. See + C. R. Kennedy, "Select Speeches of Demosthenes," Note 13, + Disenfranchisement. + + (37) See Thuc. viii. 48. + + (38) See Grote, "H. G." vi. 53. + + (39) Or, "to a thorough democrat." + +Again, (40) it is looked upon as a mistaken policy on the part of the +Athenian democracy to compel her allies to voyage to Athens in order to +have their cases tried. (41) On the other hand, it is easy to reckon up +what a number of advantages the Athenian People derive from the practice +impugned. In the first place, there is the steady receipt of salaries +throughout the year (42) derived from the court fees. (43) Next, it +enables them to manage the affairs of the allied states while seated +at home without the expense of naval expeditions. Thirdly, they thus +preserve the partisans of the democracy, and ruin her opponents in the +law courts. Whereas, supposing the several allied states tried their +cases at home, being inspired by hostility to Athens, they would destroy +those of their own citizens whose friendship to the Athenian People was +most marked. But besides all this the democracy derives the following +advantages from hearing the cases of her allies in Athens. In the first +place, the one per cent (44) levied in Piraeus is increased to the +profit of the state; again, the owner of a lodging-house (45) does +better, and so, too, the owner of a pair of beasts, or of slaves to +be let out on hire; (46) again, heralds and criers (47) are a class of +people who fare better owing to the sojourn of foreigners at Athens. +Further still, supposing the allies had not to resort to Athens for the +hearing of cases, only the official representative of the imperial +state would be held in honour, such as the general, or trierarch, or +ambassador. Whereas now every single individual among the allies is +forced to pay flattery to the People of Athens because he knows that he +must betake himself to Athens and win or lose (48) his case at the bar, +not of any stray set of judges, but of the sovereign People itself, +such being the law and custom at Athens. He is compelled to behave as +a suppliant (49) in the courts of justice, and when some juryman comes +into court, to grasp his hand. For this reason, therefore, the allies +find themselves more and more in the position of slaves to the people of +Athens. + + (40) Grote, "H. G." vi. 61. + + (41) See Isocr. "Panath." 245 D. + + (42) See Arist. "Clouds," 1196; Demosth. "c. Timoc." 730. + + (43) For the "Prytaneia," see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 12, 4. "Ephialtes + and Pericles curtailed the privileges of the Areopagus, Pericles + converted the Courts of Law into salaried bodies, and so each + succeeding demagogue outdid his predecessor in the privileges he + conferred upon the commons, until the present democracy was the + result" (Welldon). "The writer of this passage clearly intended to + class Pericles among the demagogues. He judges him in the same + deprecatory spirit as Plato in the 'Gorgias,' pp. 515, 516."-- + Jowett, "Pol. of Aristot." vol. ii. p. 101. But see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. xxv., a portion of the newly- + discovered treatise, which throws light on an obscure period in + the history of Athens; and Mr. Kenyon's note ad loc.; and Mr. + Macan's criticism, "Journal of Hellenic Studies," vol. xii. No. 1. + + (44) For the {ekatoste}, see Thuc. vii. 28, in reference to the year + B.C. 416; Arist. "Wasps," 658; "Frogs," 363. + + (45) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xii. p. 65 (Eng. trans.); I. xxiv. p. + 141. + + (46) See "Revenues," iv. 20, p. 338; Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xxvi. 16. + + (47) For these functionaries, see Jebb, op. cit. xvi. 10. + + (48) Lit. "pay or get justice." + + (49) Se Arist. "Wasps," 548 foll.; Grote, "H. G." v. 520 note; Newman, + op. cit. i. 383. + +Furthermore, owing to the possession of property beyond the limits +of Attica, (50) and the exercise of magistracies which take them into +regions beyond the frontier, they and their attendants have insensibly +acquired the art of navigation. (51) A man who is perpetually voyaging +is forced to handle the oar, he and his domestics alike, and to learn +the terms familiar in seamanship. Hence a stock of skilful mariners is +produced, bred upon a wide experience of voyaging and practice. They +have learnt their business, some in piloting a small craft, others a +merchant vessel, whilst others have been drafted off from these for +service on a ship-of-war. So that the majority of them are able to row +the moment they set foot on board a vessel, having been in a state of +preliminary practice all their lives. + + (50) See "Mem." II. viii. 1. + + (51) See "Hell." VII. i. 4. + + + +II + +As to the heavy infantry, an arm the deficiency of which at Athens is +well recognised, this is how the matter stands. They recognise the fact +that, in reference to the hostile power, they are themselves inferior, +and must be, even if their heavy infantry were more numerous. (1) But +relatively to the allies, who bring in the tribute, their strength even +on land is enormous. And they are persuaded that their heavy infantry is +sufficient for all purposes, provided they retain this superiority. +(2) Apart from all else, to a certain extent fortune must be held +responsible for the actual condition. The subjects of a power which is +dominant by land have it open to them to form contingents from several +small states and to muster in force for battle. But with the subjects of +a naval power it is different. As far as they are groups of islanders it +is impossible for their states to meet together for united action, for +the sea lies between them, and the dominant power is master of the sea. +And even if it were possible for them to assemble in some single island +unobserved, they would only do so to perish by famine. And as to the +states subject to Athens which are not islanders, but situated on the +continent, the larger are held in check by need (3) and the small ones +absolutely by fear, since there is no state in existence which does not +depend upon imports and exports, and these she will forfeit if she does +not lend a willing ear to those who are masters by sea. In the next +place, a power dominant by sea can do certain things which a land power +is debarred from doing; as for instance, ravage the territory of a +superior, since it is always possible to coast along to some point, +where either there is no hostile force to deal with or merely a small +body; and in case of an advance in force on the part of the enemy they +can take to their ships and sail away. Such a performance is attended +with less difficulty than that experienced by the relieving force on +land. (4) Again, it is open to a power so dominating by sea to leave its +own territory and sail off on as long a voyage as you please. Whereas +the land power cannot place more than a few days' journey between itself +and its own territory, for marches are slow affairs; and it is not +possible for an army on the march to have food supplies to last for any +great length of time. Such an army must either march through friendly +territory or it must force a way by victory in battle. The voyager +meanwhile has it in his power to disembark at any point where he finds +himself in superior force, or, at the worst, to coast by until he +reaches either a friendly district or an enemy too weak to resist. +Again, those diseases to which the fruits of the earth are liable as +visitations from heaven fall severely on a land power, but are scarcely +felt by the navel power, for such sicknesses do not visit the whole +earth everywhere at once. So that the ruler of the sea can get in +supplies from a thriving district. And if one may descend to more +trifling particulars, it is to this same lordship of the sea that the +Athenians owe the discovery, in the first place, of many of the luxuries +of life through intercourse with other countries. So that the choice +things of Sicily and Italy, of Cyprus and Egypt and Lydia, of Pontus or +Peloponnese, or wheresoever else it be, are all swept, as it were, +into one centre, and all owing, as I say, to their maritime empire. And +again, in process of listening to every form of speech, (5) they have +selected this from one place and that from another--for themselves. So +much so that while the rest of the Hellenes employ (6) each pretty much +their own peculiar mode of speech, habit of life, and style of dress, +the Athenians have adopted a composite type, (7) to which all sections +of Hellas, and the foreigner alike, have contributed. + + (1) Reading after Kirchhoff, {ettous ge... kan ei meizon en, ton + dia k.t.l.} See Thuc. i. 143; Isocr. "de Pace," 169 A; Plut. + "Them." 4 (Clough, i. 235). + + (2) Lit. "they are superior to their allies." + + (3) Reading with Kirchhoff, {dia khreian... dia deos}. + + (4) Or, "the army marching along the seaboard to the rescue." + + (5) Or, "a variety of dialects." + + (6) Or, "maintain somewhat more." + + (7) Or, "have contracted a mixed style, bearing traces of Hellenic and + foreign influence alike." See Mahaffy, "Hist. of Greek Lit." vol. + ii. ch. x. p. 257 (1st ed.); cf. Walt Whitman, "Preface to" + original edition of "Leaves of Grass," p. 29--"The English + language befriends the grand American expression: it is brawny + enough and limber and full enough, on the tough stock of a race, + who through all change of circumstances was never without the idea + of a political liberty, which is the animus of all liberty; it has + attracted the terms of daintier and gayer and subtler and more + elegant tongues." + +As regards sacrifices and temples and festivals and sacred enclosures, +the People sees that it is not possible for every poor citizen to do +sacrifice and hold festival, or to set up (8) temples and to inhabit +a large and beautiful city. But it has hit upon a means of meeting the +difficulty. They sacrifice--that is, the whole state sacrifices--at the +public cost a large number of victims; but it is the People that keeps +holiday and distributes the victims by lot amongst its members. Rich men +have in some cases private gymnasia and baths with dressing-rooms, (9) +but the People takes care to have built at the public cost (10) a number +of palaestras, dressing-rooms, and bathing establishments for its own +special use, and the mob gets the benefit of the majority of these, +rather than the select few or the well-to-do. + + (8) Reading with Kirchhoff, {istasthai}. + + (9) See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." vii. 18, p. 202. + + (10) Reading with Kirchhoff, {demosia}. + +As to wealth, the Athenians are exceptionally placed with regard to +Hellenic and foreign communities alike, (11) in their ability to +hold it. For, given that some state or other is rich in timber for +shipbuilding, where is it to find a market (12) for the product except +by persuading the ruler of the sea? Or, suppose the wealth of some state +or other to consist of iron, or may be of bronze, (13) or of linen yarn, +where will it find a market except by permission of the supreme maritime +power? Yet these are the very things, you see, which I need for my +ships. Timber I must have from one, and from another iron, from a third +bronze, from a fourth linen yarn, from a fifth wax, etc. Besides which +they will not suffer their antagonists in those parts (14) to carry +these products elsewhither, or they will cease to use the sea. +Accordingly I, without one stroke of labour, extract from the land and +possess all these good things, thanks to my supremacy on the sea; whilst +not a single other state possesses the two of them. Not timber, for +instance, and yarn together, the same city. But where yarn is abundant, +the soil will be light and devoid of timber. And in the same way bronze +and iron will not be products of the same city. And so for the rest, +never two, or at best three, in one state, but one thing here and +another thing there. Moreover, above and beyond what has been said, the +coast-line of every mainland presents, either some jutting promontory, +or adjacent island, or narrow strait of some sort, so that those who are +masters of the sea can come to moorings at one of these points and wreak +vengeance (15) on the inhabitants of the mainland. + + (11) Or, "they have a practical monopoly." + + (12) Or, "how is it to dispose of the product?" + + (13) Or, "coppert." + + (14) Reading {ekei}. For this corrupt passage see L. Dindorf, ad. + loc.; also Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. ix. p. 55. Perhaps (as my friend + Mr. J. R. Mozley suggests) the simplest supposition is to suppose + that there is an ellipsis before {e ou khresontai te thalatte}: + thus, "Besides which they will not suffer their antagonists to + transport goods to countries outside Attica; they must yield, or + they shall not have the use of the sea." + + (15) {lobasthai}. This "poetical" word comes to mean "harry," + "pillage," in the common dialect. + +There is just one thing which the Athenians lack. Supposing that they +were the inhabitants of an island, (16) and were still, as now, rulers +of the sea, they would have had it in their power to work whatever +mischief they liked, and to suffer no evil in return (as long as they +kept command of the sea), neither the ravaging of their territory nor +the expectation of an enemy's approach. Whereas at present the farming +portion of the community and the wealthy landowners are ready (17) to +cringe before the enemy overmuch, whilst the People, knowing full well +that, come what may, not one stock or stone of their property will +suffer, nothing will be cut down, nothing burnt, lives in freedom from +alarm, without fawning at the enemy's approach. Besides this, there +is another fear from which they would have been exempt in an island +home--the apprehension of the city being at any time betrayed by their +oligarchs (18) and the gates thrown open, and an enemy bursting suddenly +in. How could incidents like these have taken place if an island had +been their home? Again, had they inhabited an island there would have +been no stirring of sedition against the people; whereas at present, +in the event of faction, those who set it in foot base their hopes of +success on the introduction of an enemy by land. But a people inhabiting +an island would be free from all anxiety on that score. Since, however, +they did not chance to inhabit an island from the first, what they now +do is this--they deposit their property in the islands, (19) trusting +to their command of the sea, and they suffer the soil of Aticca to be +ravaged without a sigh. To expend pity on that, they know, would be to +deprive themselves of other blessings still more precious. (20) + + (16) See Thuc. i. 143. Pericles says: "Reflect, if we were islanders, + who would be more invulnerable? Let us imagine that we are." + + (17) Or, "are the more ready to cringe." See, for the word + {uperkhontai}, "Pol. Lac." viii. 2; Plat. "Crit." 53 E; + Rutherford, "New Phrynichus," p. 110. + + (18) Or, "by the minority"; or, "by a handful of people." + + (19) As they did during the Peloponnesian war; and earlier still, + before the battle of Salamis, in the case of that one island. + + (20) Or, "but mean the forfeiture of others." + +Further, states oligarchically governed are forced to ratify their +alliances and solemn oaths, and if they fail to abide by their +contracts, the offence, by whomsoever committed, (21) lies nominally at +the door of the oligarchs who entered upon the contract. But in the case +of engagements entered into by a democracy it is open to the People to +throw the blame on the single individual who spoke in favour of some +measure, or put it to the vote, and to maintain to the rest of the +world, "I was not present, nor do I approve of the terms of the +agreement." Inquiries are made in a full meeting of the People, and +should any of these things be disapproved of, it can at once discover +ten thousand excuses to avoid doing whatever they do not wish. And if +any mischief should spring out of any resolutions which the People has +passed in council, the People can readily shift the blame from its own +shoulders. "A handful of oligarchs (22) acting against the interests +of the People have ruined us." But if any good result ensue, they, the +People, at once take the credit of that to themselves. + + (21) Reading {uph otououn adikeitai onomati upo ton oligon}, which I + suggest as a less violent emendation of this corrupt passage than + any I have seen; or, reading with Sauppe, {uph otou adikei + anomeitai apo ton oligon}, "the illegality lies at the door of." + + (22) Or, "a few insignificant fellows." + +In the same spirit it is not allowed to caricature on the comic stage +(23) or otherwise libel the People, because (24) they do not care to +hear themselves ill spoken of. But if any one has a desire to satirise +his neighbour he has full leave to do so. And this because they are well +aware that, as a general rule, this person caricatured (25) does not +belong to the People, or the masses. He is more likely to be some +wealthy or well-born person, or man of means and influence. In fact, +but few poor people and of the popular stamp incur the comic lash, or if +they do they have brought it on themselves by excessive love of meddling +or some covetous self-seeking at the expense of the People, so that no +particular annoyance is felt at seeing such folk satirised. + + (23) See Grote, "H. G." viii. 446, especially p. 449, "growth and + development of comedy at Athens"; Curtius, "H. G." iii. pp. 242, + 243; Thirlwall, "H. G." ch. xviii. vol. iii. p. 42. + + (24) Or, more lit. "it would not do for the People to hear," etc. + + (25) Or, "the butt of comedy." + +What, then, I venture to assert is, that the People of Athens has no +difficulty in recognising which of its citizens are of the better +sort and which the opposite. (26) And so recognising those who are +serviceable and advantageous (27) to itself, even though they be base, +the People loves them; but the good folk they are disposed rather to +hate. This virtue of theirs, the People holds, is not engrained in their +nature for any good to itself, but rather for its injury. In direct +opposition to this, there are some persons who, being (28) born of the +People, are yet by natural instinct not commoners. For my part I pardon +the People its own democracy, as, indeed, it is pardonable in any one to +do good to himself. (29) But the man who, not being himself one of the +People, prefers to live in a state democratically governed rather than +in an oligarchical state may be said to smooth his own path towards +iniquity. He knows that a bad man has a better chance of slipping +through the fingers of justice in a democratic than in an oligarchical +state. + + (26) Or, "and which are good for nothing." + + (27) Or,"its own friends and supporters." + + (28) Reading {ontes} or (if {gnontes}), "who, recognising the nature + of the People, have no popular leaning." Gutschmidt conj. {enioi + egguoi ontes}, i.e. Pericles. + + (29) On the principle that "the knee is nearer than the shin-bone," + {gonu knemes}, or, as we say, "charity begins at home." + + + +III + +I repeat that my position concerning the polity of the Athenians is +this: the type (1) of polity is not to my taste, but given that a +democratic form of government has been agreed upon, they do seem to me +to go the right way to preserve the democracy by the adoption of the +particular type (2) which I have set forth. + + (1) Or, "manner." + + (2) Or, "manner." + +But there are other objections brought, as I am aware, against the +Athenians, by certain people, and to this effect. It not seldom happens, +they tell us, that a man is unable to transact a piece of business with +the senate or the People, even if he sit waiting a whole year. Now this +does happen at Athens, and for no other reason save that, owing to the +immense mass of affairs they are unable to work off all the business on +hand, and dismiss the applicants. And how in the world should they be +able, considering in the first place, that they, the Athenians, have +more festivals (3) to celebrate than any other state throughout the +length and breadth of Hellas? (During these festivals, of course, the +transaction of any sort of affairs of state is still more out of the +question.) (4) In the next place, only consider the number of cases they +have to decide--what with private suits and public causes and scrutinies +of accounts, etc., more than the whole of the rest of mankind put +together; while the senate has multifarious points to advise upon +concerning peace and war, (5) concerning ways and means, concerning the +framing and passing of laws, (6) and concerning the thousand and one +matters affecting the state perpetually occurring, and endless +questions touching the allies; besides the receipt of the tribute, the +superintendence of dockyards and temples, etc. Can, I ask again, any one +find it at all surprising that, with all these affairs on their hands, +they are unequal to doing business with all the world? + + (3) See Arist. "Wasps," 661. + + (4) This sentence is perhaps a gloss. + + (5) Or, "about the war," {peri tou polemou}. + + (6) See Thirlwall, ch. xxxii. vol. iv. p. 221, note 3. + +But some people tell us that if the applicant will only address himself +to the senate or the People with a fee in his hand he will do a good +stroke of business. And for my part I am free to confess to these +gainsayers that a good many things may be done at Athens by dint of +money; and I will add, that a good many more still might be done, if +the money flowed still more freely and from more pockets. One thing, +however, I know full well, that as to transacting with every one of +these applicants all he wants, the state could not do it, not even if +all the gold and silver in the world were the inducement offered. + +Here are some of the cases which have to be decided on. Some one fails +to fit out a ship: judgement must be given. Another puts up a building +on a piece of public land: again judgement must be given. Or, to take +another class of cases: adjudication has to be made between the choragi +for the Dionysia, the Thargelia, the Panathenaea, year after year. ( (7) +And again in behalf of the gymnasiarchs a similar adjudication for the +Panathenaea, the Prometheia, and the Hephaestia, also year after year.) +Also as between the trierarchs, four hundred of whom are appointed each +year, of these, too, any who choose must have their cases adjudicated +on, year after year. But that is not all. There are various magistrates +to examine and approve (8) and decide between; there are orphans (9) +whose status must be examined; and guardians of prisoners to appoint. +These, be it borne in mind, are all matters of yearly occurrence; while +at intervals there are exemptions and abstentions from military service +(10) which call for adjudication, or in connection with some other +extraordinary misdemeanour, some case of outrage and violence of an +exceptional character, or some charge of impiety. A whole string of +others I simply omit; I am content to have named the most important part +with the exception of the assessments of tribute which occur, as a rule, +at intervals of five years. (11) + + (7) Adopting the emendation of Kirchhoff, who inserts the sentence in + brackets. For the festivals in question, see "Dict. of Antiq." + "Lampadephoria"; C. R. Kenney, "Demosth. against Leptines," etc., + App. vi. + + (8) For the institution called the {dokimasia}, see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. lv. + + (9) See Dem. "against Midias," 565, 17; "against Apholus" (1), 814, + 20. + + (10) See Lys. "Or." xiv. and xv. + + (11) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 48; Thuc. vii. 78; i. 96; Arist. + "Wasps," 707; Aristot. "Pol." v. 8. + +I put it to you, then: can any one suppose that all, or any, of these +may dispense with adjudication? (12) If so, will any one say which +ought, and which ought not, to be adjudicated on, there and then? If, on +the other hand, we are forced to admit that these are all fair cases for +adjudication, it follows of necessity that they should be decided during +the twelve-month; since even now the boards of judges sitting right +through the year are powerless to stay the tide of evildoing by reason +of the multitude of the people. + + (12) Reading with Kirchhoff. Cf. for {oiesthai khre}, "Hell." VI. iv. + 23; "Cyr." IV. ii. 28. + +So far so good. (13) "But," some one will say, "try the cases you +certainly must, but lessen the number of the judges." But if so, it +follows of necessity that unless the number of courts themselves are +diminished in number there will only be a few judges sitting in each +court, (14) with the further consequence that in dealing with so small +a body of judges it will be easier for a litigant to present an +invulnerable front (15) to the court, and to bribe (16) the whole body, +to the great detriment of justice. (17) + + (13) See Grote, "H. G." v. 514, 520; Machiavelli, "Disc. s. Livio," i. + 7. + + (14) Reading with Sauppe, {anagke toinun, ean me} (for the vulgate + {ean men oliga k.t.l.}) {oliga poiontai dikasteria, oligoi en + ekasto esontai to dikasterio}. Or, adopting Weiske's emendation, + {ean men polla poiontai dikasteria k.t.l.} Translate, "Then, if by + so doing they manage to multiply the law courts, there will be + only a few judges sitting," etc. + + (15) Or, as Liddell and Scott, "to prepare all his tricks." + + (16) {sundekasoi}, "to bribe in the lump." This is Schneider's happy + emendation of the MS. {sundikasai}; see Demosthenes, 1137, 1. + + (17) Reading {oste}, lit. "so as to get a far less just judgment." + +But besides this we cannot escape the conclusion that the Athenians have +their festivals to keep, during which the courts cannot sit. (18) As +a matter of fact these festivals are twice as numerous as those of any +other people. But I will reckon them as merely equal to those of the +state which has the fewest. + + (18) Lit. "it is not possible to give judgment"; or, "for juries to + sit." + +This being so, I maintain that it is not possible for business affairs +at Athens to stand on any very different footing from the present, +except to some slight extent, by adding here and deducting there. +Any large modification is out of the question, short of damaging the +democracy itself. No doubt many expedients might be discovered for +improving the constitution, but if the problem be to discover some +adequate means of improving the constitution, while at the same time the +democracy is to remain intact, I say it is not easy to do this, except, +as I have just stated, to the extent of some trifling addition here or +deduction there. + +There is another point in which it is sometimes felt that the Athenians +are ill advised, in their adoption, namely, of the less respectable +party, in a state divided by faction. But if so, they do it advisedly. +If they chose the more respectable, they would be adopting those whose +views and interests differ from their own, for there is no state in +which the best element is friendly to the people. It is the worst +element which in every state favours the democracy--on the principle +that like favours like. (19) It is simple enough then. The Athenians +choose what is most akin to themselves. Also on every occasion on which +they have attempted to side with the better classes, it has not fared +well with them, but within a short interval the democratic party has +been enslaved, as for instance in Boeotia; (20) or, as when they chose +the aristocrats of the Milesians, and within a short time these revolted +and cut the people to pieces; or, as when they chose the Lacedaemonians +as against the Messenians, and within a short time the Lacedaemonians +subjugated the Messenians and went to war against Athens. + + (19) I.e. "birds of a feather." + + (20) The references are perhaps (1) to the events of the year 447 + B.C., see Thuc. i. 113; cf. Aristot. "Pol." v. 3, 5; (2) to 440 + B.C., Thuc. i. 115; Diod. xii. 27, 28; Plut. "Pericl." c. 24; (3) + to those of 464 B.C., followed by 457 B.C., Thuc. i. 102; Plut. + "Cimon," c. 16; and Thuc. i. 108. + +I seem to overhear a retort, "No one, of course, is deprived of his +civil rights at Athens unjustly." My answer is, that there are some +who are unjustly deprived of their civil rights, though the cases are +certainly rare. But it will take more than a few to attack the democracy +at Athens, since you may take it as an established fact, it is not the +man who has lost his civil rights justly that takes the matter to heart, +but the victims, if any, of injustice. But how in the world can any one +imagine that many are in a state of civil disability at Athens, where +the People and the holders of office are one and the same? It is from +iniquitous exercise of office, from iniquity exhibited either in speech +or action, and the like circumstances, that citizens are punished with +deprivation of civil rights in Athens. Due reflection on these matters +will serve to dispel the notion that there is any danger at Athens from +persons visited with disenfranchisement. + + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS + + + +I + +I recall the astonishment with which I (1) first noted the unique +position (2) of Sparta amongst the states of Hellas, the relatively +sparse population, (3) and at the same time the extraordinary power and +prestige of the community. I was puzzled to account for the fact. It was +only when I came to consider the peculiar institutions of the Spartans +that my wonderment ceased. Or rather, it is transferred to the +legislator who gave them those laws, obedience to which has been the +secret of their prosperity. This legislator, Lycurgus, I must needs +admire, and hold him to have been one of the wisest of mankind. +Certainly he was no servile imitator of other states. It was by a +stroke of invention rather, and on a pattern much in opposition to the +commonly-accepted one, that he brought his fatherland to this pinnacle +of prosperity. + + (1) See the opening words of the "Cyrop." and of the "Symp." + + (2) Or, "the phenomenal character." See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320 foll.; + Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 202. + + (3) See Herod. vii. 234; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 14 foll.; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10 (vol. i. p. 203, Eng. tr.) + +Take for example--and it is well to begin at the beginning (4)--the +whole topic of the begetting and rearing of children. Throughout the +rest of the world the young girl, who will one day become a mother (and +I speak of those who may be held to be well brought up), is nurtured +on the plainest food attainable, with the scantiest addition of meat +or other condiments; whilst as to wine they train them either to total +abstinence or to take it highly diluted with water. And in imitation, +as it were, of the handicraft type, since the majority of artificers are +sedentary, (5) we, the rest of the Hellenes, are content that our girls +should sit quietly and work wools. That is all we demand of them. But +how are we to expect that women nurtured in this fashion should produce +a splendid offspring? + + (4) Cf. a fragment of Critias cited by Clement, "Stromata," vi. p. + 741, 6; Athen. x. 432, 433; see "A Fragment of Xenophon" (?), ap. + Stob. "Flor." 88. 14, translated by J. Hookham Frere, "Theognis + Restitutus," vol. i. 333; G. Sauppe, "Append. de Frag. Xen." p. + 293; probably by Antisthenes (Bergk. ii. 497). + + (5) Or, "such technical work is for the most part sedentary." + +Lycurgus pursued a different path. Clothes were things, he held, the +furnishing of which might well enough be left to female slaves. And, +believing that the highest function of a free woman was the bearing of +children, in the first place he insisted on the training of the body +as incumbent no less on the female than the male; and in pursuit of the +same idea instituted rival contests in running and feats of strength +for women as for men. His belief was that where both parents were strong +their progeny would be found to be more vigorous. + +And so again after marriage. In view of the fact that immoderate +intercourse is elsewhere permitted during the earlier period of +matrimony, he adopted a principle directly opposite. He laid it down +as an ordinance that a man should be ashamed to be seen visiting the +chamber of his wife, whether going in or coming out. When they did meet +under such restraint the mutual longing of these lovers could not but be +increased, and the fruit which might spring from such intercourse +would tend to be more robust than theirs whose affections are cloyed +by satiety. By a farther step in the same direction he refused to allow +marriages to be contracted (6) at any period of life according to the +fancy of the parties concerned. Marriage, as he ordained it, must only +take place in the prime of bodily vigour, (7) this too being, as he +believed, a condition conducive to the production of healthy offspring. +Or again, to meet the case which might occur of an old man (8) wedded to +a young wife. Considering the jealous watch which such husbands are apt +to keep over their wives, he introduced a directly opposite custom; that +is to say, he made it incumbent on the aged husband to introduce +some one whose qualities, physical and moral, he admired, to play the +husband's part and to beget him children. Or again, in the case of a +man who might not desire to live with a wife permanently, but yet +might still be anxious to have children of his own worthy the name, the +lawgiver laid down a law (9) in his behalf. Such a one might select +some woman, the wife of some man, well born herself and blest with fair +offspring, and, the sanction and consent of her husband first obtained, +raise up children for himself through her. + + (6) "The bride to be wooed and won." The phrase {agesthai} perhaps + points to some primitive custom of capturing and carrying off the + bride, but it had probably become conventional. + + (7) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg," 15 (Clough, i. 101). "In their marriages the + husband carried off his bride by a sort of force; nor were their + brides ever small and of tender years, but in their full bloom and + ripeness." + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 103). + + (9) Or, "established a custom to suit the case." + +These and many other adaptations of a like sort the lawgiver sanctioned. +As, for instance, at Sparta a wife will not object to bear the burden +of a double establishment, (10) or a husband to adopt sons as +foster-brothers of his own children, with a full share in his family and +position, but possessing no claim to his wealth and property. + + (10) Cf. Plut. "Comp. of Numa with Lycurgus," 4; "Cato mi." 25 + (Clough, i. 163; iv. 395). + +So opposed to those of the rest of the world are the principles which +Lycurgus devised in reference to the production of children. Whether +they enabled him to provide Sparta with a race of men superior to all in +size and strength I leave to the judgment of whomsoever it may concern. + + + +II + +With this exposition of the customs in connection with the birth of +children, I wish now to explain the systems of education in fashion here +and elsewhere. Throughout the rest of Hellas the custom on the part of +those who claim to educate their sons in the best way is as follows. As +soon as the children are of an age to understand what is said to them +they are immediately placed under the charge of Paidagogoi (1) (or +tutors), who are also attendants, and sent off to the school of some +teacher to be taught "grammar," "music," and the concerns of the +palestra. (2) Besides this they are given shoes (3) to wear which tend +to make their feet tender, and their bodies are enervated by various +changes of clothing. And as for food, the only measure recognised is +that which is fixed by appetite. + + (1) = "boy-leaders." Cf. St. Paul, "Ep. Gal." iii. 24; The Law was our + schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ. + + (2) Cf. Plato, "Alc. maj." 106 E; "Theages," 122 E; Aristot. "Pol." + viii. 3. + + (3) Or, "sandals." + +But when we turn to Lycurgus, instead of leaving it to each member of +the state privately to appoint a slave to be his son's tutor, he +set over the young Spartans a public guardian, the Paidonomos (4) or +"pastor," to give them his proper title, (5) with complete authority +over them. This guardian was selected from those who filled the highest +magistracies. He had authority to hold musters of the boys, (6) and as +their overseer, in case of any misbehaviour, to chastise severely. The +legislator further provided his pastor with a body of youths in the +prime of life, and bearing whips, (7) to inflict punishment when +necessary, with this happy result that in Sparta modesty and obedience +ever go hand in hand, nor is there lack of either. + + (4) = "boyherd." + + (5) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 107); Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, + 13; vii. 17, 5. + + (6) Or, "assemble the boys in flocks." + + (7) {mastigophoroi} = "flagellants." + +Instead of softening their feet with shoe or sandal, his rule was to +make them hardy through going barefoot. (8) This habit, if practised, +would, as he believed, enable them to scale heights more easily and +clamber down precipices with less danger. In fact, with his feet so +trained the young Spartan would leap and spring and run faster unshod +than another shod in the ordinary way. + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 16 (Clough, i. 106). + +Instead of making them effeminate with a variety of clothes, his rule +was to habituate them to a single garment the whole year through, +thinking that so they would be better prepared to withstand the +variations of heat and cold. + +Again, as regards food, according to his regulation the Eiren, (9) or +head of the flock, must see that his messmates gathered to the club +meal, (10) with such moderate food as to avoid that heaviness (11) +which is engendered by repletion, and yet not to remain altogether +unacquainted with the pains of penurious living. His belief was that by +such training in boyhood they would be better able when occasion demanded +to continue toiling on an empty stomach. They would be all the fitter, +if the word of command were given, to remain on the stretch for a long +time without extra dieting. The craving for luxuries (12) would be +less, the readiness to take any victual set before them greater, and, +in general, the regime would be found more healthy. (13) Under it he +thought the lads would increase in stature and shape into finer men, +since, as he maintained, a dietary which gave suppleness to the limbs +must be more conducive to both ends than one which added thickness to +the bodily parts by feeding. (14) + + (9) For the Eiren, see Plut. "Lycurg." (Clough, i. 107). + + (10) Reading {sumboleuein} (for the vulg. {sumbouleuein}). The + emendation is now commonly adopted. For the word itself, see L. + Dindorf, n. ad loc., and Schneider. {sumbolon} = {eranos} or club + meal. Perhaps we ought to read {ekhontas} instead of {ekhonta}. + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 108). + + (12) Lit. "condiments," such as "meat," "fish," etc. See "Cyrop." I. + ii. 8. + + (13) Or, "and in general they would live more healthily and increase + in stature." + + (14) See L. Dindorf's emendation of this corrupt passage, n. ad loc. + (based upon Plut. "Lycurg." 17 and Ps. Plut. "Moral." 237), {kai + eis mekos d' an auxanesthai oeto kai eueidesterous} vel {kallious + gignesthai, pros amphotera ton radina ta somata poiousan trophen + mallon sullambanein egesamenos e ten diaplatunousan}. Otherwise I + would suggest to read {kai eis mekos an auxanesthai ten (gar) + radina... egesato k.t.l.}, which is closer to the vulgate, and + gives nearly the same sense. + +On the other hand, in order to guard against a too great pinch of +starvation, though he did not actually allow the boys to help themselves +without further trouble to what they needed more, he did give them +permission to steal (15) this thing or that in the effort to alleviate +their hunger. It was not of course from any real difficulty how else to +supply them with nutriment that he left it to them to provide themselves +by this crafty method. Nor can I conceive that any one will so +misinterpret the custom. Clearly its explanation lies in the fact that +he who would live the life of a robber must forgo sleep by night, and in +the daytime he must employ shifts and lie in ambuscade; he must +prepare and make ready his scouts, and so forth, if he is to succeed in +capturing the quarry. (16) + + (15) See "Anab." IV. vi. 14. + + (16) For the institution named the {krupteia}, see Plut. "Lycurg." 28 + (Clough, i. 120); Plato, "Laws," i. 633 B; for the {klopeia}, ib. + vii. 823 E; Isocr. "Panathen." 277 B. + +It is obvious, I say, that the whole of this education tended, and was +intended, to make the boys craftier and more inventive in getting in +supplies, whilst at the same time it cultivated their warlike instincts. +An objector may retort: "But if he thought it so fine a feat to steal, +why did he inflict all those blows on the unfortunate who was caught?" +My answer is: for the self-same reason which induces people, in other +matters which are taught, to punish the mal-performance of a service. +So they, the Lacedaemonians, visit penalties on the boy who is detected +thieving as being but a sorry bungler in the art. So to steal as many +cheeses as possible (off the shrine of Orthia (17)) was a feat to be +encouraged; but, at the same moment, others were enjoined to scourge the +thief, which would point a moral not obscurely, that by pain endured for +a brief season a man may earn the joyous reward of lasting glory. (18) +Herein, too, it is plainly shown that where speed is requisite the +sluggard will win for himself much trouble and scant good. + + (17) I.e. "Artemis of the Steep"--a title connecting the goddess with + Mount Orthion or Orthosion. See Pausan. VIII. xxiii. 1; and for + the custom, see Themistius, "Or." 21, p. 250 A. The words have + perhaps got out of their right place. See Schneider's Index, s.v. + + (18) See Plut. "Lycurg." 18; "Morals," 239 C; "Aristid." 17; Cic. + "Tusc." ii. 14. + +Furthermore, and in order that the boys should not want a ruler, even +in case the pastor (19) himself were absent, he gave to any citizen who +chanced to be present authority to lay upon them injunctions for their +good, and to chastise them for any trespass committed. By so doing he +created in the boys of Sparta a most rare modesty and reverence. And +indeed there is nothing which, whether as boys or men, they respect more +highly than the ruler. Lastly, and with the same intention, that the +boys must never be reft of a ruler, even if by chance there were no +grown man present, he laid down the rule that in such a case the most +active of the Leaders or Prefects (20) was to become ruler for the +nonce, each of his own division. The conclusion being that under no +circumstances whatever are the boys of Sparta destitute of one to rule +them. + + (19) Lit. "Paidonomos." + + (20) Lit. "Eirens." + +I ought, as it seems to me, not to omit some remark on the subject of +boy attachments, (21) it being a topic in close connection with that of +boyhood and the training of boys. + + (21) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 109). + +We know that the rest of the Hellenes deal with this relationship in +different ways, either after the manner of the Boeotians, (22) where man +and boy are intimately united by a bond like that of wedlock, or after +the manner of the Eleians, where the fruition of beauty is an act of +grace; whilst there are others who would absolutely debar the lover from +all conversation (23) and discourse with the beloved. + + (22) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 34; Plato, "Symp." 182 B (Jowett, II. p. + 33). + + (23) {dialegesthai} came to mean philosophic discussion and debate. Is + the author thinking of Socrates? See "Mem." I. ii. 35; IV. v. 12. + +Lycurgus adopted a system opposed to all of these alike. Given that some +one, himself being all that a man ought to be, should in admiration of +a boy's soul (24) endeavour to discover in him a true friend without +reproach, and to consort with him--this was a relationship which +Lycurgus commended, and indeed regarded as the noblest type of bringing +up. But if, as was evident, it was not an attachment to the soul, but +a yearning merely towards the body, he stamped this thing as foul and +horrible; and with this result, to the credit of Lycurgus be it said, +that in Lacedaemon the relationship of lover and beloved is like that +of parent and child or brother and brother where carnal appetite is in +abeyance. + + (24) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 35; Plut. "Lycurg." 18. + +That this, however, which is the fact, should be scarcely credited in +some quarters does not surprise me, seeing that in many states the laws +(25) do not oppose the desires in question. + + (25) I.e. "law and custom." + +I have now described the two chief methods of education in vogue; that +is to say, the Lacedaemonian as contrasted with that of the rest of +Hellas, and I leave it to the judgment of him whom it may concern, which +of the two has produced the finer type of men. And by finer I mean the +better disciplined, the more modest and reverential, and, in matters +where self-restraint is a virtue, the more continent. + + + +III + +Coming to the critical period at which a boy ceases to be a boy and +becomes a youth, (1) we find that it is just then that the rest of the +world proceed to emancipate their children from the private tutor and +the schoolmaster, and, without substituting any further ruler, are +content to launch them into absolute independence. + + (1) {eis to meirakiousthai}, "with reference to hobbledehoy-hood." + Cobet erases the phrase as post-Xenophontine. + +Here, again, Lycurgus took an entirely opposite view of the matter. +This, if observation might be trusted, was the season when the tide +of animal spirits flows fast, and the froth of insolence rises to the +surface; when, too, the most violent appetites for divers pleasures, in +serried ranks, invade (2) the mind. This, then, was the right moment at +which to impose tenfold labours upon the growing youth, and to devise +for him a subtle system of absorbing occupation. And by a crowning +enactment, which said that "he who shrank from the duties imposed on +him would forfeit henceforth all claim to the glorious honours of the +state," he caused, not only the public authorities, but those personally +interested (3) in the several companies of youths to take serious +pains so that no single individual of them should by an act of craven +cowardice find himself utterly rejected and reprobate within the body +politic. + + (2) Lit. "range themselves." For the idea, see "Mem." I. ii. 23; + Swinburne, "Songs before Sunrise": Prelude, "Past youth where + shoreward shallows are." + + (3) Or, "the friends and connections." + +Furthermore, in his desire to implant in their youthful souls a root of +modesty he imposed upon these bigger boys a special rule. In the very +streets they were to keep their two hands (4) within the folds of the +cloak; they were to walk in silence and without turning their heads to +gaze, now here, now there, but rather to keep their eyes fixed upon the +ground before them. And hereby it would seem to be proved conclusively +that, even in the matter of quiet bearing and sobriety, (5) the +masculine type may claim greater strength than that which we attribute +to the nature of women. At any rate, you might sooner expect a stone +image to find voice than one of those Spartan youths; to divert the eyes +of some bronze stature were less difficult. And as to quiet bearing, no +bride ever stepped in bridal bower (6) with more natural modesty. Note +them when they have reached the public table. (7) The plainest answer to +the question asked--that is all you need expect to hear from their lips. + + (4) See Cic. "pro Coelio," 5. + + (5) See Plat. "Charmid." 159 B; Jowett, "Plato," I. 15. + + (6) Longinus, {peri ups}, iv. 4, reading {ophthalmois} for + {thalamois}, says: "Yet why speak of Timaeus, when even men like + Xenophon and Plato, the very demigods of literature, though they + had sat at the feet of Socrates, sometimes forget themselves in + the pursuit of such pretty conceits? The former in his account of + the Spartan Polity has these words: 'Their voice you would no more + hear, than if they were of marble, their gaze is as immovable as + if they were cast in bronze. You would deem them more modest than + the very maidens in their eyes.' To speak of the pupils of the + eyes as modest maidens was a piece of absurdity becoming + Amphicrates rather than Xenophon; and then what a strange notion + to suppose that modesty is always without exception, expressed in + the eye!"--H. L. Howell, "Longinus," p. 8. See "Spectator," No. + 354. + + (7) See Paus. VII. i. 8, the {phidition} or {philition}; "Hell." V. + iv. 28. + + + +IV + +But if he was thus careful in the education of the stripling, (1) the +Spartan lawgiver showed a still greater anxiety in dealing with those +who had reached the prime of opening manhood; considering their immense +importance to the city in the scale of good, if only they proved +themselves the men they should be. He had only to look around to see +what wherever the spirit of emulation (2) is most deeply seated, there, +too, their choruses and gymnastic contests will present alike a far +higher charm to eye and ear. And on the same principle he persuaded +himself that he needed only to confront (3) his youthful warriors in +the strife of valour, and with like result. They also, in their degree, +might be expected to attain to some unknown height of manly virtue. + + (1) See "Hell." V. iv. 32. + + (2) Cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22. + + (3) Or, "pit face to face." + +What method he adopted to engage these combatants I will now explain. It +is on this wise. Their ephors select three men out of the whole body of +the citizens in the prime of life. These three are named Hippagretai, +or masters of the horse. Each of these selects one hundred others, +being bound to explain for what reason he prefers in honour these and +disapproves of those. The result is that those who fail to obtain the +distinction are now at open war, not only with those who rejected them, +but with those who were chosen in their stead; and they keep ever a +jealous eye on one another to detect some slip of conduct contrary to +the high code of honour there held customary. And so is set on foot that +strife, in truest sense acceptable to heaven, and for the purposes of +state most politic. It is a strife in which not only is the pattern of a +brave man's conduct fully set forth, but where, too, each against other +and in separate camps, the rival parties train for victory. One day the +superiority shall be theirs; or, in the day of need, one and all to +the last man, they will be ready to aid the fatherland with all their +strength. + +Necessity, moreover, is laid upon them to study a good habit of the +body, coming as they do to blows with their fists for very strife's sake +whenever they meet. Albeit, any one present has a right to separate the +combatants, and, if obedience is not shown to the peacemaker, the Pastor +of youth (4) hales the delinquent before the ephors, and the ephors +inflict heavy damages, since they will have it plainly understood that +rage must never override obedience to law. + + (4) Lit. "the Paidonomos." + +With regard to those who have already passed (5) the vigour of early +manhood, and on whom the highest magistracies henceforth devolve, there +is a like contrast. In Hellas generally we find that at this age the +need of further attention to physical strength is removed, although the +imposition of military service continues. But Lycurgus made it customary +for that section of his citizens to regard hunting as the highest honour +suited to their age; albeit, not to the exclusion of any public duty. +(6) And his aim was that they might be equally able to undergo the +fatigues of war with those in the prime of early manhood. + + (5) Probably the {agathoergoi}, technically so called. See Herod. i. + 67; Schneider, ap. Dindorf. + + (6) Lit. "save only if some public duty intervened." See "Cyrop." I. + ii. + + + +V + +The above is a fairly exhaustive statement of the institutions traceable +to the legislation of Lycurgus in connection with the successive stages +(1) of a citizen's life. It remains that I should endeavour to +describe the style of living which he established for the whole body, +irrespective of age. It will be understood that, when Lycurgus first +came to deal with the question, the Spartans like the rest of the +Hellenes, used to mess privately at home. Tracing more than half the +current misdemeanours to this custom, (2) he was determined to drag +his people out of holes and corners into the broad daylight, and so +he invented the public mess-rooms. Whereby he expected at any rate to +minimise the transgression of orders. + + (1) Lit. "with each age."; see Plut. "Lycurg." 25; Hesychius, {s. u. + irinies}; "Hell." VI. iv. 17; V. iv. 13. + + (2) Reading after Cobet, {en touto}. + +As to food, (3) his ordinance allowed them so much as, while not +inducing repletion, should guard them from actual want. And, in fact, +there are many exceptional (4) dishes in the shape of game supplied +from the hunting field. Or, as a substitute for these, rich men will +occasionally garnish the feast with wheaten loaves. So that from +beginning to end, till the mess breaks up, the common board is never +stinted for viands, nor yet extravagantly furnished. + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 97). + + (4) {paraloga}, i.e. unexpected dishes, technically named {epaikla} + (hors d'oeuvres), as we learn from Athenaeus, iv. 140, 141. + +So also in the matter of drink. Whilst putting a stop to all unnecessary +potations, detrimental alike to a firm brain and a steady gait, (5) he +left them free to quench thirst when nature dictated (6); a method which +would at once add to the pleasure whilst it diminished the danger of +drinking. And indeed one may fairly ask how, on such a system of common +meals, it would be possible for any one to ruin either himself or his +family either through gluttony or wine-bibbing. + + (5) Or, "apt to render brain and body alike unsteady." + + (6) See "Agesilaus"; also "Mem." and "Cyrop." + +This too must be borne in mind, that in other states equals in age, (7) +for the most part, associate together, and such an atmosphere is little +conducive to modesty. (8) Whereas in Sparta Lycurgus was careful so +to blend the ages (9) that the younger men must benefit largely by the +experience of the elder--an education in itself, and the more so since +by custom of the country conversation at the common meal has reference +to the honourable acts which this man or that man may have performed in +relation to the state. The scene, in fact, but little lends itself to +the intrusion of violence or drunken riot; ugly speech and ugly deeds +alike are out of place. Amongst other good results obtained through this +out-door system of meals may be mentioned these: There is the necessity +of walking home when the meal is over, and a consequent anxiety not to +be caught tripping under the influence of wine, since they all know of +course that the supper-table must be presently abandoned, (10) and that +they must move as freely in the dark as in the day, even the help of a +torch (11) to guide the steps being forbidden to all on active service. + + (7) Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 240 C; {elix eklika terpei}, "Equals delight + in equals." + + (8) Or, "these gatherings for the most part consist of equals in age + (young fellows), in whose society the virtue of modesty is least + likely to display itself." + + (9) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 98). + + (10) Or, "that they are not going to stay all night where they have + supped." + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 99). + +In connection with this matter, Lycurgus had not failed to observe the +effect of equal amounts of food on different persons. The hardworking +man has a good complexion, his muscles are well fed, he is robust +and strong. The man who abstains from work, on the other hand, may be +detected by his miserable appearance; he is blotched and puffy, and +devoid of strength. This observation, I say, was not wasted on him. On +the contrary, turning it over in his mind that any one who chooses, as +a matter of private judgment, to devote himself to toil may hope to +present a very creditable appearance physically, he enjoined upon the +eldest for the time being in every gymnasium to see to it that the +labours of the class were proportional to the meats. (12) And to my mind +he was not out of his reckoning in this matter more than elsewhere. At +any rate, it would be hard to discover a healthier or more completely +developed human being, physically speaking, than the Spartan. Their +gymnastic training, in fact, makes demands alike on the legs and arms +and neck, (13) etc., simultaneously. + + (12) I.e. "not inferior in excellence to the diet which they enjoyed." + The reading here adopted I owe to Dr. Arnold Hug, {os me ponous + auton elattous ton sition gignesthai}. + + (13) See Plat. "Laws," vii. 796 A; Jowett, "Plato," v. p. 365; Xen. + "Symp." ii. 7; Plut. "Lycurg." 19. + + + +VI + +There are other points in which this legislator's views run counter to +those commonly accepted. Thus: in other states the individual citizen +is master over his own children, domestics, (1) goods and chattels, and +belongings generally; but Lycurgus, whose aim was to secure to all the +citizens a considerable share in one another's goods without mutual +injury, enacted that each one should have an equal power of his +neighbour's children as over his own. (2) The principle is this. When a +man knows that this, that, and the other person are fathers of children +subject to his authority, he must perforce deal by them even as he +desires his own child to be dealt by. And, if a boy chance to have +received a whipping, not from his own father but some other, and goes +and complains to his own father, it would be thought wrong on the part +of that father if he did not inflict a second whipping on his son. A +striking proof, in its way, how completely they trust each other not to +impose dishonourable commands upon their children. (3) + + (1) Or rather, "members of his household." + + (2) See Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 104). + + (3) See Plut. "Moral." 237 D. + +In the same way he empowered them to use their neighbour's (4) domestics +in case of need. This communism he applied also to dogs used for the +chase; in so far that a party in need of dogs will invite the owner to +the chase, and if he is not at leisure to attend himself, at any rate he +is happy to let his dogs go. The same applies to the use of horses. +Some one has fallen sick perhaps, or is in want of a carriage, (5) or +is anxious to reach some point or other quickly--in any case he has a +right, if he sees a horse anywhere, to take and use it, and restores it +safe and sound when he has done with it. + + (4) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 5 (Jowett, i. pp. xxxi. and 34; ii. p. + 53); Plat. "Laws," viii. 845 A; Newman, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 249 + foll. + + (5) "Has not a carriage of his own." + +And here is another institution attributed to Lycurgus which scarcely +coincides with the customs elsewhere in vogue. A hunting party returns +from the chase, belated. They want provisions--they have nothing +prepared themselves. To meet this contingency he made it a rule that +owners (6) are to leave behind the food that has been dressed; and the +party in need will open the seals, take out what they want, seal up the +remainder, and leave it. Accordingly, by his system of give-and-take +even those with next to nothing (7) have a share in all that the country +can supply, if ever they stand in need of anything. + + (6) Reading {pepamenous}, or if {pepasmenous}, "who have already + finished their repasts." + + (7) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9 (Jowett, i. pp. xlii. and 52); Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10, 1 (vol. ii. 197, Eng. tr.) + + + +VII + +There are yet other customs in Sparta which Lycurgus instituted in +opposition to those of the rest of Hellas, and the following among them. +We all know that in the generality of states every one devotes his full +energy to the business of making money: one man as a tiller of the soil, +another as a mariner, a third as a merchant, whilst others depend +on various arts to earn a living. But at Sparta Lycurgus forbade his +freeborn citizens to have anything whatsoever to do with the concerns +of money-making. As freemen, he enjoined upon them to regard as their +concern exclusively those activities upon which the foundations of civic +liberty are based. + +And indeed, one may well ask, for what reason should wealth be regarded +as a matter for serious pursuit (1) in a community where, partly by a +system of equal contributions to the necessaries of life, and partly by +the maintenance of a common standard of living, the lawgiver placed so +effectual a check upon the desire of riches for the sake of luxury? What +inducement, for instance, would there be to make money, even for the +sake of wearing apparel, in a state where personal adornment is held to +lie not in the costliness of the clothes they wear, but in the healthy +condition of the body to be clothed? Nor again could there be much +inducement to amass wealth, in order to be able to expend it on the +members of a common mess, where the legislator had made it seem far more +glorious that a man should help his fellows by the labour of his body +than by costly outlay. The latter being, as he finely phrased it, the +function of wealth, the former an activity of the soul. + + (1) See Plut. "Lycurg." 10 (Clough, i. 96). + +He went a step further, and set up a strong barrier (even in a society +such as I have described) against the pursuance of money-making by +wrongful means. (2) In the first place, he established a coinage (3) of +so extraordinary a sort, that even a single sum of ten minas (4) could +not come into a house without attracting the notice, either of the +master himself, or of some member of his household. In fact, it would +occupy a considerable space, and need a waggon to carry it. Gold and +silver themselves, moreover, are liable to search, (5) and in case of +detection, the possessor subjected to a penalty. In fact, to repeat +the question asked above, for what reason should money-making become an +earnest pursuit in a community where the possession of wealth entails +more pain than its employment brings satisfaction? + + (2) Or, "against illegitimate commerce." + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 9 (Clough, i. 94). + + (4) = 40 pounds, circa. + + (5) See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 37. + + + +VIII + +But to proceed. We are all aware that there is no state (1) in the world +in which greater obedience is shown to magistrates, and to the laws +themselves, than Sparta. But, for my part, I am disposed to think that +Lycurgus could never have attempted to establish this healthy condition, +(2) until he had first secured the unanimity of the most powerful +members of the state. I infer this for the following reasons. (3) In +other states the leaders in rank and influence do not even desire to be +thought to fear the magistrates. Such a thing they would regard as in +itself a symbol of servility. In Sparta, on the contrary, the stronger +a man is the more readily does he bow before constituted authority. +And indeed, they magnify themselves on their humility, and on a prompt +obedience, running, or at any rate not crawling with laggard step, +at the word of command. Such an example of eager discipline, they are +persuaded, set by themselves, will not fail to be followed by the rest. +And this is precisely what has taken place. It (4) is reasonable to +suppose that it was these same noblest members of the state who combined +(5) to lay the foundation of the ephorate, after they had come to the +conclusion themselves, that of all the blessings which a state, or an +army, or a household, can enjoy, obedience is the greatest. Since, as +they could not but reason, the greater the power with which men fence +about authority, the greater the fascination it will exercise upon the +mind of the citizen, to the enforcement of obedience. + + (1) See Grote, "H. G." v. 516; "Mem." III. v. 18. + + (2) Or, reading after L. Dindorf, {eutaxian}, "this world-renowned + orderliness." + + (3) Or, "from these facts." + + (4) Or, "It was only natural that these same..." + + (5) Or, "helped." See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11, 3; ii. 9, 1 (Jowett, ii. + 224); Plut. "Lycurg." 7, 29; Herod. i. 65; Muller, "Dorians," iii. + 7, 5 (vol. ii. p. 125, Eng. tr.) + +Accordingly the ephors are competent to punish whomsoever they choose; +they have power to exact fines on the spur of the moment; they have +power to depose magistrates in mid career (6)--nay, actually to imprison +them and bring them to trial on the capital charge. Entrusted with +these vast powers, they do not, as do the rest of states, allow the +magistrates elected to exercise authority as they like, right through +the year of office; but, in the style rather of despotic monarchs, or +presidents of the games, at the first symptom of an offence against the +law they inflict chastisement without warning and without hesitation. + + (6) Or, "before the expiration of their term of office." See Plut. + "Agis," 18 (Clough, iv. 464); Cic. "de Leg." iii. 7; "de Rep." ii. + 33. + +But of all the many beautiful contrivances invented by Lycurgus to +kindle a willing obedience to the laws in the hearts of the citizens, +none, to my mind, was happier or more excellent than his unwillingness +to deliver his code to the people at large, until, attended by the most +powerful members of the state, he had betaken himself to Delphi, (7) +and there made inquiry of the god whether it were better for Sparta, and +conducive to her interests, to obey the laws which he had framed. And +not until the divine answer came: "Better will it be in every way," +did he deliver them, laying it down as a last ordinance that to refuse +obedience to a code which had the sanction of the Pythian god himself +(8) was a thing not illegal only, but profane. + + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 5, 6, 29 (Clough, i. 89, 122); Polyb. x. 2, 9. + + (8) Or, "a code delivered in Pytho, spoken by the god himself." + + + +IX + +The following too may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus. I speak +of the consummate skill with which he induced the whole state of Sparta +to regard an honourable death as preferable to an ignoble life. And +indeed if any one will investigate the matter, he will find that by +comparison with those who make it a principle to retreat in face of +danger, actually fewer of these Spartans die in battle, since, to speak +truth, salvation, it would seem, attends on virtue far more frequently +than on cowardice--virtue, which is at once easier and sweeter, richer +in resource and stronger of arm, (1) than her opposite. And that virtue +has another familiar attendant--to wit, glory--needs no showing, since +the whole world would fain ally themselves after some sort in battle +with the good. + + (1) See Homer, "Il." v. 532; Tyrtaeus, 11, 14, {tressanton d' andron + pas' apolol arete}. + +Yet the actual means by which he gave currency to these principles is a +point which it were well not to overlook. It is clear that the lawgiver +set himself deliberately to provide all the blessings of heaven for the +good man, and a sorry and ill-starred existence for the coward. + +In other states the man who shows himself base and cowardly wins to +himself an evil reputation and the nickname of a coward, but that is +all. For the rest he buys and sells in the same market-place as the +good man; he sits beside him at play; he exercises with him in the same +gymnasium, and all as suits his humour. But at Lacedaemon there is not +one man who would not feel ashamed to welcome the coward at the common +mess-tabe, or to try conclusions with such an antagonist in a wrestling +bout. Consider the day's round of his existence. The sides are being +picked up in a football match, (2) but he is left out as the odd man: +there is no place for him. During the choric dance (3) he is driven away +into ignominious quarters. Nay, in the very streets it is he who must +step aside for others to pass, or, being seated, he must rise and make +room, even for a younger man. At home he will have his maiden relatives +to support in isolation (and they will hold him to blame for their +unwedded lives). (4) A hearth with no wife to bless it--that is a +condition he must face, (5) and yet he will have to pay damages to the +last farthing for incurring it. Let him not roam abroad with a smooth +and smiling countenance; (6) let him not imitate men whose fame is +irreproachable, or he shall feel on his back the blows of his superiors. +Such being the weight of infamy which is laid upon all cowards, I, for +my part, am not surprised if in Sparta they deem death preferable to a +life so steeped in dishonour and reproach. + + (2) See Lucian, "Anacharsis," 38; Muller, "Dorians," (vol. ii. 309, + Eng. tr.) + + (3) The {khoroi}, e.g. of the Gymnopaedia. See Muller, op. cit. iv. 6, + 4 (vol. ii. 334, Eng. tr.) + + (4) {tes anandrias}, cf. Plut. "Ages." 30; or, {tes anandreias}, "they + must bear the reproach of his cowardice." + + (5) Omitting {ou}, or translate, "that is an evil not to be + disregarded." See Dindorf, ad loc.; Sturz, "Lex. Xen." {Estia}. + + (6) See Plut. "Ages." 30 (Clough, iv. 36); "Hell." VI. iv. 16. + + + +X + +That too was a happy enactment, in my opinion, by which Lycurgus +provided for the continual cultivation of virtue, even to old age. By +fixing (1) the election to the council of elders (2) as a last ordeal at +the goal of life, he made it impossible for a high standard of virtuous +living to be disregarded even in old age. (So, too, it is worthy of +admiration in him that he lent his helping hand to virtuous old age. +(3) Thus, by making the elders sole arbiters in the trial for life, he +contrived to charge old age with a greater weight of honour than that +which is accorded to the strength of mature manhood.) And assuredly +such a contest as this must appeal to the zeal of mortal man beyond all +others in a supreme degree. Fair, doubtless, are contests of gymnastic +skill, yet are they but trials of bodily excellence, but this contest +for the seniority is of a higher sort--it is an ordeal of the soul +itself. In proportion, therefore, as the soul is worthier than the body, +so must these contests of the soul appeal to a stronger enthusiasm than +their bodily antitypes. + + (1) Reading {protheis}. See Plut. "Lycurg." 26 (Clough. i. 118); + Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 25. + + (2) Or, "seniory," or "senate," or "board of elders"; lit. "the + Gerontia." + + (3) Or, "the old age of the good. Yet this he did when he made... + since he contrived," etc. + +And yet another point may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus +largely. It had not escaped his observation that communities exist +where those who are willing to make virtue their study and delight fail +somehow in ability to add to the glory of their fatherland. (4) That +lesson the legislator laid to heart, and in Sparta he enforced, as a +matter of public duty, the practice of virtue by every citizen. And so +it is that, just as man differs from man in some excellence, according +as he cultivates or neglects to cultivate it, this city of Sparta, with +good reason, outshines all other states in virtue; since she, and she +alone, as made the attainment of a high standard of noble living a +public duty. + + (4) Is this an autobiographical touch? + +And was this not a noble enactment, that whereas other states are +content to inflict punishment only in cases where a man does wrong +against his neighbour, Lycurgus imposed penalties no less severe on him +who openly neglected to make himself as good as possible? For this, it +seems, was his principle: in the one case, where a man is robbed, or +defrauded, or kidnapped, and made a slave of, the injury of the misdeed, +whatever it be, is personal to the individual so maltreated; but in the +other case whole communities suffer foul treason at the hands of the +base man and the coward. So that it was only reasonable, in my opinion, +that he should visit the heaviest penalty upon these latter. + +Moreover, he laid upon them, like some irresistible necessity, the +obligation to cultivate the whole virtue of a citizen. Provided they +duly performed the injunctions of the law, the city belonged to them, +each and all, in absolute possession and on an equal footing. Weakness +of limb or want of wealth (5) was no drawback in his eyes. But as for +him who, out of the cowardice of his heart, shrank from the painful +performance of the law's injunction, the finger of the legislator +pointed him out as there and then disqualified to be regarded longer as +a member of the brotherhood of peers. (6) + + (5) But see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 32. + + (6) Grote, "H. G." viii. 81; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + +It may be added, that there was no doubt as to the great antiquity of +this code of laws. The point is clear so far, that Lycurgus himself is +said to have lived in the days of the Heraclidae. (7) But being of so +long standing, these laws, even at this day, still are stamped in the +eyes of other men with all the novelty of youth. And the most marvellous +thing of all is that, while everybody is agreed to praise these +remarkable institutions, there is not a single state which cares to +imitate them. + + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 1. + + + +XI + +The above form a common stock of blessings, open to every Spartan to +enjoy, alike in peace and in war. But if any one desires to be informed +in what way the legislator improved upon the ordinary machinery of +warfare and in reference to an army in the field, it is easy to satisfy +his curiosity. + +In the first instance, the ephors announce by proclamation the limit of +age to which the service applies (1) for cavalry and heavy infantry; +and in the next place, for the various handicraftsmen. So that, even +on active service, the Lacedaemonians are well supplied with all the +conveniences enjoyed by people living as citizens at home. (2) All +implements and instruments whatsoever, which an army may need in common, +are ordered to be in readiness, (3) some on waggons and others on +baggage animals. In this way anything omitted can hardly escape +detection. + + (1) I.e. "in the particular case." See "Hell." VI. iv. 17; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 12 (vol. ii. 242 foll., Eng. tr.) + + (2) Or, "the conveniences of civil life at home." + + (3) Reading {parekhein}, or if {paragein}, "to be conveyed." Cf. + Pausan. I. xix. 1. See "Cyrop." VI. ii. 34. + +For the actual encounter under arms, the following inventions are +attributed to him. The soldier has a crimson-coloured uniform and a +heavy shield of bronze; his theory being that such an equipment has no +sort of feminine association, and is altogether most warrior-like. (4) +It is most quickly burnished; it is least readily soiled. (5) + + (4) Cf. Aristoph. "Acharn." 320, and the note of the scholiast. + + (5) See Ps. Plut. "Moral." 238 F. + +He further permitted those who were above the age of early manhood to +wear their hair long. (6) For so, he conceived, they would appear +of larger stature, more free and indomitable, and of a more terrible +aspect. + + (6) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). + +So furnished and accoutred, he divided his citizen soldiers into six +morai (7) (or regimental divisions) of cavalry (8) and heavy infantry. +Each of these citizen regiments (political divisions) has one polemarch +(9) (or colonel), four lochagoi (or captains of companies), eight +penteconters (or lieutenants, each in command of half a company), and +sixteen enomotarchs (or commanders of sections). At the word of command +any such regimental division can be formed readily either into enomoties +(i.e. single file) or into threes (i.e. three files abreast), or into +sixes (i.e. six files abreast). (10) + + (7) The {mora}. Jowett, "Thuc." ii. 320, note to Thuc. v. 68, 3. + + (8) See Plut. "Lycurg." 23 (Clough, i. 115); "Hell." VI. iv. 11; Thuc. + v. 67; Paus. IV. viii. 12. + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66, 71. + + (10) See Thuch. v. 68, and Arnold's note ad loc.; "Hell." VI. iv. 12; + "Anab." II. iv. 26; Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 117. + +As to the idea, commonly entertained, that the tactical arrangement of +the Laconian heavy infantry is highly complicated, no conception could +be more opposed to fact. For in the Laconian order the front rank men +are all leaders, (11) so that each file has everything necessary to play +its part efficiently. In fact, this disposition is so easy to understand +that no one who can distinguish one human being from another could fail +to follow it. One set have the privilege of leaders, the other the duty +of followers. The evolutional orders, (12) by which greater depth or +shallowness is given to the battle line, are given by word of mouth by +the enomotarch (or commander of the section), who plays the part of the +herald, and they cannot be mistaken. None of these manouvres presents +any difficulty whatsoever to the understanding. + + (11) See "Anab." IV. iii. 26; "Cyrop." III. iii. 59; VI. iii. 22. + + (12) I.e. "for doubling depth"; e.g. anglice, "form two deep," etc., + when marching to a flank. Grote, "H. G." vii. 108; Thuc. v. 66; + also Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 111, S. 8, note 19; p. 121, + $17, note 41. + +But when it comes to their ability to do battle equally well in spite +of some confusion which has been set up, and whatever the chapter of +accidents may confront them with, (13) I admit that the tactics here are +not so easy to understand, except for people trained under the laws of +Lycurgus. Even movements which an instructor in heavy-armed warfare (14) +might look upon as difficult are performed by the Lacedaemonians with +the utmost ease. (15) Thus, the troops, we will suppose, are marching in +column; one section of a company is of course stepping up behind another +from the rear. (16) Now, if at such a moment a hostile force appears in +front in battle order, the word is passed down to the commander of each +section, "Deploy (into line) to the left." And so throughout the whole +length of the column, until the line is formed facing the enemy. Or +supposing while in this position an enemy appears in the rear. Each file +performs a counter-march (17) with the effect of bringing the best men +face to face with the enemy all along the line. (18) As to the point +that the leader previously on the right finds himself now on the left, +(19) they do not consider that they are necessarily losers thereby, but, +as it may turn out, even gainers. If, for instance, the enemy attempted +to turn their flank, he would find himself wrapping round, not their +exposed, but their shielded flank. (20) Or if, for any reason, it be +thought advisable for the general to keep the right wing, they turn the +corps about, (21) and counter-march by ranks, until the leader is on the +right, and the rear rank on the left. Or again, supposing a division of +the enemy appears on the right whilst they are marching in column, they +have nothing further to do but to wheel each company to the right, like +a trireme, prow forwards, (22) to meet the enemy, and thus the rear +company again finds itself on the right. If, however, the enemy should +attack on the left, either they will not allow of that and push him +aside, (23) or else they wheel their companies to the left to face the +antagonist, and thus the rear company once more falls into position on +the left. + + (13) Or, "alongside of any comrade who may have fallen in their way." + See Plut. "Pelop." 23 (Clough, ii. 222); Thuc. v. 72. + + (14) Or, "drill sergeant." + + (15) See Jebb, note to "Theophr." viii. 3. + + (16) Or, "marching in rear of another." + + (17) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (18) Or, "every time." + + (19) See Thuc. v. 67, 71. + + (20) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (21) For these movements, see "Dict. of Antiq." "Exercitus"; Grote, + "H. G." vii. 111. + + (22) See "Hell." VII. v. 23. + + (23) I am indebted to Professor Jebb for the following suggestions + with regard to this passage: "The words {oude touto eosin, all + apothousin e}, etc., contain some corruption. The sense ought + clearly to be roughly parallel with that of the phrase used a + little before, {ouden allo pragmateuontai e}, etc. Perhaps + {apothousin} is a corruption of {apothen ousin}, and this + corruption occasioned the insertion of {e}. Probably Xenophon + wrote {oude touto eosin, all apothen ousin antipalous}, etc.: + 'while the enemy is still some way off, they turn their companies + so as to face him.' The words {apothen ousin} indirectly suggest + the celerity of the Spartan movement." + + + +XII + +I will now speak of the mode of encampment sanctioned by the regulation +of Lycurgus. To avoid the waste incidental to the angles of a square, +(1) the encampment, according to him, should be circular, except where +there was the security of a hill, (2) or fortification, or where they +had a river in their rear. He had sentinels posted during the day along +the place of arms and facing inwards; (3) since they are appointed not +so much for the sake of the enemy as to keep an eye on friends. The +enemy is sufficiently watched by mounted troopers perched on various +points commanding the widest prospect. + + (1) Or, "Regarding the angles of a square as a useless inconvenience, + he arranged that an encampment should be circular," etc. See + Polyb. vi. 31, 42. + + (2) Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 14; Polyaen. II. iii. 11, ap. Schneider. + + (3) Lit. "these," {tas men}. Or, "He had lines of sentinels posted + throughout the day; one line facing inwards towards the place of + arms (and these were appointed, etc.); while observation of the + enemy was secured by mounted troopers," etc. + +To guard against hostile approach by night, sentinel duty according to +the ordinance was performed by the Sciritae (4) outside the main +body. At the present time the rule is so far modified that the duty is +entrusted to foreigners, (5) if there be a foreign contingent present, +with a leaven of Spartans themselves to keep them company. (6) + + (4) See Muller's "Dorians," ii. 253; "Hell." VI. v. 24; "Cyrop." IV. + ii. 1; Thuc. v. 67, 71; Grote, "H. G." vii. 110. + + (5) See "Hipparch." ix. 4. + + (6) Reading {auton de}. The passage is probably corrupt. See L. + Dindorf ad loc. + +The custom of always taking their spears (7) with them when they go +their rounds must certainly be attributed to the same cause which +makes them exclude their slaves from the place of arms. Nor need we be +surprised if, when retiring for necessary purposes, they only withdraw +just far enough from one another, or from the place of arms itself, not +to create annoyance. The need of precaution is the whole explanation. + + (7) See Critias, ap. Schneider ad loc. + +The frequency with which they change their encampments is another point. +It is done quite as much for the sake of benefiting their friends as of +annoying their enemies. + +Further, the law enjoins upon all Lacedaemonians, during the whole +period of an expedition, the constant practice of gymnastic (8) +exercises, whereby their pride (9) in themselves is increased, and they +appear freer and of a more liberal aspect than the rest of the world. +(10) The walk and the running ground must not exceed in length (11) the +space covered by a regimental division, (12) so that no one may find +himself far from his own stand of arms. After the gymnastic exercises +the senior polemarch gives the order (by herald) to be seated. This +serves all the purposes of an inspection. After this the order is given +"to get breakfast," and for "the outposts (13) to be relieved." After +this, again, come pastimes and relaxations before the evening exercises, +after which the herald's cry is heard "to take the evening meal." When +they have sung a hymn to the gods to whom the offerings of happy omen +had been performed, the final order, "Retire to rest at the place of +arms," (14) is given. + + (8) Cf. Herod. vii. 208; Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 113 foll.) + + (9) Reading {megalophronesterous} (L. Dindorf's emendation) for the + vulg. {megaloprepesterous}. Xen "Opusc. polit." Ox. MDCCCLVI. + + (10) Or, "the proud self-consciousness of their own splendour is + increased, and by comparison with others they bear more notably + the impress of freemen." + + (11) The word {masso} is "poetical" (old Attic?). See "Cyrop." II. iv. + 27, and L. Dindorf ad loc. + + (12) A single mora, or an army corps. + + (13) Or, "vedettes," {proskopon}. See "Cyrop." V. ii. 6. + + (14)? Or, "on your arms." See Sturz, "Lex. Xen." s.v. + +If the story is a little long the reader must not be surprised, since it +would be difficult to find any point in military matters omitted by the +Lacedaemonians which seems to demand attention. + + + +XIII + +I will now give a detailed account of the power and privilege assigned +by Lycurgus to the king during a campaign. To begin with, so long as he +is on active service, the state maintains the king and those with him. +(1) The polemarchs mess with him and share his quarters, so that by dint +of constant intercourse they may be all the better able to consult in +common in case of need. Besides the polemarch three other members of the +peers (2) share the royal quarters, mess, etc. The duty of these is to +attend to all matters of commisariat, (3) in order that the king and the +rest may have unbroken leisure to attend to affairs of actual warfare. + + (1) I.e. "the Thirty." See "Ages." i. 7; "Hell." III. iv. 2; Plut. + "Ages." 6 (Clough, iv. 6); Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 29. + + (2) For these {oi omoioi}, see "Cyrop." I. v. 5; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + + (3) Lit. "supplies and necessaries." + +But I will resume at a somewhat higher point and describe the manner in +which the king sets out on an expedition. As a preliminary step, before +leaving home he offers sacrifice (in company with (4) his staff) to Zeus +Agetor (the Leader), and if the victims prove favourable then and there +the priest, (5) who bears the sacred fire, takes thereof from off the +altar and leads the way to the boundaries of the land. Here for the +second time the king does sacrifice (6) to Zeus and Athena; and as soon +as the offerings are accepted by those two divinities he steps across +the boundaries of the land. And all the while the fire from those +sacrifices leads the way, and is never suffered to go out. Behind follow +beasts for sacrifice of every sort. + + (4) Lit. reading {kai oi sun auto}, after L. Dindorf, "he and those + with him." + + (5) Lit. "the Purphuros." See Nic. Damasc. ap. Stob. "Fl." 44, 41; + Hesych. ap. Schneider, n. ad loc. + + (6) These are the {diabateria}, so often mentioned in the "Hellenica." + +Invariably when he offers sacrifice the king begins the work in the +gloaming ere the day has broken, being minded to anticipate the goodwill +of the god. And round about the place of sacrifice are present the +polemarchs and captains, the lieutenants and sub-lieutenants, with the +commandants of the baggage train, and any general of the states (7) who +may care to assist. There, too, are to be seen two of the ephors, who +neither meddle nor make, save only at the summons of the king, yet have +they their eyes fixed on the proceedings of each one there and keep +all in order, (8) as may well be guessed. When the sacrifices are +accomplished the king summons all and issues his orders (9) as to +what has to be done. And all with such method that, to witness the +proceedings, you might fairly suppose the rest of the world to be +but bungling experimenters, (10) and the Lacedaemonians alone true +handicraftsmen in the art of soldiering. + + (7) I.e. "allied"? or "perioecid"? + + (8) {sophronizousin}, "keep every one in his sober senses." + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66. + + (10) {autoskhediastai, tekhnitai}. See Jebb, "Theophr." x. 3. + +Anon the king puts himself at the head of the troops, and if no enemy +appears he heads the line of march, no one preceding him except the +Sciritae, and the mounted troopers exploring in front. (11) If, however, +there is any reason to anticipate a battle, the king takes the leading +column of the first army corps (12) and wheels to the right until he has +got into position with two army corps and two generals of division on +either flank. The disposition of the supports is assigned to the eldest +of the royal council (13) (or staff corps) acting as brigadier--the +staff consisting of all peers who share the royal mess and quarters, +with the soothsayers, surgeons, (14) and pipers, whose place is in the +front of the troops, (15) with, finally, any volunteers who happen to be +present. So that there is no check or hesitation in anything to be done; +every contingency is provided for. + + (11) Or, "who are on scouting duty. If, however, they expect a + battle," etc. + + (12) Technically, "mora." + + (13) {ton peri damosian}. See "Hell." IV. v. 8; vii. 4. + + (14) See "Anab." III. iv. 30; "Cyrop." I. vi. 15; L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. + + (15) Schneider refers to Polyaenus, i. 10. + +The following details also seem to me of high utility among the +inventions of Lycurgus with a view to the final arbitrament of battle. +Whensoever, the enemy being now close enough to watch the proceedings, +(16) the goat is sacrificed; then, says the law, let all the pipers, +in their places, play upon the pipes, and let every Lacedaemonian don +a wreath. Then, too, so runs the order, let the shields be brightly +polished. The privilege is accorded to the young man to enter battle +with his long locks combed. (17) To be of cheery countenance--that, +too, is of good repute. Onwards they pass the word of command to the +subaltern (18) in command of his section, since it is impossible to hear +along the whole of each section from the particular subaltern posted on +the outside. It devolves, finally, on the polemarch to see that all goes +well. + + (16) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114); and for the goat + sacrificed to Artemis Agrotera, see "Hell." IV. ii. 20; Pause. IX. + xiii. 4; Plut. "Marcell." 22 (Clough, ii. 264). + + (17) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). The passage is corrupt, + and possibly out of its place. I cite the words as they run in the + MSS. with various proposed emendations. See Schneider, n. ad loc. + {exesti de to neo kai kekrimeno eis makhen sunienai kai phaidron + einai kai eudokimon. kai parakeleuontai de k.t.l.} Zeune, + {kekrimeno komen}, after Plut. "Lycurg." 22. Weiske, {kai komen + diakekrimeno}. Cobet, {exesti de to neo liparo kai tas komas + diakekrimeno eis makhen ienai}. + + (18) Lit. "to the enomotarch." + +When the right moment for encamping has come, the king is responsible +for that, and has to point out the proper place. The despatch of +emissaries, however, whether to friends or to foes, is (not) (19) the +king's affair. Petitioners in general wishing to transact anything +treat, in the first instance, with the king. If the case concerns some +point of justice, the king despatches the petitioner to the Hellanodikai +(who form the court-martial); if of money, to the paymasters. (20) If +the petitioner brings booty, he is sent off to the Laphuropolai (or +sellers of spoil). This being the mode of procedure, no other duty is +left to the king, whilst he is on active service, except to play the +part of priest in matters concerning the gods and of commander-in-chief +in his relationship to men. (21) + + (19) The MSS. give {au}, "is again," but the word {mentoi}, "however," + and certain passages in "Hell." II. ii. 12, 13; II. iv. 38 suggest + the negative {ou} in place of {au}. If {au} be right, then we + should read {ephoren} in place of {basileos}, "belongs to the + ephors." + + (20) Technically the {tamiai}. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." iii. 14. + + + +XIV (1) + +Now, if the question be put to me, Do you maintain that the laws of +Lycurgus remain still to this day unchanged? that indeed is an assertion +which I should no longer venture to maintain; knowing, as I do, that in +former times the Lacedaemonians preferred to live at home on moderate +means, content to associate exclusively with themselves rather than +to play the part of governor-general (2) in foreign states and to be +corrupted by flattery; knowing further, as I do, that formerly they +dreaded to be detected in the possession of gold, whereas nowadays there +are not a few who make it their glory and their boast to be possessed of +it. I am very well aware that in former days alien acts (3) were put +in force for this very object. To live abroad was not allowed. And why? +Simply in order that the citizens of Sparta might not take the infection +of dishonesty and light-living from foreigners; whereas now I am very +well aware that those who are reputed to be leading citizens have +but one ambition, and that is to live to the end of their days as +governors-general on a foreign soil. (4) The days were when their sole +anxiety was to fit themselves to lead the rest of Hellas. But nowadays +they concern themselves much more to wield command than to be fit +themselves to rule. And so it has come to pass that whereas in old days +the states of Hellas flocked to Lacedaemon seeking her leadership (5) +against the supposed wrongdoer, now numbers are inviting one another to +prevent the Lacedaemonians again recovering their empire. (6) Yet, if +they have incurred all these reproaches, we need not wonder, seeing that +they are so plainly disobedient to the god himself and to the laws of +their own lawgiver Lycurgus. + + (1) For the relation of this chapter to the rest of the treatise, see + Grote, ix. 325; Ern. Naumann, "de Xen. libro qui" {LAK. POLITEIA} + inscribitur, p. 18 foll.; Newmann, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 326. + + (2) Harmosts. + + (3) "Xenelasies," {xenelasiai} technically called. See Plut. "Lycurg." + 27; "Agis," 10; Thuc. ii. 39, where Pericles contrasts the liberal + spirit of the democracy with Spartan exclusiveness; "Our city is + thrown open to the world, and we never expel a foreigner or + prevent him from seeing or learning anything of which the secret, + if revealed to an enemy, might profit him."--Jowett, i. 118. + + (4) Lit. "harmosts"; and for the taste of living abroad, see what is + said of Dercylidas, "Hell." IV. iii. 2. The harmosts were not + removed till just before Leuctra (371 B.C.), "Hell." VI. iv. 1, + and after, see Paus. VIII. lii. 4; IX. lxiv. + + (5) See Plut. "Lycurg." 30 (Clough, i. 124). + + (6) This passage would seem to fix the date of the chapter xiv. as + about the time of the Athenian confederacy of 378 B.C.; "Hell." V. + iv. 34; "Rev." v. 6. See also Isocr. "Panegyr." 380 B.C.; Grote, + "H. G." ix. 325. See the text of a treaty between Athens, Chios, + Mytilene, and Byzantium; Kohler, "Herm." v. 10; Rangabe, "Antiq. + Hellen." ii. 40, 373; Naumann, op. cit. 26. + + + +XV + +I wish to explain with sufficient detail the nature of the covenant +between king and state as instituted by Lycurgus; for this, I take it, +is the sole type of rule (1) which still preserves the original form +in which it was first established; whereas other constitutions will +be found either to have been already modified or else to be still +undergoing modifications at this moment. + + (1) Or, "magistracy"; the word {arkhe} at once signifies rule and + governmental office. + +Lycurgus laid it down as law that the king shall offer in behalf of the +state all public sacrifices, as being himself of divine descent, (2) and +whithersoever the state shall despatch her armies the king shall take +the lead. He granted him to receive honorary gifts of the things offered +in sacrifice, and he appointed him choice land in many of the provincial +cities, enough to satisfy moderate needs without excess of wealth. And +in order that the kings also might camp and mess in public he appointed +them public quarters; and he honoured them with a double portion (3) +each at the evening meal, not in order that they might actually eat +twice as much as others, but that the king might have wherewithal to +honour whomsoever he desired. He also granted as a gift to each of the +two kings to choose two mess-fellows, which same are called Puthioi. He +also granted them to receive out of every litter of swine one pig, so +that the king might never be at a loss for victims if in aught he wished +to consult the gods. + + (2) I.e. a Heracleid, in whichever line descended, and, through + Heracles, from Zeus himself. The kings are therefore "heroes," + i.e. demigods. See below; and for their privileges, see Herod. vi. + 56, 57. + + (3) See "Ages." v. 1. + +Close by the palace a lake affords an unrestricted supply of water; and +how useful that is for various purposes they best can tell who lack the +luxury. (4) Moreover, all rise from their seats to give place to the +king, save only that the ephors rise not from their thrones of office. +Monthly they exchange oaths, the ephors in behalf of the state, the king +himself in his own behalf. And this is the oath on the king's part: "I +will exercise my kingship in accordance with the established laws of the +state." And on the part of the state the oath runs: "So long as he (5) +(who exercises kingship) shall abide by his oaths we will not suffer his +kingdom to be shaken." (6) + + (4) See Hartman, "An. Xen. N." p. 274; but cf. "Cyneget." v. 34; + "Anab." V. iii. 8. + + (5) Lit. "he yonder." + + (6) Lit. "we will keep it for him unshaken." See L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. and praef. p. 14 D. + +These then are the honours bestowed upon the king during his lifetime +(at home) (7)--honours by no means much exceeding those of private +citizens, since the lawgiver was minded neither to suggest to the kings +the pride of the despotic monarch, (8) nor, on the other hand, to +engender in the heart of the citizen envy of their power. As to those +other honours which are given to the king at his death, (9) the laws of +Lycurgus would seem plainly to signify hereby that these kings of +Lacedaemon are not mere mortals but heroic beings, and that is why they +are preferred in honour. (10) + + (7) The words "at home" look like an insertion. + + (8) Lit. "the tyrant's pride." + + (9) See "Hell." III. iii. 1; "Ages." xi. 16; Herod. vi. 58. + + (10) Intentionally or not on the part of the writer, the concluding + words, in which the intention of the Laws is conveyed, assume a + metrical form: + + {oukh os anthropous all os eroas tous + Lakedaimonion basileis protetimekasin.} + + See Ern. Naumann, op. cit. p. 18. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Polity of the Athenians and the +Lacedaemonians, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1178 *** diff --git a/1178-h/1178-h.htm b/1178-h/1178-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f33536 --- /dev/null +++ b/1178-h/1178-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2485 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Polity of the Athenians and The Lacedaemonians, by Xenophon + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1178 ***</div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS AND THE LACEDAEMONIANS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Xenophon + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + Translation by H. G. Dakyns + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + </pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + </pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + </pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Contents + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS + </h2> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + Now, as concerning the Polity of the Athenians, (1) and the type or manner + of constitution which they have chosen, (2) I praise it not, in so far as + the very choice involves the welfare of the baser folk as opposed to that + of the better class. I repeat, I withhold my praise so far; but, given the + fact that this is the type agreed upon, I propose to show that they set + about its preservation in the right way; and that those other transactions + in connection with it, which are looked upon as blunders by the rest of + the Hellenic world, are the reverse. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 47 foll.; Thuc. i. 76, 77; viii. 48; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." passim; Hartman, "An. Xen. N." cap. viii.; + Roquette, "Xen. Vit." S. 26; Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 538; and + "Xenophontis qui fertur libellus de Republica Atheniensium," ed. + A. Kirchhoff (MDCCCLXXIV), whose text I have chiefly followed. + + (2) Lit. "I do not praise their choice of the (particular) type, in so + far as..." +</pre> + <p> + In the first place, I maintain, it is only just that the poorer classes + (3) and the People of Athens should be better off than the men of birth + and wealth, seeing that it is the people who man the fleet, (4) and put + round the city her girdle of power. The steersman, (5) the boatswain, the + lieutenant, (6) the look-out-man at the prow, the shipright—these + are the people who engird the city with power far rather than her heavy + infantry (7) and men of birth of quality. This being the case, it seems + only just that offices of state should be thrown open to every one both in + the ballot (8) and the show of hands, and that the right of speech should + belong to any one who likes, without restriction. For, observe, (9) there + are many of these offices which, according as they are in good or in bad + hands, are a source of safety or of danger to the People, and in these the + People prudently abstains from sharing; as, for instance, it does not + think it incumbent on itself to share in the functions of the general or + of the commander of cavalry. (10) The sovereign People recognises the fact + that in forgoing the personal exercise of these offices, and leaving them + to the control of the more powerful (11) citizens, it secures the balance + of advantage to itself. It is only those departments of government which + bring emolument (12) and assist the private estate that the People cares + to keep in its own hands. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 58 foll. + + (4) Lit. "ply the oar and propel the galleys." + + (5) See "Econ." viii. 14; Pollux, i. 96; Arist. "Knights," 543 foll.; + Plat. "Laws," v. 707 A; Jowett, "Plat." v. 278 foll.; Boeckh, "P. + E. A." bk. ii. ch. xxi. + + (6) Lit. "pentecontarch;" see Dem. "In Pol." 1212. + + (7) Aristot. "Pol." vi. 7; Jowett, "The Politics of Aristotle," vol. + i. p. 109. + + (8) {klerotoi}, {airetoi}. + + (9) Reading with Kirchhoff, {epeo tou}, or if {epeita}, "in the next + place." + + (10) Hipparch. + + (11) Cf. "Hipparch." i. 9; "Econ." ii. 8. + + (12) E.g. the {dikasteria}. +</pre> + <p> + In the next place, in regard to what some people are puzzled to explain—the + fact that everywhere greater consideration is shown to the base, to poor + people and to common folk, than to persons of good quality—so far + from being a matter of surprise, this, as can be shown, is the keystone of + the preservation of the democracy. It is these poor people, this common + folk, this riff-raff, (13) whose prosperity, combined with the growth of + their numbers, enhances the democracy. Whereas, a shifting of fortune to + the advantage of the wealthy and the better classes implies the + establishment on the part of the commonalty of a strong power in + opposition to itself. In fact, all the world over, the cream of society is + in opposition to the democracy. Naturally, since the smallest amount of + intemperance and injustice, together with the highest scrupulousness in + the pursuit of excellence, is to be found in the ranks of the better + class, while within the ranks of the People will be found the greatest + amount of ignorance, disorderliness, rascality—poverty acting as a + stronger incentive to base conduct, not to speak of lack of education and + ignorance, traceable to the lack of means which afflicts the average of + mankind. (14) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) Or, "these inferiors," "these good-for-nothings." + + (14) Or, "some of these folk." The passage is corrupt. +</pre> + <p> + The objection may be raised that it was a mistake to allow the universal + right of speech (15) and a seat in council. These should have been + reserved for the cleverest, the flower of the community. But here, again, + it will be found that they are acting with wise deliberation in granting + to (16) even the baser sort the right of speech, for supposing only the + better people might speak, or sit in council, blessings would fall to the + lot of those like themselves, but to the commonalty the reverse of + blessings. Whereas now, any one who likes, any base fellow, may get up and + discover something to the advantage of himself and his equals. It may be + retorted: "And what sort of advantage either for himself or for the People + can such a fellow be expected to hit upon?" The answer to which is, that + in their judgment the ignorance and baseness of this fellow, together with + his goodwill, are worth a great deal more to them than your superior + person's virtue and wisdom, coupled with animosity. What it comes to, + therefore, is that a state founded upon such institutions will not be the + best state; (17) but, given a democracy, these are the right means to + procure its preservation. The People, it must be borne in mind, does not + demand that the city should be well governed and itself a slave. It + desires to be free and to be master. (18) As to bad legislation it does + not concern itself about that. (19) In fact, what you believe to be bad + legislation is the very source of the People's strength and freedom. But + if you seek for good legislation, in the first place you will see the + cleverest members of the community laying down the laws for the rest. And + in the next place, the better class will curb and chastise the lower + orders; the better class will deliberate in behalf of the state, and not + suffer crack-brained fellows to sit in council, or to speak or vote in + Parliament. (20) No doubt; but under the weight of such blessings the + People will in a very short time be reduced to slavery. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) Lit. "everybody to speak in turn." + + (16) Or, "it is a counsel of perfection on their part to grant to," + etc. + + (17) Or, "the ideal state." + + (18) Or, "and to govern and hold office." + + (19) Or, "it will take the risk of that." + + (20) See Grote, "H. G." v. p. 510 note. +</pre> + <p> + Another point is the extraordinary amount of license (21) granted to + slaves and resident aliens at Athens, where a blow is illegal, and a slave + will not step aside to let you pass him in the street. I will explain the + reason of this peculiar custom. Supposing it were legal for a slave to be + beaten by a free citizen, or for a resident alien or freedman to be beaten + by a citizen, it would frequently happen that an Athenian might be + mistaken for a slave or an alien and receive a beating; since the Athenian + People is no better clothed than the slave or alien, nor in personal + appearance is there any superiority. Or if the fact itself that slaves in + Athens are allowed to indulge in luxury, and indeed in some cases to live + magnificently, be found astonishing, this too, it can be shown, is done of + set purpose. Where you have a naval power (22) dependent upon wealth (23) + we must perforce be slaves to our slaves, in order that we may get in our + slave-rents, (24) and let the real slave go free. Where you have wealthy + slaves it ceases to be advantageous that my slave should stand in awe of + you. In Lacedaemon my slave stands in awe of you. (25) But if your slave + is in awe of me there will be a risk of his giving away his own moneys to + avoid running a risk in his own person. It is for this reason then that we + have established an equality between our slaves and free men; and again + between our resident aliens and full citizens, (26) because the city + stands in need of her resident aliens to meet the requirements of such a + multiplicity of arts and for the purposes of her navy. That is, I repeat, + the justification for the equality conferred upon our resident aliens. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11 and vi. 4; Jowett, op. cit. vol. i. pp. + 179, 196; Welldon, "The Politics of Aristotle," pp. 394 323; Dem. + "Phil." III. iii. 10; Plaut. "Stich." III. i. 37. + + (22) See Diod. xi. 43. + + (23) Reading, {apo khrematon, anagke}, or (reading, {apo khrematon + anagke}) "considerations of money force us to be slaves." + + (24) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xiii. (Eng. trans. p. 72). "The rights + of property with regard to slaves in no way differed from any + other chattel; they could be given or taken as pledges. They + laboured either on their master's account or their own, in + consideration of a certain sum to be paid to the master, or they + were let out on hire either for the mines or any other kind of + labour, and even for other persons' workshops, or as hired + servants for wages ({apophora}): a similar payment was also + exacted by the masters for their slaves serving in the fleet." Ib. + "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurion," p. 659 (Eng. + trans.) + + (25) See "Pol. Lac." vi. 3. + + (26) Or, "we have given to our slaves the right to talk like equals + with free men, just as to resident aliens the right of so talking + with citizens." See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xiv. 4, note, p. 221. + See Demosth. "against Midias," 529, where the law is cited. "If + any one commit a personal outrage upon man, woman, or child, + whether free-born or slave, or commit any illegal act against any + such person, let any Athenian that chooses" (not being under + disability) "indict him before the judges," etc; and the orator + exclaims: "You know, O Athenians, the humanity of the law, which + allows not even slaves to be insulted in their persons."—C. R. + Kennedy. +</pre> + <p> + Citizens devoting their time to gymnastics and to the cultivation of music + are not to be found in Athens; (27) the sovereign People has + disestablished them, (28) not from any disbelief in the beauty and honour + of such training, but recognising the fact that these are things the + cultivation of which is beyond its power. On the same principle, in the + case of the coregia, (29) the gymnasiarchy, and the trierarchy, the fact + is recognised that it is the rich man who trains the chorus, and the + People for whom the chorus is trained; it is the rich man who is trierarch + or gymnasiarch, and the People that profits by their labours. (30) In + fact, what the People looks upon as its right is to pocket the money. (31) + To sing and run and dance and man the vessels is well enough, but only in + order that the People may be the gainer, while the rich are made poorer. + And so in the courts of justice, (32) justice is not more an object of + concern to the jurymen than what touches personal advantage. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (27) For {mousike} and {gumnastike}, see Becker's "Charicles," Exc. + "Education." + + (28) See "Revenues," iv. 52; Arist. "Frogs," 1069, {e xekenosen tas te + palaistras}, "and the places of exercise vacant and bare."—Frere. + + (29) "The duties of the choregia consisted in finding maintenance and + instruction for the chorus" (in tragedy, usually of fifteen + persons) "as long as they were in training; and in providing the + dresses and equipments for the performance."—Jebb, "Theophr. + Char." xxv. 3. For those of the gymnasiarchy, see "Dict. of + Antiq." "Gymnasium." For that of the trierarchy, see Jebb, op. + cit. xxv. 9; xxix. 16; Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. xi. + + (30) See "Econ." ii. 6; Thuc. vi. 31. + + (31) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. xvi. p. 241. + + (32) For the system of judicature, the {dikasteria}, and the boards of + jurymen or judges, see Aristot. "Constitution of Athens," ch. + lxiii.; "Dict. of Antiq." s.v. +</pre> + <p> + To speak next of the allies, and in reference to the point that emissaries + (33) from Athens come out, and, according to common opinion, calumniate + and vent their hatred (34) upon the better sort of people, this is done + (35) on the principle that the ruler cannot help being hated by those whom + he rules; but that if wealth and respectability are to wield power in the + subject cities the empire of the Athenian People has but a short lease of + existence. This explains why the better people are punished with infamy, + (36) robbed of their money, driven from their homes, and put to death, + while the baser sort are promoted to honour. On the other hand, the better + Athenians throw their aegis over the better class in the allied cities. + (37) And why? Because they recognise that it is to the interest of their + own class at all times to protect the best element in the cities. It may + be urged (38) that if it comes to strength and power the real strength of + Athens lies in the capacity of her allies to contribute their money quota. + But to the democratic mind (39) it appears a higher advantage still for + the individual Athenian to get hold of the wealth of the allies, leaving + them only enough to live upon and to cultivate their estates, but + powerless to harbour treacherous designs. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (33) For {oi ekpleontes}, see Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 41. + + (34) Reading {misousi}; or, if with Kirchhoff, {meiousi}, "in every + way humiliate." + + (35) Or, "(they do so) as recognising the fact." + + (36) {atimia} = the loss of civil rights, either total or partial. See + C. R. Kennedy, "Select Speeches of Demosthenes," Note 13, + Disenfranchisement. + + (37) See Thuc. viii. 48. + + (38) See Grote, "H. G." vi. 53. + + (39) Or, "to a thorough democrat." +</pre> + <p> + Again, (40) it is looked upon as a mistaken policy on the part of the + Athenian democracy to compel her allies to voyage to Athens in order to + have their cases tried. (41) On the other hand, it is easy to reckon up + what a number of advantages the Athenian People derive from the practice + impugned. In the first place, there is the steady receipt of salaries + throughout the year (42) derived from the court fees. (43) Next, it + enables them to manage the affairs of the allied states while seated at + home without the expense of naval expeditions. Thirdly, they thus preserve + the partisans of the democracy, and ruin her opponents in the law courts. + Whereas, supposing the several allied states tried their cases at home, + being inspired by hostility to Athens, they would destroy those of their + own citizens whose friendship to the Athenian People was most marked. But + besides all this the democracy derives the following advantages from + hearing the cases of her allies in Athens. In the first place, the one per + cent (44) levied in Piraeus is increased to the profit of the state; + again, the owner of a lodging-house (45) does better, and so, too, the + owner of a pair of beasts, or of slaves to be let out on hire; (46) again, + heralds and criers (47) are a class of people who fare better owing to the + sojourn of foreigners at Athens. Further still, supposing the allies had + not to resort to Athens for the hearing of cases, only the official + representative of the imperial state would be held in honour, such as the + general, or trierarch, or ambassador. Whereas now every single individual + among the allies is forced to pay flattery to the People of Athens because + he knows that he must betake himself to Athens and win or lose (48) his + case at the bar, not of any stray set of judges, but of the sovereign + People itself, such being the law and custom at Athens. He is compelled to + behave as a suppliant (49) in the courts of justice, and when some juryman + comes into court, to grasp his hand. For this reason, therefore, the + allies find themselves more and more in the position of slaves to the + people of Athens. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (40) Grote, "H. G." vi. 61. + + (41) See Isocr. "Panath." 245 D. + + (42) See Arist. "Clouds," 1196; Demosth. "c. Timoc." 730. + + (43) For the "Prytaneia," see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 12, 4. "Ephialtes + and Pericles curtailed the privileges of the Areopagus, Pericles + converted the Courts of Law into salaried bodies, and so each + succeeding demagogue outdid his predecessor in the privileges he + conferred upon the commons, until the present democracy was the + result" (Welldon). "The writer of this passage clearly intended to + class Pericles among the demagogues. He judges him in the same + deprecatory spirit as Plato in the 'Gorgias,' pp. 515, 516."— + Jowett, "Pol. of Aristot." vol. ii. p. 101. But see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. xxv., a portion of the newly- + discovered treatise, which throws light on an obscure period in + the history of Athens; and Mr. Kenyon's note ad loc.; and Mr. + Macan's criticism, "Journal of Hellenic Studies," vol. xii. No. 1. + + (44) For the {ekatoste}, see Thuc. vii. 28, in reference to the year + B.C. 416; Arist. "Wasps," 658; "Frogs," 363. + + (45) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xii. p. 65 (Eng. trans.); I. xxiv. p. + 141. + + (46) See "Revenues," iv. 20, p. 338; Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xxvi. 16. + + (47) For these functionaries, see Jebb, op. cit. xvi. 10. + + (48) Lit. "pay or get justice." + + (49) Se Arist. "Wasps," 548 foll.; Grote, "H. G." v. 520 note; Newman, + op. cit. i. 383. +</pre> + <p> + Furthermore, owing to the possession of property beyond the limits of + Attica, (50) and the exercise of magistracies which take them into regions + beyond the frontier, they and their attendants have insensibly acquired + the art of navigation. (51) A man who is perpetually voyaging is forced to + handle the oar, he and his domestics alike, and to learn the terms + familiar in seamanship. Hence a stock of skilful mariners is produced, + bred upon a wide experience of voyaging and practice. They have learnt + their business, some in piloting a small craft, others a merchant vessel, + whilst others have been drafted off from these for service on a + ship-of-war. So that the majority of them are able to row the moment they + set foot on board a vessel, having been in a state of preliminary practice + all their lives. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (50) See "Mem." II. viii. 1. + + (51) See "Hell." VII. i. 4. +</pre> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + As to the heavy infantry, an arm the deficiency of which at Athens is well + recognised, this is how the matter stands. They recognise the fact that, + in reference to the hostile power, they are themselves inferior, and must + be, even if their heavy infantry were more numerous. (1) But relatively to + the allies, who bring in the tribute, their strength even on land is + enormous. And they are persuaded that their heavy infantry is sufficient + for all purposes, provided they retain this superiority. (2) Apart from + all else, to a certain extent fortune must be held responsible for the + actual condition. The subjects of a power which is dominant by land have + it open to them to form contingents from several small states and to + muster in force for battle. But with the subjects of a naval power it is + different. As far as they are groups of islanders it is impossible for + their states to meet together for united action, for the sea lies between + them, and the dominant power is master of the sea. And even if it were + possible for them to assemble in some single island unobserved, they would + only do so to perish by famine. And as to the states subject to Athens + which are not islanders, but situated on the continent, the larger are + held in check by need (3) and the small ones absolutely by fear, since + there is no state in existence which does not depend upon imports and + exports, and these she will forfeit if she does not lend a willing ear to + those who are masters by sea. In the next place, a power dominant by sea + can do certain things which a land power is debarred from doing; as for + instance, ravage the territory of a superior, since it is always possible + to coast along to some point, where either there is no hostile force to + deal with or merely a small body; and in case of an advance in force on + the part of the enemy they can take to their ships and sail away. Such a + performance is attended with less difficulty than that experienced by the + relieving force on land. (4) Again, it is open to a power so dominating by + sea to leave its own territory and sail off on as long a voyage as you + please. Whereas the land power cannot place more than a few days' journey + between itself and its own territory, for marches are slow affairs; and it + is not possible for an army on the march to have food supplies to last for + any great length of time. Such an army must either march through friendly + territory or it must force a way by victory in battle. The voyager + meanwhile has it in his power to disembark at any point where he finds + himself in superior force, or, at the worst, to coast by until he reaches + either a friendly district or an enemy too weak to resist. Again, those + diseases to which the fruits of the earth are liable as visitations from + heaven fall severely on a land power, but are scarcely felt by the navel + power, for such sicknesses do not visit the whole earth everywhere at + once. So that the ruler of the sea can get in supplies from a thriving + district. And if one may descend to more trifling particulars, it is to + this same lordship of the sea that the Athenians owe the discovery, in the + first place, of many of the luxuries of life through intercourse with + other countries. So that the choice things of Sicily and Italy, of Cyprus + and Egypt and Lydia, of Pontus or Peloponnese, or wheresoever else it be, + are all swept, as it were, into one centre, and all owing, as I say, to + their maritime empire. And again, in process of listening to every form of + speech, (5) they have selected this from one place and that from another—for + themselves. So much so that while the rest of the Hellenes employ (6) each + pretty much their own peculiar mode of speech, habit of life, and style of + dress, the Athenians have adopted a composite type, (7) to which all + sections of Hellas, and the foreigner alike, have contributed. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Reading after Kirchhoff, {ettous ge... kan ei meizon en, ton + dia k.t.l.} See Thuc. i. 143; Isocr. "de Pace," 169 A; Plut. + "Them." 4 (Clough, i. 235). + + (2) Lit. "they are superior to their allies." + + (3) Reading with Kirchhoff, {dia khreian... dia deos}. + + (4) Or, "the army marching along the seaboard to the rescue." + + (5) Or, "a variety of dialects." + + (6) Or, "maintain somewhat more." + + (7) Or, "have contracted a mixed style, bearing traces of Hellenic and + foreign influence alike." See Mahaffy, "Hist. of Greek Lit." vol. + ii. ch. x. p. 257 (1st ed.); cf. Walt Whitman, "Preface to" + original edition of "Leaves of Grass," p. 29—"The English + language befriends the grand American expression: it is brawny + enough and limber and full enough, on the tough stock of a race, + who through all change of circumstances was never without the idea + of a political liberty, which is the animus of all liberty; it has + attracted the terms of daintier and gayer and subtler and more + elegant tongues." +</pre> + <p> + As regards sacrifices and temples and festivals and sacred enclosures, the + People sees that it is not possible for every poor citizen to do sacrifice + and hold festival, or to set up (8) temples and to inhabit a large and + beautiful city. But it has hit upon a means of meeting the difficulty. + They sacrifice—that is, the whole state sacrifices—at the + public cost a large number of victims; but it is the People that keeps + holiday and distributes the victims by lot amongst its members. Rich men + have in some cases private gymnasia and baths with dressing-rooms, (9) but + the People takes care to have built at the public cost (10) a number of + palaestras, dressing-rooms, and bathing establishments for its own special + use, and the mob gets the benefit of the majority of these, rather than + the select few or the well-to-do. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Reading with Kirchhoff, {istasthai}. + + (9) See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." vii. 18, p. 202. + + (10) Reading with Kirchhoff, {demosia}. +</pre> + <p> + As to wealth, the Athenians are exceptionally placed with regard to + Hellenic and foreign communities alike, (11) in their ability to hold it. + For, given that some state or other is rich in timber for shipbuilding, + where is it to find a market (12) for the product except by persuading the + ruler of the sea? Or, suppose the wealth of some state or other to consist + of iron, or may be of bronze, (13) or of linen yarn, where will it find a + market except by permission of the supreme maritime power? Yet these are + the very things, you see, which I need for my ships. Timber I must have + from one, and from another iron, from a third bronze, from a fourth linen + yarn, from a fifth wax, etc. Besides which they will not suffer their + antagonists in those parts (14) to carry these products elsewhither, or + they will cease to use the sea. Accordingly I, without one stroke of + labour, extract from the land and possess all these good things, thanks to + my supremacy on the sea; whilst not a single other state possesses the two + of them. Not timber, for instance, and yarn together, the same city. But + where yarn is abundant, the soil will be light and devoid of timber. And + in the same way bronze and iron will not be products of the same city. And + so for the rest, never two, or at best three, in one state, but one thing + here and another thing there. Moreover, above and beyond what has been + said, the coast-line of every mainland presents, either some jutting + promontory, or adjacent island, or narrow strait of some sort, so that + those who are masters of the sea can come to moorings at one of these + points and wreak vengeance (15) on the inhabitants of the mainland. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Or, "they have a practical monopoly." + + (12) Or, "how is it to dispose of the product?" + + (13) Or, "coppert." + + (14) Reading {ekei}. For this corrupt passage see L. Dindorf, ad. + loc.; also Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. ix. p. 55. Perhaps (as my friend + Mr. J. R. Mozley suggests) the simplest supposition is to suppose + that there is an ellipsis before {e ou khresontai te thalatte}: + thus, "Besides which they will not suffer their antagonists to + transport goods to countries outside Attica; they must yield, or + they shall not have the use of the sea." + + (15) {lobasthai}. This "poetical" word comes to mean "harry," + "pillage," in the common dialect. +</pre> + <p> + There is just one thing which the Athenians lack. Supposing that they were + the inhabitants of an island, (16) and were still, as now, rulers of the + sea, they would have had it in their power to work whatever mischief they + liked, and to suffer no evil in return (as long as they kept command of + the sea), neither the ravaging of their territory nor the expectation of + an enemy's approach. Whereas at present the farming portion of the + community and the wealthy landowners are ready (17) to cringe before the + enemy overmuch, whilst the People, knowing full well that, come what may, + not one stock or stone of their property will suffer, nothing will be cut + down, nothing burnt, lives in freedom from alarm, without fawning at the + enemy's approach. Besides this, there is another fear from which they + would have been exempt in an island home—the apprehension of the + city being at any time betrayed by their oligarchs (18) and the gates + thrown open, and an enemy bursting suddenly in. How could incidents like + these have taken place if an island had been their home? Again, had they + inhabited an island there would have been no stirring of sedition against + the people; whereas at present, in the event of faction, those who set it + in foot base their hopes of success on the introduction of an enemy by + land. But a people inhabiting an island would be free from all anxiety on + that score. Since, however, they did not chance to inhabit an island from + the first, what they now do is this—they deposit their property in + the islands, (19) trusting to their command of the sea, and they suffer + the soil of Aticca to be ravaged without a sigh. To expend pity on that, + they know, would be to deprive themselves of other blessings still more + precious. (20) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) See Thuc. i. 143. Pericles says: "Reflect, if we were islanders, + who would be more invulnerable? Let us imagine that we are." + + (17) Or, "are the more ready to cringe." See, for the word + {uperkhontai}, "Pol. Lac." viii. 2; Plat. "Crit." 53 E; + Rutherford, "New Phrynichus," p. 110. + + (18) Or, "by the minority"; or, "by a handful of people." + + (19) As they did during the Peloponnesian war; and earlier still, + before the battle of Salamis, in the case of that one island. + + (20) Or, "but mean the forfeiture of others." +</pre> + <p> + Further, states oligarchically governed are forced to ratify their + alliances and solemn oaths, and if they fail to abide by their contracts, + the offence, by whomsoever committed, (21) lies nominally at the door of + the oligarchs who entered upon the contract. But in the case of + engagements entered into by a democracy it is open to the People to throw + the blame on the single individual who spoke in favour of some measure, or + put it to the vote, and to maintain to the rest of the world, "I was not + present, nor do I approve of the terms of the agreement." Inquiries are + made in a full meeting of the People, and should any of these things be + disapproved of, it can at once discover ten thousand excuses to avoid + doing whatever they do not wish. And if any mischief should spring out of + any resolutions which the People has passed in council, the People can + readily shift the blame from its own shoulders. "A handful of oligarchs + (22) acting against the interests of the People have ruined us." But if + any good result ensue, they, the People, at once take the credit of that + to themselves. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) Reading {uph otououn adikeitai onomati upo ton oligon}, which I + suggest as a less violent emendation of this corrupt passage than + any I have seen; or, reading with Sauppe, {uph otou adikei + anomeitai apo ton oligon}, "the illegality lies at the door of." + + (22) Or, "a few insignificant fellows." +</pre> + <p> + In the same spirit it is not allowed to caricature on the comic stage (23) + or otherwise libel the People, because (24) they do not care to hear + themselves ill spoken of. But if any one has a desire to satirise his + neighbour he has full leave to do so. And this because they are well aware + that, as a general rule, this person caricatured (25) does not belong to + the People, or the masses. He is more likely to be some wealthy or + well-born person, or man of means and influence. In fact, but few poor + people and of the popular stamp incur the comic lash, or if they do they + have brought it on themselves by excessive love of meddling or some + covetous self-seeking at the expense of the People, so that no particular + annoyance is felt at seeing such folk satirised. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (23) See Grote, "H. G." viii. 446, especially p. 449, "growth and + development of comedy at Athens"; Curtius, "H. G." iii. pp. 242, + 243; Thirlwall, "H. G." ch. xviii. vol. iii. p. 42. + + (24) Or, more lit. "it would not do for the People to hear," etc. + + (25) Or, "the butt of comedy." +</pre> + <p> + What, then, I venture to assert is, that the People of Athens has no + difficulty in recognising which of its citizens are of the better sort and + which the opposite. (26) And so recognising those who are serviceable and + advantageous (27) to itself, even though they be base, the People loves + them; but the good folk they are disposed rather to hate. This virtue of + theirs, the People holds, is not engrained in their nature for any good to + itself, but rather for its injury. In direct opposition to this, there are + some persons who, being (28) born of the People, are yet by natural + instinct not commoners. For my part I pardon the People its own democracy, + as, indeed, it is pardonable in any one to do good to himself. (29) But + the man who, not being himself one of the People, prefers to live in a + state democratically governed rather than in an oligarchical state may be + said to smooth his own path towards iniquity. He knows that a bad man has + a better chance of slipping through the fingers of justice in a democratic + than in an oligarchical state. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (26) Or, "and which are good for nothing." + + (27) Or,"its own friends and supporters." + + (28) Reading {ontes} or (if {gnontes}), "who, recognising the nature + of the People, have no popular leaning." Gutschmidt conj. {enioi + egguoi ontes}, i.e. Pericles. + + (29) On the principle that "the knee is nearer than the shin-bone," + {gonu knemes}, or, as we say, "charity begins at home." +</pre> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + I repeat that my position concerning the polity of the Athenians is this: + the type (1) of polity is not to my taste, but given that a democratic + form of government has been agreed upon, they do seem to me to go the + right way to preserve the democracy by the adoption of the particular type + (2) which I have set forth. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "manner." + + (2) Or, "manner." +</pre> + <p> + But there are other objections brought, as I am aware, against the + Athenians, by certain people, and to this effect. It not seldom happens, + they tell us, that a man is unable to transact a piece of business with + the senate or the People, even if he sit waiting a whole year. Now this + does happen at Athens, and for no other reason save that, owing to the + immense mass of affairs they are unable to work off all the business on + hand, and dismiss the applicants. And how in the world should they be + able, considering in the first place, that they, the Athenians, have more + festivals (3) to celebrate than any other state throughout the length and + breadth of Hellas? (During these festivals, of course, the transaction of + any sort of affairs of state is still more out of the question.) (4) In + the next place, only consider the number of cases they have to decide—what + with private suits and public causes and scrutinies of accounts, etc., + more than the whole of the rest of mankind put together; while the senate + has multifarious points to advise upon concerning peace and war, (5) + concerning ways and means, concerning the framing and passing of laws, (6) + and concerning the thousand and one matters affecting the state + perpetually occurring, and endless questions touching the allies; besides + the receipt of the tribute, the superintendence of dockyards and temples, + etc. Can, I ask again, any one find it at all surprising that, with all + these affairs on their hands, they are unequal to doing business with all + the world? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See Arist. "Wasps," 661. + + (4) This sentence is perhaps a gloss. + + (5) Or, "about the war," {peri tou polemou}. + + (6) See Thirlwall, ch. xxxii. vol. iv. p. 221, note 3. +</pre> + <p> + But some people tell us that if the applicant will only address himself to + the senate or the People with a fee in his hand he will do a good stroke + of business. And for my part I am free to confess to these gainsayers that + a good many things may be done at Athens by dint of money; and I will add, + that a good many more still might be done, if the money flowed still more + freely and from more pockets. One thing, however, I know full well, that + as to transacting with every one of these applicants all he wants, the + state could not do it, not even if all the gold and silver in the world + were the inducement offered. + </p> + <p> + Here are some of the cases which have to be decided on. Some one fails to + fit out a ship: judgement must be given. Another puts up a building on a + piece of public land: again judgement must be given. Or, to take another + class of cases: adjudication has to be made between the choragi for the + Dionysia, the Thargelia, the Panathenaea, year after year. ( (7) And again + in behalf of the gymnasiarchs a similar adjudication for the Panathenaea, + the Prometheia, and the Hephaestia, also year after year.) Also as between + the trierarchs, four hundred of whom are appointed each year, of these, + too, any who choose must have their cases adjudicated on, year after year. + But that is not all. There are various magistrates to examine and approve + (8) and decide between; there are orphans (9) whose status must be + examined; and guardians of prisoners to appoint. These, be it borne in + mind, are all matters of yearly occurrence; while at intervals there are + exemptions and abstentions from military service (10) which call for + adjudication, or in connection with some other extraordinary misdemeanour, + some case of outrage and violence of an exceptional character, or some + charge of impiety. A whole string of others I simply omit; I am content to + have named the most important part with the exception of the assessments + of tribute which occur, as a rule, at intervals of five years. (11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Adopting the emendation of Kirchhoff, who inserts the sentence in + brackets. For the festivals in question, see "Dict. of Antiq." + "Lampadephoria"; C. R. Kenney, "Demosth. against Leptines," etc., + App. vi. + + (8) For the institution called the {dokimasia}, see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. lv. + + (9) See Dem. "against Midias," 565, 17; "against Apholus" (1), 814, + 20. + + (10) See Lys. "Or." xiv. and xv. + + (11) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 48; Thuc. vii. 78; i. 96; Arist. + "Wasps," 707; Aristot. "Pol." v. 8. +</pre> + <p> + I put it to you, then: can any one suppose that all, or any, of these may + dispense with adjudication? (12) If so, will any one say which ought, and + which ought not, to be adjudicated on, there and then? If, on the other + hand, we are forced to admit that these are all fair cases for + adjudication, it follows of necessity that they should be decided during + the twelve-month; since even now the boards of judges sitting right + through the year are powerless to stay the tide of evildoing by reason of + the multitude of the people. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) Reading with Kirchhoff. Cf. for {oiesthai khre}, "Hell." VI. iv. + 23; "Cyr." IV. ii. 28. +</pre> + <p> + So far so good. (13) "But," some one will say, "try the cases you + certainly must, but lessen the number of the judges." But if so, it + follows of necessity that unless the number of courts themselves are + diminished in number there will only be a few judges sitting in each + court, (14) with the further consequence that in dealing with so small a + body of judges it will be easier for a litigant to present an invulnerable + front (15) to the court, and to bribe (16) the whole body, to the great + detriment of justice. (17) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) See Grote, "H. G." v. 514, 520; Machiavelli, "Disc. s. Livio," i. + 7. + + (14) Reading with Sauppe, {anagke toinun, ean me} (for the vulgate + {ean men oliga k.t.l.}) {oliga poiontai dikasteria, oligoi en + ekasto esontai to dikasterio}. Or, adopting Weiske's emendation, + {ean men polla poiontai dikasteria k.t.l.} Translate, "Then, if by + so doing they manage to multiply the law courts, there will be + only a few judges sitting," etc. + + (15) Or, as Liddell and Scott, "to prepare all his tricks." + + (16) {sundekasoi}, "to bribe in the lump." This is Schneider's happy + emendation of the MS. {sundikasai}; see Demosthenes, 1137, 1. + + (17) Reading {oste}, lit. "so as to get a far less just judgment." +</pre> + <p> + But besides this we cannot escape the conclusion that the Athenians have + their festivals to keep, during which the courts cannot sit. (18) As a + matter of fact these festivals are twice as numerous as those of any other + people. But I will reckon them as merely equal to those of the state which + has the fewest. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (18) Lit. "it is not possible to give judgment"; or, "for juries to + sit." +</pre> + <p> + This being so, I maintain that it is not possible for business affairs at + Athens to stand on any very different footing from the present, except to + some slight extent, by adding here and deducting there. Any large + modification is out of the question, short of damaging the democracy + itself. No doubt many expedients might be discovered for improving the + constitution, but if the problem be to discover some adequate means of + improving the constitution, while at the same time the democracy is to + remain intact, I say it is not easy to do this, except, as I have just + stated, to the extent of some trifling addition here or deduction there. + </p> + <p> + There is another point in which it is sometimes felt that the Athenians + are ill advised, in their adoption, namely, of the less respectable party, + in a state divided by faction. But if so, they do it advisedly. If they + chose the more respectable, they would be adopting those whose views and + interests differ from their own, for there is no state in which the best + element is friendly to the people. It is the worst element which in every + state favours the democracy—on the principle that like favours like. + (19) It is simple enough then. The Athenians choose what is most akin to + themselves. Also on every occasion on which they have attempted to side + with the better classes, it has not fared well with them, but within a + short interval the democratic party has been enslaved, as for instance in + Boeotia; (20) or, as when they chose the aristocrats of the Milesians, and + within a short time these revolted and cut the people to pieces; or, as + when they chose the Lacedaemonians as against the Messenians, and within a + short time the Lacedaemonians subjugated the Messenians and went to war + against Athens. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) I.e. "birds of a feather." + + (20) The references are perhaps (1) to the events of the year 447 + B.C., see Thuc. i. 113; cf. Aristot. "Pol." v. 3, 5; (2) to 440 + B.C., Thuc. i. 115; Diod. xii. 27, 28; Plut. "Pericl." c. 24; (3) + to those of 464 B.C., followed by 457 B.C., Thuc. i. 102; Plut. + "Cimon," c. 16; and Thuc. i. 108. +</pre> + <p> + I seem to overhear a retort, "No one, of course, is deprived of his civil + rights at Athens unjustly." My answer is, that there are some who are + unjustly deprived of their civil rights, though the cases are certainly + rare. But it will take more than a few to attack the democracy at Athens, + since you may take it as an established fact, it is not the man who has + lost his civil rights justly that takes the matter to heart, but the + victims, if any, of injustice. But how in the world can any one imagine + that many are in a state of civil disability at Athens, where the People + and the holders of office are one and the same? It is from iniquitous + exercise of office, from iniquity exhibited either in speech or action, + and the like circumstances, that citizens are punished with deprivation of + civil rights in Athens. Due reflection on these matters will serve to + dispel the notion that there is any danger at Athens from persons visited + with disenfranchisement. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS + </h2> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + I recall the astonishment with which I (1) first noted the unique position + (2) of Sparta amongst the states of Hellas, the relatively sparse + population, (3) and at the same time the extraordinary power and prestige + of the community. I was puzzled to account for the fact. It was only when + I came to consider the peculiar institutions of the Spartans that my + wonderment ceased. Or rather, it is transferred to the legislator who gave + them those laws, obedience to which has been the secret of their + prosperity. This legislator, Lycurgus, I must needs admire, and hold him + to have been one of the wisest of mankind. Certainly he was no servile + imitator of other states. It was by a stroke of invention rather, and on a + pattern much in opposition to the commonly-accepted one, that he brought + his fatherland to this pinnacle of prosperity. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See the opening words of the "Cyrop." and of the "Symp." + + (2) Or, "the phenomenal character." See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320 foll.; + Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 202. + + (3) See Herod. vii. 234; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 14 foll.; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10 (vol. i. p. 203, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + Take for example—and it is well to begin at the beginning (4)—the + whole topic of the begetting and rearing of children. Throughout the rest + of the world the young girl, who will one day become a mother (and I speak + of those who may be held to be well brought up), is nurtured on the + plainest food attainable, with the scantiest addition of meat or other + condiments; whilst as to wine they train them either to total abstinence + or to take it highly diluted with water. And in imitation, as it were, of + the handicraft type, since the majority of artificers are sedentary, (5) + we, the rest of the Hellenes, are content that our girls should sit + quietly and work wools. That is all we demand of them. But how are we to + expect that women nurtured in this fashion should produce a splendid + offspring? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Cf. a fragment of Critias cited by Clement, "Stromata," vi. p. + 741, 6; Athen. x. 432, 433; see "A Fragment of Xenophon" (?), ap. + Stob. "Flor." 88. 14, translated by J. Hookham Frere, "Theognis + Restitutus," vol. i. 333; G. Sauppe, "Append. de Frag. Xen." p. + 293; probably by Antisthenes (Bergk. ii. 497). + + (5) Or, "such technical work is for the most part sedentary." +</pre> + <p> + Lycurgus pursued a different path. Clothes were things, he held, the + furnishing of which might well enough be left to female slaves. And, + believing that the highest function of a free woman was the bearing of + children, in the first place he insisted on the training of the body as + incumbent no less on the female than the male; and in pursuit of the same + idea instituted rival contests in running and feats of strength for women + as for men. His belief was that where both parents were strong their + progeny would be found to be more vigorous. + </p> + <p> + And so again after marriage. In view of the fact that immoderate + intercourse is elsewhere permitted during the earlier period of matrimony, + he adopted a principle directly opposite. He laid it down as an ordinance + that a man should be ashamed to be seen visiting the chamber of his wife, + whether going in or coming out. When they did meet under such restraint + the mutual longing of these lovers could not but be increased, and the + fruit which might spring from such intercourse would tend to be more + robust than theirs whose affections are cloyed by satiety. By a farther + step in the same direction he refused to allow marriages to be contracted + (6) at any period of life according to the fancy of the parties concerned. + Marriage, as he ordained it, must only take place in the prime of bodily + vigour, (7) this too being, as he believed, a condition conducive to the + production of healthy offspring. Or again, to meet the case which might + occur of an old man (8) wedded to a young wife. Considering the jealous + watch which such husbands are apt to keep over their wives, he introduced + a directly opposite custom; that is to say, he made it incumbent on the + aged husband to introduce some one whose qualities, physical and moral, he + admired, to play the husband's part and to beget him children. Or again, + in the case of a man who might not desire to live with a wife permanently, + but yet might still be anxious to have children of his own worthy the + name, the lawgiver laid down a law (9) in his behalf. Such a one might + select some woman, the wife of some man, well born herself and blest with + fair offspring, and, the sanction and consent of her husband first + obtained, raise up children for himself through her. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) "The bride to be wooed and won." The phrase {agesthai} perhaps + points to some primitive custom of capturing and carrying off the + bride, but it had probably become conventional. + + (7) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg," 15 (Clough, i. 101). "In their marriages the + husband carried off his bride by a sort of force; nor were their + brides ever small and of tender years, but in their full bloom and + ripeness." + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 103). + + (9) Or, "established a custom to suit the case." +</pre> + <p> + These and many other adaptations of a like sort the lawgiver sanctioned. + As, for instance, at Sparta a wife will not object to bear the burden of a + double establishment, (10) or a husband to adopt sons as foster-brothers + of his own children, with a full share in his family and position, but + possessing no claim to his wealth and property. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Cf. Plut. "Comp. of Numa with Lycurgus," 4; "Cato mi." 25 + (Clough, i. 163; iv. 395). +</pre> + <p> + So opposed to those of the rest of the world are the principles which + Lycurgus devised in reference to the production of children. Whether they + enabled him to provide Sparta with a race of men superior to all in size + and strength I leave to the judgment of whomsoever it may concern. + </p> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + With this exposition of the customs in connection with the birth of + children, I wish now to explain the systems of education in fashion here + and elsewhere. Throughout the rest of Hellas the custom on the part of + those who claim to educate their sons in the best way is as follows. As + soon as the children are of an age to understand what is said to them they + are immediately placed under the charge of Paidagogoi (1) (or tutors), who + are also attendants, and sent off to the school of some teacher to be + taught "grammar," "music," and the concerns of the palestra. (2) Besides + this they are given shoes (3) to wear which tend to make their feet + tender, and their bodies are enervated by various changes of clothing. And + as for food, the only measure recognised is that which is fixed by + appetite. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) = "boy-leaders." Cf. St. Paul, "Ep. Gal." iii. 24; The Law was our + schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ. + + (2) Cf. Plato, "Alc. maj." 106 E; "Theages," 122 E; Aristot. "Pol." + viii. 3. + + (3) Or, "sandals." +</pre> + <p> + But when we turn to Lycurgus, instead of leaving it to each member of the + state privately to appoint a slave to be his son's tutor, he set over the + young Spartans a public guardian, the Paidonomos (4) or "pastor," to give + them his proper title, (5) with complete authority over them. This + guardian was selected from those who filled the highest magistracies. He + had authority to hold musters of the boys, (6) and as their overseer, in + case of any misbehaviour, to chastise severely. The legislator further + provided his pastor with a body of youths in the prime of life, and + bearing whips, (7) to inflict punishment when necessary, with this happy + result that in Sparta modesty and obedience ever go hand in hand, nor is + there lack of either. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) = "boyherd." + + (5) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 107); Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, + 13; vii. 17, 5. + + (6) Or, "assemble the boys in flocks." + + (7) {mastigophoroi} = "flagellants." +</pre> + <p> + Instead of softening their feet with shoe or sandal, his rule was to make + them hardy through going barefoot. (8) This habit, if practised, would, as + he believed, enable them to scale heights more easily and clamber down + precipices with less danger. In fact, with his feet so trained the young + Spartan would leap and spring and run faster unshod than another shod in + the ordinary way. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 16 (Clough, i. 106). +</pre> + <p> + Instead of making them effeminate with a variety of clothes, his rule was + to habituate them to a single garment the whole year through, thinking + that so they would be better prepared to withstand the variations of heat + and cold. + </p> + <p> + Again, as regards food, according to his regulation the Eiren, (9) or head + of the flock, must see that his messmates gathered to the club meal, (10) + with such moderate food as to avoid that heaviness (11) which is + engendered by repletion, and yet not to remain altogether unacquainted + with the pains of penurious living. His belief was that by such training + in boyhood they would be better able when occasion demanded to continue + toiling on an empty stomach. They would be all the fitter, if the word of + command were given, to remain on the stretch for a long time without extra + dieting. The craving for luxuries (12) would be less, the readiness to + take any victual set before them greater, and, in general, the regime + would be found more healthy. (13) Under it he thought the lads would + increase in stature and shape into finer men, since, as he maintained, a + dietary which gave suppleness to the limbs must be more conducive to both + ends than one which added thickness to the bodily parts by feeding. (14) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) For the Eiren, see Plut. "Lycurg." (Clough, i. 107). + + (10) Reading {sumboleuein} (for the vulg. {sumbouleuein}). The + emendation is now commonly adopted. For the word itself, see L. + Dindorf, n. ad loc., and Schneider. {sumbolon} = {eranos} or club + meal. Perhaps we ought to read {ekhontas} instead of {ekhonta}. + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 108). + + (12) Lit. "condiments," such as "meat," "fish," etc. See "Cyrop." I. + ii. 8. + + (13) Or, "and in general they would live more healthily and increase + in stature." + + (14) See L. Dindorf's emendation of this corrupt passage, n. ad loc. + (based upon Plut. "Lycurg." 17 and Ps. Plut. "Moral." 237), {kai + eis mekos d' an auxanesthai oeto kai eueidesterous} vel {kallious + gignesthai, pros amphotera ton radina ta somata poiousan trophen + mallon sullambanein egesamenos e ten diaplatunousan}. Otherwise I + would suggest to read {kai eis mekos an auxanesthai ten (gar) + radina... egesato k.t.l.}, which is closer to the vulgate, and + gives nearly the same sense. +</pre> + <p> + On the other hand, in order to guard against a too great pinch of + starvation, though he did not actually allow the boys to help themselves + without further trouble to what they needed more, he did give them + permission to steal (15) this thing or that in the effort to alleviate + their hunger. It was not of course from any real difficulty how else to + supply them with nutriment that he left it to them to provide themselves + by this crafty method. Nor can I conceive that any one will so + misinterpret the custom. Clearly its explanation lies in the fact that he + who would live the life of a robber must forgo sleep by night, and in the + daytime he must employ shifts and lie in ambuscade; he must prepare and + make ready his scouts, and so forth, if he is to succeed in capturing the + quarry. (16) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) See "Anab." IV. vi. 14. + + (16) For the institution named the {krupteia}, see Plut. "Lycurg." 28 + (Clough, i. 120); Plato, "Laws," i. 633 B; for the {klopeia}, ib. + vii. 823 E; Isocr. "Panathen." 277 B. +</pre> + <p> + It is obvious, I say, that the whole of this education tended, and was + intended, to make the boys craftier and more inventive in getting in + supplies, whilst at the same time it cultivated their warlike instincts. + An objector may retort: "But if he thought it so fine a feat to steal, why + did he inflict all those blows on the unfortunate who was caught?" My + answer is: for the self-same reason which induces people, in other matters + which are taught, to punish the mal-performance of a service. So they, the + Lacedaemonians, visit penalties on the boy who is detected thieving as + being but a sorry bungler in the art. So to steal as many cheeses as + possible (off the shrine of Orthia (17)) was a feat to be encouraged; but, + at the same moment, others were enjoined to scourge the thief, which would + point a moral not obscurely, that by pain endured for a brief season a man + may earn the joyous reward of lasting glory. (18) Herein, too, it is + plainly shown that where speed is requisite the sluggard will win for + himself much trouble and scant good. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (17) I.e. "Artemis of the Steep"—a title connecting the goddess with + Mount Orthion or Orthosion. See Pausan. VIII. xxiii. 1; and for + the custom, see Themistius, "Or." 21, p. 250 A. The words have + perhaps got out of their right place. See Schneider's Index, s.v. + + (18) See Plut. "Lycurg." 18; "Morals," 239 C; "Aristid." 17; Cic. + "Tusc." ii. 14. +</pre> + <p> + Furthermore, and in order that the boys should not want a ruler, even in + case the pastor (19) himself were absent, he gave to any citizen who + chanced to be present authority to lay upon them injunctions for their + good, and to chastise them for any trespass committed. By so doing he + created in the boys of Sparta a most rare modesty and reverence. And + indeed there is nothing which, whether as boys or men, they respect more + highly than the ruler. Lastly, and with the same intention, that the boys + must never be reft of a ruler, even if by chance there were no grown man + present, he laid down the rule that in such a case the most active of the + Leaders or Prefects (20) was to become ruler for the nonce, each of his + own division. The conclusion being that under no circumstances whatever + are the boys of Sparta destitute of one to rule them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) Lit. "Paidonomos." + + (20) Lit. "Eirens." +</pre> + <p> + I ought, as it seems to me, not to omit some remark on the subject of boy + attachments, (21) it being a topic in close connection with that of + boyhood and the training of boys. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 109). +</pre> + <p> + We know that the rest of the Hellenes deal with this relationship in + different ways, either after the manner of the Boeotians, (22) where man + and boy are intimately united by a bond like that of wedlock, or after the + manner of the Eleians, where the fruition of beauty is an act of grace; + whilst there are others who would absolutely debar the lover from all + conversation (23) and discourse with the beloved. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (22) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 34; Plato, "Symp." 182 B (Jowett, II. p. + 33). + + (23) {dialegesthai} came to mean philosophic discussion and debate. Is + the author thinking of Socrates? See "Mem." I. ii. 35; IV. v. 12. +</pre> + <p> + Lycurgus adopted a system opposed to all of these alike. Given that some + one, himself being all that a man ought to be, should in admiration of a + boy's soul (24) endeavour to discover in him a true friend without + reproach, and to consort with him—this was a relationship which + Lycurgus commended, and indeed regarded as the noblest type of bringing + up. But if, as was evident, it was not an attachment to the soul, but a + yearning merely towards the body, he stamped this thing as foul and + horrible; and with this result, to the credit of Lycurgus be it said, that + in Lacedaemon the relationship of lover and beloved is like that of parent + and child or brother and brother where carnal appetite is in abeyance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (24) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 35; Plut. "Lycurg." 18. +</pre> + <p> + That this, however, which is the fact, should be scarcely credited in some + quarters does not surprise me, seeing that in many states the laws (25) do + not oppose the desires in question. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (25) I.e. "law and custom." +</pre> + <p> + I have now described the two chief methods of education in vogue; that is + to say, the Lacedaemonian as contrasted with that of the rest of Hellas, + and I leave it to the judgment of him whom it may concern, which of the + two has produced the finer type of men. And by finer I mean the better + disciplined, the more modest and reverential, and, in matters where + self-restraint is a virtue, the more continent. + </p> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + Coming to the critical period at which a boy ceases to be a boy and + becomes a youth, (1) we find that it is just then that the rest of the + world proceed to emancipate their children from the private tutor and the + schoolmaster, and, without substituting any further ruler, are content to + launch them into absolute independence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) {eis to meirakiousthai}, "with reference to hobbledehoy-hood." + Cobet erases the phrase as post-Xenophontine. +</pre> + <p> + Here, again, Lycurgus took an entirely opposite view of the matter. This, + if observation might be trusted, was the season when the tide of animal + spirits flows fast, and the froth of insolence rises to the surface; when, + too, the most violent appetites for divers pleasures, in serried ranks, + invade (2) the mind. This, then, was the right moment at which to impose + tenfold labours upon the growing youth, and to devise for him a subtle + system of absorbing occupation. And by a crowning enactment, which said + that "he who shrank from the duties imposed on him would forfeit + henceforth all claim to the glorious honours of the state," he caused, not + only the public authorities, but those personally interested (3) in the + several companies of youths to take serious pains so that no single + individual of them should by an act of craven cowardice find himself + utterly rejected and reprobate within the body politic. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Lit. "range themselves." For the idea, see "Mem." I. ii. 23; + Swinburne, "Songs before Sunrise": Prelude, "Past youth where + shoreward shallows are." + + (3) Or, "the friends and connections." +</pre> + <p> + Furthermore, in his desire to implant in their youthful souls a root of + modesty he imposed upon these bigger boys a special rule. In the very + streets they were to keep their two hands (4) within the folds of the + cloak; they were to walk in silence and without turning their heads to + gaze, now here, now there, but rather to keep their eyes fixed upon the + ground before them. And hereby it would seem to be proved conclusively + that, even in the matter of quiet bearing and sobriety, (5) the masculine + type may claim greater strength than that which we attribute to the nature + of women. At any rate, you might sooner expect a stone image to find voice + than one of those Spartan youths; to divert the eyes of some bronze + stature were less difficult. And as to quiet bearing, no bride ever + stepped in bridal bower (6) with more natural modesty. Note them when they + have reached the public table. (7) The plainest answer to the question + asked—that is all you need expect to hear from their lips. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Cic. "pro Coelio," 5. + + (5) See Plat. "Charmid." 159 B; Jowett, "Plato," I. 15. + + (6) Longinus, {peri ups}, iv. 4, reading {ophthalmois} for + {thalamois}, says: "Yet why speak of Timaeus, when even men like + Xenophon and Plato, the very demigods of literature, though they + had sat at the feet of Socrates, sometimes forget themselves in + the pursuit of such pretty conceits? The former in his account of + the Spartan Polity has these words: 'Their voice you would no more + hear, than if they were of marble, their gaze is as immovable as + if they were cast in bronze. You would deem them more modest than + the very maidens in their eyes.' To speak of the pupils of the + eyes as modest maidens was a piece of absurdity becoming + Amphicrates rather than Xenophon; and then what a strange notion + to suppose that modesty is always without exception, expressed in + the eye!"—H. L. Howell, "Longinus," p. 8. See "Spectator," No. + 354. + + (7) See Paus. VII. i. 8, the {phidition} or {philition}; "Hell." V. + iv. 28. +</pre> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + But if he was thus careful in the education of the stripling, (1) the + Spartan lawgiver showed a still greater anxiety in dealing with those who + had reached the prime of opening manhood; considering their immense + importance to the city in the scale of good, if only they proved + themselves the men they should be. He had only to look around to see what + wherever the spirit of emulation (2) is most deeply seated, there, too, + their choruses and gymnastic contests will present alike a far higher + charm to eye and ear. And on the same principle he persuaded himself that + he needed only to confront (3) his youthful warriors in the strife of + valour, and with like result. They also, in their degree, might be + expected to attain to some unknown height of manly virtue. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See "Hell." V. iv. 32. + + (2) Cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22. + + (3) Or, "pit face to face." +</pre> + <p> + What method he adopted to engage these combatants I will now explain. It + is on this wise. Their ephors select three men out of the whole body of + the citizens in the prime of life. These three are named Hippagretai, or + masters of the horse. Each of these selects one hundred others, being + bound to explain for what reason he prefers in honour these and + disapproves of those. The result is that those who fail to obtain the + distinction are now at open war, not only with those who rejected them, + but with those who were chosen in their stead; and they keep ever a + jealous eye on one another to detect some slip of conduct contrary to the + high code of honour there held customary. And so is set on foot that + strife, in truest sense acceptable to heaven, and for the purposes of + state most politic. It is a strife in which not only is the pattern of a + brave man's conduct fully set forth, but where, too, each against other + and in separate camps, the rival parties train for victory. One day the + superiority shall be theirs; or, in the day of need, one and all to the + last man, they will be ready to aid the fatherland with all their + strength. + </p> + <p> + Necessity, moreover, is laid upon them to study a good habit of the body, + coming as they do to blows with their fists for very strife's sake + whenever they meet. Albeit, any one present has a right to separate the + combatants, and, if obedience is not shown to the peacemaker, the Pastor + of youth (4) hales the delinquent before the ephors, and the ephors + inflict heavy damages, since they will have it plainly understood that + rage must never override obedience to law. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Lit. "the Paidonomos." +</pre> + <p> + With regard to those who have already passed (5) the vigour of early + manhood, and on whom the highest magistracies henceforth devolve, there is + a like contrast. In Hellas generally we find that at this age the need of + further attention to physical strength is removed, although the imposition + of military service continues. But Lycurgus made it customary for that + section of his citizens to regard hunting as the highest honour suited to + their age; albeit, not to the exclusion of any public duty. (6) And his + aim was that they might be equally able to undergo the fatigues of war + with those in the prime of early manhood. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) Probably the {agathoergoi}, technically so called. See Herod. i. + 67; Schneider, ap. Dindorf. + + (6) Lit. "save only if some public duty intervened." See "Cyrop." I. + ii. +</pre> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + The above is a fairly exhaustive statement of the institutions traceable + to the legislation of Lycurgus in connection with the successive stages + (1) of a citizen's life. It remains that I should endeavour to describe + the style of living which he established for the whole body, irrespective + of age. It will be understood that, when Lycurgus first came to deal with + the question, the Spartans like the rest of the Hellenes, used to mess + privately at home. Tracing more than half the current misdemeanours to + this custom, (2) he was determined to drag his people out of holes and + corners into the broad daylight, and so he invented the public mess-rooms. + Whereby he expected at any rate to minimise the transgression of orders. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Lit. "with each age."; see Plut. "Lycurg." 25; Hesychius, {s. u. + irinies}; "Hell." VI. iv. 17; V. iv. 13. + + (2) Reading after Cobet, {en touto}. +</pre> + <p> + As to food, (3) his ordinance allowed them so much as, while not inducing + repletion, should guard them from actual want. And, in fact, there are + many exceptional (4) dishes in the shape of game supplied from the hunting + field. Or, as a substitute for these, rich men will occasionally garnish + the feast with wheaten loaves. So that from beginning to end, till the + mess breaks up, the common board is never stinted for viands, nor yet + extravagantly furnished. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 97). + + (4) {paraloga}, i.e. unexpected dishes, technically named {epaikla} + (hors d'oeuvres), as we learn from Athenaeus, iv. 140, 141. +</pre> + <p> + So also in the matter of drink. Whilst putting a stop to all unnecessary + potations, detrimental alike to a firm brain and a steady gait, (5) he + left them free to quench thirst when nature dictated (6); a method which + would at once add to the pleasure whilst it diminished the danger of + drinking. And indeed one may fairly ask how, on such a system of common + meals, it would be possible for any one to ruin either himself or his + family either through gluttony or wine-bibbing. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) Or, "apt to render brain and body alike unsteady." + + (6) See "Agesilaus"; also "Mem." and "Cyrop." +</pre> + <p> + This too must be borne in mind, that in other states equals in age, (7) + for the most part, associate together, and such an atmosphere is little + conducive to modesty. (8) Whereas in Sparta Lycurgus was careful so to + blend the ages (9) that the younger men must benefit largely by the + experience of the elder—an education in itself, and the more so + since by custom of the country conversation at the common meal has + reference to the honourable acts which this man or that man may have + performed in relation to the state. The scene, in fact, but little lends + itself to the intrusion of violence or drunken riot; ugly speech and ugly + deeds alike are out of place. Amongst other good results obtained through + this out-door system of meals may be mentioned these: There is the + necessity of walking home when the meal is over, and a consequent anxiety + not to be caught tripping under the influence of wine, since they all know + of course that the supper-table must be presently abandoned, (10) and that + they must move as freely in the dark as in the day, even the help of a + torch (11) to guide the steps being forbidden to all on active service. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 240 C; {elix eklika terpei}, "Equals delight + in equals." + + (8) Or, "these gatherings for the most part consist of equals in age + (young fellows), in whose society the virtue of modesty is least + likely to display itself." + + (9) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 98). + + (10) Or, "that they are not going to stay all night where they have + supped." + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 99). +</pre> + <p> + In connection with this matter, Lycurgus had not failed to observe the + effect of equal amounts of food on different persons. The hardworking man + has a good complexion, his muscles are well fed, he is robust and strong. + The man who abstains from work, on the other hand, may be detected by his + miserable appearance; he is blotched and puffy, and devoid of strength. + This observation, I say, was not wasted on him. On the contrary, turning + it over in his mind that any one who chooses, as a matter of private + judgment, to devote himself to toil may hope to present a very creditable + appearance physically, he enjoined upon the eldest for the time being in + every gymnasium to see to it that the labours of the class were + proportional to the meats. (12) And to my mind he was not out of his + reckoning in this matter more than elsewhere. At any rate, it would be + hard to discover a healthier or more completely developed human being, + physically speaking, than the Spartan. Their gymnastic training, in fact, + makes demands alike on the legs and arms and neck, (13) etc., + simultaneously. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) I.e. "not inferior in excellence to the diet which they enjoyed." + The reading here adopted I owe to Dr. Arnold Hug, {os me ponous + auton elattous ton sition gignesthai}. + + (13) See Plat. "Laws," vii. 796 A; Jowett, "Plato," v. p. 365; Xen. + "Symp." ii. 7; Plut. "Lycurg." 19. +</pre> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + There are other points in which this legislator's views run counter to + those commonly accepted. Thus: in other states the individual citizen is + master over his own children, domestics, (1) goods and chattels, and + belongings generally; but Lycurgus, whose aim was to secure to all the + citizens a considerable share in one another's goods without mutual + injury, enacted that each one should have an equal power of his + neighbour's children as over his own. (2) The principle is this. When a + man knows that this, that, and the other person are fathers of children + subject to his authority, he must perforce deal by them even as he desires + his own child to be dealt by. And, if a boy chance to have received a + whipping, not from his own father but some other, and goes and complains + to his own father, it would be thought wrong on the part of that father if + he did not inflict a second whipping on his son. A striking proof, in its + way, how completely they trust each other not to impose dishonourable + commands upon their children. (3) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or rather, "members of his household." + + (2) See Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 104). + + (3) See Plut. "Moral." 237 D. +</pre> + <p> + In the same way he empowered them to use their neighbour's (4) domestics + in case of need. This communism he applied also to dogs used for the + chase; in so far that a party in need of dogs will invite the owner to the + chase, and if he is not at leisure to attend himself, at any rate he is + happy to let his dogs go. The same applies to the use of horses. Some one + has fallen sick perhaps, or is in want of a carriage, (5) or is anxious to + reach some point or other quickly—in any case he has a right, if he + sees a horse anywhere, to take and use it, and restores it safe and sound + when he has done with it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 5 (Jowett, i. pp. xxxi. and 34; ii. p. + 53); Plat. "Laws," viii. 845 A; Newman, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 249 + foll. + + (5) "Has not a carriage of his own." +</pre> + <p> + And here is another institution attributed to Lycurgus which scarcely + coincides with the customs elsewhere in vogue. A hunting party returns + from the chase, belated. They want provisions—they have nothing + prepared themselves. To meet this contingency he made it a rule that + owners (6) are to leave behind the food that has been dressed; and the + party in need will open the seals, take out what they want, seal up the + remainder, and leave it. Accordingly, by his system of give-and-take even + those with next to nothing (7) have a share in all that the country can + supply, if ever they stand in need of anything. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) Reading {pepamenous}, or if {pepasmenous}, "who have already + finished their repasts." + + (7) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9 (Jowett, i. pp. xlii. and 52); Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10, 1 (vol. ii. 197, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + VII + </p> + <p> + There are yet other customs in Sparta which Lycurgus instituted in + opposition to those of the rest of Hellas, and the following among them. + We all know that in the generality of states every one devotes his full + energy to the business of making money: one man as a tiller of the soil, + another as a mariner, a third as a merchant, whilst others depend on + various arts to earn a living. But at Sparta Lycurgus forbade his freeborn + citizens to have anything whatsoever to do with the concerns of + money-making. As freemen, he enjoined upon them to regard as their concern + exclusively those activities upon which the foundations of civic liberty + are based. + </p> + <p> + And indeed, one may well ask, for what reason should wealth be regarded as + a matter for serious pursuit (1) in a community where, partly by a system + of equal contributions to the necessaries of life, and partly by the + maintenance of a common standard of living, the lawgiver placed so + effectual a check upon the desire of riches for the sake of luxury? What + inducement, for instance, would there be to make money, even for the sake + of wearing apparel, in a state where personal adornment is held to lie not + in the costliness of the clothes they wear, but in the healthy condition + of the body to be clothed? Nor again could there be much inducement to + amass wealth, in order to be able to expend it on the members of a common + mess, where the legislator had made it seem far more glorious that a man + should help his fellows by the labour of his body than by costly outlay. + The latter being, as he finely phrased it, the function of wealth, the + former an activity of the soul. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Plut. "Lycurg." 10 (Clough, i. 96). +</pre> + <p> + He went a step further, and set up a strong barrier (even in a society + such as I have described) against the pursuance of money-making by + wrongful means. (2) In the first place, he established a coinage (3) of so + extraordinary a sort, that even a single sum of ten minas (4) could not + come into a house without attracting the notice, either of the master + himself, or of some member of his household. In fact, it would occupy a + considerable space, and need a waggon to carry it. Gold and silver + themselves, moreover, are liable to search, (5) and in case of detection, + the possessor subjected to a penalty. In fact, to repeat the question + asked above, for what reason should money-making become an earnest pursuit + in a community where the possession of wealth entails more pain than its + employment brings satisfaction? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Or, "against illegitimate commerce." + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 9 (Clough, i. 94). + + (4) = 40 pounds, circa. + + (5) See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 37. +</pre> + <p> + VIII + </p> + <p> + But to proceed. We are all aware that there is no state (1) in the world + in which greater obedience is shown to magistrates, and to the laws + themselves, than Sparta. But, for my part, I am disposed to think that + Lycurgus could never have attempted to establish this healthy condition, + (2) until he had first secured the unanimity of the most powerful members + of the state. I infer this for the following reasons. (3) In other states + the leaders in rank and influence do not even desire to be thought to fear + the magistrates. Such a thing they would regard as in itself a symbol of + servility. In Sparta, on the contrary, the stronger a man is the more + readily does he bow before constituted authority. And indeed, they magnify + themselves on their humility, and on a prompt obedience, running, or at + any rate not crawling with laggard step, at the word of command. Such an + example of eager discipline, they are persuaded, set by themselves, will + not fail to be followed by the rest. And this is precisely what has taken + place. It (4) is reasonable to suppose that it was these same noblest + members of the state who combined (5) to lay the foundation of the + ephorate, after they had come to the conclusion themselves, that of all + the blessings which a state, or an army, or a household, can enjoy, + obedience is the greatest. Since, as they could not but reason, the + greater the power with which men fence about authority, the greater the + fascination it will exercise upon the mind of the citizen, to the + enforcement of obedience. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Grote, "H. G." v. 516; "Mem." III. v. 18. + + (2) Or, reading after L. Dindorf, {eutaxian}, "this world-renowned + orderliness." + + (3) Or, "from these facts." + + (4) Or, "It was only natural that these same..." + + (5) Or, "helped." See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11, 3; ii. 9, 1 (Jowett, ii. + 224); Plut. "Lycurg." 7, 29; Herod. i. 65; Muller, "Dorians," iii. + 7, 5 (vol. ii. p. 125, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + Accordingly the ephors are competent to punish whomsoever they choose; + they have power to exact fines on the spur of the moment; they have power + to depose magistrates in mid career (6)—nay, actually to imprison + them and bring them to trial on the capital charge. Entrusted with these + vast powers, they do not, as do the rest of states, allow the magistrates + elected to exercise authority as they like, right through the year of + office; but, in the style rather of despotic monarchs, or presidents of + the games, at the first symptom of an offence against the law they inflict + chastisement without warning and without hesitation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) Or, "before the expiration of their term of office." See Plut. + "Agis," 18 (Clough, iv. 464); Cic. "de Leg." iii. 7; "de Rep." ii. + 33. +</pre> + <p> + But of all the many beautiful contrivances invented by Lycurgus to kindle + a willing obedience to the laws in the hearts of the citizens, none, to my + mind, was happier or more excellent than his unwillingness to deliver his + code to the people at large, until, attended by the most powerful members + of the state, he had betaken himself to Delphi, (7) and there made inquiry + of the god whether it were better for Sparta, and conducive to her + interests, to obey the laws which he had framed. And not until the divine + answer came: "Better will it be in every way," did he deliver them, laying + it down as a last ordinance that to refuse obedience to a code which had + the sanction of the Pythian god himself (8) was a thing not illegal only, + but profane. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 5, 6, 29 (Clough, i. 89, 122); Polyb. x. 2, 9. + + (8) Or, "a code delivered in Pytho, spoken by the god himself." +</pre> + <p> + IX + </p> + <p> + The following too may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus. I speak of + the consummate skill with which he induced the whole state of Sparta to + regard an honourable death as preferable to an ignoble life. And indeed if + any one will investigate the matter, he will find that by comparison with + those who make it a principle to retreat in face of danger, actually fewer + of these Spartans die in battle, since, to speak truth, salvation, it + would seem, attends on virtue far more frequently than on cowardice—virtue, + which is at once easier and sweeter, richer in resource and stronger of + arm, (1) than her opposite. And that virtue has another familiar attendant—to + wit, glory—needs no showing, since the whole world would fain ally + themselves after some sort in battle with the good. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Homer, "Il." v. 532; Tyrtaeus, 11, 14, {tressanton d' andron + pas' apolol arete}. +</pre> + <p> + Yet the actual means by which he gave currency to these principles is a + point which it were well not to overlook. It is clear that the lawgiver + set himself deliberately to provide all the blessings of heaven for the + good man, and a sorry and ill-starred existence for the coward. + </p> + <p> + In other states the man who shows himself base and cowardly wins to + himself an evil reputation and the nickname of a coward, but that is all. + For the rest he buys and sells in the same market-place as the good man; + he sits beside him at play; he exercises with him in the same gymnasium, + and all as suits his humour. But at Lacedaemon there is not one man who + would not feel ashamed to welcome the coward at the common mess-tabe, or + to try conclusions with such an antagonist in a wrestling bout. Consider + the day's round of his existence. The sides are being picked up in a + football match, (2) but he is left out as the odd man: there is no place + for him. During the choric dance (3) he is driven away into ignominious + quarters. Nay, in the very streets it is he who must step aside for others + to pass, or, being seated, he must rise and make room, even for a younger + man. At home he will have his maiden relatives to support in isolation + (and they will hold him to blame for their unwedded lives). (4) A hearth + with no wife to bless it—that is a condition he must face, (5) and + yet he will have to pay damages to the last farthing for incurring it. Let + him not roam abroad with a smooth and smiling countenance; (6) let him not + imitate men whose fame is irreproachable, or he shall feel on his back the + blows of his superiors. Such being the weight of infamy which is laid upon + all cowards, I, for my part, am not surprised if in Sparta they deem death + preferable to a life so steeped in dishonour and reproach. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) See Lucian, "Anacharsis," 38; Muller, "Dorians," (vol. ii. 309, + Eng. tr.) + + (3) The {khoroi}, e.g. of the Gymnopaedia. See Muller, op. cit. iv. 6, + 4 (vol. ii. 334, Eng. tr.) + + (4) {tes anandrias}, cf. Plut. "Ages." 30; or, {tes anandreias}, "they + must bear the reproach of his cowardice." + + (5) Omitting {ou}, or translate, "that is an evil not to be + disregarded." See Dindorf, ad loc.; Sturz, "Lex. Xen." {Estia}. + + (6) See Plut. "Ages." 30 (Clough, iv. 36); "Hell." VI. iv. 16. +</pre> + <p> + X + </p> + <p> + That too was a happy enactment, in my opinion, by which Lycurgus provided + for the continual cultivation of virtue, even to old age. By fixing (1) + the election to the council of elders (2) as a last ordeal at the goal of + life, he made it impossible for a high standard of virtuous living to be + disregarded even in old age. (So, too, it is worthy of admiration in him + that he lent his helping hand to virtuous old age. (3) Thus, by making the + elders sole arbiters in the trial for life, he contrived to charge old age + with a greater weight of honour than that which is accorded to the + strength of mature manhood.) And assuredly such a contest as this must + appeal to the zeal of mortal man beyond all others in a supreme degree. + Fair, doubtless, are contests of gymnastic skill, yet are they but trials + of bodily excellence, but this contest for the seniority is of a higher + sort—it is an ordeal of the soul itself. In proportion, therefore, + as the soul is worthier than the body, so must these contests of the soul + appeal to a stronger enthusiasm than their bodily antitypes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Reading {protheis}. See Plut. "Lycurg." 26 (Clough. i. 118); + Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 25. + + (2) Or, "seniory," or "senate," or "board of elders"; lit. "the + Gerontia." + + (3) Or, "the old age of the good. Yet this he did when he made... + since he contrived," etc. +</pre> + <p> + And yet another point may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus largely. + It had not escaped his observation that communities exist where those who + are willing to make virtue their study and delight fail somehow in ability + to add to the glory of their fatherland. (4) That lesson the legislator + laid to heart, and in Sparta he enforced, as a matter of public duty, the + practice of virtue by every citizen. And so it is that, just as man + differs from man in some excellence, according as he cultivates or + neglects to cultivate it, this city of Sparta, with good reason, outshines + all other states in virtue; since she, and she alone, as made the + attainment of a high standard of noble living a public duty. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Is this an autobiographical touch? +</pre> + <p> + And was this not a noble enactment, that whereas other states are content + to inflict punishment only in cases where a man does wrong against his + neighbour, Lycurgus imposed penalties no less severe on him who openly + neglected to make himself as good as possible? For this, it seems, was his + principle: in the one case, where a man is robbed, or defrauded, or + kidnapped, and made a slave of, the injury of the misdeed, whatever it be, + is personal to the individual so maltreated; but in the other case whole + communities suffer foul treason at the hands of the base man and the + coward. So that it was only reasonable, in my opinion, that he should + visit the heaviest penalty upon these latter. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, he laid upon them, like some irresistible necessity, the + obligation to cultivate the whole virtue of a citizen. Provided they duly + performed the injunctions of the law, the city belonged to them, each and + all, in absolute possession and on an equal footing. Weakness of limb or + want of wealth (5) was no drawback in his eyes. But as for him who, out of + the cowardice of his heart, shrank from the painful performance of the + law's injunction, the finger of the legislator pointed him out as there + and then disqualified to be regarded longer as a member of the brotherhood + of peers. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) But see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 32. + + (6) Grote, "H. G." viii. 81; "Hell." III. iii. 5. +</pre> + <p> + It may be added, that there was no doubt as to the great antiquity of this + code of laws. The point is clear so far, that Lycurgus himself is said to + have lived in the days of the Heraclidae. (7) But being of so long + standing, these laws, even at this day, still are stamped in the eyes of + other men with all the novelty of youth. And the most marvellous thing of + all is that, while everybody is agreed to praise these remarkable + institutions, there is not a single state which cares to imitate them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 1. +</pre> + <p> + XI + </p> + <p> + The above form a common stock of blessings, open to every Spartan to + enjoy, alike in peace and in war. But if any one desires to be informed in + what way the legislator improved upon the ordinary machinery of warfare + and in reference to an army in the field, it is easy to satisfy his + curiosity. + </p> + <p> + In the first instance, the ephors announce by proclamation the limit of + age to which the service applies (1) for cavalry and heavy infantry; and + in the next place, for the various handicraftsmen. So that, even on active + service, the Lacedaemonians are well supplied with all the conveniences + enjoyed by people living as citizens at home. (2) All implements and + instruments whatsoever, which an army may need in common, are ordered to + be in readiness, (3) some on waggons and others on baggage animals. In + this way anything omitted can hardly escape detection. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) I.e. "in the particular case." See "Hell." VI. iv. 17; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 12 (vol. ii. 242 foll., Eng. tr.) + + (2) Or, "the conveniences of civil life at home." + + (3) Reading {parekhein}, or if {paragein}, "to be conveyed." Cf. + Pausan. I. xix. 1. See "Cyrop." VI. ii. 34. +</pre> + <p> + For the actual encounter under arms, the following inventions are + attributed to him. The soldier has a crimson-coloured uniform and a heavy + shield of bronze; his theory being that such an equipment has no sort of + feminine association, and is altogether most warrior-like. (4) It is most + quickly burnished; it is least readily soiled. (5) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Cf. Aristoph. "Acharn." 320, and the note of the scholiast. + + (5) See Ps. Plut. "Moral." 238 F. +</pre> + <p> + He further permitted those who were above the age of early manhood to wear + their hair long. (6) For so, he conceived, they would appear of larger + stature, more free and indomitable, and of a more terrible aspect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). +</pre> + <p> + So furnished and accoutred, he divided his citizen soldiers into six morai + (7) (or regimental divisions) of cavalry (8) and heavy infantry. Each of + these citizen regiments (political divisions) has one polemarch (9) (or + colonel), four lochagoi (or captains of companies), eight penteconters (or + lieutenants, each in command of half a company), and sixteen enomotarchs + (or commanders of sections). At the word of command any such regimental + division can be formed readily either into enomoties (i.e. single file) or + into threes (i.e. three files abreast), or into sixes (i.e. six files + abreast). (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) The {mora}. Jowett, "Thuc." ii. 320, note to Thuc. v. 68, 3. + + (8) See Plut. "Lycurg." 23 (Clough, i. 115); "Hell." VI. iv. 11; Thuc. + v. 67; Paus. IV. viii. 12. + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66, 71. + + (10) See Thuch. v. 68, and Arnold's note ad loc.; "Hell." VI. iv. 12; + "Anab." II. iv. 26; Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 117. +</pre> + <p> + As to the idea, commonly entertained, that the tactical arrangement of the + Laconian heavy infantry is highly complicated, no conception could be more + opposed to fact. For in the Laconian order the front rank men are all + leaders, (11) so that each file has everything necessary to play its part + efficiently. In fact, this disposition is so easy to understand that no + one who can distinguish one human being from another could fail to follow + it. One set have the privilege of leaders, the other the duty of + followers. The evolutional orders, (12) by which greater depth or + shallowness is given to the battle line, are given by word of mouth by the + enomotarch (or commander of the section), who plays the part of the + herald, and they cannot be mistaken. None of these manouvres presents any + difficulty whatsoever to the understanding. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) See "Anab." IV. iii. 26; "Cyrop." III. iii. 59; VI. iii. 22. + + (12) I.e. "for doubling depth"; e.g. anglice, "form two deep," etc., + when marching to a flank. Grote, "H. G." vii. 108; Thuc. v. 66; + also Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 111, S. 8, note 19; p. 121, + $17, note 41. +</pre> + <p> + But when it comes to their ability to do battle equally well in spite of + some confusion which has been set up, and whatever the chapter of + accidents may confront them with, (13) I admit that the tactics here are + not so easy to understand, except for people trained under the laws of + Lycurgus. Even movements which an instructor in heavy-armed warfare (14) + might look upon as difficult are performed by the Lacedaemonians with the + utmost ease. (15) Thus, the troops, we will suppose, are marching in + column; one section of a company is of course stepping up behind another + from the rear. (16) Now, if at such a moment a hostile force appears in + front in battle order, the word is passed down to the commander of each + section, "Deploy (into line) to the left." And so throughout the whole + length of the column, until the line is formed facing the enemy. Or + supposing while in this position an enemy appears in the rear. Each file + performs a counter-march (17) with the effect of bringing the best men + face to face with the enemy all along the line. (18) As to the point that + the leader previously on the right finds himself now on the left, (19) + they do not consider that they are necessarily losers thereby, but, as it + may turn out, even gainers. If, for instance, the enemy attempted to turn + their flank, he would find himself wrapping round, not their exposed, but + their shielded flank. (20) Or if, for any reason, it be thought advisable + for the general to keep the right wing, they turn the corps about, (21) + and counter-march by ranks, until the leader is on the right, and the rear + rank on the left. Or again, supposing a division of the enemy appears on + the right whilst they are marching in column, they have nothing further to + do but to wheel each company to the right, like a trireme, prow forwards, + (22) to meet the enemy, and thus the rear company again finds itself on + the right. If, however, the enemy should attack on the left, either they + will not allow of that and push him aside, (23) or else they wheel their + companies to the left to face the antagonist, and thus the rear company + once more falls into position on the left. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) Or, "alongside of any comrade who may have fallen in their way." + See Plut. "Pelop." 23 (Clough, ii. 222); Thuc. v. 72. + + (14) Or, "drill sergeant." + + (15) See Jebb, note to "Theophr." viii. 3. + + (16) Or, "marching in rear of another." + + (17) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (18) Or, "every time." + + (19) See Thuc. v. 67, 71. + + (20) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (21) For these movements, see "Dict. of Antiq." "Exercitus"; Grote, + "H. G." vii. 111. + + (22) See "Hell." VII. v. 23. + + (23) I am indebted to Professor Jebb for the following suggestions + with regard to this passage: "The words {oude touto eosin, all + apothousin e}, etc., contain some corruption. The sense ought + clearly to be roughly parallel with that of the phrase used a + little before, {ouden allo pragmateuontai e}, etc. Perhaps + {apothousin} is a corruption of {apothen ousin}, and this + corruption occasioned the insertion of {e}. Probably Xenophon + wrote {oude touto eosin, all apothen ousin antipalous}, etc.: + 'while the enemy is still some way off, they turn their companies + so as to face him.' The words {apothen ousin} indirectly suggest + the celerity of the Spartan movement." +</pre> + <p> + XII + </p> + <p> + I will now speak of the mode of encampment sanctioned by the regulation of + Lycurgus. To avoid the waste incidental to the angles of a square, (1) the + encampment, according to him, should be circular, except where there was + the security of a hill, (2) or fortification, or where they had a river in + their rear. He had sentinels posted during the day along the place of arms + and facing inwards; (3) since they are appointed not so much for the sake + of the enemy as to keep an eye on friends. The enemy is sufficiently + watched by mounted troopers perched on various points commanding the + widest prospect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "Regarding the angles of a square as a useless inconvenience, + he arranged that an encampment should be circular," etc. See + Polyb. vi. 31, 42. + + (2) Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 14; Polyaen. II. iii. 11, ap. Schneider. + + (3) Lit. "these," {tas men}. Or, "He had lines of sentinels posted + throughout the day; one line facing inwards towards the place of + arms (and these were appointed, etc.); while observation of the + enemy was secured by mounted troopers," etc. +</pre> + <p> + To guard against hostile approach by night, sentinel duty according to the + ordinance was performed by the Sciritae (4) outside the main body. At the + present time the rule is so far modified that the duty is entrusted to + foreigners, (5) if there be a foreign contingent present, with a leaven of + Spartans themselves to keep them company. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Muller's "Dorians," ii. 253; "Hell." VI. v. 24; "Cyrop." IV. + ii. 1; Thuc. v. 67, 71; Grote, "H. G." vii. 110. + + (5) See "Hipparch." ix. 4. + + (6) Reading {auton de}. The passage is probably corrupt. See L. + Dindorf ad loc. +</pre> + <p> + The custom of always taking their spears (7) with them when they go their + rounds must certainly be attributed to the same cause which makes them + exclude their slaves from the place of arms. Nor need we be surprised if, + when retiring for necessary purposes, they only withdraw just far enough + from one another, or from the place of arms itself, not to create + annoyance. The need of precaution is the whole explanation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See Critias, ap. Schneider ad loc. +</pre> + <p> + The frequency with which they change their encampments is another point. + It is done quite as much for the sake of benefiting their friends as of + annoying their enemies. + </p> + <p> + Further, the law enjoins upon all Lacedaemonians, during the whole period + of an expedition, the constant practice of gymnastic (8) exercises, + whereby their pride (9) in themselves is increased, and they appear freer + and of a more liberal aspect than the rest of the world. (10) The walk and + the running ground must not exceed in length (11) the space covered by a + regimental division, (12) so that no one may find himself far from his own + stand of arms. After the gymnastic exercises the senior polemarch gives + the order (by herald) to be seated. This serves all the purposes of an + inspection. After this the order is given "to get breakfast," and for "the + outposts (13) to be relieved." After this, again, come pastimes and + relaxations before the evening exercises, after which the herald's cry is + heard "to take the evening meal." When they have sung a hymn to the gods + to whom the offerings of happy omen had been performed, the final order, + "Retire to rest at the place of arms," (14) is given. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Cf. Herod. vii. 208; Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 113 foll.) + + (9) Reading {megalophronesterous} (L. Dindorf's emendation) for the + vulg. {megaloprepesterous}. Xen "Opusc. polit." Ox. MDCCCLVI. + + (10) Or, "the proud self-consciousness of their own splendour is + increased, and by comparison with others they bear more notably + the impress of freemen." + + (11) The word {masso} is "poetical" (old Attic?). See "Cyrop." II. iv. + 27, and L. Dindorf ad loc. + + (12) A single mora, or an army corps. + + (13) Or, "vedettes," {proskopon}. See "Cyrop." V. ii. 6. + + (14)? Or, "on your arms." See Sturz, "Lex. Xen." s.v. +</pre> + <p> + If the story is a little long the reader must not be surprised, since it + would be difficult to find any point in military matters omitted by the + Lacedaemonians which seems to demand attention. + </p> + <p> + XIII + </p> + <p> + I will now give a detailed account of the power and privilege assigned by + Lycurgus to the king during a campaign. To begin with, so long as he is on + active service, the state maintains the king and those with him. (1) The + polemarchs mess with him and share his quarters, so that by dint of + constant intercourse they may be all the better able to consult in common + in case of need. Besides the polemarch three other members of the peers + (2) share the royal quarters, mess, etc. The duty of these is to attend to + all matters of commisariat, (3) in order that the king and the rest may + have unbroken leisure to attend to affairs of actual warfare. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) I.e. "the Thirty." See "Ages." i. 7; "Hell." III. iv. 2; Plut. + "Ages." 6 (Clough, iv. 6); Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 29. + + (2) For these {oi omoioi}, see "Cyrop." I. v. 5; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + + (3) Lit. "supplies and necessaries." +</pre> + <p> + But I will resume at a somewhat higher point and describe the manner in + which the king sets out on an expedition. As a preliminary step, before + leaving home he offers sacrifice (in company with (4) his staff) to Zeus + Agetor (the Leader), and if the victims prove favourable then and there + the priest, (5) who bears the sacred fire, takes thereof from off the + altar and leads the way to the boundaries of the land. Here for the second + time the king does sacrifice (6) to Zeus and Athena; and as soon as the + offerings are accepted by those two divinities he steps across the + boundaries of the land. And all the while the fire from those sacrifices + leads the way, and is never suffered to go out. Behind follow beasts for + sacrifice of every sort. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Lit. reading {kai oi sun auto}, after L. Dindorf, "he and those + with him." + + (5) Lit. "the Purphuros." See Nic. Damasc. ap. Stob. "Fl." 44, 41; + Hesych. ap. Schneider, n. ad loc. + + (6) These are the {diabateria}, so often mentioned in the "Hellenica." +</pre> + <p> + Invariably when he offers sacrifice the king begins the work in the + gloaming ere the day has broken, being minded to anticipate the goodwill + of the god. And round about the place of sacrifice are present the + polemarchs and captains, the lieutenants and sub-lieutenants, with the + commandants of the baggage train, and any general of the states (7) who + may care to assist. There, too, are to be seen two of the ephors, who + neither meddle nor make, save only at the summons of the king, yet have + they their eyes fixed on the proceedings of each one there and keep all in + order, (8) as may well be guessed. When the sacrifices are accomplished + the king summons all and issues his orders (9) as to what has to be done. + And all with such method that, to witness the proceedings, you might + fairly suppose the rest of the world to be but bungling experimenters, + (10) and the Lacedaemonians alone true handicraftsmen in the art of + soldiering. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) I.e. "allied"? or "perioecid"? + + (8) {sophronizousin}, "keep every one in his sober senses." + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66. + + (10) {autoskhediastai, tekhnitai}. See Jebb, "Theophr." x. 3. +</pre> + <p> + Anon the king puts himself at the head of the troops, and if no enemy + appears he heads the line of march, no one preceding him except the + Sciritae, and the mounted troopers exploring in front. (11) If, however, + there is any reason to anticipate a battle, the king takes the leading + column of the first army corps (12) and wheels to the right until he has + got into position with two army corps and two generals of division on + either flank. The disposition of the supports is assigned to the eldest of + the royal council (13) (or staff corps) acting as brigadier—the + staff consisting of all peers who share the royal mess and quarters, with + the soothsayers, surgeons, (14) and pipers, whose place is in the front of + the troops, (15) with, finally, any volunteers who happen to be present. + So that there is no check or hesitation in anything to be done; every + contingency is provided for. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Or, "who are on scouting duty. If, however, they expect a + battle," etc. + + (12) Technically, "mora." + + (13) {ton peri damosian}. See "Hell." IV. v. 8; vii. 4. + + (14) See "Anab." III. iv. 30; "Cyrop." I. vi. 15; L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. + + (15) Schneider refers to Polyaenus, i. 10. +</pre> + <p> + The following details also seem to me of high utility among the inventions + of Lycurgus with a view to the final arbitrament of battle. Whensoever, + the enemy being now close enough to watch the proceedings, (16) the goat + is sacrificed; then, says the law, let all the pipers, in their places, + play upon the pipes, and let every Lacedaemonian don a wreath. Then, too, + so runs the order, let the shields be brightly polished. The privilege is + accorded to the young man to enter battle with his long locks combed. (17) + To be of cheery countenance—that, too, is of good repute. Onwards + they pass the word of command to the subaltern (18) in command of his + section, since it is impossible to hear along the whole of each section + from the particular subaltern posted on the outside. It devolves, finally, + on the polemarch to see that all goes well. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114); and for the goat + sacrificed to Artemis Agrotera, see "Hell." IV. ii. 20; Pause. IX. + xiii. 4; Plut. "Marcell." 22 (Clough, ii. 264). + + (17) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). The passage is corrupt, + and possibly out of its place. I cite the words as they run in the + MSS. with various proposed emendations. See Schneider, n. ad loc. + {exesti de to neo kai kekrimeno eis makhen sunienai kai phaidron + einai kai eudokimon. kai parakeleuontai de k.t.l.} Zeune, + {kekrimeno komen}, after Plut. "Lycurg." 22. Weiske, {kai komen + diakekrimeno}. Cobet, {exesti de to neo liparo kai tas komas + diakekrimeno eis makhen ienai}. + + (18) Lit. "to the enomotarch." +</pre> + <p> + When the right moment for encamping has come, the king is responsible for + that, and has to point out the proper place. The despatch of emissaries, + however, whether to friends or to foes, is (not) (19) the king's affair. + Petitioners in general wishing to transact anything treat, in the first + instance, with the king. If the case concerns some point of justice, the + king despatches the petitioner to the Hellanodikai (who form the + court-martial); if of money, to the paymasters. (20) If the petitioner + brings booty, he is sent off to the Laphuropolai (or sellers of spoil). + This being the mode of procedure, no other duty is left to the king, + whilst he is on active service, except to play the part of priest in + matters concerning the gods and of commander-in-chief in his relationship + to men. (21) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) The MSS. give {au}, "is again," but the word {mentoi}, "however," + and certain passages in "Hell." II. ii. 12, 13; II. iv. 38 suggest + the negative {ou} in place of {au}. If {au} be right, then we + should read {ephoren} in place of {basileos}, "belongs to the + ephors." + + (20) Technically the {tamiai}. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." iii. 14. +</pre> + <p> + XIV (1) + </p> + <p> + Now, if the question be put to me, Do you maintain that the laws of + Lycurgus remain still to this day unchanged? that indeed is an assertion + which I should no longer venture to maintain; knowing, as I do, that in + former times the Lacedaemonians preferred to live at home on moderate + means, content to associate exclusively with themselves rather than to + play the part of governor-general (2) in foreign states and to be + corrupted by flattery; knowing further, as I do, that formerly they + dreaded to be detected in the possession of gold, whereas nowadays there + are not a few who make it their glory and their boast to be possessed of + it. I am very well aware that in former days alien acts (3) were put in + force for this very object. To live abroad was not allowed. And why? + Simply in order that the citizens of Sparta might not take the infection + of dishonesty and light-living from foreigners; whereas now I am very well + aware that those who are reputed to be leading citizens have but one + ambition, and that is to live to the end of their days as + governors-general on a foreign soil. (4) The days were when their sole + anxiety was to fit themselves to lead the rest of Hellas. But nowadays + they concern themselves much more to wield command than to be fit + themselves to rule. And so it has come to pass that whereas in old days + the states of Hellas flocked to Lacedaemon seeking her leadership (5) + against the supposed wrongdoer, now numbers are inviting one another to + prevent the Lacedaemonians again recovering their empire. (6) Yet, if they + have incurred all these reproaches, we need not wonder, seeing that they + are so plainly disobedient to the god himself and to the laws of their own + lawgiver Lycurgus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) For the relation of this chapter to the rest of the treatise, see + Grote, ix. 325; Ern. Naumann, "de Xen. libro qui" {LAK. POLITEIA} + inscribitur, p. 18 foll.; Newmann, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 326. + + (2) Harmosts. + + (3) "Xenelasies," {xenelasiai} technically called. See Plut. "Lycurg." + 27; "Agis," 10; Thuc. ii. 39, where Pericles contrasts the liberal + spirit of the democracy with Spartan exclusiveness; "Our city is + thrown open to the world, and we never expel a foreigner or + prevent him from seeing or learning anything of which the secret, + if revealed to an enemy, might profit him."—Jowett, i. 118. + + (4) Lit. "harmosts"; and for the taste of living abroad, see what is + said of Dercylidas, "Hell." IV. iii. 2. The harmosts were not + removed till just before Leuctra (371 B.C.), "Hell." VI. iv. 1, + and after, see Paus. VIII. lii. 4; IX. lxiv. + + (5) See Plut. "Lycurg." 30 (Clough, i. 124). + + (6) This passage would seem to fix the date of the chapter xiv. as + about the time of the Athenian confederacy of 378 B.C.; "Hell." V. + iv. 34; "Rev." v. 6. See also Isocr. "Panegyr." 380 B.C.; Grote, + "H. G." ix. 325. See the text of a treaty between Athens, Chios, + Mytilene, and Byzantium; Kohler, "Herm." v. 10; Rangabe, "Antiq. + Hellen." ii. 40, 373; Naumann, op. cit. 26. +</pre> + <p> + XV + </p> + <p> + I wish to explain with sufficient detail the nature of the covenant + between king and state as instituted by Lycurgus; for this, I take it, is + the sole type of rule (1) which still preserves the original form in which + it was first established; whereas other constitutions will be found either + to have been already modified or else to be still undergoing modifications + at this moment. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "magistracy"; the word {arkhe} at once signifies rule and + governmental office. +</pre> + <p> + Lycurgus laid it down as law that the king shall offer in behalf of the + state all public sacrifices, as being himself of divine descent, (2) and + whithersoever the state shall despatch her armies the king shall take the + lead. He granted him to receive honorary gifts of the things offered in + sacrifice, and he appointed him choice land in many of the provincial + cities, enough to satisfy moderate needs without excess of wealth. And in + order that the kings also might camp and mess in public he appointed them + public quarters; and he honoured them with a double portion (3) each at + the evening meal, not in order that they might actually eat twice as much + as others, but that the king might have wherewithal to honour whomsoever + he desired. He also granted as a gift to each of the two kings to choose + two mess-fellows, which same are called Puthioi. He also granted them to + receive out of every litter of swine one pig, so that the king might never + be at a loss for victims if in aught he wished to consult the gods. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) I.e. a Heracleid, in whichever line descended, and, through + Heracles, from Zeus himself. The kings are therefore "heroes," + i.e. demigods. See below; and for their privileges, see Herod. vi. + 56, 57. + + (3) See "Ages." v. 1. +</pre> + <p> + Close by the palace a lake affords an unrestricted supply of water; and + how useful that is for various purposes they best can tell who lack the + luxury. (4) Moreover, all rise from their seats to give place to the king, + save only that the ephors rise not from their thrones of office. Monthly + they exchange oaths, the ephors in behalf of the state, the king himself + in his own behalf. And this is the oath on the king's part: "I will + exercise my kingship in accordance with the established laws of the + state." And on the part of the state the oath runs: "So long as he (5) + (who exercises kingship) shall abide by his oaths we will not suffer his + kingdom to be shaken." (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Hartman, "An. Xen. N." p. 274; but cf. "Cyneget." v. 34; + "Anab." V. iii. 8. + + (5) Lit. "he yonder." + + (6) Lit. "we will keep it for him unshaken." See L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. and praef. p. 14 D. +</pre> + <p> + These then are the honours bestowed upon the king during his lifetime (at + home) (7)—honours by no means much exceeding those of private + citizens, since the lawgiver was minded neither to suggest to the kings + the pride of the despotic monarch, (8) nor, on the other hand, to engender + in the heart of the citizen envy of their power. As to those other honours + which are given to the king at his death, (9) the laws of Lycurgus would + seem plainly to signify hereby that these kings of Lacedaemon are not mere + mortals but heroic beings, and that is why they are preferred in honour. + (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) The words "at home" look like an insertion. + + (8) Lit. "the tyrant's pride." + + (9) See "Hell." III. iii. 1; "Ages." xi. 16; Herod. vi. 58. + + (10) Intentionally or not on the part of the writer, the concluding + words, in which the intention of the Laws is conveyed, assume a + metrical form: + + {oukh os anthropous all os eroas tous + Lakedaimonion basileis protetimekasin.} + + See Ern. Naumann, op. cit. p. 18. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1178 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians + +Author: Xenophon + +Translator: H. G. Dakyns + +Release Date: August 26, 2008 [EBook #1178] +Last Updated: January 15, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS AND THE LACEDAEMONIANS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Xenophon + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + Translation by H. G. Dakyns + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + </pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + </pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + </pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Contents + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS + </h2> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + Now, as concerning the Polity of the Athenians, (1) and the type or manner + of constitution which they have chosen, (2) I praise it not, in so far as + the very choice involves the welfare of the baser folk as opposed to that + of the better class. I repeat, I withhold my praise so far; but, given the + fact that this is the type agreed upon, I propose to show that they set + about its preservation in the right way; and that those other transactions + in connection with it, which are looked upon as blunders by the rest of + the Hellenic world, are the reverse. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 47 foll.; Thuc. i. 76, 77; viii. 48; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." passim; Hartman, "An. Xen. N." cap. viii.; + Roquette, "Xen. Vit." S. 26; Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 538; and + "Xenophontis qui fertur libellus de Republica Atheniensium," ed. + A. Kirchhoff (MDCCCLXXIV), whose text I have chiefly followed. + + (2) Lit. "I do not praise their choice of the (particular) type, in so + far as..." +</pre> + <p> + In the first place, I maintain, it is only just that the poorer classes + (3) and the People of Athens should be better off than the men of birth + and wealth, seeing that it is the people who man the fleet, (4) and put + round the city her girdle of power. The steersman, (5) the boatswain, the + lieutenant, (6) the look-out-man at the prow, the shipright—these + are the people who engird the city with power far rather than her heavy + infantry (7) and men of birth of quality. This being the case, it seems + only just that offices of state should be thrown open to every one both in + the ballot (8) and the show of hands, and that the right of speech should + belong to any one who likes, without restriction. For, observe, (9) there + are many of these offices which, according as they are in good or in bad + hands, are a source of safety or of danger to the People, and in these the + People prudently abstains from sharing; as, for instance, it does not + think it incumbent on itself to share in the functions of the general or + of the commander of cavalry. (10) The sovereign People recognises the fact + that in forgoing the personal exercise of these offices, and leaving them + to the control of the more powerful (11) citizens, it secures the balance + of advantage to itself. It is only those departments of government which + bring emolument (12) and assist the private estate that the People cares + to keep in its own hands. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 58 foll. + + (4) Lit. "ply the oar and propel the galleys." + + (5) See "Econ." viii. 14; Pollux, i. 96; Arist. "Knights," 543 foll.; + Plat. "Laws," v. 707 A; Jowett, "Plat." v. 278 foll.; Boeckh, "P. + E. A." bk. ii. ch. xxi. + + (6) Lit. "pentecontarch;" see Dem. "In Pol." 1212. + + (7) Aristot. "Pol." vi. 7; Jowett, "The Politics of Aristotle," vol. + i. p. 109. + + (8) {klerotoi}, {airetoi}. + + (9) Reading with Kirchhoff, {epeo tou}, or if {epeita}, "in the next + place." + + (10) Hipparch. + + (11) Cf. "Hipparch." i. 9; "Econ." ii. 8. + + (12) E.g. the {dikasteria}. +</pre> + <p> + In the next place, in regard to what some people are puzzled to explain—the + fact that everywhere greater consideration is shown to the base, to poor + people and to common folk, than to persons of good quality—so far + from being a matter of surprise, this, as can be shown, is the keystone of + the preservation of the democracy. It is these poor people, this common + folk, this riff-raff, (13) whose prosperity, combined with the growth of + their numbers, enhances the democracy. Whereas, a shifting of fortune to + the advantage of the wealthy and the better classes implies the + establishment on the part of the commonalty of a strong power in + opposition to itself. In fact, all the world over, the cream of society is + in opposition to the democracy. Naturally, since the smallest amount of + intemperance and injustice, together with the highest scrupulousness in + the pursuit of excellence, is to be found in the ranks of the better + class, while within the ranks of the People will be found the greatest + amount of ignorance, disorderliness, rascality—poverty acting as a + stronger incentive to base conduct, not to speak of lack of education and + ignorance, traceable to the lack of means which afflicts the average of + mankind. (14) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) Or, "these inferiors," "these good-for-nothings." + + (14) Or, "some of these folk." The passage is corrupt. +</pre> + <p> + The objection may be raised that it was a mistake to allow the universal + right of speech (15) and a seat in council. These should have been + reserved for the cleverest, the flower of the community. But here, again, + it will be found that they are acting with wise deliberation in granting + to (16) even the baser sort the right of speech, for supposing only the + better people might speak, or sit in council, blessings would fall to the + lot of those like themselves, but to the commonalty the reverse of + blessings. Whereas now, any one who likes, any base fellow, may get up and + discover something to the advantage of himself and his equals. It may be + retorted: "And what sort of advantage either for himself or for the People + can such a fellow be expected to hit upon?" The answer to which is, that + in their judgment the ignorance and baseness of this fellow, together with + his goodwill, are worth a great deal more to them than your superior + person's virtue and wisdom, coupled with animosity. What it comes to, + therefore, is that a state founded upon such institutions will not be the + best state; (17) but, given a democracy, these are the right means to + procure its preservation. The People, it must be borne in mind, does not + demand that the city should be well governed and itself a slave. It + desires to be free and to be master. (18) As to bad legislation it does + not concern itself about that. (19) In fact, what you believe to be bad + legislation is the very source of the People's strength and freedom. But + if you seek for good legislation, in the first place you will see the + cleverest members of the community laying down the laws for the rest. And + in the next place, the better class will curb and chastise the lower + orders; the better class will deliberate in behalf of the state, and not + suffer crack-brained fellows to sit in council, or to speak or vote in + Parliament. (20) No doubt; but under the weight of such blessings the + People will in a very short time be reduced to slavery. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) Lit. "everybody to speak in turn." + + (16) Or, "it is a counsel of perfection on their part to grant to," + etc. + + (17) Or, "the ideal state." + + (18) Or, "and to govern and hold office." + + (19) Or, "it will take the risk of that." + + (20) See Grote, "H. G." v. p. 510 note. +</pre> + <p> + Another point is the extraordinary amount of license (21) granted to + slaves and resident aliens at Athens, where a blow is illegal, and a slave + will not step aside to let you pass him in the street. I will explain the + reason of this peculiar custom. Supposing it were legal for a slave to be + beaten by a free citizen, or for a resident alien or freedman to be beaten + by a citizen, it would frequently happen that an Athenian might be + mistaken for a slave or an alien and receive a beating; since the Athenian + People is no better clothed than the slave or alien, nor in personal + appearance is there any superiority. Or if the fact itself that slaves in + Athens are allowed to indulge in luxury, and indeed in some cases to live + magnificently, be found astonishing, this too, it can be shown, is done of + set purpose. Where you have a naval power (22) dependent upon wealth (23) + we must perforce be slaves to our slaves, in order that we may get in our + slave-rents, (24) and let the real slave go free. Where you have wealthy + slaves it ceases to be advantageous that my slave should stand in awe of + you. In Lacedaemon my slave stands in awe of you. (25) But if your slave + is in awe of me there will be a risk of his giving away his own moneys to + avoid running a risk in his own person. It is for this reason then that we + have established an equality between our slaves and free men; and again + between our resident aliens and full citizens, (26) because the city + stands in need of her resident aliens to meet the requirements of such a + multiplicity of arts and for the purposes of her navy. That is, I repeat, + the justification for the equality conferred upon our resident aliens. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11 and vi. 4; Jowett, op. cit. vol. i. pp. + 179, 196; Welldon, "The Politics of Aristotle," pp. 394 323; Dem. + "Phil." III. iii. 10; Plaut. "Stich." III. i. 37. + + (22) See Diod. xi. 43. + + (23) Reading, {apo khrematon, anagke}, or (reading, {apo khrematon + anagke}) "considerations of money force us to be slaves." + + (24) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xiii. (Eng. trans. p. 72). "The rights + of property with regard to slaves in no way differed from any + other chattel; they could be given or taken as pledges. They + laboured either on their master's account or their own, in + consideration of a certain sum to be paid to the master, or they + were let out on hire either for the mines or any other kind of + labour, and even for other persons' workshops, or as hired + servants for wages ({apophora}): a similar payment was also + exacted by the masters for their slaves serving in the fleet." Ib. + "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurion," p. 659 (Eng. + trans.) + + (25) See "Pol. Lac." vi. 3. + + (26) Or, "we have given to our slaves the right to talk like equals + with free men, just as to resident aliens the right of so talking + with citizens." See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xiv. 4, note, p. 221. + See Demosth. "against Midias," 529, where the law is cited. "If + any one commit a personal outrage upon man, woman, or child, + whether free-born or slave, or commit any illegal act against any + such person, let any Athenian that chooses" (not being under + disability) "indict him before the judges," etc; and the orator + exclaims: "You know, O Athenians, the humanity of the law, which + allows not even slaves to be insulted in their persons."—C. R. + Kennedy. +</pre> + <p> + Citizens devoting their time to gymnastics and to the cultivation of music + are not to be found in Athens; (27) the sovereign People has + disestablished them, (28) not from any disbelief in the beauty and honour + of such training, but recognising the fact that these are things the + cultivation of which is beyond its power. On the same principle, in the + case of the coregia, (29) the gymnasiarchy, and the trierarchy, the fact + is recognised that it is the rich man who trains the chorus, and the + People for whom the chorus is trained; it is the rich man who is trierarch + or gymnasiarch, and the People that profits by their labours. (30) In + fact, what the People looks upon as its right is to pocket the money. (31) + To sing and run and dance and man the vessels is well enough, but only in + order that the People may be the gainer, while the rich are made poorer. + And so in the courts of justice, (32) justice is not more an object of + concern to the jurymen than what touches personal advantage. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (27) For {mousike} and {gumnastike}, see Becker's "Charicles," Exc. + "Education." + + (28) See "Revenues," iv. 52; Arist. "Frogs," 1069, {e xekenosen tas te + palaistras}, "and the places of exercise vacant and bare."—Frere. + + (29) "The duties of the choregia consisted in finding maintenance and + instruction for the chorus" (in tragedy, usually of fifteen + persons) "as long as they were in training; and in providing the + dresses and equipments for the performance."—Jebb, "Theophr. + Char." xxv. 3. For those of the gymnasiarchy, see "Dict. of + Antiq." "Gymnasium." For that of the trierarchy, see Jebb, op. + cit. xxv. 9; xxix. 16; Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. xi. + + (30) See "Econ." ii. 6; Thuc. vi. 31. + + (31) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. xvi. p. 241. + + (32) For the system of judicature, the {dikasteria}, and the boards of + jurymen or judges, see Aristot. "Constitution of Athens," ch. + lxiii.; "Dict. of Antiq." s.v. +</pre> + <p> + To speak next of the allies, and in reference to the point that emissaries + (33) from Athens come out, and, according to common opinion, calumniate + and vent their hatred (34) upon the better sort of people, this is done + (35) on the principle that the ruler cannot help being hated by those whom + he rules; but that if wealth and respectability are to wield power in the + subject cities the empire of the Athenian People has but a short lease of + existence. This explains why the better people are punished with infamy, + (36) robbed of their money, driven from their homes, and put to death, + while the baser sort are promoted to honour. On the other hand, the better + Athenians throw their aegis over the better class in the allied cities. + (37) And why? Because they recognise that it is to the interest of their + own class at all times to protect the best element in the cities. It may + be urged (38) that if it comes to strength and power the real strength of + Athens lies in the capacity of her allies to contribute their money quota. + But to the democratic mind (39) it appears a higher advantage still for + the individual Athenian to get hold of the wealth of the allies, leaving + them only enough to live upon and to cultivate their estates, but + powerless to harbour treacherous designs. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (33) For {oi ekpleontes}, see Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 41. + + (34) Reading {misousi}; or, if with Kirchhoff, {meiousi}, "in every + way humiliate." + + (35) Or, "(they do so) as recognising the fact." + + (36) {atimia} = the loss of civil rights, either total or partial. See + C. R. Kennedy, "Select Speeches of Demosthenes," Note 13, + Disenfranchisement. + + (37) See Thuc. viii. 48. + + (38) See Grote, "H. G." vi. 53. + + (39) Or, "to a thorough democrat." +</pre> + <p> + Again, (40) it is looked upon as a mistaken policy on the part of the + Athenian democracy to compel her allies to voyage to Athens in order to + have their cases tried. (41) On the other hand, it is easy to reckon up + what a number of advantages the Athenian People derive from the practice + impugned. In the first place, there is the steady receipt of salaries + throughout the year (42) derived from the court fees. (43) Next, it + enables them to manage the affairs of the allied states while seated at + home without the expense of naval expeditions. Thirdly, they thus preserve + the partisans of the democracy, and ruin her opponents in the law courts. + Whereas, supposing the several allied states tried their cases at home, + being inspired by hostility to Athens, they would destroy those of their + own citizens whose friendship to the Athenian People was most marked. But + besides all this the democracy derives the following advantages from + hearing the cases of her allies in Athens. In the first place, the one per + cent (44) levied in Piraeus is increased to the profit of the state; + again, the owner of a lodging-house (45) does better, and so, too, the + owner of a pair of beasts, or of slaves to be let out on hire; (46) again, + heralds and criers (47) are a class of people who fare better owing to the + sojourn of foreigners at Athens. Further still, supposing the allies had + not to resort to Athens for the hearing of cases, only the official + representative of the imperial state would be held in honour, such as the + general, or trierarch, or ambassador. Whereas now every single individual + among the allies is forced to pay flattery to the People of Athens because + he knows that he must betake himself to Athens and win or lose (48) his + case at the bar, not of any stray set of judges, but of the sovereign + People itself, such being the law and custom at Athens. He is compelled to + behave as a suppliant (49) in the courts of justice, and when some juryman + comes into court, to grasp his hand. For this reason, therefore, the + allies find themselves more and more in the position of slaves to the + people of Athens. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (40) Grote, "H. G." vi. 61. + + (41) See Isocr. "Panath." 245 D. + + (42) See Arist. "Clouds," 1196; Demosth. "c. Timoc." 730. + + (43) For the "Prytaneia," see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 12, 4. "Ephialtes + and Pericles curtailed the privileges of the Areopagus, Pericles + converted the Courts of Law into salaried bodies, and so each + succeeding demagogue outdid his predecessor in the privileges he + conferred upon the commons, until the present democracy was the + result" (Welldon). "The writer of this passage clearly intended to + class Pericles among the demagogues. He judges him in the same + deprecatory spirit as Plato in the 'Gorgias,' pp. 515, 516."— + Jowett, "Pol. of Aristot." vol. ii. p. 101. But see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. xxv., a portion of the newly- + discovered treatise, which throws light on an obscure period in + the history of Athens; and Mr. Kenyon's note ad loc.; and Mr. + Macan's criticism, "Journal of Hellenic Studies," vol. xii. No. 1. + + (44) For the {ekatoste}, see Thuc. vii. 28, in reference to the year + B.C. 416; Arist. "Wasps," 658; "Frogs," 363. + + (45) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xii. p. 65 (Eng. trans.); I. xxiv. p. + 141. + + (46) See "Revenues," iv. 20, p. 338; Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xxvi. 16. + + (47) For these functionaries, see Jebb, op. cit. xvi. 10. + + (48) Lit. "pay or get justice." + + (49) Se Arist. "Wasps," 548 foll.; Grote, "H. G." v. 520 note; Newman, + op. cit. i. 383. +</pre> + <p> + Furthermore, owing to the possession of property beyond the limits of + Attica, (50) and the exercise of magistracies which take them into regions + beyond the frontier, they and their attendants have insensibly acquired + the art of navigation. (51) A man who is perpetually voyaging is forced to + handle the oar, he and his domestics alike, and to learn the terms + familiar in seamanship. Hence a stock of skilful mariners is produced, + bred upon a wide experience of voyaging and practice. They have learnt + their business, some in piloting a small craft, others a merchant vessel, + whilst others have been drafted off from these for service on a + ship-of-war. So that the majority of them are able to row the moment they + set foot on board a vessel, having been in a state of preliminary practice + all their lives. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (50) See "Mem." II. viii. 1. + + (51) See "Hell." VII. i. 4. +</pre> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + As to the heavy infantry, an arm the deficiency of which at Athens is well + recognised, this is how the matter stands. They recognise the fact that, + in reference to the hostile power, they are themselves inferior, and must + be, even if their heavy infantry were more numerous. (1) But relatively to + the allies, who bring in the tribute, their strength even on land is + enormous. And they are persuaded that their heavy infantry is sufficient + for all purposes, provided they retain this superiority. (2) Apart from + all else, to a certain extent fortune must be held responsible for the + actual condition. The subjects of a power which is dominant by land have + it open to them to form contingents from several small states and to + muster in force for battle. But with the subjects of a naval power it is + different. As far as they are groups of islanders it is impossible for + their states to meet together for united action, for the sea lies between + them, and the dominant power is master of the sea. And even if it were + possible for them to assemble in some single island unobserved, they would + only do so to perish by famine. And as to the states subject to Athens + which are not islanders, but situated on the continent, the larger are + held in check by need (3) and the small ones absolutely by fear, since + there is no state in existence which does not depend upon imports and + exports, and these she will forfeit if she does not lend a willing ear to + those who are masters by sea. In the next place, a power dominant by sea + can do certain things which a land power is debarred from doing; as for + instance, ravage the territory of a superior, since it is always possible + to coast along to some point, where either there is no hostile force to + deal with or merely a small body; and in case of an advance in force on + the part of the enemy they can take to their ships and sail away. Such a + performance is attended with less difficulty than that experienced by the + relieving force on land. (4) Again, it is open to a power so dominating by + sea to leave its own territory and sail off on as long a voyage as you + please. Whereas the land power cannot place more than a few days' journey + between itself and its own territory, for marches are slow affairs; and it + is not possible for an army on the march to have food supplies to last for + any great length of time. Such an army must either march through friendly + territory or it must force a way by victory in battle. The voyager + meanwhile has it in his power to disembark at any point where he finds + himself in superior force, or, at the worst, to coast by until he reaches + either a friendly district or an enemy too weak to resist. Again, those + diseases to which the fruits of the earth are liable as visitations from + heaven fall severely on a land power, but are scarcely felt by the navel + power, for such sicknesses do not visit the whole earth everywhere at + once. So that the ruler of the sea can get in supplies from a thriving + district. And if one may descend to more trifling particulars, it is to + this same lordship of the sea that the Athenians owe the discovery, in the + first place, of many of the luxuries of life through intercourse with + other countries. So that the choice things of Sicily and Italy, of Cyprus + and Egypt and Lydia, of Pontus or Peloponnese, or wheresoever else it be, + are all swept, as it were, into one centre, and all owing, as I say, to + their maritime empire. And again, in process of listening to every form of + speech, (5) they have selected this from one place and that from another—for + themselves. So much so that while the rest of the Hellenes employ (6) each + pretty much their own peculiar mode of speech, habit of life, and style of + dress, the Athenians have adopted a composite type, (7) to which all + sections of Hellas, and the foreigner alike, have contributed. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Reading after Kirchhoff, {ettous ge... kan ei meizon en, ton + dia k.t.l.} See Thuc. i. 143; Isocr. "de Pace," 169 A; Plut. + "Them." 4 (Clough, i. 235). + + (2) Lit. "they are superior to their allies." + + (3) Reading with Kirchhoff, {dia khreian... dia deos}. + + (4) Or, "the army marching along the seaboard to the rescue." + + (5) Or, "a variety of dialects." + + (6) Or, "maintain somewhat more." + + (7) Or, "have contracted a mixed style, bearing traces of Hellenic and + foreign influence alike." See Mahaffy, "Hist. of Greek Lit." vol. + ii. ch. x. p. 257 (1st ed.); cf. Walt Whitman, "Preface to" + original edition of "Leaves of Grass," p. 29—"The English + language befriends the grand American expression: it is brawny + enough and limber and full enough, on the tough stock of a race, + who through all change of circumstances was never without the idea + of a political liberty, which is the animus of all liberty; it has + attracted the terms of daintier and gayer and subtler and more + elegant tongues." +</pre> + <p> + As regards sacrifices and temples and festivals and sacred enclosures, the + People sees that it is not possible for every poor citizen to do sacrifice + and hold festival, or to set up (8) temples and to inhabit a large and + beautiful city. But it has hit upon a means of meeting the difficulty. + They sacrifice—that is, the whole state sacrifices—at the + public cost a large number of victims; but it is the People that keeps + holiday and distributes the victims by lot amongst its members. Rich men + have in some cases private gymnasia and baths with dressing-rooms, (9) but + the People takes care to have built at the public cost (10) a number of + palaestras, dressing-rooms, and bathing establishments for its own special + use, and the mob gets the benefit of the majority of these, rather than + the select few or the well-to-do. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Reading with Kirchhoff, {istasthai}. + + (9) See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." vii. 18, p. 202. + + (10) Reading with Kirchhoff, {demosia}. +</pre> + <p> + As to wealth, the Athenians are exceptionally placed with regard to + Hellenic and foreign communities alike, (11) in their ability to hold it. + For, given that some state or other is rich in timber for shipbuilding, + where is it to find a market (12) for the product except by persuading the + ruler of the sea? Or, suppose the wealth of some state or other to consist + of iron, or may be of bronze, (13) or of linen yarn, where will it find a + market except by permission of the supreme maritime power? Yet these are + the very things, you see, which I need for my ships. Timber I must have + from one, and from another iron, from a third bronze, from a fourth linen + yarn, from a fifth wax, etc. Besides which they will not suffer their + antagonists in those parts (14) to carry these products elsewhither, or + they will cease to use the sea. Accordingly I, without one stroke of + labour, extract from the land and possess all these good things, thanks to + my supremacy on the sea; whilst not a single other state possesses the two + of them. Not timber, for instance, and yarn together, the same city. But + where yarn is abundant, the soil will be light and devoid of timber. And + in the same way bronze and iron will not be products of the same city. And + so for the rest, never two, or at best three, in one state, but one thing + here and another thing there. Moreover, above and beyond what has been + said, the coast-line of every mainland presents, either some jutting + promontory, or adjacent island, or narrow strait of some sort, so that + those who are masters of the sea can come to moorings at one of these + points and wreak vengeance (15) on the inhabitants of the mainland. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Or, "they have a practical monopoly." + + (12) Or, "how is it to dispose of the product?" + + (13) Or, "coppert." + + (14) Reading {ekei}. For this corrupt passage see L. Dindorf, ad. + loc.; also Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. ix. p. 55. Perhaps (as my friend + Mr. J. R. Mozley suggests) the simplest supposition is to suppose + that there is an ellipsis before {e ou khresontai te thalatte}: + thus, "Besides which they will not suffer their antagonists to + transport goods to countries outside Attica; they must yield, or + they shall not have the use of the sea." + + (15) {lobasthai}. This "poetical" word comes to mean "harry," + "pillage," in the common dialect. +</pre> + <p> + There is just one thing which the Athenians lack. Supposing that they were + the inhabitants of an island, (16) and were still, as now, rulers of the + sea, they would have had it in their power to work whatever mischief they + liked, and to suffer no evil in return (as long as they kept command of + the sea), neither the ravaging of their territory nor the expectation of + an enemy's approach. Whereas at present the farming portion of the + community and the wealthy landowners are ready (17) to cringe before the + enemy overmuch, whilst the People, knowing full well that, come what may, + not one stock or stone of their property will suffer, nothing will be cut + down, nothing burnt, lives in freedom from alarm, without fawning at the + enemy's approach. Besides this, there is another fear from which they + would have been exempt in an island home—the apprehension of the + city being at any time betrayed by their oligarchs (18) and the gates + thrown open, and an enemy bursting suddenly in. How could incidents like + these have taken place if an island had been their home? Again, had they + inhabited an island there would have been no stirring of sedition against + the people; whereas at present, in the event of faction, those who set it + in foot base their hopes of success on the introduction of an enemy by + land. But a people inhabiting an island would be free from all anxiety on + that score. Since, however, they did not chance to inhabit an island from + the first, what they now do is this—they deposit their property in + the islands, (19) trusting to their command of the sea, and they suffer + the soil of Aticca to be ravaged without a sigh. To expend pity on that, + they know, would be to deprive themselves of other blessings still more + precious. (20) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) See Thuc. i. 143. Pericles says: "Reflect, if we were islanders, + who would be more invulnerable? Let us imagine that we are." + + (17) Or, "are the more ready to cringe." See, for the word + {uperkhontai}, "Pol. Lac." viii. 2; Plat. "Crit." 53 E; + Rutherford, "New Phrynichus," p. 110. + + (18) Or, "by the minority"; or, "by a handful of people." + + (19) As they did during the Peloponnesian war; and earlier still, + before the battle of Salamis, in the case of that one island. + + (20) Or, "but mean the forfeiture of others." +</pre> + <p> + Further, states oligarchically governed are forced to ratify their + alliances and solemn oaths, and if they fail to abide by their contracts, + the offence, by whomsoever committed, (21) lies nominally at the door of + the oligarchs who entered upon the contract. But in the case of + engagements entered into by a democracy it is open to the People to throw + the blame on the single individual who spoke in favour of some measure, or + put it to the vote, and to maintain to the rest of the world, "I was not + present, nor do I approve of the terms of the agreement." Inquiries are + made in a full meeting of the People, and should any of these things be + disapproved of, it can at once discover ten thousand excuses to avoid + doing whatever they do not wish. And if any mischief should spring out of + any resolutions which the People has passed in council, the People can + readily shift the blame from its own shoulders. "A handful of oligarchs + (22) acting against the interests of the People have ruined us." But if + any good result ensue, they, the People, at once take the credit of that + to themselves. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) Reading {uph otououn adikeitai onomati upo ton oligon}, which I + suggest as a less violent emendation of this corrupt passage than + any I have seen; or, reading with Sauppe, {uph otou adikei + anomeitai apo ton oligon}, "the illegality lies at the door of." + + (22) Or, "a few insignificant fellows." +</pre> + <p> + In the same spirit it is not allowed to caricature on the comic stage (23) + or otherwise libel the People, because (24) they do not care to hear + themselves ill spoken of. But if any one has a desire to satirise his + neighbour he has full leave to do so. And this because they are well aware + that, as a general rule, this person caricatured (25) does not belong to + the People, or the masses. He is more likely to be some wealthy or + well-born person, or man of means and influence. In fact, but few poor + people and of the popular stamp incur the comic lash, or if they do they + have brought it on themselves by excessive love of meddling or some + covetous self-seeking at the expense of the People, so that no particular + annoyance is felt at seeing such folk satirised. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (23) See Grote, "H. G." viii. 446, especially p. 449, "growth and + development of comedy at Athens"; Curtius, "H. G." iii. pp. 242, + 243; Thirlwall, "H. G." ch. xviii. vol. iii. p. 42. + + (24) Or, more lit. "it would not do for the People to hear," etc. + + (25) Or, "the butt of comedy." +</pre> + <p> + What, then, I venture to assert is, that the People of Athens has no + difficulty in recognising which of its citizens are of the better sort and + which the opposite. (26) And so recognising those who are serviceable and + advantageous (27) to itself, even though they be base, the People loves + them; but the good folk they are disposed rather to hate. This virtue of + theirs, the People holds, is not engrained in their nature for any good to + itself, but rather for its injury. In direct opposition to this, there are + some persons who, being (28) born of the People, are yet by natural + instinct not commoners. For my part I pardon the People its own democracy, + as, indeed, it is pardonable in any one to do good to himself. (29) But + the man who, not being himself one of the People, prefers to live in a + state democratically governed rather than in an oligarchical state may be + said to smooth his own path towards iniquity. He knows that a bad man has + a better chance of slipping through the fingers of justice in a democratic + than in an oligarchical state. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (26) Or, "and which are good for nothing." + + (27) Or,"its own friends and supporters." + + (28) Reading {ontes} or (if {gnontes}), "who, recognising the nature + of the People, have no popular leaning." Gutschmidt conj. {enioi + egguoi ontes}, i.e. Pericles. + + (29) On the principle that "the knee is nearer than the shin-bone," + {gonu knemes}, or, as we say, "charity begins at home." +</pre> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + I repeat that my position concerning the polity of the Athenians is this: + the type (1) of polity is not to my taste, but given that a democratic + form of government has been agreed upon, they do seem to me to go the + right way to preserve the democracy by the adoption of the particular type + (2) which I have set forth. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "manner." + + (2) Or, "manner." +</pre> + <p> + But there are other objections brought, as I am aware, against the + Athenians, by certain people, and to this effect. It not seldom happens, + they tell us, that a man is unable to transact a piece of business with + the senate or the People, even if he sit waiting a whole year. Now this + does happen at Athens, and for no other reason save that, owing to the + immense mass of affairs they are unable to work off all the business on + hand, and dismiss the applicants. And how in the world should they be + able, considering in the first place, that they, the Athenians, have more + festivals (3) to celebrate than any other state throughout the length and + breadth of Hellas? (During these festivals, of course, the transaction of + any sort of affairs of state is still more out of the question.) (4) In + the next place, only consider the number of cases they have to decide—what + with private suits and public causes and scrutinies of accounts, etc., + more than the whole of the rest of mankind put together; while the senate + has multifarious points to advise upon concerning peace and war, (5) + concerning ways and means, concerning the framing and passing of laws, (6) + and concerning the thousand and one matters affecting the state + perpetually occurring, and endless questions touching the allies; besides + the receipt of the tribute, the superintendence of dockyards and temples, + etc. Can, I ask again, any one find it at all surprising that, with all + these affairs on their hands, they are unequal to doing business with all + the world? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See Arist. "Wasps," 661. + + (4) This sentence is perhaps a gloss. + + (5) Or, "about the war," {peri tou polemou}. + + (6) See Thirlwall, ch. xxxii. vol. iv. p. 221, note 3. +</pre> + <p> + But some people tell us that if the applicant will only address himself to + the senate or the People with a fee in his hand he will do a good stroke + of business. And for my part I am free to confess to these gainsayers that + a good many things may be done at Athens by dint of money; and I will add, + that a good many more still might be done, if the money flowed still more + freely and from more pockets. One thing, however, I know full well, that + as to transacting with every one of these applicants all he wants, the + state could not do it, not even if all the gold and silver in the world + were the inducement offered. + </p> + <p> + Here are some of the cases which have to be decided on. Some one fails to + fit out a ship: judgement must be given. Another puts up a building on a + piece of public land: again judgement must be given. Or, to take another + class of cases: adjudication has to be made between the choragi for the + Dionysia, the Thargelia, the Panathenaea, year after year. ( (7) And again + in behalf of the gymnasiarchs a similar adjudication for the Panathenaea, + the Prometheia, and the Hephaestia, also year after year.) Also as between + the trierarchs, four hundred of whom are appointed each year, of these, + too, any who choose must have their cases adjudicated on, year after year. + But that is not all. There are various magistrates to examine and approve + (8) and decide between; there are orphans (9) whose status must be + examined; and guardians of prisoners to appoint. These, be it borne in + mind, are all matters of yearly occurrence; while at intervals there are + exemptions and abstentions from military service (10) which call for + adjudication, or in connection with some other extraordinary misdemeanour, + some case of outrage and violence of an exceptional character, or some + charge of impiety. A whole string of others I simply omit; I am content to + have named the most important part with the exception of the assessments + of tribute which occur, as a rule, at intervals of five years. (11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Adopting the emendation of Kirchhoff, who inserts the sentence in + brackets. For the festivals in question, see "Dict. of Antiq." + "Lampadephoria"; C. R. Kenney, "Demosth. against Leptines," etc., + App. vi. + + (8) For the institution called the {dokimasia}, see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. lv. + + (9) See Dem. "against Midias," 565, 17; "against Apholus" (1), 814, + 20. + + (10) See Lys. "Or." xiv. and xv. + + (11) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 48; Thuc. vii. 78; i. 96; Arist. + "Wasps," 707; Aristot. "Pol." v. 8. +</pre> + <p> + I put it to you, then: can any one suppose that all, or any, of these may + dispense with adjudication? (12) If so, will any one say which ought, and + which ought not, to be adjudicated on, there and then? If, on the other + hand, we are forced to admit that these are all fair cases for + adjudication, it follows of necessity that they should be decided during + the twelve-month; since even now the boards of judges sitting right + through the year are powerless to stay the tide of evildoing by reason of + the multitude of the people. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) Reading with Kirchhoff. Cf. for {oiesthai khre}, "Hell." VI. iv. + 23; "Cyr." IV. ii. 28. +</pre> + <p> + So far so good. (13) "But," some one will say, "try the cases you + certainly must, but lessen the number of the judges." But if so, it + follows of necessity that unless the number of courts themselves are + diminished in number there will only be a few judges sitting in each + court, (14) with the further consequence that in dealing with so small a + body of judges it will be easier for a litigant to present an invulnerable + front (15) to the court, and to bribe (16) the whole body, to the great + detriment of justice. (17) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) See Grote, "H. G." v. 514, 520; Machiavelli, "Disc. s. Livio," i. + 7. + + (14) Reading with Sauppe, {anagke toinun, ean me} (for the vulgate + {ean men oliga k.t.l.}) {oliga poiontai dikasteria, oligoi en + ekasto esontai to dikasterio}. Or, adopting Weiske's emendation, + {ean men polla poiontai dikasteria k.t.l.} Translate, "Then, if by + so doing they manage to multiply the law courts, there will be + only a few judges sitting," etc. + + (15) Or, as Liddell and Scott, "to prepare all his tricks." + + (16) {sundekasoi}, "to bribe in the lump." This is Schneider's happy + emendation of the MS. {sundikasai}; see Demosthenes, 1137, 1. + + (17) Reading {oste}, lit. "so as to get a far less just judgment." +</pre> + <p> + But besides this we cannot escape the conclusion that the Athenians have + their festivals to keep, during which the courts cannot sit. (18) As a + matter of fact these festivals are twice as numerous as those of any other + people. But I will reckon them as merely equal to those of the state which + has the fewest. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (18) Lit. "it is not possible to give judgment"; or, "for juries to + sit." +</pre> + <p> + This being so, I maintain that it is not possible for business affairs at + Athens to stand on any very different footing from the present, except to + some slight extent, by adding here and deducting there. Any large + modification is out of the question, short of damaging the democracy + itself. No doubt many expedients might be discovered for improving the + constitution, but if the problem be to discover some adequate means of + improving the constitution, while at the same time the democracy is to + remain intact, I say it is not easy to do this, except, as I have just + stated, to the extent of some trifling addition here or deduction there. + </p> + <p> + There is another point in which it is sometimes felt that the Athenians + are ill advised, in their adoption, namely, of the less respectable party, + in a state divided by faction. But if so, they do it advisedly. If they + chose the more respectable, they would be adopting those whose views and + interests differ from their own, for there is no state in which the best + element is friendly to the people. It is the worst element which in every + state favours the democracy—on the principle that like favours like. + (19) It is simple enough then. The Athenians choose what is most akin to + themselves. Also on every occasion on which they have attempted to side + with the better classes, it has not fared well with them, but within a + short interval the democratic party has been enslaved, as for instance in + Boeotia; (20) or, as when they chose the aristocrats of the Milesians, and + within a short time these revolted and cut the people to pieces; or, as + when they chose the Lacedaemonians as against the Messenians, and within a + short time the Lacedaemonians subjugated the Messenians and went to war + against Athens. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) I.e. "birds of a feather." + + (20) The references are perhaps (1) to the events of the year 447 + B.C., see Thuc. i. 113; cf. Aristot. "Pol." v. 3, 5; (2) to 440 + B.C., Thuc. i. 115; Diod. xii. 27, 28; Plut. "Pericl." c. 24; (3) + to those of 464 B.C., followed by 457 B.C., Thuc. i. 102; Plut. + "Cimon," c. 16; and Thuc. i. 108. +</pre> + <p> + I seem to overhear a retort, "No one, of course, is deprived of his civil + rights at Athens unjustly." My answer is, that there are some who are + unjustly deprived of their civil rights, though the cases are certainly + rare. But it will take more than a few to attack the democracy at Athens, + since you may take it as an established fact, it is not the man who has + lost his civil rights justly that takes the matter to heart, but the + victims, if any, of injustice. But how in the world can any one imagine + that many are in a state of civil disability at Athens, where the People + and the holders of office are one and the same? It is from iniquitous + exercise of office, from iniquity exhibited either in speech or action, + and the like circumstances, that citizens are punished with deprivation of + civil rights in Athens. Due reflection on these matters will serve to + dispel the notion that there is any danger at Athens from persons visited + with disenfranchisement. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS + </h2> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + I recall the astonishment with which I (1) first noted the unique position + (2) of Sparta amongst the states of Hellas, the relatively sparse + population, (3) and at the same time the extraordinary power and prestige + of the community. I was puzzled to account for the fact. It was only when + I came to consider the peculiar institutions of the Spartans that my + wonderment ceased. Or rather, it is transferred to the legislator who gave + them those laws, obedience to which has been the secret of their + prosperity. This legislator, Lycurgus, I must needs admire, and hold him + to have been one of the wisest of mankind. Certainly he was no servile + imitator of other states. It was by a stroke of invention rather, and on a + pattern much in opposition to the commonly-accepted one, that he brought + his fatherland to this pinnacle of prosperity. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See the opening words of the "Cyrop." and of the "Symp." + + (2) Or, "the phenomenal character." See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320 foll.; + Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 202. + + (3) See Herod. vii. 234; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 14 foll.; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10 (vol. i. p. 203, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + Take for example—and it is well to begin at the beginning (4)—the + whole topic of the begetting and rearing of children. Throughout the rest + of the world the young girl, who will one day become a mother (and I speak + of those who may be held to be well brought up), is nurtured on the + plainest food attainable, with the scantiest addition of meat or other + condiments; whilst as to wine they train them either to total abstinence + or to take it highly diluted with water. And in imitation, as it were, of + the handicraft type, since the majority of artificers are sedentary, (5) + we, the rest of the Hellenes, are content that our girls should sit + quietly and work wools. That is all we demand of them. But how are we to + expect that women nurtured in this fashion should produce a splendid + offspring? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Cf. a fragment of Critias cited by Clement, "Stromata," vi. p. + 741, 6; Athen. x. 432, 433; see "A Fragment of Xenophon" (?), ap. + Stob. "Flor." 88. 14, translated by J. Hookham Frere, "Theognis + Restitutus," vol. i. 333; G. Sauppe, "Append. de Frag. Xen." p. + 293; probably by Antisthenes (Bergk. ii. 497). + + (5) Or, "such technical work is for the most part sedentary." +</pre> + <p> + Lycurgus pursued a different path. Clothes were things, he held, the + furnishing of which might well enough be left to female slaves. And, + believing that the highest function of a free woman was the bearing of + children, in the first place he insisted on the training of the body as + incumbent no less on the female than the male; and in pursuit of the same + idea instituted rival contests in running and feats of strength for women + as for men. His belief was that where both parents were strong their + progeny would be found to be more vigorous. + </p> + <p> + And so again after marriage. In view of the fact that immoderate + intercourse is elsewhere permitted during the earlier period of matrimony, + he adopted a principle directly opposite. He laid it down as an ordinance + that a man should be ashamed to be seen visiting the chamber of his wife, + whether going in or coming out. When they did meet under such restraint + the mutual longing of these lovers could not but be increased, and the + fruit which might spring from such intercourse would tend to be more + robust than theirs whose affections are cloyed by satiety. By a farther + step in the same direction he refused to allow marriages to be contracted + (6) at any period of life according to the fancy of the parties concerned. + Marriage, as he ordained it, must only take place in the prime of bodily + vigour, (7) this too being, as he believed, a condition conducive to the + production of healthy offspring. Or again, to meet the case which might + occur of an old man (8) wedded to a young wife. Considering the jealous + watch which such husbands are apt to keep over their wives, he introduced + a directly opposite custom; that is to say, he made it incumbent on the + aged husband to introduce some one whose qualities, physical and moral, he + admired, to play the husband's part and to beget him children. Or again, + in the case of a man who might not desire to live with a wife permanently, + but yet might still be anxious to have children of his own worthy the + name, the lawgiver laid down a law (9) in his behalf. Such a one might + select some woman, the wife of some man, well born herself and blest with + fair offspring, and, the sanction and consent of her husband first + obtained, raise up children for himself through her. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) "The bride to be wooed and won." The phrase {agesthai} perhaps + points to some primitive custom of capturing and carrying off the + bride, but it had probably become conventional. + + (7) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg," 15 (Clough, i. 101). "In their marriages the + husband carried off his bride by a sort of force; nor were their + brides ever small and of tender years, but in their full bloom and + ripeness." + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 103). + + (9) Or, "established a custom to suit the case." +</pre> + <p> + These and many other adaptations of a like sort the lawgiver sanctioned. + As, for instance, at Sparta a wife will not object to bear the burden of a + double establishment, (10) or a husband to adopt sons as foster-brothers + of his own children, with a full share in his family and position, but + possessing no claim to his wealth and property. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Cf. Plut. "Comp. of Numa with Lycurgus," 4; "Cato mi." 25 + (Clough, i. 163; iv. 395). +</pre> + <p> + So opposed to those of the rest of the world are the principles which + Lycurgus devised in reference to the production of children. Whether they + enabled him to provide Sparta with a race of men superior to all in size + and strength I leave to the judgment of whomsoever it may concern. + </p> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + With this exposition of the customs in connection with the birth of + children, I wish now to explain the systems of education in fashion here + and elsewhere. Throughout the rest of Hellas the custom on the part of + those who claim to educate their sons in the best way is as follows. As + soon as the children are of an age to understand what is said to them they + are immediately placed under the charge of Paidagogoi (1) (or tutors), who + are also attendants, and sent off to the school of some teacher to be + taught "grammar," "music," and the concerns of the palestra. (2) Besides + this they are given shoes (3) to wear which tend to make their feet + tender, and their bodies are enervated by various changes of clothing. And + as for food, the only measure recognised is that which is fixed by + appetite. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) = "boy-leaders." Cf. St. Paul, "Ep. Gal." iii. 24; The Law was our + schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ. + + (2) Cf. Plato, "Alc. maj." 106 E; "Theages," 122 E; Aristot. "Pol." + viii. 3. + + (3) Or, "sandals." +</pre> + <p> + But when we turn to Lycurgus, instead of leaving it to each member of the + state privately to appoint a slave to be his son's tutor, he set over the + young Spartans a public guardian, the Paidonomos (4) or "pastor," to give + them his proper title, (5) with complete authority over them. This + guardian was selected from those who filled the highest magistracies. He + had authority to hold musters of the boys, (6) and as their overseer, in + case of any misbehaviour, to chastise severely. The legislator further + provided his pastor with a body of youths in the prime of life, and + bearing whips, (7) to inflict punishment when necessary, with this happy + result that in Sparta modesty and obedience ever go hand in hand, nor is + there lack of either. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) = "boyherd." + + (5) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 107); Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, + 13; vii. 17, 5. + + (6) Or, "assemble the boys in flocks." + + (7) {mastigophoroi} = "flagellants." +</pre> + <p> + Instead of softening their feet with shoe or sandal, his rule was to make + them hardy through going barefoot. (8) This habit, if practised, would, as + he believed, enable them to scale heights more easily and clamber down + precipices with less danger. In fact, with his feet so trained the young + Spartan would leap and spring and run faster unshod than another shod in + the ordinary way. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 16 (Clough, i. 106). +</pre> + <p> + Instead of making them effeminate with a variety of clothes, his rule was + to habituate them to a single garment the whole year through, thinking + that so they would be better prepared to withstand the variations of heat + and cold. + </p> + <p> + Again, as regards food, according to his regulation the Eiren, (9) or head + of the flock, must see that his messmates gathered to the club meal, (10) + with such moderate food as to avoid that heaviness (11) which is + engendered by repletion, and yet not to remain altogether unacquainted + with the pains of penurious living. His belief was that by such training + in boyhood they would be better able when occasion demanded to continue + toiling on an empty stomach. They would be all the fitter, if the word of + command were given, to remain on the stretch for a long time without extra + dieting. The craving for luxuries (12) would be less, the readiness to + take any victual set before them greater, and, in general, the regime + would be found more healthy. (13) Under it he thought the lads would + increase in stature and shape into finer men, since, as he maintained, a + dietary which gave suppleness to the limbs must be more conducive to both + ends than one which added thickness to the bodily parts by feeding. (14) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) For the Eiren, see Plut. "Lycurg." (Clough, i. 107). + + (10) Reading {sumboleuein} (for the vulg. {sumbouleuein}). The + emendation is now commonly adopted. For the word itself, see L. + Dindorf, n. ad loc., and Schneider. {sumbolon} = {eranos} or club + meal. Perhaps we ought to read {ekhontas} instead of {ekhonta}. + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 108). + + (12) Lit. "condiments," such as "meat," "fish," etc. See "Cyrop." I. + ii. 8. + + (13) Or, "and in general they would live more healthily and increase + in stature." + + (14) See L. Dindorf's emendation of this corrupt passage, n. ad loc. + (based upon Plut. "Lycurg." 17 and Ps. Plut. "Moral." 237), {kai + eis mekos d' an auxanesthai oeto kai eueidesterous} vel {kallious + gignesthai, pros amphotera ton radina ta somata poiousan trophen + mallon sullambanein egesamenos e ten diaplatunousan}. Otherwise I + would suggest to read {kai eis mekos an auxanesthai ten (gar) + radina... egesato k.t.l.}, which is closer to the vulgate, and + gives nearly the same sense. +</pre> + <p> + On the other hand, in order to guard against a too great pinch of + starvation, though he did not actually allow the boys to help themselves + without further trouble to what they needed more, he did give them + permission to steal (15) this thing or that in the effort to alleviate + their hunger. It was not of course from any real difficulty how else to + supply them with nutriment that he left it to them to provide themselves + by this crafty method. Nor can I conceive that any one will so + misinterpret the custom. Clearly its explanation lies in the fact that he + who would live the life of a robber must forgo sleep by night, and in the + daytime he must employ shifts and lie in ambuscade; he must prepare and + make ready his scouts, and so forth, if he is to succeed in capturing the + quarry. (16) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) See "Anab." IV. vi. 14. + + (16) For the institution named the {krupteia}, see Plut. "Lycurg." 28 + (Clough, i. 120); Plato, "Laws," i. 633 B; for the {klopeia}, ib. + vii. 823 E; Isocr. "Panathen." 277 B. +</pre> + <p> + It is obvious, I say, that the whole of this education tended, and was + intended, to make the boys craftier and more inventive in getting in + supplies, whilst at the same time it cultivated their warlike instincts. + An objector may retort: "But if he thought it so fine a feat to steal, why + did he inflict all those blows on the unfortunate who was caught?" My + answer is: for the self-same reason which induces people, in other matters + which are taught, to punish the mal-performance of a service. So they, the + Lacedaemonians, visit penalties on the boy who is detected thieving as + being but a sorry bungler in the art. So to steal as many cheeses as + possible (off the shrine of Orthia (17)) was a feat to be encouraged; but, + at the same moment, others were enjoined to scourge the thief, which would + point a moral not obscurely, that by pain endured for a brief season a man + may earn the joyous reward of lasting glory. (18) Herein, too, it is + plainly shown that where speed is requisite the sluggard will win for + himself much trouble and scant good. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (17) I.e. "Artemis of the Steep"—a title connecting the goddess with + Mount Orthion or Orthosion. See Pausan. VIII. xxiii. 1; and for + the custom, see Themistius, "Or." 21, p. 250 A. The words have + perhaps got out of their right place. See Schneider's Index, s.v. + + (18) See Plut. "Lycurg." 18; "Morals," 239 C; "Aristid." 17; Cic. + "Tusc." ii. 14. +</pre> + <p> + Furthermore, and in order that the boys should not want a ruler, even in + case the pastor (19) himself were absent, he gave to any citizen who + chanced to be present authority to lay upon them injunctions for their + good, and to chastise them for any trespass committed. By so doing he + created in the boys of Sparta a most rare modesty and reverence. And + indeed there is nothing which, whether as boys or men, they respect more + highly than the ruler. Lastly, and with the same intention, that the boys + must never be reft of a ruler, even if by chance there were no grown man + present, he laid down the rule that in such a case the most active of the + Leaders or Prefects (20) was to become ruler for the nonce, each of his + own division. The conclusion being that under no circumstances whatever + are the boys of Sparta destitute of one to rule them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) Lit. "Paidonomos." + + (20) Lit. "Eirens." +</pre> + <p> + I ought, as it seems to me, not to omit some remark on the subject of boy + attachments, (21) it being a topic in close connection with that of + boyhood and the training of boys. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 109). +</pre> + <p> + We know that the rest of the Hellenes deal with this relationship in + different ways, either after the manner of the Boeotians, (22) where man + and boy are intimately united by a bond like that of wedlock, or after the + manner of the Eleians, where the fruition of beauty is an act of grace; + whilst there are others who would absolutely debar the lover from all + conversation (23) and discourse with the beloved. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (22) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 34; Plato, "Symp." 182 B (Jowett, II. p. + 33). + + (23) {dialegesthai} came to mean philosophic discussion and debate. Is + the author thinking of Socrates? See "Mem." I. ii. 35; IV. v. 12. +</pre> + <p> + Lycurgus adopted a system opposed to all of these alike. Given that some + one, himself being all that a man ought to be, should in admiration of a + boy's soul (24) endeavour to discover in him a true friend without + reproach, and to consort with him—this was a relationship which + Lycurgus commended, and indeed regarded as the noblest type of bringing + up. But if, as was evident, it was not an attachment to the soul, but a + yearning merely towards the body, he stamped this thing as foul and + horrible; and with this result, to the credit of Lycurgus be it said, that + in Lacedaemon the relationship of lover and beloved is like that of parent + and child or brother and brother where carnal appetite is in abeyance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (24) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 35; Plut. "Lycurg." 18. +</pre> + <p> + That this, however, which is the fact, should be scarcely credited in some + quarters does not surprise me, seeing that in many states the laws (25) do + not oppose the desires in question. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (25) I.e. "law and custom." +</pre> + <p> + I have now described the two chief methods of education in vogue; that is + to say, the Lacedaemonian as contrasted with that of the rest of Hellas, + and I leave it to the judgment of him whom it may concern, which of the + two has produced the finer type of men. And by finer I mean the better + disciplined, the more modest and reverential, and, in matters where + self-restraint is a virtue, the more continent. + </p> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + Coming to the critical period at which a boy ceases to be a boy and + becomes a youth, (1) we find that it is just then that the rest of the + world proceed to emancipate their children from the private tutor and the + schoolmaster, and, without substituting any further ruler, are content to + launch them into absolute independence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) {eis to meirakiousthai}, "with reference to hobbledehoy-hood." + Cobet erases the phrase as post-Xenophontine. +</pre> + <p> + Here, again, Lycurgus took an entirely opposite view of the matter. This, + if observation might be trusted, was the season when the tide of animal + spirits flows fast, and the froth of insolence rises to the surface; when, + too, the most violent appetites for divers pleasures, in serried ranks, + invade (2) the mind. This, then, was the right moment at which to impose + tenfold labours upon the growing youth, and to devise for him a subtle + system of absorbing occupation. And by a crowning enactment, which said + that "he who shrank from the duties imposed on him would forfeit + henceforth all claim to the glorious honours of the state," he caused, not + only the public authorities, but those personally interested (3) in the + several companies of youths to take serious pains so that no single + individual of them should by an act of craven cowardice find himself + utterly rejected and reprobate within the body politic. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Lit. "range themselves." For the idea, see "Mem." I. ii. 23; + Swinburne, "Songs before Sunrise": Prelude, "Past youth where + shoreward shallows are." + + (3) Or, "the friends and connections." +</pre> + <p> + Furthermore, in his desire to implant in their youthful souls a root of + modesty he imposed upon these bigger boys a special rule. In the very + streets they were to keep their two hands (4) within the folds of the + cloak; they were to walk in silence and without turning their heads to + gaze, now here, now there, but rather to keep their eyes fixed upon the + ground before them. And hereby it would seem to be proved conclusively + that, even in the matter of quiet bearing and sobriety, (5) the masculine + type may claim greater strength than that which we attribute to the nature + of women. At any rate, you might sooner expect a stone image to find voice + than one of those Spartan youths; to divert the eyes of some bronze + stature were less difficult. And as to quiet bearing, no bride ever + stepped in bridal bower (6) with more natural modesty. Note them when they + have reached the public table. (7) The plainest answer to the question + asked—that is all you need expect to hear from their lips. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Cic. "pro Coelio," 5. + + (5) See Plat. "Charmid." 159 B; Jowett, "Plato," I. 15. + + (6) Longinus, {peri ups}, iv. 4, reading {ophthalmois} for + {thalamois}, says: "Yet why speak of Timaeus, when even men like + Xenophon and Plato, the very demigods of literature, though they + had sat at the feet of Socrates, sometimes forget themselves in + the pursuit of such pretty conceits? The former in his account of + the Spartan Polity has these words: 'Their voice you would no more + hear, than if they were of marble, their gaze is as immovable as + if they were cast in bronze. You would deem them more modest than + the very maidens in their eyes.' To speak of the pupils of the + eyes as modest maidens was a piece of absurdity becoming + Amphicrates rather than Xenophon; and then what a strange notion + to suppose that modesty is always without exception, expressed in + the eye!"—H. L. Howell, "Longinus," p. 8. See "Spectator," No. + 354. + + (7) See Paus. VII. i. 8, the {phidition} or {philition}; "Hell." V. + iv. 28. +</pre> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + But if he was thus careful in the education of the stripling, (1) the + Spartan lawgiver showed a still greater anxiety in dealing with those who + had reached the prime of opening manhood; considering their immense + importance to the city in the scale of good, if only they proved + themselves the men they should be. He had only to look around to see what + wherever the spirit of emulation (2) is most deeply seated, there, too, + their choruses and gymnastic contests will present alike a far higher + charm to eye and ear. And on the same principle he persuaded himself that + he needed only to confront (3) his youthful warriors in the strife of + valour, and with like result. They also, in their degree, might be + expected to attain to some unknown height of manly virtue. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See "Hell." V. iv. 32. + + (2) Cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22. + + (3) Or, "pit face to face." +</pre> + <p> + What method he adopted to engage these combatants I will now explain. It + is on this wise. Their ephors select three men out of the whole body of + the citizens in the prime of life. These three are named Hippagretai, or + masters of the horse. Each of these selects one hundred others, being + bound to explain for what reason he prefers in honour these and + disapproves of those. The result is that those who fail to obtain the + distinction are now at open war, not only with those who rejected them, + but with those who were chosen in their stead; and they keep ever a + jealous eye on one another to detect some slip of conduct contrary to the + high code of honour there held customary. And so is set on foot that + strife, in truest sense acceptable to heaven, and for the purposes of + state most politic. It is a strife in which not only is the pattern of a + brave man's conduct fully set forth, but where, too, each against other + and in separate camps, the rival parties train for victory. One day the + superiority shall be theirs; or, in the day of need, one and all to the + last man, they will be ready to aid the fatherland with all their + strength. + </p> + <p> + Necessity, moreover, is laid upon them to study a good habit of the body, + coming as they do to blows with their fists for very strife's sake + whenever they meet. Albeit, any one present has a right to separate the + combatants, and, if obedience is not shown to the peacemaker, the Pastor + of youth (4) hales the delinquent before the ephors, and the ephors + inflict heavy damages, since they will have it plainly understood that + rage must never override obedience to law. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Lit. "the Paidonomos." +</pre> + <p> + With regard to those who have already passed (5) the vigour of early + manhood, and on whom the highest magistracies henceforth devolve, there is + a like contrast. In Hellas generally we find that at this age the need of + further attention to physical strength is removed, although the imposition + of military service continues. But Lycurgus made it customary for that + section of his citizens to regard hunting as the highest honour suited to + their age; albeit, not to the exclusion of any public duty. (6) And his + aim was that they might be equally able to undergo the fatigues of war + with those in the prime of early manhood. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) Probably the {agathoergoi}, technically so called. See Herod. i. + 67; Schneider, ap. Dindorf. + + (6) Lit. "save only if some public duty intervened." See "Cyrop." I. + ii. +</pre> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + The above is a fairly exhaustive statement of the institutions traceable + to the legislation of Lycurgus in connection with the successive stages + (1) of a citizen's life. It remains that I should endeavour to describe + the style of living which he established for the whole body, irrespective + of age. It will be understood that, when Lycurgus first came to deal with + the question, the Spartans like the rest of the Hellenes, used to mess + privately at home. Tracing more than half the current misdemeanours to + this custom, (2) he was determined to drag his people out of holes and + corners into the broad daylight, and so he invented the public mess-rooms. + Whereby he expected at any rate to minimise the transgression of orders. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Lit. "with each age."; see Plut. "Lycurg." 25; Hesychius, {s. u. + irinies}; "Hell." VI. iv. 17; V. iv. 13. + + (2) Reading after Cobet, {en touto}. +</pre> + <p> + As to food, (3) his ordinance allowed them so much as, while not inducing + repletion, should guard them from actual want. And, in fact, there are + many exceptional (4) dishes in the shape of game supplied from the hunting + field. Or, as a substitute for these, rich men will occasionally garnish + the feast with wheaten loaves. So that from beginning to end, till the + mess breaks up, the common board is never stinted for viands, nor yet + extravagantly furnished. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 97). + + (4) {paraloga}, i.e. unexpected dishes, technically named {epaikla} + (hors d'oeuvres), as we learn from Athenaeus, iv. 140, 141. +</pre> + <p> + So also in the matter of drink. Whilst putting a stop to all unnecessary + potations, detrimental alike to a firm brain and a steady gait, (5) he + left them free to quench thirst when nature dictated (6); a method which + would at once add to the pleasure whilst it diminished the danger of + drinking. And indeed one may fairly ask how, on such a system of common + meals, it would be possible for any one to ruin either himself or his + family either through gluttony or wine-bibbing. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) Or, "apt to render brain and body alike unsteady." + + (6) See "Agesilaus"; also "Mem." and "Cyrop." +</pre> + <p> + This too must be borne in mind, that in other states equals in age, (7) + for the most part, associate together, and such an atmosphere is little + conducive to modesty. (8) Whereas in Sparta Lycurgus was careful so to + blend the ages (9) that the younger men must benefit largely by the + experience of the elder—an education in itself, and the more so + since by custom of the country conversation at the common meal has + reference to the honourable acts which this man or that man may have + performed in relation to the state. The scene, in fact, but little lends + itself to the intrusion of violence or drunken riot; ugly speech and ugly + deeds alike are out of place. Amongst other good results obtained through + this out-door system of meals may be mentioned these: There is the + necessity of walking home when the meal is over, and a consequent anxiety + not to be caught tripping under the influence of wine, since they all know + of course that the supper-table must be presently abandoned, (10) and that + they must move as freely in the dark as in the day, even the help of a + torch (11) to guide the steps being forbidden to all on active service. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 240 C; {elix eklika terpei}, "Equals delight + in equals." + + (8) Or, "these gatherings for the most part consist of equals in age + (young fellows), in whose society the virtue of modesty is least + likely to display itself." + + (9) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 98). + + (10) Or, "that they are not going to stay all night where they have + supped." + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 99). +</pre> + <p> + In connection with this matter, Lycurgus had not failed to observe the + effect of equal amounts of food on different persons. The hardworking man + has a good complexion, his muscles are well fed, he is robust and strong. + The man who abstains from work, on the other hand, may be detected by his + miserable appearance; he is blotched and puffy, and devoid of strength. + This observation, I say, was not wasted on him. On the contrary, turning + it over in his mind that any one who chooses, as a matter of private + judgment, to devote himself to toil may hope to present a very creditable + appearance physically, he enjoined upon the eldest for the time being in + every gymnasium to see to it that the labours of the class were + proportional to the meats. (12) And to my mind he was not out of his + reckoning in this matter more than elsewhere. At any rate, it would be + hard to discover a healthier or more completely developed human being, + physically speaking, than the Spartan. Their gymnastic training, in fact, + makes demands alike on the legs and arms and neck, (13) etc., + simultaneously. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) I.e. "not inferior in excellence to the diet which they enjoyed." + The reading here adopted I owe to Dr. Arnold Hug, {os me ponous + auton elattous ton sition gignesthai}. + + (13) See Plat. "Laws," vii. 796 A; Jowett, "Plato," v. p. 365; Xen. + "Symp." ii. 7; Plut. "Lycurg." 19. +</pre> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + There are other points in which this legislator's views run counter to + those commonly accepted. Thus: in other states the individual citizen is + master over his own children, domestics, (1) goods and chattels, and + belongings generally; but Lycurgus, whose aim was to secure to all the + citizens a considerable share in one another's goods without mutual + injury, enacted that each one should have an equal power of his + neighbour's children as over his own. (2) The principle is this. When a + man knows that this, that, and the other person are fathers of children + subject to his authority, he must perforce deal by them even as he desires + his own child to be dealt by. And, if a boy chance to have received a + whipping, not from his own father but some other, and goes and complains + to his own father, it would be thought wrong on the part of that father if + he did not inflict a second whipping on his son. A striking proof, in its + way, how completely they trust each other not to impose dishonourable + commands upon their children. (3) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or rather, "members of his household." + + (2) See Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 104). + + (3) See Plut. "Moral." 237 D. +</pre> + <p> + In the same way he empowered them to use their neighbour's (4) domestics + in case of need. This communism he applied also to dogs used for the + chase; in so far that a party in need of dogs will invite the owner to the + chase, and if he is not at leisure to attend himself, at any rate he is + happy to let his dogs go. The same applies to the use of horses. Some one + has fallen sick perhaps, or is in want of a carriage, (5) or is anxious to + reach some point or other quickly—in any case he has a right, if he + sees a horse anywhere, to take and use it, and restores it safe and sound + when he has done with it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 5 (Jowett, i. pp. xxxi. and 34; ii. p. + 53); Plat. "Laws," viii. 845 A; Newman, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 249 + foll. + + (5) "Has not a carriage of his own." +</pre> + <p> + And here is another institution attributed to Lycurgus which scarcely + coincides with the customs elsewhere in vogue. A hunting party returns + from the chase, belated. They want provisions—they have nothing + prepared themselves. To meet this contingency he made it a rule that + owners (6) are to leave behind the food that has been dressed; and the + party in need will open the seals, take out what they want, seal up the + remainder, and leave it. Accordingly, by his system of give-and-take even + those with next to nothing (7) have a share in all that the country can + supply, if ever they stand in need of anything. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) Reading {pepamenous}, or if {pepasmenous}, "who have already + finished their repasts." + + (7) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9 (Jowett, i. pp. xlii. and 52); Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10, 1 (vol. ii. 197, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + VII + </p> + <p> + There are yet other customs in Sparta which Lycurgus instituted in + opposition to those of the rest of Hellas, and the following among them. + We all know that in the generality of states every one devotes his full + energy to the business of making money: one man as a tiller of the soil, + another as a mariner, a third as a merchant, whilst others depend on + various arts to earn a living. But at Sparta Lycurgus forbade his freeborn + citizens to have anything whatsoever to do with the concerns of + money-making. As freemen, he enjoined upon them to regard as their concern + exclusively those activities upon which the foundations of civic liberty + are based. + </p> + <p> + And indeed, one may well ask, for what reason should wealth be regarded as + a matter for serious pursuit (1) in a community where, partly by a system + of equal contributions to the necessaries of life, and partly by the + maintenance of a common standard of living, the lawgiver placed so + effectual a check upon the desire of riches for the sake of luxury? What + inducement, for instance, would there be to make money, even for the sake + of wearing apparel, in a state where personal adornment is held to lie not + in the costliness of the clothes they wear, but in the healthy condition + of the body to be clothed? Nor again could there be much inducement to + amass wealth, in order to be able to expend it on the members of a common + mess, where the legislator had made it seem far more glorious that a man + should help his fellows by the labour of his body than by costly outlay. + The latter being, as he finely phrased it, the function of wealth, the + former an activity of the soul. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Plut. "Lycurg." 10 (Clough, i. 96). +</pre> + <p> + He went a step further, and set up a strong barrier (even in a society + such as I have described) against the pursuance of money-making by + wrongful means. (2) In the first place, he established a coinage (3) of so + extraordinary a sort, that even a single sum of ten minas (4) could not + come into a house without attracting the notice, either of the master + himself, or of some member of his household. In fact, it would occupy a + considerable space, and need a waggon to carry it. Gold and silver + themselves, moreover, are liable to search, (5) and in case of detection, + the possessor subjected to a penalty. In fact, to repeat the question + asked above, for what reason should money-making become an earnest pursuit + in a community where the possession of wealth entails more pain than its + employment brings satisfaction? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Or, "against illegitimate commerce." + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 9 (Clough, i. 94). + + (4) = 40 pounds, circa. + + (5) See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 37. +</pre> + <p> + VIII + </p> + <p> + But to proceed. We are all aware that there is no state (1) in the world + in which greater obedience is shown to magistrates, and to the laws + themselves, than Sparta. But, for my part, I am disposed to think that + Lycurgus could never have attempted to establish this healthy condition, + (2) until he had first secured the unanimity of the most powerful members + of the state. I infer this for the following reasons. (3) In other states + the leaders in rank and influence do not even desire to be thought to fear + the magistrates. Such a thing they would regard as in itself a symbol of + servility. In Sparta, on the contrary, the stronger a man is the more + readily does he bow before constituted authority. And indeed, they magnify + themselves on their humility, and on a prompt obedience, running, or at + any rate not crawling with laggard step, at the word of command. Such an + example of eager discipline, they are persuaded, set by themselves, will + not fail to be followed by the rest. And this is precisely what has taken + place. It (4) is reasonable to suppose that it was these same noblest + members of the state who combined (5) to lay the foundation of the + ephorate, after they had come to the conclusion themselves, that of all + the blessings which a state, or an army, or a household, can enjoy, + obedience is the greatest. Since, as they could not but reason, the + greater the power with which men fence about authority, the greater the + fascination it will exercise upon the mind of the citizen, to the + enforcement of obedience. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Grote, "H. G." v. 516; "Mem." III. v. 18. + + (2) Or, reading after L. Dindorf, {eutaxian}, "this world-renowned + orderliness." + + (3) Or, "from these facts." + + (4) Or, "It was only natural that these same..." + + (5) Or, "helped." See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11, 3; ii. 9, 1 (Jowett, ii. + 224); Plut. "Lycurg." 7, 29; Herod. i. 65; Muller, "Dorians," iii. + 7, 5 (vol. ii. p. 125, Eng. tr.) +</pre> + <p> + Accordingly the ephors are competent to punish whomsoever they choose; + they have power to exact fines on the spur of the moment; they have power + to depose magistrates in mid career (6)—nay, actually to imprison + them and bring them to trial on the capital charge. Entrusted with these + vast powers, they do not, as do the rest of states, allow the magistrates + elected to exercise authority as they like, right through the year of + office; but, in the style rather of despotic monarchs, or presidents of + the games, at the first symptom of an offence against the law they inflict + chastisement without warning and without hesitation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) Or, "before the expiration of their term of office." See Plut. + "Agis," 18 (Clough, iv. 464); Cic. "de Leg." iii. 7; "de Rep." ii. + 33. +</pre> + <p> + But of all the many beautiful contrivances invented by Lycurgus to kindle + a willing obedience to the laws in the hearts of the citizens, none, to my + mind, was happier or more excellent than his unwillingness to deliver his + code to the people at large, until, attended by the most powerful members + of the state, he had betaken himself to Delphi, (7) and there made inquiry + of the god whether it were better for Sparta, and conducive to her + interests, to obey the laws which he had framed. And not until the divine + answer came: "Better will it be in every way," did he deliver them, laying + it down as a last ordinance that to refuse obedience to a code which had + the sanction of the Pythian god himself (8) was a thing not illegal only, + but profane. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 5, 6, 29 (Clough, i. 89, 122); Polyb. x. 2, 9. + + (8) Or, "a code delivered in Pytho, spoken by the god himself." +</pre> + <p> + IX + </p> + <p> + The following too may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus. I speak of + the consummate skill with which he induced the whole state of Sparta to + regard an honourable death as preferable to an ignoble life. And indeed if + any one will investigate the matter, he will find that by comparison with + those who make it a principle to retreat in face of danger, actually fewer + of these Spartans die in battle, since, to speak truth, salvation, it + would seem, attends on virtue far more frequently than on cowardice—virtue, + which is at once easier and sweeter, richer in resource and stronger of + arm, (1) than her opposite. And that virtue has another familiar attendant—to + wit, glory—needs no showing, since the whole world would fain ally + themselves after some sort in battle with the good. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) See Homer, "Il." v. 532; Tyrtaeus, 11, 14, {tressanton d' andron + pas' apolol arete}. +</pre> + <p> + Yet the actual means by which he gave currency to these principles is a + point which it were well not to overlook. It is clear that the lawgiver + set himself deliberately to provide all the blessings of heaven for the + good man, and a sorry and ill-starred existence for the coward. + </p> + <p> + In other states the man who shows himself base and cowardly wins to + himself an evil reputation and the nickname of a coward, but that is all. + For the rest he buys and sells in the same market-place as the good man; + he sits beside him at play; he exercises with him in the same gymnasium, + and all as suits his humour. But at Lacedaemon there is not one man who + would not feel ashamed to welcome the coward at the common mess-tabe, or + to try conclusions with such an antagonist in a wrestling bout. Consider + the day's round of his existence. The sides are being picked up in a + football match, (2) but he is left out as the odd man: there is no place + for him. During the choric dance (3) he is driven away into ignominious + quarters. Nay, in the very streets it is he who must step aside for others + to pass, or, being seated, he must rise and make room, even for a younger + man. At home he will have his maiden relatives to support in isolation + (and they will hold him to blame for their unwedded lives). (4) A hearth + with no wife to bless it—that is a condition he must face, (5) and + yet he will have to pay damages to the last farthing for incurring it. Let + him not roam abroad with a smooth and smiling countenance; (6) let him not + imitate men whose fame is irreproachable, or he shall feel on his back the + blows of his superiors. Such being the weight of infamy which is laid upon + all cowards, I, for my part, am not surprised if in Sparta they deem death + preferable to a life so steeped in dishonour and reproach. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) See Lucian, "Anacharsis," 38; Muller, "Dorians," (vol. ii. 309, + Eng. tr.) + + (3) The {khoroi}, e.g. of the Gymnopaedia. See Muller, op. cit. iv. 6, + 4 (vol. ii. 334, Eng. tr.) + + (4) {tes anandrias}, cf. Plut. "Ages." 30; or, {tes anandreias}, "they + must bear the reproach of his cowardice." + + (5) Omitting {ou}, or translate, "that is an evil not to be + disregarded." See Dindorf, ad loc.; Sturz, "Lex. Xen." {Estia}. + + (6) See Plut. "Ages." 30 (Clough, iv. 36); "Hell." VI. iv. 16. +</pre> + <p> + X + </p> + <p> + That too was a happy enactment, in my opinion, by which Lycurgus provided + for the continual cultivation of virtue, even to old age. By fixing (1) + the election to the council of elders (2) as a last ordeal at the goal of + life, he made it impossible for a high standard of virtuous living to be + disregarded even in old age. (So, too, it is worthy of admiration in him + that he lent his helping hand to virtuous old age. (3) Thus, by making the + elders sole arbiters in the trial for life, he contrived to charge old age + with a greater weight of honour than that which is accorded to the + strength of mature manhood.) And assuredly such a contest as this must + appeal to the zeal of mortal man beyond all others in a supreme degree. + Fair, doubtless, are contests of gymnastic skill, yet are they but trials + of bodily excellence, but this contest for the seniority is of a higher + sort—it is an ordeal of the soul itself. In proportion, therefore, + as the soul is worthier than the body, so must these contests of the soul + appeal to a stronger enthusiasm than their bodily antitypes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Reading {protheis}. See Plut. "Lycurg." 26 (Clough. i. 118); + Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 25. + + (2) Or, "seniory," or "senate," or "board of elders"; lit. "the + Gerontia." + + (3) Or, "the old age of the good. Yet this he did when he made... + since he contrived," etc. +</pre> + <p> + And yet another point may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus largely. + It had not escaped his observation that communities exist where those who + are willing to make virtue their study and delight fail somehow in ability + to add to the glory of their fatherland. (4) That lesson the legislator + laid to heart, and in Sparta he enforced, as a matter of public duty, the + practice of virtue by every citizen. And so it is that, just as man + differs from man in some excellence, according as he cultivates or + neglects to cultivate it, this city of Sparta, with good reason, outshines + all other states in virtue; since she, and she alone, as made the + attainment of a high standard of noble living a public duty. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Is this an autobiographical touch? +</pre> + <p> + And was this not a noble enactment, that whereas other states are content + to inflict punishment only in cases where a man does wrong against his + neighbour, Lycurgus imposed penalties no less severe on him who openly + neglected to make himself as good as possible? For this, it seems, was his + principle: in the one case, where a man is robbed, or defrauded, or + kidnapped, and made a slave of, the injury of the misdeed, whatever it be, + is personal to the individual so maltreated; but in the other case whole + communities suffer foul treason at the hands of the base man and the + coward. So that it was only reasonable, in my opinion, that he should + visit the heaviest penalty upon these latter. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, he laid upon them, like some irresistible necessity, the + obligation to cultivate the whole virtue of a citizen. Provided they duly + performed the injunctions of the law, the city belonged to them, each and + all, in absolute possession and on an equal footing. Weakness of limb or + want of wealth (5) was no drawback in his eyes. But as for him who, out of + the cowardice of his heart, shrank from the painful performance of the + law's injunction, the finger of the legislator pointed him out as there + and then disqualified to be regarded longer as a member of the brotherhood + of peers. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) But see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 32. + + (6) Grote, "H. G." viii. 81; "Hell." III. iii. 5. +</pre> + <p> + It may be added, that there was no doubt as to the great antiquity of this + code of laws. The point is clear so far, that Lycurgus himself is said to + have lived in the days of the Heraclidae. (7) But being of so long + standing, these laws, even at this day, still are stamped in the eyes of + other men with all the novelty of youth. And the most marvellous thing of + all is that, while everybody is agreed to praise these remarkable + institutions, there is not a single state which cares to imitate them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 1. +</pre> + <p> + XI + </p> + <p> + The above form a common stock of blessings, open to every Spartan to + enjoy, alike in peace and in war. But if any one desires to be informed in + what way the legislator improved upon the ordinary machinery of warfare + and in reference to an army in the field, it is easy to satisfy his + curiosity. + </p> + <p> + In the first instance, the ephors announce by proclamation the limit of + age to which the service applies (1) for cavalry and heavy infantry; and + in the next place, for the various handicraftsmen. So that, even on active + service, the Lacedaemonians are well supplied with all the conveniences + enjoyed by people living as citizens at home. (2) All implements and + instruments whatsoever, which an army may need in common, are ordered to + be in readiness, (3) some on waggons and others on baggage animals. In + this way anything omitted can hardly escape detection. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) I.e. "in the particular case." See "Hell." VI. iv. 17; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 12 (vol. ii. 242 foll., Eng. tr.) + + (2) Or, "the conveniences of civil life at home." + + (3) Reading {parekhein}, or if {paragein}, "to be conveyed." Cf. + Pausan. I. xix. 1. See "Cyrop." VI. ii. 34. +</pre> + <p> + For the actual encounter under arms, the following inventions are + attributed to him. The soldier has a crimson-coloured uniform and a heavy + shield of bronze; his theory being that such an equipment has no sort of + feminine association, and is altogether most warrior-like. (4) It is most + quickly burnished; it is least readily soiled. (5) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Cf. Aristoph. "Acharn." 320, and the note of the scholiast. + + (5) See Ps. Plut. "Moral." 238 F. +</pre> + <p> + He further permitted those who were above the age of early manhood to wear + their hair long. (6) For so, he conceived, they would appear of larger + stature, more free and indomitable, and of a more terrible aspect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). +</pre> + <p> + So furnished and accoutred, he divided his citizen soldiers into six morai + (7) (or regimental divisions) of cavalry (8) and heavy infantry. Each of + these citizen regiments (political divisions) has one polemarch (9) (or + colonel), four lochagoi (or captains of companies), eight penteconters (or + lieutenants, each in command of half a company), and sixteen enomotarchs + (or commanders of sections). At the word of command any such regimental + division can be formed readily either into enomoties (i.e. single file) or + into threes (i.e. three files abreast), or into sixes (i.e. six files + abreast). (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) The {mora}. Jowett, "Thuc." ii. 320, note to Thuc. v. 68, 3. + + (8) See Plut. "Lycurg." 23 (Clough, i. 115); "Hell." VI. iv. 11; Thuc. + v. 67; Paus. IV. viii. 12. + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66, 71. + + (10) See Thuch. v. 68, and Arnold's note ad loc.; "Hell." VI. iv. 12; + "Anab." II. iv. 26; Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 117. +</pre> + <p> + As to the idea, commonly entertained, that the tactical arrangement of the + Laconian heavy infantry is highly complicated, no conception could be more + opposed to fact. For in the Laconian order the front rank men are all + leaders, (11) so that each file has everything necessary to play its part + efficiently. In fact, this disposition is so easy to understand that no + one who can distinguish one human being from another could fail to follow + it. One set have the privilege of leaders, the other the duty of + followers. The evolutional orders, (12) by which greater depth or + shallowness is given to the battle line, are given by word of mouth by the + enomotarch (or commander of the section), who plays the part of the + herald, and they cannot be mistaken. None of these manouvres presents any + difficulty whatsoever to the understanding. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) See "Anab." IV. iii. 26; "Cyrop." III. iii. 59; VI. iii. 22. + + (12) I.e. "for doubling depth"; e.g. anglice, "form two deep," etc., + when marching to a flank. Grote, "H. G." vii. 108; Thuc. v. 66; + also Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 111, S. 8, note 19; p. 121, + $17, note 41. +</pre> + <p> + But when it comes to their ability to do battle equally well in spite of + some confusion which has been set up, and whatever the chapter of + accidents may confront them with, (13) I admit that the tactics here are + not so easy to understand, except for people trained under the laws of + Lycurgus. Even movements which an instructor in heavy-armed warfare (14) + might look upon as difficult are performed by the Lacedaemonians with the + utmost ease. (15) Thus, the troops, we will suppose, are marching in + column; one section of a company is of course stepping up behind another + from the rear. (16) Now, if at such a moment a hostile force appears in + front in battle order, the word is passed down to the commander of each + section, "Deploy (into line) to the left." And so throughout the whole + length of the column, until the line is formed facing the enemy. Or + supposing while in this position an enemy appears in the rear. Each file + performs a counter-march (17) with the effect of bringing the best men + face to face with the enemy all along the line. (18) As to the point that + the leader previously on the right finds himself now on the left, (19) + they do not consider that they are necessarily losers thereby, but, as it + may turn out, even gainers. If, for instance, the enemy attempted to turn + their flank, he would find himself wrapping round, not their exposed, but + their shielded flank. (20) Or if, for any reason, it be thought advisable + for the general to keep the right wing, they turn the corps about, (21) + and counter-march by ranks, until the leader is on the right, and the rear + rank on the left. Or again, supposing a division of the enemy appears on + the right whilst they are marching in column, they have nothing further to + do but to wheel each company to the right, like a trireme, prow forwards, + (22) to meet the enemy, and thus the rear company again finds itself on + the right. If, however, the enemy should attack on the left, either they + will not allow of that and push him aside, (23) or else they wheel their + companies to the left to face the antagonist, and thus the rear company + once more falls into position on the left. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) Or, "alongside of any comrade who may have fallen in their way." + See Plut. "Pelop." 23 (Clough, ii. 222); Thuc. v. 72. + + (14) Or, "drill sergeant." + + (15) See Jebb, note to "Theophr." viii. 3. + + (16) Or, "marching in rear of another." + + (17) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (18) Or, "every time." + + (19) See Thuc. v. 67, 71. + + (20) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (21) For these movements, see "Dict. of Antiq." "Exercitus"; Grote, + "H. G." vii. 111. + + (22) See "Hell." VII. v. 23. + + (23) I am indebted to Professor Jebb for the following suggestions + with regard to this passage: "The words {oude touto eosin, all + apothousin e}, etc., contain some corruption. The sense ought + clearly to be roughly parallel with that of the phrase used a + little before, {ouden allo pragmateuontai e}, etc. Perhaps + {apothousin} is a corruption of {apothen ousin}, and this + corruption occasioned the insertion of {e}. Probably Xenophon + wrote {oude touto eosin, all apothen ousin antipalous}, etc.: + 'while the enemy is still some way off, they turn their companies + so as to face him.' The words {apothen ousin} indirectly suggest + the celerity of the Spartan movement." +</pre> + <p> + XII + </p> + <p> + I will now speak of the mode of encampment sanctioned by the regulation of + Lycurgus. To avoid the waste incidental to the angles of a square, (1) the + encampment, according to him, should be circular, except where there was + the security of a hill, (2) or fortification, or where they had a river in + their rear. He had sentinels posted during the day along the place of arms + and facing inwards; (3) since they are appointed not so much for the sake + of the enemy as to keep an eye on friends. The enemy is sufficiently + watched by mounted troopers perched on various points commanding the + widest prospect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "Regarding the angles of a square as a useless inconvenience, + he arranged that an encampment should be circular," etc. See + Polyb. vi. 31, 42. + + (2) Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 14; Polyaen. II. iii. 11, ap. Schneider. + + (3) Lit. "these," {tas men}. Or, "He had lines of sentinels posted + throughout the day; one line facing inwards towards the place of + arms (and these were appointed, etc.); while observation of the + enemy was secured by mounted troopers," etc. +</pre> + <p> + To guard against hostile approach by night, sentinel duty according to the + ordinance was performed by the Sciritae (4) outside the main body. At the + present time the rule is so far modified that the duty is entrusted to + foreigners, (5) if there be a foreign contingent present, with a leaven of + Spartans themselves to keep them company. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Muller's "Dorians," ii. 253; "Hell." VI. v. 24; "Cyrop." IV. + ii. 1; Thuc. v. 67, 71; Grote, "H. G." vii. 110. + + (5) See "Hipparch." ix. 4. + + (6) Reading {auton de}. The passage is probably corrupt. See L. + Dindorf ad loc. +</pre> + <p> + The custom of always taking their spears (7) with them when they go their + rounds must certainly be attributed to the same cause which makes them + exclude their slaves from the place of arms. Nor need we be surprised if, + when retiring for necessary purposes, they only withdraw just far enough + from one another, or from the place of arms itself, not to create + annoyance. The need of precaution is the whole explanation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See Critias, ap. Schneider ad loc. +</pre> + <p> + The frequency with which they change their encampments is another point. + It is done quite as much for the sake of benefiting their friends as of + annoying their enemies. + </p> + <p> + Further, the law enjoins upon all Lacedaemonians, during the whole period + of an expedition, the constant practice of gymnastic (8) exercises, + whereby their pride (9) in themselves is increased, and they appear freer + and of a more liberal aspect than the rest of the world. (10) The walk and + the running ground must not exceed in length (11) the space covered by a + regimental division, (12) so that no one may find himself far from his own + stand of arms. After the gymnastic exercises the senior polemarch gives + the order (by herald) to be seated. This serves all the purposes of an + inspection. After this the order is given "to get breakfast," and for "the + outposts (13) to be relieved." After this, again, come pastimes and + relaxations before the evening exercises, after which the herald's cry is + heard "to take the evening meal." When they have sung a hymn to the gods + to whom the offerings of happy omen had been performed, the final order, + "Retire to rest at the place of arms," (14) is given. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Cf. Herod. vii. 208; Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 113 foll.) + + (9) Reading {megalophronesterous} (L. Dindorf's emendation) for the + vulg. {megaloprepesterous}. Xen "Opusc. polit." Ox. MDCCCLVI. + + (10) Or, "the proud self-consciousness of their own splendour is + increased, and by comparison with others they bear more notably + the impress of freemen." + + (11) The word {masso} is "poetical" (old Attic?). See "Cyrop." II. iv. + 27, and L. Dindorf ad loc. + + (12) A single mora, or an army corps. + + (13) Or, "vedettes," {proskopon}. See "Cyrop." V. ii. 6. + + (14)? Or, "on your arms." See Sturz, "Lex. Xen." s.v. +</pre> + <p> + If the story is a little long the reader must not be surprised, since it + would be difficult to find any point in military matters omitted by the + Lacedaemonians which seems to demand attention. + </p> + <p> + XIII + </p> + <p> + I will now give a detailed account of the power and privilege assigned by + Lycurgus to the king during a campaign. To begin with, so long as he is on + active service, the state maintains the king and those with him. (1) The + polemarchs mess with him and share his quarters, so that by dint of + constant intercourse they may be all the better able to consult in common + in case of need. Besides the polemarch three other members of the peers + (2) share the royal quarters, mess, etc. The duty of these is to attend to + all matters of commisariat, (3) in order that the king and the rest may + have unbroken leisure to attend to affairs of actual warfare. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) I.e. "the Thirty." See "Ages." i. 7; "Hell." III. iv. 2; Plut. + "Ages." 6 (Clough, iv. 6); Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 29. + + (2) For these {oi omoioi}, see "Cyrop." I. v. 5; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + + (3) Lit. "supplies and necessaries." +</pre> + <p> + But I will resume at a somewhat higher point and describe the manner in + which the king sets out on an expedition. As a preliminary step, before + leaving home he offers sacrifice (in company with (4) his staff) to Zeus + Agetor (the Leader), and if the victims prove favourable then and there + the priest, (5) who bears the sacred fire, takes thereof from off the + altar and leads the way to the boundaries of the land. Here for the second + time the king does sacrifice (6) to Zeus and Athena; and as soon as the + offerings are accepted by those two divinities he steps across the + boundaries of the land. And all the while the fire from those sacrifices + leads the way, and is never suffered to go out. Behind follow beasts for + sacrifice of every sort. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Lit. reading {kai oi sun auto}, after L. Dindorf, "he and those + with him." + + (5) Lit. "the Purphuros." See Nic. Damasc. ap. Stob. "Fl." 44, 41; + Hesych. ap. Schneider, n. ad loc. + + (6) These are the {diabateria}, so often mentioned in the "Hellenica." +</pre> + <p> + Invariably when he offers sacrifice the king begins the work in the + gloaming ere the day has broken, being minded to anticipate the goodwill + of the god. And round about the place of sacrifice are present the + polemarchs and captains, the lieutenants and sub-lieutenants, with the + commandants of the baggage train, and any general of the states (7) who + may care to assist. There, too, are to be seen two of the ephors, who + neither meddle nor make, save only at the summons of the king, yet have + they their eyes fixed on the proceedings of each one there and keep all in + order, (8) as may well be guessed. When the sacrifices are accomplished + the king summons all and issues his orders (9) as to what has to be done. + And all with such method that, to witness the proceedings, you might + fairly suppose the rest of the world to be but bungling experimenters, + (10) and the Lacedaemonians alone true handicraftsmen in the art of + soldiering. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) I.e. "allied"? or "perioecid"? + + (8) {sophronizousin}, "keep every one in his sober senses." + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66. + + (10) {autoskhediastai, tekhnitai}. See Jebb, "Theophr." x. 3. +</pre> + <p> + Anon the king puts himself at the head of the troops, and if no enemy + appears he heads the line of march, no one preceding him except the + Sciritae, and the mounted troopers exploring in front. (11) If, however, + there is any reason to anticipate a battle, the king takes the leading + column of the first army corps (12) and wheels to the right until he has + got into position with two army corps and two generals of division on + either flank. The disposition of the supports is assigned to the eldest of + the royal council (13) (or staff corps) acting as brigadier—the + staff consisting of all peers who share the royal mess and quarters, with + the soothsayers, surgeons, (14) and pipers, whose place is in the front of + the troops, (15) with, finally, any volunteers who happen to be present. + So that there is no check or hesitation in anything to be done; every + contingency is provided for. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Or, "who are on scouting duty. If, however, they expect a + battle," etc. + + (12) Technically, "mora." + + (13) {ton peri damosian}. See "Hell." IV. v. 8; vii. 4. + + (14) See "Anab." III. iv. 30; "Cyrop." I. vi. 15; L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. + + (15) Schneider refers to Polyaenus, i. 10. +</pre> + <p> + The following details also seem to me of high utility among the inventions + of Lycurgus with a view to the final arbitrament of battle. Whensoever, + the enemy being now close enough to watch the proceedings, (16) the goat + is sacrificed; then, says the law, let all the pipers, in their places, + play upon the pipes, and let every Lacedaemonian don a wreath. Then, too, + so runs the order, let the shields be brightly polished. The privilege is + accorded to the young man to enter battle with his long locks combed. (17) + To be of cheery countenance—that, too, is of good repute. Onwards + they pass the word of command to the subaltern (18) in command of his + section, since it is impossible to hear along the whole of each section + from the particular subaltern posted on the outside. It devolves, finally, + on the polemarch to see that all goes well. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114); and for the goat + sacrificed to Artemis Agrotera, see "Hell." IV. ii. 20; Pause. IX. + xiii. 4; Plut. "Marcell." 22 (Clough, ii. 264). + + (17) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). The passage is corrupt, + and possibly out of its place. I cite the words as they run in the + MSS. with various proposed emendations. See Schneider, n. ad loc. + {exesti de to neo kai kekrimeno eis makhen sunienai kai phaidron + einai kai eudokimon. kai parakeleuontai de k.t.l.} Zeune, + {kekrimeno komen}, after Plut. "Lycurg." 22. Weiske, {kai komen + diakekrimeno}. Cobet, {exesti de to neo liparo kai tas komas + diakekrimeno eis makhen ienai}. + + (18) Lit. "to the enomotarch." +</pre> + <p> + When the right moment for encamping has come, the king is responsible for + that, and has to point out the proper place. The despatch of emissaries, + however, whether to friends or to foes, is (not) (19) the king's affair. + Petitioners in general wishing to transact anything treat, in the first + instance, with the king. If the case concerns some point of justice, the + king despatches the petitioner to the Hellanodikai (who form the + court-martial); if of money, to the paymasters. (20) If the petitioner + brings booty, he is sent off to the Laphuropolai (or sellers of spoil). + This being the mode of procedure, no other duty is left to the king, + whilst he is on active service, except to play the part of priest in + matters concerning the gods and of commander-in-chief in his relationship + to men. (21) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) The MSS. give {au}, "is again," but the word {mentoi}, "however," + and certain passages in "Hell." II. ii. 12, 13; II. iv. 38 suggest + the negative {ou} in place of {au}. If {au} be right, then we + should read {ephoren} in place of {basileos}, "belongs to the + ephors." + + (20) Technically the {tamiai}. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." iii. 14. +</pre> + <p> + XIV (1) + </p> + <p> + Now, if the question be put to me, Do you maintain that the laws of + Lycurgus remain still to this day unchanged? that indeed is an assertion + which I should no longer venture to maintain; knowing, as I do, that in + former times the Lacedaemonians preferred to live at home on moderate + means, content to associate exclusively with themselves rather than to + play the part of governor-general (2) in foreign states and to be + corrupted by flattery; knowing further, as I do, that formerly they + dreaded to be detected in the possession of gold, whereas nowadays there + are not a few who make it their glory and their boast to be possessed of + it. I am very well aware that in former days alien acts (3) were put in + force for this very object. To live abroad was not allowed. And why? + Simply in order that the citizens of Sparta might not take the infection + of dishonesty and light-living from foreigners; whereas now I am very well + aware that those who are reputed to be leading citizens have but one + ambition, and that is to live to the end of their days as + governors-general on a foreign soil. (4) The days were when their sole + anxiety was to fit themselves to lead the rest of Hellas. But nowadays + they concern themselves much more to wield command than to be fit + themselves to rule. And so it has come to pass that whereas in old days + the states of Hellas flocked to Lacedaemon seeking her leadership (5) + against the supposed wrongdoer, now numbers are inviting one another to + prevent the Lacedaemonians again recovering their empire. (6) Yet, if they + have incurred all these reproaches, we need not wonder, seeing that they + are so plainly disobedient to the god himself and to the laws of their own + lawgiver Lycurgus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) For the relation of this chapter to the rest of the treatise, see + Grote, ix. 325; Ern. Naumann, "de Xen. libro qui" {LAK. POLITEIA} + inscribitur, p. 18 foll.; Newmann, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 326. + + (2) Harmosts. + + (3) "Xenelasies," {xenelasiai} technically called. See Plut. "Lycurg." + 27; "Agis," 10; Thuc. ii. 39, where Pericles contrasts the liberal + spirit of the democracy with Spartan exclusiveness; "Our city is + thrown open to the world, and we never expel a foreigner or + prevent him from seeing or learning anything of which the secret, + if revealed to an enemy, might profit him."—Jowett, i. 118. + + (4) Lit. "harmosts"; and for the taste of living abroad, see what is + said of Dercylidas, "Hell." IV. iii. 2. The harmosts were not + removed till just before Leuctra (371 B.C.), "Hell." VI. iv. 1, + and after, see Paus. VIII. lii. 4; IX. lxiv. + + (5) See Plut. "Lycurg." 30 (Clough, i. 124). + + (6) This passage would seem to fix the date of the chapter xiv. as + about the time of the Athenian confederacy of 378 B.C.; "Hell." V. + iv. 34; "Rev." v. 6. See also Isocr. "Panegyr." 380 B.C.; Grote, + "H. G." ix. 325. See the text of a treaty between Athens, Chios, + Mytilene, and Byzantium; Kohler, "Herm." v. 10; Rangabe, "Antiq. + Hellen." ii. 40, 373; Naumann, op. cit. 26. +</pre> + <p> + XV + </p> + <p> + I wish to explain with sufficient detail the nature of the covenant + between king and state as instituted by Lycurgus; for this, I take it, is + the sole type of rule (1) which still preserves the original form in which + it was first established; whereas other constitutions will be found either + to have been already modified or else to be still undergoing modifications + at this moment. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "magistracy"; the word {arkhe} at once signifies rule and + governmental office. +</pre> + <p> + Lycurgus laid it down as law that the king shall offer in behalf of the + state all public sacrifices, as being himself of divine descent, (2) and + whithersoever the state shall despatch her armies the king shall take the + lead. He granted him to receive honorary gifts of the things offered in + sacrifice, and he appointed him choice land in many of the provincial + cities, enough to satisfy moderate needs without excess of wealth. And in + order that the kings also might camp and mess in public he appointed them + public quarters; and he honoured them with a double portion (3) each at + the evening meal, not in order that they might actually eat twice as much + as others, but that the king might have wherewithal to honour whomsoever + he desired. He also granted as a gift to each of the two kings to choose + two mess-fellows, which same are called Puthioi. He also granted them to + receive out of every litter of swine one pig, so that the king might never + be at a loss for victims if in aught he wished to consult the gods. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) I.e. a Heracleid, in whichever line descended, and, through + Heracles, from Zeus himself. The kings are therefore "heroes," + i.e. demigods. See below; and for their privileges, see Herod. vi. + 56, 57. + + (3) See "Ages." v. 1. +</pre> + <p> + Close by the palace a lake affords an unrestricted supply of water; and + how useful that is for various purposes they best can tell who lack the + luxury. (4) Moreover, all rise from their seats to give place to the king, + save only that the ephors rise not from their thrones of office. Monthly + they exchange oaths, the ephors in behalf of the state, the king himself + in his own behalf. And this is the oath on the king's part: "I will + exercise my kingship in accordance with the established laws of the + state." And on the part of the state the oath runs: "So long as he (5) + (who exercises kingship) shall abide by his oaths we will not suffer his + kingdom to be shaken." (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Hartman, "An. Xen. N." p. 274; but cf. "Cyneget." v. 34; + "Anab." V. iii. 8. + + (5) Lit. "he yonder." + + (6) Lit. "we will keep it for him unshaken." See L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. and praef. p. 14 D. +</pre> + <p> + These then are the honours bestowed upon the king during his lifetime (at + home) (7)—honours by no means much exceeding those of private + citizens, since the lawgiver was minded neither to suggest to the kings + the pride of the despotic monarch, (8) nor, on the other hand, to engender + in the heart of the citizen envy of their power. As to those other honours + which are given to the king at his death, (9) the laws of Lycurgus would + seem plainly to signify hereby that these kings of Lacedaemon are not mere + mortals but heroic beings, and that is why they are preferred in honour. + (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) The words "at home" look like an insertion. + + (8) Lit. "the tyrant's pride." + + (9) See "Hell." III. iii. 1; "Ages." xi. 16; Herod. vi. 58. + + (10) Intentionally or not on the part of the writer, the concluding + words, in which the intention of the Laws is conveyed, assume a + metrical form: + + {oukh os anthropous all os eroas tous + Lakedaimonion basileis protetimekasin.} + + See Ern. Naumann, op. cit. p. 18. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Polity of the Athenians and the +Lacedaemonians, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS *** + +***** This file should be named 1178-h.htm or 1178-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/1/7/1178/ + +Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians + +Author: Xenophon + +Translator: H. G. Dakyns + +Posting Date: August 26, 2008 [EBook #1178] +Release Date: January, 1998 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers + + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS AND THE LACEDAEMONIANS + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + + + + + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the + laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which + train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to + old age. + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS + + + +I + +Now, as concerning the Polity of the Athenians, (1) and the type or +manner of constitution which they have chosen, (2) I praise it not, +in so far as the very choice involves the welfare of the baser folk as +opposed to that of the better class. I repeat, I withhold my praise so +far; but, given the fact that this is the type agreed upon, I propose +to show that they set about its preservation in the right way; and that +those other transactions in connection with it, which are looked upon as +blunders by the rest of the Hellenic world, are the reverse. + + (1) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 47 foll.; Thuc. i. 76, 77; viii. 48; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." passim; Hartman, "An. Xen. N." cap. viii.; + Roquette, "Xen. Vit." S. 26; Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 538; and + "Xenophontis qui fertur libellus de Republica Atheniensium," ed. + A. Kirchhoff (MDCCCLXXIV), whose text I have chiefly followed. + + (2) Lit. "I do not praise their choice of the (particular) type, in so + far as..." + +In the first place, I maintain, it is only just that the poorer classes +(3) and the People of Athens should be better off than the men of birth +and wealth, seeing that it is the people who man the fleet, (4) and put +round the city her girdle of power. The steersman, (5) the boatswain, +the lieutenant, (6) the look-out-man at the prow, the shipright--these +are the people who engird the city with power far rather than her heavy +infantry (7) and men of birth of quality. This being the case, it seems +only just that offices of state should be thrown open to every one both +in the ballot (8) and the show of hands, and that the right of speech +should belong to any one who likes, without restriction. For, observe, +(9) there are many of these offices which, according as they are in good +or in bad hands, are a source of safety or of danger to the People, and +in these the People prudently abstains from sharing; as, for instance, +it does not think it incumbent on itself to share in the functions of +the general or of the commander of cavalry. (10) The sovereign People +recognises the fact that in forgoing the personal exercise of these +offices, and leaving them to the control of the more powerful (11) +citizens, it secures the balance of advantage to itself. It is only +those departments of government which bring emolument (12) and assist +the private estate that the People cares to keep in its own hands. + + (3) Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 58 foll. + + (4) Lit. "ply the oar and propel the galleys." + + (5) See "Econ." viii. 14; Pollux, i. 96; Arist. "Knights," 543 foll.; + Plat. "Laws," v. 707 A; Jowett, "Plat." v. 278 foll.; Boeckh, "P. + E. A." bk. ii. ch. xxi. + + (6) Lit. "pentecontarch;" see Dem. "In Pol." 1212. + + (7) Aristot. "Pol." vi. 7; Jowett, "The Politics of Aristotle," vol. + i. p. 109. + + (8) {klerotoi}, {airetoi}. + + (9) Reading with Kirchhoff, {epeo tou}, or if {epeita}, "in the next + place." + + (10) Hipparch. + + (11) Cf. "Hipparch." i. 9; "Econ." ii. 8. + + (12) E.g. the {dikasteria}. + +In the next place, in regard to what some people are puzzled to +explain--the fact that everywhere greater consideration is shown to +the base, to poor people and to common folk, than to persons of good +quality--so far from being a matter of surprise, this, as can be shown, +is the keystone of the preservation of the democracy. It is these +poor people, this common folk, this riff-raff, (13) whose prosperity, +combined with the growth of their numbers, enhances the democracy. +Whereas, a shifting of fortune to the advantage of the wealthy and the +better classes implies the establishment on the part of the commonalty +of a strong power in opposition to itself. In fact, all the world over, +the cream of society is in opposition to the democracy. Naturally, since +the smallest amount of intemperance and injustice, together with the +highest scrupulousness in the pursuit of excellence, is to be found in +the ranks of the better class, while within the ranks of the People +will be found the greatest amount of ignorance, disorderliness, +rascality--poverty acting as a stronger incentive to base conduct, not +to speak of lack of education and ignorance, traceable to the lack of +means which afflicts the average of mankind. (14) + + (13) Or, "these inferiors," "these good-for-nothings." + + (14) Or, "some of these folk." The passage is corrupt. + +The objection may be raised that it was a mistake to allow the universal +right of speech (15) and a seat in council. These should have been +reserved for the cleverest, the flower of the community. But here, +again, it will be found that they are acting with wise deliberation in +granting to (16) even the baser sort the right of speech, for supposing +only the better people might speak, or sit in council, blessings would +fall to the lot of those like themselves, but to the commonalty the +reverse of blessings. Whereas now, any one who likes, any base fellow, +may get up and discover something to the advantage of himself and his +equals. It may be retorted: "And what sort of advantage either for +himself or for the People can such a fellow be expected to hit upon?" +The answer to which is, that in their judgment the ignorance and +baseness of this fellow, together with his goodwill, are worth a great +deal more to them than your superior person's virtue and wisdom, coupled +with animosity. What it comes to, therefore, is that a state founded +upon such institutions will not be the best state; (17) but, given a +democracy, these are the right means to procure its preservation. The +People, it must be borne in mind, does not demand that the city should +be well governed and itself a slave. It desires to be free and to be +master. (18) As to bad legislation it does not concern itself about +that. (19) In fact, what you believe to be bad legislation is the very +source of the People's strength and freedom. But if you seek for good +legislation, in the first place you will see the cleverest members of +the community laying down the laws for the rest. And in the next place, +the better class will curb and chastise the lower orders; the +better class will deliberate in behalf of the state, and not suffer +crack-brained fellows to sit in council, or to speak or vote in +Parliament. (20) No doubt; but under the weight of such blessings the +People will in a very short time be reduced to slavery. + + (15) Lit. "everybody to speak in turn." + + (16) Or, "it is a counsel of perfection on their part to grant to," + etc. + + (17) Or, "the ideal state." + + (18) Or, "and to govern and hold office." + + (19) Or, "it will take the risk of that." + + (20) See Grote, "H. G." v. p. 510 note. + +Another point is the extraordinary amount of license (21) granted to +slaves and resident aliens at Athens, where a blow is illegal, and a +slave will not step aside to let you pass him in the street. I will +explain the reason of this peculiar custom. Supposing it were legal +for a slave to be beaten by a free citizen, or for a resident alien or +freedman to be beaten by a citizen, it would frequently happen that +an Athenian might be mistaken for a slave or an alien and receive a +beating; since the Athenian People is no better clothed than the slave +or alien, nor in personal appearance is there any superiority. Or if the +fact itself that slaves in Athens are allowed to indulge in luxury, and +indeed in some cases to live magnificently, be found astonishing, this +too, it can be shown, is done of set purpose. Where you have a naval +power (22) dependent upon wealth (23) we must perforce be slaves to our +slaves, in order that we may get in our slave-rents, (24) and let +the real slave go free. Where you have wealthy slaves it ceases to be +advantageous that my slave should stand in awe of you. In Lacedaemon my +slave stands in awe of you. (25) But if your slave is in awe of me there +will be a risk of his giving away his own moneys to avoid running a risk +in his own person. It is for this reason then that we have established +an equality between our slaves and free men; and again between our +resident aliens and full citizens, (26) because the city stands in need +of her resident aliens to meet the requirements of such a multiplicity +of arts and for the purposes of her navy. That is, I repeat, the +justification for the equality conferred upon our resident aliens. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11 and vi. 4; Jowett, op. cit. vol. i. pp. + 179, 196; Welldon, "The Politics of Aristotle," pp. 394 323; Dem. + "Phil." III. iii. 10; Plaut. "Stich." III. i. 37. + + (22) See Diod. xi. 43. + + (23) Reading, {apo khrematon, anagke}, or (reading, {apo khrematon + anagke}) "considerations of money force us to be slaves." + + (24) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xiii. (Eng. trans. p. 72). "The rights + of property with regard to slaves in no way differed from any + other chattel; they could be given or taken as pledges. They + laboured either on their master's account or their own, in + consideration of a certain sum to be paid to the master, or they + were let out on hire either for the mines or any other kind of + labour, and even for other persons' workshops, or as hired + servants for wages ({apophora}): a similar payment was also + exacted by the masters for their slaves serving in the fleet." Ib. + "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurion," p. 659 (Eng. + trans.) + + (25) See "Pol. Lac." vi. 3. + + (26) Or, "we have given to our slaves the right to talk like equals + with free men, just as to resident aliens the right of so talking + with citizens." See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xiv. 4, note, p. 221. + See Demosth. "against Midias," 529, where the law is cited. "If + any one commit a personal outrage upon man, woman, or child, + whether free-born or slave, or commit any illegal act against any + such person, let any Athenian that chooses" (not being under + disability) "indict him before the judges," etc; and the orator + exclaims: "You know, O Athenians, the humanity of the law, which + allows not even slaves to be insulted in their persons."--C. R. + Kennedy. + +Citizens devoting their time to gymnastics and to the cultivation of +music are not to be found in Athens; (27) the sovereign People has +disestablished them, (28) not from any disbelief in the beauty and +honour of such training, but recognising the fact that these are things +the cultivation of which is beyond its power. On the same principle, in +the case of the coregia, (29) the gymnasiarchy, and the trierarchy, the +fact is recognised that it is the rich man who trains the chorus, and +the People for whom the chorus is trained; it is the rich man who is +trierarch or gymnasiarch, and the People that profits by their labours. +(30) In fact, what the People looks upon as its right is to pocket +the money. (31) To sing and run and dance and man the vessels is well +enough, but only in order that the People may be the gainer, while the +rich are made poorer. And so in the courts of justice, (32) justice is +not more an object of concern to the jurymen than what touches personal +advantage. + + (27) For {mousike} and {gumnastike}, see Becker's "Charicles," Exc. + "Education." + + (28) See "Revenues," iv. 52; Arist. "Frogs," 1069, {e xekenosen tas te + palaistras}, "and the places of exercise vacant and bare."--Frere. + + (29) "The duties of the choregia consisted in finding maintenance and + instruction for the chorus" (in tragedy, usually of fifteen + persons) "as long as they were in training; and in providing the + dresses and equipments for the performance."--Jebb, "Theophr. + Char." xxv. 3. For those of the gymnasiarchy, see "Dict. of + Antiq." "Gymnasium." For that of the trierarchy, see Jebb, op. + cit. xxv. 9; xxix. 16; Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. xi. + + (30) See "Econ." ii. 6; Thuc. vi. 31. + + (31) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. xvi. p. 241. + + (32) For the system of judicature, the {dikasteria}, and the boards of + jurymen or judges, see Aristot. "Constitution of Athens," ch. + lxiii.; "Dict. of Antiq." s.v. + +To speak next of the allies, and in reference to the point that +emissaries (33) from Athens come out, and, according to common opinion, +calumniate and vent their hatred (34) upon the better sort of people, +this is done (35) on the principle that the ruler cannot help being +hated by those whom he rules; but that if wealth and respectability are +to wield power in the subject cities the empire of the Athenian People +has but a short lease of existence. This explains why the better people +are punished with infamy, (36) robbed of their money, driven from their +homes, and put to death, while the baser sort are promoted to honour. On +the other hand, the better Athenians throw their aegis over the better +class in the allied cities. (37) And why? Because they recognise that it +is to the interest of their own class at all times to protect the best +element in the cities. It may be urged (38) that if it comes to strength +and power the real strength of Athens lies in the capacity of her allies +to contribute their money quota. But to the democratic mind (39) it +appears a higher advantage still for the individual Athenian to get hold +of the wealth of the allies, leaving them only enough to live upon +and to cultivate their estates, but powerless to harbour treacherous +designs. + + (33) For {oi ekpleontes}, see Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 41. + + (34) Reading {misousi}; or, if with Kirchhoff, {meiousi}, "in every + way humiliate." + + (35) Or, "(they do so) as recognising the fact." + + (36) {atimia} = the loss of civil rights, either total or partial. See + C. R. Kennedy, "Select Speeches of Demosthenes," Note 13, + Disenfranchisement. + + (37) See Thuc. viii. 48. + + (38) See Grote, "H. G." vi. 53. + + (39) Or, "to a thorough democrat." + +Again, (40) it is looked upon as a mistaken policy on the part of the +Athenian democracy to compel her allies to voyage to Athens in order to +have their cases tried. (41) On the other hand, it is easy to reckon up +what a number of advantages the Athenian People derive from the practice +impugned. In the first place, there is the steady receipt of salaries +throughout the year (42) derived from the court fees. (43) Next, it +enables them to manage the affairs of the allied states while seated +at home without the expense of naval expeditions. Thirdly, they thus +preserve the partisans of the democracy, and ruin her opponents in the +law courts. Whereas, supposing the several allied states tried their +cases at home, being inspired by hostility to Athens, they would destroy +those of their own citizens whose friendship to the Athenian People was +most marked. But besides all this the democracy derives the following +advantages from hearing the cases of her allies in Athens. In the first +place, the one per cent (44) levied in Piraeus is increased to the +profit of the state; again, the owner of a lodging-house (45) does +better, and so, too, the owner of a pair of beasts, or of slaves to +be let out on hire; (46) again, heralds and criers (47) are a class of +people who fare better owing to the sojourn of foreigners at Athens. +Further still, supposing the allies had not to resort to Athens for the +hearing of cases, only the official representative of the imperial +state would be held in honour, such as the general, or trierarch, or +ambassador. Whereas now every single individual among the allies is +forced to pay flattery to the People of Athens because he knows that he +must betake himself to Athens and win or lose (48) his case at the bar, +not of any stray set of judges, but of the sovereign People itself, +such being the law and custom at Athens. He is compelled to behave as +a suppliant (49) in the courts of justice, and when some juryman comes +into court, to grasp his hand. For this reason, therefore, the allies +find themselves more and more in the position of slaves to the people of +Athens. + + (40) Grote, "H. G." vi. 61. + + (41) See Isocr. "Panath." 245 D. + + (42) See Arist. "Clouds," 1196; Demosth. "c. Timoc." 730. + + (43) For the "Prytaneia," see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 12, 4. "Ephialtes + and Pericles curtailed the privileges of the Areopagus, Pericles + converted the Courts of Law into salaried bodies, and so each + succeeding demagogue outdid his predecessor in the privileges he + conferred upon the commons, until the present democracy was the + result" (Welldon). "The writer of this passage clearly intended to + class Pericles among the demagogues. He judges him in the same + deprecatory spirit as Plato in the 'Gorgias,' pp. 515, 516."-- + Jowett, "Pol. of Aristot." vol. ii. p. 101. But see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. xxv., a portion of the newly- + discovered treatise, which throws light on an obscure period in + the history of Athens; and Mr. Kenyon's note ad loc.; and Mr. + Macan's criticism, "Journal of Hellenic Studies," vol. xii. No. 1. + + (44) For the {ekatoste}, see Thuc. vii. 28, in reference to the year + B.C. 416; Arist. "Wasps," 658; "Frogs," 363. + + (45) See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xii. p. 65 (Eng. trans.); I. xxiv. p. + 141. + + (46) See "Revenues," iv. 20, p. 338; Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xxvi. 16. + + (47) For these functionaries, see Jebb, op. cit. xvi. 10. + + (48) Lit. "pay or get justice." + + (49) Se Arist. "Wasps," 548 foll.; Grote, "H. G." v. 520 note; Newman, + op. cit. i. 383. + +Furthermore, owing to the possession of property beyond the limits +of Attica, (50) and the exercise of magistracies which take them into +regions beyond the frontier, they and their attendants have insensibly +acquired the art of navigation. (51) A man who is perpetually voyaging +is forced to handle the oar, he and his domestics alike, and to learn +the terms familiar in seamanship. Hence a stock of skilful mariners is +produced, bred upon a wide experience of voyaging and practice. They +have learnt their business, some in piloting a small craft, others a +merchant vessel, whilst others have been drafted off from these for +service on a ship-of-war. So that the majority of them are able to row +the moment they set foot on board a vessel, having been in a state of +preliminary practice all their lives. + + (50) See "Mem." II. viii. 1. + + (51) See "Hell." VII. i. 4. + + + +II + +As to the heavy infantry, an arm the deficiency of which at Athens is +well recognised, this is how the matter stands. They recognise the fact +that, in reference to the hostile power, they are themselves inferior, +and must be, even if their heavy infantry were more numerous. (1) But +relatively to the allies, who bring in the tribute, their strength even +on land is enormous. And they are persuaded that their heavy infantry is +sufficient for all purposes, provided they retain this superiority. +(2) Apart from all else, to a certain extent fortune must be held +responsible for the actual condition. The subjects of a power which is +dominant by land have it open to them to form contingents from several +small states and to muster in force for battle. But with the subjects of +a naval power it is different. As far as they are groups of islanders it +is impossible for their states to meet together for united action, for +the sea lies between them, and the dominant power is master of the sea. +And even if it were possible for them to assemble in some single island +unobserved, they would only do so to perish by famine. And as to the +states subject to Athens which are not islanders, but situated on the +continent, the larger are held in check by need (3) and the small ones +absolutely by fear, since there is no state in existence which does not +depend upon imports and exports, and these she will forfeit if she does +not lend a willing ear to those who are masters by sea. In the next +place, a power dominant by sea can do certain things which a land power +is debarred from doing; as for instance, ravage the territory of a +superior, since it is always possible to coast along to some point, +where either there is no hostile force to deal with or merely a small +body; and in case of an advance in force on the part of the enemy they +can take to their ships and sail away. Such a performance is attended +with less difficulty than that experienced by the relieving force on +land. (4) Again, it is open to a power so dominating by sea to leave its +own territory and sail off on as long a voyage as you please. Whereas +the land power cannot place more than a few days' journey between itself +and its own territory, for marches are slow affairs; and it is not +possible for an army on the march to have food supplies to last for any +great length of time. Such an army must either march through friendly +territory or it must force a way by victory in battle. The voyager +meanwhile has it in his power to disembark at any point where he finds +himself in superior force, or, at the worst, to coast by until he +reaches either a friendly district or an enemy too weak to resist. +Again, those diseases to which the fruits of the earth are liable as +visitations from heaven fall severely on a land power, but are scarcely +felt by the navel power, for such sicknesses do not visit the whole +earth everywhere at once. So that the ruler of the sea can get in +supplies from a thriving district. And if one may descend to more +trifling particulars, it is to this same lordship of the sea that the +Athenians owe the discovery, in the first place, of many of the luxuries +of life through intercourse with other countries. So that the choice +things of Sicily and Italy, of Cyprus and Egypt and Lydia, of Pontus or +Peloponnese, or wheresoever else it be, are all swept, as it were, +into one centre, and all owing, as I say, to their maritime empire. And +again, in process of listening to every form of speech, (5) they have +selected this from one place and that from another--for themselves. So +much so that while the rest of the Hellenes employ (6) each pretty much +their own peculiar mode of speech, habit of life, and style of dress, +the Athenians have adopted a composite type, (7) to which all sections +of Hellas, and the foreigner alike, have contributed. + + (1) Reading after Kirchhoff, {ettous ge... kan ei meizon en, ton + dia k.t.l.} See Thuc. i. 143; Isocr. "de Pace," 169 A; Plut. + "Them." 4 (Clough, i. 235). + + (2) Lit. "they are superior to their allies." + + (3) Reading with Kirchhoff, {dia khreian... dia deos}. + + (4) Or, "the army marching along the seaboard to the rescue." + + (5) Or, "a variety of dialects." + + (6) Or, "maintain somewhat more." + + (7) Or, "have contracted a mixed style, bearing traces of Hellenic and + foreign influence alike." See Mahaffy, "Hist. of Greek Lit." vol. + ii. ch. x. p. 257 (1st ed.); cf. Walt Whitman, "Preface to" + original edition of "Leaves of Grass," p. 29--"The English + language befriends the grand American expression: it is brawny + enough and limber and full enough, on the tough stock of a race, + who through all change of circumstances was never without the idea + of a political liberty, which is the animus of all liberty; it has + attracted the terms of daintier and gayer and subtler and more + elegant tongues." + +As regards sacrifices and temples and festivals and sacred enclosures, +the People sees that it is not possible for every poor citizen to do +sacrifice and hold festival, or to set up (8) temples and to inhabit +a large and beautiful city. But it has hit upon a means of meeting the +difficulty. They sacrifice--that is, the whole state sacrifices--at the +public cost a large number of victims; but it is the People that keeps +holiday and distributes the victims by lot amongst its members. Rich men +have in some cases private gymnasia and baths with dressing-rooms, (9) +but the People takes care to have built at the public cost (10) a number +of palaestras, dressing-rooms, and bathing establishments for its own +special use, and the mob gets the benefit of the majority of these, +rather than the select few or the well-to-do. + + (8) Reading with Kirchhoff, {istasthai}. + + (9) See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." vii. 18, p. 202. + + (10) Reading with Kirchhoff, {demosia}. + +As to wealth, the Athenians are exceptionally placed with regard to +Hellenic and foreign communities alike, (11) in their ability to +hold it. For, given that some state or other is rich in timber for +shipbuilding, where is it to find a market (12) for the product except +by persuading the ruler of the sea? Or, suppose the wealth of some state +or other to consist of iron, or may be of bronze, (13) or of linen yarn, +where will it find a market except by permission of the supreme maritime +power? Yet these are the very things, you see, which I need for my +ships. Timber I must have from one, and from another iron, from a third +bronze, from a fourth linen yarn, from a fifth wax, etc. Besides which +they will not suffer their antagonists in those parts (14) to carry +these products elsewhither, or they will cease to use the sea. +Accordingly I, without one stroke of labour, extract from the land and +possess all these good things, thanks to my supremacy on the sea; whilst +not a single other state possesses the two of them. Not timber, for +instance, and yarn together, the same city. But where yarn is abundant, +the soil will be light and devoid of timber. And in the same way bronze +and iron will not be products of the same city. And so for the rest, +never two, or at best three, in one state, but one thing here and +another thing there. Moreover, above and beyond what has been said, the +coast-line of every mainland presents, either some jutting promontory, +or adjacent island, or narrow strait of some sort, so that those who are +masters of the sea can come to moorings at one of these points and wreak +vengeance (15) on the inhabitants of the mainland. + + (11) Or, "they have a practical monopoly." + + (12) Or, "how is it to dispose of the product?" + + (13) Or, "coppert." + + (14) Reading {ekei}. For this corrupt passage see L. Dindorf, ad. + loc.; also Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. ix. p. 55. Perhaps (as my friend + Mr. J. R. Mozley suggests) the simplest supposition is to suppose + that there is an ellipsis before {e ou khresontai te thalatte}: + thus, "Besides which they will not suffer their antagonists to + transport goods to countries outside Attica; they must yield, or + they shall not have the use of the sea." + + (15) {lobasthai}. This "poetical" word comes to mean "harry," + "pillage," in the common dialect. + +There is just one thing which the Athenians lack. Supposing that they +were the inhabitants of an island, (16) and were still, as now, rulers +of the sea, they would have had it in their power to work whatever +mischief they liked, and to suffer no evil in return (as long as they +kept command of the sea), neither the ravaging of their territory nor +the expectation of an enemy's approach. Whereas at present the farming +portion of the community and the wealthy landowners are ready (17) to +cringe before the enemy overmuch, whilst the People, knowing full well +that, come what may, not one stock or stone of their property will +suffer, nothing will be cut down, nothing burnt, lives in freedom from +alarm, without fawning at the enemy's approach. Besides this, there +is another fear from which they would have been exempt in an island +home--the apprehension of the city being at any time betrayed by their +oligarchs (18) and the gates thrown open, and an enemy bursting suddenly +in. How could incidents like these have taken place if an island had +been their home? Again, had they inhabited an island there would have +been no stirring of sedition against the people; whereas at present, +in the event of faction, those who set it in foot base their hopes of +success on the introduction of an enemy by land. But a people inhabiting +an island would be free from all anxiety on that score. Since, however, +they did not chance to inhabit an island from the first, what they now +do is this--they deposit their property in the islands, (19) trusting +to their command of the sea, and they suffer the soil of Aticca to be +ravaged without a sigh. To expend pity on that, they know, would be to +deprive themselves of other blessings still more precious. (20) + + (16) See Thuc. i. 143. Pericles says: "Reflect, if we were islanders, + who would be more invulnerable? Let us imagine that we are." + + (17) Or, "are the more ready to cringe." See, for the word + {uperkhontai}, "Pol. Lac." viii. 2; Plat. "Crit." 53 E; + Rutherford, "New Phrynichus," p. 110. + + (18) Or, "by the minority"; or, "by a handful of people." + + (19) As they did during the Peloponnesian war; and earlier still, + before the battle of Salamis, in the case of that one island. + + (20) Or, "but mean the forfeiture of others." + +Further, states oligarchically governed are forced to ratify their +alliances and solemn oaths, and if they fail to abide by their +contracts, the offence, by whomsoever committed, (21) lies nominally at +the door of the oligarchs who entered upon the contract. But in the case +of engagements entered into by a democracy it is open to the People to +throw the blame on the single individual who spoke in favour of some +measure, or put it to the vote, and to maintain to the rest of the +world, "I was not present, nor do I approve of the terms of the +agreement." Inquiries are made in a full meeting of the People, and +should any of these things be disapproved of, it can at once discover +ten thousand excuses to avoid doing whatever they do not wish. And if +any mischief should spring out of any resolutions which the People has +passed in council, the People can readily shift the blame from its own +shoulders. "A handful of oligarchs (22) acting against the interests +of the People have ruined us." But if any good result ensue, they, the +People, at once take the credit of that to themselves. + + (21) Reading {uph otououn adikeitai onomati upo ton oligon}, which I + suggest as a less violent emendation of this corrupt passage than + any I have seen; or, reading with Sauppe, {uph otou adikei + anomeitai apo ton oligon}, "the illegality lies at the door of." + + (22) Or, "a few insignificant fellows." + +In the same spirit it is not allowed to caricature on the comic stage +(23) or otherwise libel the People, because (24) they do not care to +hear themselves ill spoken of. But if any one has a desire to satirise +his neighbour he has full leave to do so. And this because they are well +aware that, as a general rule, this person caricatured (25) does not +belong to the People, or the masses. He is more likely to be some +wealthy or well-born person, or man of means and influence. In fact, +but few poor people and of the popular stamp incur the comic lash, or if +they do they have brought it on themselves by excessive love of meddling +or some covetous self-seeking at the expense of the People, so that no +particular annoyance is felt at seeing such folk satirised. + + (23) See Grote, "H. G." viii. 446, especially p. 449, "growth and + development of comedy at Athens"; Curtius, "H. G." iii. pp. 242, + 243; Thirlwall, "H. G." ch. xviii. vol. iii. p. 42. + + (24) Or, more lit. "it would not do for the People to hear," etc. + + (25) Or, "the butt of comedy." + +What, then, I venture to assert is, that the People of Athens has no +difficulty in recognising which of its citizens are of the better +sort and which the opposite. (26) And so recognising those who are +serviceable and advantageous (27) to itself, even though they be base, +the People loves them; but the good folk they are disposed rather to +hate. This virtue of theirs, the People holds, is not engrained in their +nature for any good to itself, but rather for its injury. In direct +opposition to this, there are some persons who, being (28) born of the +People, are yet by natural instinct not commoners. For my part I pardon +the People its own democracy, as, indeed, it is pardonable in any one to +do good to himself. (29) But the man who, not being himself one of the +People, prefers to live in a state democratically governed rather than +in an oligarchical state may be said to smooth his own path towards +iniquity. He knows that a bad man has a better chance of slipping +through the fingers of justice in a democratic than in an oligarchical +state. + + (26) Or, "and which are good for nothing." + + (27) Or,"its own friends and supporters." + + (28) Reading {ontes} or (if {gnontes}), "who, recognising the nature + of the People, have no popular leaning." Gutschmidt conj. {enioi + egguoi ontes}, i.e. Pericles. + + (29) On the principle that "the knee is nearer than the shin-bone," + {gonu knemes}, or, as we say, "charity begins at home." + + + +III + +I repeat that my position concerning the polity of the Athenians is +this: the type (1) of polity is not to my taste, but given that a +democratic form of government has been agreed upon, they do seem to me +to go the right way to preserve the democracy by the adoption of the +particular type (2) which I have set forth. + + (1) Or, "manner." + + (2) Or, "manner." + +But there are other objections brought, as I am aware, against the +Athenians, by certain people, and to this effect. It not seldom happens, +they tell us, that a man is unable to transact a piece of business with +the senate or the People, even if he sit waiting a whole year. Now this +does happen at Athens, and for no other reason save that, owing to the +immense mass of affairs they are unable to work off all the business on +hand, and dismiss the applicants. And how in the world should they be +able, considering in the first place, that they, the Athenians, have +more festivals (3) to celebrate than any other state throughout the +length and breadth of Hellas? (During these festivals, of course, the +transaction of any sort of affairs of state is still more out of the +question.) (4) In the next place, only consider the number of cases they +have to decide--what with private suits and public causes and scrutinies +of accounts, etc., more than the whole of the rest of mankind put +together; while the senate has multifarious points to advise upon +concerning peace and war, (5) concerning ways and means, concerning the +framing and passing of laws, (6) and concerning the thousand and one +matters affecting the state perpetually occurring, and endless +questions touching the allies; besides the receipt of the tribute, the +superintendence of dockyards and temples, etc. Can, I ask again, any one +find it at all surprising that, with all these affairs on their hands, +they are unequal to doing business with all the world? + + (3) See Arist. "Wasps," 661. + + (4) This sentence is perhaps a gloss. + + (5) Or, "about the war," {peri tou polemou}. + + (6) See Thirlwall, ch. xxxii. vol. iv. p. 221, note 3. + +But some people tell us that if the applicant will only address himself +to the senate or the People with a fee in his hand he will do a good +stroke of business. And for my part I am free to confess to these +gainsayers that a good many things may be done at Athens by dint of +money; and I will add, that a good many more still might be done, if +the money flowed still more freely and from more pockets. One thing, +however, I know full well, that as to transacting with every one of +these applicants all he wants, the state could not do it, not even if +all the gold and silver in the world were the inducement offered. + +Here are some of the cases which have to be decided on. Some one fails +to fit out a ship: judgement must be given. Another puts up a building +on a piece of public land: again judgement must be given. Or, to take +another class of cases: adjudication has to be made between the choragi +for the Dionysia, the Thargelia, the Panathenaea, year after year. ( (7) +And again in behalf of the gymnasiarchs a similar adjudication for the +Panathenaea, the Prometheia, and the Hephaestia, also year after year.) +Also as between the trierarchs, four hundred of whom are appointed each +year, of these, too, any who choose must have their cases adjudicated +on, year after year. But that is not all. There are various magistrates +to examine and approve (8) and decide between; there are orphans (9) +whose status must be examined; and guardians of prisoners to appoint. +These, be it borne in mind, are all matters of yearly occurrence; while +at intervals there are exemptions and abstentions from military service +(10) which call for adjudication, or in connection with some other +extraordinary misdemeanour, some case of outrage and violence of an +exceptional character, or some charge of impiety. A whole string of +others I simply omit; I am content to have named the most important part +with the exception of the assessments of tribute which occur, as a rule, +at intervals of five years. (11) + + (7) Adopting the emendation of Kirchhoff, who inserts the sentence in + brackets. For the festivals in question, see "Dict. of Antiq." + "Lampadephoria"; C. R. Kenney, "Demosth. against Leptines," etc., + App. vi. + + (8) For the institution called the {dokimasia}, see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. lv. + + (9) See Dem. "against Midias," 565, 17; "against Apholus" (1), 814, + 20. + + (10) See Lys. "Or." xiv. and xv. + + (11) See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 48; Thuc. vii. 78; i. 96; Arist. + "Wasps," 707; Aristot. "Pol." v. 8. + +I put it to you, then: can any one suppose that all, or any, of these +may dispense with adjudication? (12) If so, will any one say which +ought, and which ought not, to be adjudicated on, there and then? If, on +the other hand, we are forced to admit that these are all fair cases for +adjudication, it follows of necessity that they should be decided during +the twelve-month; since even now the boards of judges sitting right +through the year are powerless to stay the tide of evildoing by reason +of the multitude of the people. + + (12) Reading with Kirchhoff. Cf. for {oiesthai khre}, "Hell." VI. iv. + 23; "Cyr." IV. ii. 28. + +So far so good. (13) "But," some one will say, "try the cases you +certainly must, but lessen the number of the judges." But if so, it +follows of necessity that unless the number of courts themselves are +diminished in number there will only be a few judges sitting in each +court, (14) with the further consequence that in dealing with so small +a body of judges it will be easier for a litigant to present an +invulnerable front (15) to the court, and to bribe (16) the whole body, +to the great detriment of justice. (17) + + (13) See Grote, "H. G." v. 514, 520; Machiavelli, "Disc. s. Livio," i. + 7. + + (14) Reading with Sauppe, {anagke toinun, ean me} (for the vulgate + {ean men oliga k.t.l.}) {oliga poiontai dikasteria, oligoi en + ekasto esontai to dikasterio}. Or, adopting Weiske's emendation, + {ean men polla poiontai dikasteria k.t.l.} Translate, "Then, if by + so doing they manage to multiply the law courts, there will be + only a few judges sitting," etc. + + (15) Or, as Liddell and Scott, "to prepare all his tricks." + + (16) {sundekasoi}, "to bribe in the lump." This is Schneider's happy + emendation of the MS. {sundikasai}; see Demosthenes, 1137, 1. + + (17) Reading {oste}, lit. "so as to get a far less just judgment." + +But besides this we cannot escape the conclusion that the Athenians have +their festivals to keep, during which the courts cannot sit. (18) As +a matter of fact these festivals are twice as numerous as those of any +other people. But I will reckon them as merely equal to those of the +state which has the fewest. + + (18) Lit. "it is not possible to give judgment"; or, "for juries to + sit." + +This being so, I maintain that it is not possible for business affairs +at Athens to stand on any very different footing from the present, +except to some slight extent, by adding here and deducting there. +Any large modification is out of the question, short of damaging the +democracy itself. No doubt many expedients might be discovered for +improving the constitution, but if the problem be to discover some +adequate means of improving the constitution, while at the same time the +democracy is to remain intact, I say it is not easy to do this, except, +as I have just stated, to the extent of some trifling addition here or +deduction there. + +There is another point in which it is sometimes felt that the Athenians +are ill advised, in their adoption, namely, of the less respectable +party, in a state divided by faction. But if so, they do it advisedly. +If they chose the more respectable, they would be adopting those whose +views and interests differ from their own, for there is no state in +which the best element is friendly to the people. It is the worst +element which in every state favours the democracy--on the principle +that like favours like. (19) It is simple enough then. The Athenians +choose what is most akin to themselves. Also on every occasion on which +they have attempted to side with the better classes, it has not fared +well with them, but within a short interval the democratic party has +been enslaved, as for instance in Boeotia; (20) or, as when they chose +the aristocrats of the Milesians, and within a short time these revolted +and cut the people to pieces; or, as when they chose the Lacedaemonians +as against the Messenians, and within a short time the Lacedaemonians +subjugated the Messenians and went to war against Athens. + + (19) I.e. "birds of a feather." + + (20) The references are perhaps (1) to the events of the year 447 + B.C., see Thuc. i. 113; cf. Aristot. "Pol." v. 3, 5; (2) to 440 + B.C., Thuc. i. 115; Diod. xii. 27, 28; Plut. "Pericl." c. 24; (3) + to those of 464 B.C., followed by 457 B.C., Thuc. i. 102; Plut. + "Cimon," c. 16; and Thuc. i. 108. + +I seem to overhear a retort, "No one, of course, is deprived of his +civil rights at Athens unjustly." My answer is, that there are some +who are unjustly deprived of their civil rights, though the cases are +certainly rare. But it will take more than a few to attack the democracy +at Athens, since you may take it as an established fact, it is not the +man who has lost his civil rights justly that takes the matter to heart, +but the victims, if any, of injustice. But how in the world can any one +imagine that many are in a state of civil disability at Athens, where +the People and the holders of office are one and the same? It is from +iniquitous exercise of office, from iniquity exhibited either in speech +or action, and the like circumstances, that citizens are punished with +deprivation of civil rights in Athens. Due reflection on these matters +will serve to dispel the notion that there is any danger at Athens from +persons visited with disenfranchisement. + + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS + + + +I + +I recall the astonishment with which I (1) first noted the unique +position (2) of Sparta amongst the states of Hellas, the relatively +sparse population, (3) and at the same time the extraordinary power and +prestige of the community. I was puzzled to account for the fact. It was +only when I came to consider the peculiar institutions of the Spartans +that my wonderment ceased. Or rather, it is transferred to the +legislator who gave them those laws, obedience to which has been the +secret of their prosperity. This legislator, Lycurgus, I must needs +admire, and hold him to have been one of the wisest of mankind. +Certainly he was no servile imitator of other states. It was by a +stroke of invention rather, and on a pattern much in opposition to the +commonly-accepted one, that he brought his fatherland to this pinnacle +of prosperity. + + (1) See the opening words of the "Cyrop." and of the "Symp." + + (2) Or, "the phenomenal character." See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320 foll.; + Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 202. + + (3) See Herod. vii. 234; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 14 foll.; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10 (vol. i. p. 203, Eng. tr.) + +Take for example--and it is well to begin at the beginning (4)--the +whole topic of the begetting and rearing of children. Throughout the +rest of the world the young girl, who will one day become a mother (and +I speak of those who may be held to be well brought up), is nurtured +on the plainest food attainable, with the scantiest addition of meat +or other condiments; whilst as to wine they train them either to total +abstinence or to take it highly diluted with water. And in imitation, +as it were, of the handicraft type, since the majority of artificers are +sedentary, (5) we, the rest of the Hellenes, are content that our girls +should sit quietly and work wools. That is all we demand of them. But +how are we to expect that women nurtured in this fashion should produce +a splendid offspring? + + (4) Cf. a fragment of Critias cited by Clement, "Stromata," vi. p. + 741, 6; Athen. x. 432, 433; see "A Fragment of Xenophon" (?), ap. + Stob. "Flor." 88. 14, translated by J. Hookham Frere, "Theognis + Restitutus," vol. i. 333; G. Sauppe, "Append. de Frag. Xen." p. + 293; probably by Antisthenes (Bergk. ii. 497). + + (5) Or, "such technical work is for the most part sedentary." + +Lycurgus pursued a different path. Clothes were things, he held, the +furnishing of which might well enough be left to female slaves. And, +believing that the highest function of a free woman was the bearing of +children, in the first place he insisted on the training of the body +as incumbent no less on the female than the male; and in pursuit of the +same idea instituted rival contests in running and feats of strength +for women as for men. His belief was that where both parents were strong +their progeny would be found to be more vigorous. + +And so again after marriage. In view of the fact that immoderate +intercourse is elsewhere permitted during the earlier period of +matrimony, he adopted a principle directly opposite. He laid it down +as an ordinance that a man should be ashamed to be seen visiting the +chamber of his wife, whether going in or coming out. When they did meet +under such restraint the mutual longing of these lovers could not but be +increased, and the fruit which might spring from such intercourse +would tend to be more robust than theirs whose affections are cloyed +by satiety. By a farther step in the same direction he refused to allow +marriages to be contracted (6) at any period of life according to the +fancy of the parties concerned. Marriage, as he ordained it, must only +take place in the prime of bodily vigour, (7) this too being, as he +believed, a condition conducive to the production of healthy offspring. +Or again, to meet the case which might occur of an old man (8) wedded to +a young wife. Considering the jealous watch which such husbands are apt +to keep over their wives, he introduced a directly opposite custom; that +is to say, he made it incumbent on the aged husband to introduce +some one whose qualities, physical and moral, he admired, to play the +husband's part and to beget him children. Or again, in the case of a +man who might not desire to live with a wife permanently, but yet +might still be anxious to have children of his own worthy the name, the +lawgiver laid down a law (9) in his behalf. Such a one might select +some woman, the wife of some man, well born herself and blest with fair +offspring, and, the sanction and consent of her husband first obtained, +raise up children for himself through her. + + (6) "The bride to be wooed and won." The phrase {agesthai} perhaps + points to some primitive custom of capturing and carrying off the + bride, but it had probably become conventional. + + (7) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg," 15 (Clough, i. 101). "In their marriages the + husband carried off his bride by a sort of force; nor were their + brides ever small and of tender years, but in their full bloom and + ripeness." + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 103). + + (9) Or, "established a custom to suit the case." + +These and many other adaptations of a like sort the lawgiver sanctioned. +As, for instance, at Sparta a wife will not object to bear the burden +of a double establishment, (10) or a husband to adopt sons as +foster-brothers of his own children, with a full share in his family and +position, but possessing no claim to his wealth and property. + + (10) Cf. Plut. "Comp. of Numa with Lycurgus," 4; "Cato mi." 25 + (Clough, i. 163; iv. 395). + +So opposed to those of the rest of the world are the principles which +Lycurgus devised in reference to the production of children. Whether +they enabled him to provide Sparta with a race of men superior to all in +size and strength I leave to the judgment of whomsoever it may concern. + + + +II + +With this exposition of the customs in connection with the birth of +children, I wish now to explain the systems of education in fashion here +and elsewhere. Throughout the rest of Hellas the custom on the part of +those who claim to educate their sons in the best way is as follows. As +soon as the children are of an age to understand what is said to them +they are immediately placed under the charge of Paidagogoi (1) (or +tutors), who are also attendants, and sent off to the school of some +teacher to be taught "grammar," "music," and the concerns of the +palestra. (2) Besides this they are given shoes (3) to wear which tend +to make their feet tender, and their bodies are enervated by various +changes of clothing. And as for food, the only measure recognised is +that which is fixed by appetite. + + (1) = "boy-leaders." Cf. St. Paul, "Ep. Gal." iii. 24; The Law was our + schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ. + + (2) Cf. Plato, "Alc. maj." 106 E; "Theages," 122 E; Aristot. "Pol." + viii. 3. + + (3) Or, "sandals." + +But when we turn to Lycurgus, instead of leaving it to each member of +the state privately to appoint a slave to be his son's tutor, he +set over the young Spartans a public guardian, the Paidonomos (4) or +"pastor," to give them his proper title, (5) with complete authority +over them. This guardian was selected from those who filled the highest +magistracies. He had authority to hold musters of the boys, (6) and as +their overseer, in case of any misbehaviour, to chastise severely. The +legislator further provided his pastor with a body of youths in the +prime of life, and bearing whips, (7) to inflict punishment when +necessary, with this happy result that in Sparta modesty and obedience +ever go hand in hand, nor is there lack of either. + + (4) = "boyherd." + + (5) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 107); Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, + 13; vii. 17, 5. + + (6) Or, "assemble the boys in flocks." + + (7) {mastigophoroi} = "flagellants." + +Instead of softening their feet with shoe or sandal, his rule was to +make them hardy through going barefoot. (8) This habit, if practised, +would, as he believed, enable them to scale heights more easily and +clamber down precipices with less danger. In fact, with his feet so +trained the young Spartan would leap and spring and run faster unshod +than another shod in the ordinary way. + + (8) Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 16 (Clough, i. 106). + +Instead of making them effeminate with a variety of clothes, his rule +was to habituate them to a single garment the whole year through, +thinking that so they would be better prepared to withstand the +variations of heat and cold. + +Again, as regards food, according to his regulation the Eiren, (9) or +head of the flock, must see that his messmates gathered to the club +meal, (10) with such moderate food as to avoid that heaviness (11) +which is engendered by repletion, and yet not to remain altogether +unacquainted with the pains of penurious living. His belief was that by +such training in boyhood they would be better able when occasion demanded +to continue toiling on an empty stomach. They would be all the fitter, +if the word of command were given, to remain on the stretch for a long +time without extra dieting. The craving for luxuries (12) would be +less, the readiness to take any victual set before them greater, and, +in general, the regime would be found more healthy. (13) Under it he +thought the lads would increase in stature and shape into finer men, +since, as he maintained, a dietary which gave suppleness to the limbs +must be more conducive to both ends than one which added thickness to +the bodily parts by feeding. (14) + + (9) For the Eiren, see Plut. "Lycurg." (Clough, i. 107). + + (10) Reading {sumboleuein} (for the vulg. {sumbouleuein}). The + emendation is now commonly adopted. For the word itself, see L. + Dindorf, n. ad loc., and Schneider. {sumbolon} = {eranos} or club + meal. Perhaps we ought to read {ekhontas} instead of {ekhonta}. + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 108). + + (12) Lit. "condiments," such as "meat," "fish," etc. See "Cyrop." I. + ii. 8. + + (13) Or, "and in general they would live more healthily and increase + in stature." + + (14) See L. Dindorf's emendation of this corrupt passage, n. ad loc. + (based upon Plut. "Lycurg." 17 and Ps. Plut. "Moral." 237), {kai + eis mekos d' an auxanesthai oeto kai eueidesterous} vel {kallious + gignesthai, pros amphotera ton radina ta somata poiousan trophen + mallon sullambanein egesamenos e ten diaplatunousan}. Otherwise I + would suggest to read {kai eis mekos an auxanesthai ten (gar) + radina... egesato k.t.l.}, which is closer to the vulgate, and + gives nearly the same sense. + +On the other hand, in order to guard against a too great pinch of +starvation, though he did not actually allow the boys to help themselves +without further trouble to what they needed more, he did give them +permission to steal (15) this thing or that in the effort to alleviate +their hunger. It was not of course from any real difficulty how else to +supply them with nutriment that he left it to them to provide themselves +by this crafty method. Nor can I conceive that any one will so +misinterpret the custom. Clearly its explanation lies in the fact that +he who would live the life of a robber must forgo sleep by night, and in +the daytime he must employ shifts and lie in ambuscade; he must +prepare and make ready his scouts, and so forth, if he is to succeed in +capturing the quarry. (16) + + (15) See "Anab." IV. vi. 14. + + (16) For the institution named the {krupteia}, see Plut. "Lycurg." 28 + (Clough, i. 120); Plato, "Laws," i. 633 B; for the {klopeia}, ib. + vii. 823 E; Isocr. "Panathen." 277 B. + +It is obvious, I say, that the whole of this education tended, and was +intended, to make the boys craftier and more inventive in getting in +supplies, whilst at the same time it cultivated their warlike instincts. +An objector may retort: "But if he thought it so fine a feat to steal, +why did he inflict all those blows on the unfortunate who was caught?" +My answer is: for the self-same reason which induces people, in other +matters which are taught, to punish the mal-performance of a service. +So they, the Lacedaemonians, visit penalties on the boy who is detected +thieving as being but a sorry bungler in the art. So to steal as many +cheeses as possible (off the shrine of Orthia (17)) was a feat to be +encouraged; but, at the same moment, others were enjoined to scourge the +thief, which would point a moral not obscurely, that by pain endured for +a brief season a man may earn the joyous reward of lasting glory. (18) +Herein, too, it is plainly shown that where speed is requisite the +sluggard will win for himself much trouble and scant good. + + (17) I.e. "Artemis of the Steep"--a title connecting the goddess with + Mount Orthion or Orthosion. See Pausan. VIII. xxiii. 1; and for + the custom, see Themistius, "Or." 21, p. 250 A. The words have + perhaps got out of their right place. See Schneider's Index, s.v. + + (18) See Plut. "Lycurg." 18; "Morals," 239 C; "Aristid." 17; Cic. + "Tusc." ii. 14. + +Furthermore, and in order that the boys should not want a ruler, even +in case the pastor (19) himself were absent, he gave to any citizen who +chanced to be present authority to lay upon them injunctions for their +good, and to chastise them for any trespass committed. By so doing he +created in the boys of Sparta a most rare modesty and reverence. And +indeed there is nothing which, whether as boys or men, they respect more +highly than the ruler. Lastly, and with the same intention, that the +boys must never be reft of a ruler, even if by chance there were no +grown man present, he laid down the rule that in such a case the most +active of the Leaders or Prefects (20) was to become ruler for the +nonce, each of his own division. The conclusion being that under no +circumstances whatever are the boys of Sparta destitute of one to rule +them. + + (19) Lit. "Paidonomos." + + (20) Lit. "Eirens." + +I ought, as it seems to me, not to omit some remark on the subject of +boy attachments, (21) it being a topic in close connection with that of +boyhood and the training of boys. + + (21) See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 109). + +We know that the rest of the Hellenes deal with this relationship in +different ways, either after the manner of the Boeotians, (22) where man +and boy are intimately united by a bond like that of wedlock, or after +the manner of the Eleians, where the fruition of beauty is an act of +grace; whilst there are others who would absolutely debar the lover from +all conversation (23) and discourse with the beloved. + + (22) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 34; Plato, "Symp." 182 B (Jowett, II. p. + 33). + + (23) {dialegesthai} came to mean philosophic discussion and debate. Is + the author thinking of Socrates? See "Mem." I. ii. 35; IV. v. 12. + +Lycurgus adopted a system opposed to all of these alike. Given that some +one, himself being all that a man ought to be, should in admiration of +a boy's soul (24) endeavour to discover in him a true friend without +reproach, and to consort with him--this was a relationship which +Lycurgus commended, and indeed regarded as the noblest type of bringing +up. But if, as was evident, it was not an attachment to the soul, but +a yearning merely towards the body, he stamped this thing as foul and +horrible; and with this result, to the credit of Lycurgus be it said, +that in Lacedaemon the relationship of lover and beloved is like that +of parent and child or brother and brother where carnal appetite is in +abeyance. + + (24) See Xen. "Symp." viii. 35; Plut. "Lycurg." 18. + +That this, however, which is the fact, should be scarcely credited in +some quarters does not surprise me, seeing that in many states the laws +(25) do not oppose the desires in question. + + (25) I.e. "law and custom." + +I have now described the two chief methods of education in vogue; that +is to say, the Lacedaemonian as contrasted with that of the rest of +Hellas, and I leave it to the judgment of him whom it may concern, which +of the two has produced the finer type of men. And by finer I mean the +better disciplined, the more modest and reverential, and, in matters +where self-restraint is a virtue, the more continent. + + + +III + +Coming to the critical period at which a boy ceases to be a boy and +becomes a youth, (1) we find that it is just then that the rest of the +world proceed to emancipate their children from the private tutor and +the schoolmaster, and, without substituting any further ruler, are +content to launch them into absolute independence. + + (1) {eis to meirakiousthai}, "with reference to hobbledehoy-hood." + Cobet erases the phrase as post-Xenophontine. + +Here, again, Lycurgus took an entirely opposite view of the matter. +This, if observation might be trusted, was the season when the tide +of animal spirits flows fast, and the froth of insolence rises to the +surface; when, too, the most violent appetites for divers pleasures, in +serried ranks, invade (2) the mind. This, then, was the right moment at +which to impose tenfold labours upon the growing youth, and to devise +for him a subtle system of absorbing occupation. And by a crowning +enactment, which said that "he who shrank from the duties imposed on +him would forfeit henceforth all claim to the glorious honours of the +state," he caused, not only the public authorities, but those personally +interested (3) in the several companies of youths to take serious +pains so that no single individual of them should by an act of craven +cowardice find himself utterly rejected and reprobate within the body +politic. + + (2) Lit. "range themselves." For the idea, see "Mem." I. ii. 23; + Swinburne, "Songs before Sunrise": Prelude, "Past youth where + shoreward shallows are." + + (3) Or, "the friends and connections." + +Furthermore, in his desire to implant in their youthful souls a root of +modesty he imposed upon these bigger boys a special rule. In the very +streets they were to keep their two hands (4) within the folds of the +cloak; they were to walk in silence and without turning their heads to +gaze, now here, now there, but rather to keep their eyes fixed upon the +ground before them. And hereby it would seem to be proved conclusively +that, even in the matter of quiet bearing and sobriety, (5) the +masculine type may claim greater strength than that which we attribute +to the nature of women. At any rate, you might sooner expect a stone +image to find voice than one of those Spartan youths; to divert the eyes +of some bronze stature were less difficult. And as to quiet bearing, no +bride ever stepped in bridal bower (6) with more natural modesty. Note +them when they have reached the public table. (7) The plainest answer to +the question asked--that is all you need expect to hear from their lips. + + (4) See Cic. "pro Coelio," 5. + + (5) See Plat. "Charmid." 159 B; Jowett, "Plato," I. 15. + + (6) Longinus, {peri ups}, iv. 4, reading {ophthalmois} for + {thalamois}, says: "Yet why speak of Timaeus, when even men like + Xenophon and Plato, the very demigods of literature, though they + had sat at the feet of Socrates, sometimes forget themselves in + the pursuit of such pretty conceits? The former in his account of + the Spartan Polity has these words: 'Their voice you would no more + hear, than if they were of marble, their gaze is as immovable as + if they were cast in bronze. You would deem them more modest than + the very maidens in their eyes.' To speak of the pupils of the + eyes as modest maidens was a piece of absurdity becoming + Amphicrates rather than Xenophon; and then what a strange notion + to suppose that modesty is always without exception, expressed in + the eye!"--H. L. Howell, "Longinus," p. 8. See "Spectator," No. + 354. + + (7) See Paus. VII. i. 8, the {phidition} or {philition}; "Hell." V. + iv. 28. + + + +IV + +But if he was thus careful in the education of the stripling, (1) the +Spartan lawgiver showed a still greater anxiety in dealing with those +who had reached the prime of opening manhood; considering their immense +importance to the city in the scale of good, if only they proved +themselves the men they should be. He had only to look around to see +what wherever the spirit of emulation (2) is most deeply seated, there, +too, their choruses and gymnastic contests will present alike a far +higher charm to eye and ear. And on the same principle he persuaded +himself that he needed only to confront (3) his youthful warriors in +the strife of valour, and with like result. They also, in their degree, +might be expected to attain to some unknown height of manly virtue. + + (1) See "Hell." V. iv. 32. + + (2) Cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22. + + (3) Or, "pit face to face." + +What method he adopted to engage these combatants I will now explain. It +is on this wise. Their ephors select three men out of the whole body of +the citizens in the prime of life. These three are named Hippagretai, +or masters of the horse. Each of these selects one hundred others, +being bound to explain for what reason he prefers in honour these and +disapproves of those. The result is that those who fail to obtain the +distinction are now at open war, not only with those who rejected them, +but with those who were chosen in their stead; and they keep ever a +jealous eye on one another to detect some slip of conduct contrary to +the high code of honour there held customary. And so is set on foot that +strife, in truest sense acceptable to heaven, and for the purposes of +state most politic. It is a strife in which not only is the pattern of a +brave man's conduct fully set forth, but where, too, each against other +and in separate camps, the rival parties train for victory. One day the +superiority shall be theirs; or, in the day of need, one and all to +the last man, they will be ready to aid the fatherland with all their +strength. + +Necessity, moreover, is laid upon them to study a good habit of the +body, coming as they do to blows with their fists for very strife's sake +whenever they meet. Albeit, any one present has a right to separate the +combatants, and, if obedience is not shown to the peacemaker, the Pastor +of youth (4) hales the delinquent before the ephors, and the ephors +inflict heavy damages, since they will have it plainly understood that +rage must never override obedience to law. + + (4) Lit. "the Paidonomos." + +With regard to those who have already passed (5) the vigour of early +manhood, and on whom the highest magistracies henceforth devolve, there +is a like contrast. In Hellas generally we find that at this age the +need of further attention to physical strength is removed, although the +imposition of military service continues. But Lycurgus made it customary +for that section of his citizens to regard hunting as the highest honour +suited to their age; albeit, not to the exclusion of any public duty. +(6) And his aim was that they might be equally able to undergo the +fatigues of war with those in the prime of early manhood. + + (5) Probably the {agathoergoi}, technically so called. See Herod. i. + 67; Schneider, ap. Dindorf. + + (6) Lit. "save only if some public duty intervened." See "Cyrop." I. + ii. + + + +V + +The above is a fairly exhaustive statement of the institutions traceable +to the legislation of Lycurgus in connection with the successive stages +(1) of a citizen's life. It remains that I should endeavour to +describe the style of living which he established for the whole body, +irrespective of age. It will be understood that, when Lycurgus first +came to deal with the question, the Spartans like the rest of the +Hellenes, used to mess privately at home. Tracing more than half the +current misdemeanours to this custom, (2) he was determined to drag +his people out of holes and corners into the broad daylight, and so +he invented the public mess-rooms. Whereby he expected at any rate to +minimise the transgression of orders. + + (1) Lit. "with each age."; see Plut. "Lycurg." 25; Hesychius, {s. u. + irinies}; "Hell." VI. iv. 17; V. iv. 13. + + (2) Reading after Cobet, {en touto}. + +As to food, (3) his ordinance allowed them so much as, while not +inducing repletion, should guard them from actual want. And, in fact, +there are many exceptional (4) dishes in the shape of game supplied +from the hunting field. Or, as a substitute for these, rich men will +occasionally garnish the feast with wheaten loaves. So that from +beginning to end, till the mess breaks up, the common board is never +stinted for viands, nor yet extravagantly furnished. + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 97). + + (4) {paraloga}, i.e. unexpected dishes, technically named {epaikla} + (hors d'oeuvres), as we learn from Athenaeus, iv. 140, 141. + +So also in the matter of drink. Whilst putting a stop to all unnecessary +potations, detrimental alike to a firm brain and a steady gait, (5) he +left them free to quench thirst when nature dictated (6); a method which +would at once add to the pleasure whilst it diminished the danger of +drinking. And indeed one may fairly ask how, on such a system of common +meals, it would be possible for any one to ruin either himself or his +family either through gluttony or wine-bibbing. + + (5) Or, "apt to render brain and body alike unsteady." + + (6) See "Agesilaus"; also "Mem." and "Cyrop." + +This too must be borne in mind, that in other states equals in age, (7) +for the most part, associate together, and such an atmosphere is little +conducive to modesty. (8) Whereas in Sparta Lycurgus was careful so +to blend the ages (9) that the younger men must benefit largely by the +experience of the elder--an education in itself, and the more so since +by custom of the country conversation at the common meal has reference +to the honourable acts which this man or that man may have performed in +relation to the state. The scene, in fact, but little lends itself to +the intrusion of violence or drunken riot; ugly speech and ugly deeds +alike are out of place. Amongst other good results obtained through this +out-door system of meals may be mentioned these: There is the necessity +of walking home when the meal is over, and a consequent anxiety not to +be caught tripping under the influence of wine, since they all know of +course that the supper-table must be presently abandoned, (10) and that +they must move as freely in the dark as in the day, even the help of a +torch (11) to guide the steps being forbidden to all on active service. + + (7) Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 240 C; {elix eklika terpei}, "Equals delight + in equals." + + (8) Or, "these gatherings for the most part consist of equals in age + (young fellows), in whose society the virtue of modesty is least + likely to display itself." + + (9) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 98). + + (10) Or, "that they are not going to stay all night where they have + supped." + + (11) See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 99). + +In connection with this matter, Lycurgus had not failed to observe the +effect of equal amounts of food on different persons. The hardworking +man has a good complexion, his muscles are well fed, he is robust +and strong. The man who abstains from work, on the other hand, may be +detected by his miserable appearance; he is blotched and puffy, and +devoid of strength. This observation, I say, was not wasted on him. On +the contrary, turning it over in his mind that any one who chooses, as +a matter of private judgment, to devote himself to toil may hope to +present a very creditable appearance physically, he enjoined upon the +eldest for the time being in every gymnasium to see to it that the +labours of the class were proportional to the meats. (12) And to my mind +he was not out of his reckoning in this matter more than elsewhere. At +any rate, it would be hard to discover a healthier or more completely +developed human being, physically speaking, than the Spartan. Their +gymnastic training, in fact, makes demands alike on the legs and arms +and neck, (13) etc., simultaneously. + + (12) I.e. "not inferior in excellence to the diet which they enjoyed." + The reading here adopted I owe to Dr. Arnold Hug, {os me ponous + auton elattous ton sition gignesthai}. + + (13) See Plat. "Laws," vii. 796 A; Jowett, "Plato," v. p. 365; Xen. + "Symp." ii. 7; Plut. "Lycurg." 19. + + + +VI + +There are other points in which this legislator's views run counter to +those commonly accepted. Thus: in other states the individual citizen +is master over his own children, domestics, (1) goods and chattels, and +belongings generally; but Lycurgus, whose aim was to secure to all the +citizens a considerable share in one another's goods without mutual +injury, enacted that each one should have an equal power of his +neighbour's children as over his own. (2) The principle is this. When a +man knows that this, that, and the other person are fathers of children +subject to his authority, he must perforce deal by them even as he +desires his own child to be dealt by. And, if a boy chance to have +received a whipping, not from his own father but some other, and goes +and complains to his own father, it would be thought wrong on the part +of that father if he did not inflict a second whipping on his son. A +striking proof, in its way, how completely they trust each other not to +impose dishonourable commands upon their children. (3) + + (1) Or rather, "members of his household." + + (2) See Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 104). + + (3) See Plut. "Moral." 237 D. + +In the same way he empowered them to use their neighbour's (4) domestics +in case of need. This communism he applied also to dogs used for the +chase; in so far that a party in need of dogs will invite the owner to +the chase, and if he is not at leisure to attend himself, at any rate he +is happy to let his dogs go. The same applies to the use of horses. +Some one has fallen sick perhaps, or is in want of a carriage, (5) or +is anxious to reach some point or other quickly--in any case he has a +right, if he sees a horse anywhere, to take and use it, and restores it +safe and sound when he has done with it. + + (4) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 5 (Jowett, i. pp. xxxi. and 34; ii. p. + 53); Plat. "Laws," viii. 845 A; Newman, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 249 + foll. + + (5) "Has not a carriage of his own." + +And here is another institution attributed to Lycurgus which scarcely +coincides with the customs elsewhere in vogue. A hunting party returns +from the chase, belated. They want provisions--they have nothing +prepared themselves. To meet this contingency he made it a rule that +owners (6) are to leave behind the food that has been dressed; and the +party in need will open the seals, take out what they want, seal up the +remainder, and leave it. Accordingly, by his system of give-and-take +even those with next to nothing (7) have a share in all that the country +can supply, if ever they stand in need of anything. + + (6) Reading {pepamenous}, or if {pepasmenous}, "who have already + finished their repasts." + + (7) See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9 (Jowett, i. pp. xlii. and 52); Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10, 1 (vol. ii. 197, Eng. tr.) + + + +VII + +There are yet other customs in Sparta which Lycurgus instituted in +opposition to those of the rest of Hellas, and the following among them. +We all know that in the generality of states every one devotes his full +energy to the business of making money: one man as a tiller of the soil, +another as a mariner, a third as a merchant, whilst others depend +on various arts to earn a living. But at Sparta Lycurgus forbade his +freeborn citizens to have anything whatsoever to do with the concerns +of money-making. As freemen, he enjoined upon them to regard as their +concern exclusively those activities upon which the foundations of civic +liberty are based. + +And indeed, one may well ask, for what reason should wealth be regarded +as a matter for serious pursuit (1) in a community where, partly by a +system of equal contributions to the necessaries of life, and partly by +the maintenance of a common standard of living, the lawgiver placed so +effectual a check upon the desire of riches for the sake of luxury? What +inducement, for instance, would there be to make money, even for the +sake of wearing apparel, in a state where personal adornment is held to +lie not in the costliness of the clothes they wear, but in the healthy +condition of the body to be clothed? Nor again could there be much +inducement to amass wealth, in order to be able to expend it on the +members of a common mess, where the legislator had made it seem far more +glorious that a man should help his fellows by the labour of his body +than by costly outlay. The latter being, as he finely phrased it, the +function of wealth, the former an activity of the soul. + + (1) See Plut. "Lycurg." 10 (Clough, i. 96). + +He went a step further, and set up a strong barrier (even in a society +such as I have described) against the pursuance of money-making by +wrongful means. (2) In the first place, he established a coinage (3) of +so extraordinary a sort, that even a single sum of ten minas (4) could +not come into a house without attracting the notice, either of the +master himself, or of some member of his household. In fact, it would +occupy a considerable space, and need a waggon to carry it. Gold and +silver themselves, moreover, are liable to search, (5) and in case of +detection, the possessor subjected to a penalty. In fact, to repeat +the question asked above, for what reason should money-making become an +earnest pursuit in a community where the possession of wealth entails +more pain than its employment brings satisfaction? + + (2) Or, "against illegitimate commerce." + + (3) See Plut. "Lycurg." 9 (Clough, i. 94). + + (4) = 40 pounds, circa. + + (5) See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 37. + + + +VIII + +But to proceed. We are all aware that there is no state (1) in the world +in which greater obedience is shown to magistrates, and to the laws +themselves, than Sparta. But, for my part, I am disposed to think that +Lycurgus could never have attempted to establish this healthy condition, +(2) until he had first secured the unanimity of the most powerful +members of the state. I infer this for the following reasons. (3) In +other states the leaders in rank and influence do not even desire to be +thought to fear the magistrates. Such a thing they would regard as in +itself a symbol of servility. In Sparta, on the contrary, the stronger +a man is the more readily does he bow before constituted authority. +And indeed, they magnify themselves on their humility, and on a prompt +obedience, running, or at any rate not crawling with laggard step, +at the word of command. Such an example of eager discipline, they are +persuaded, set by themselves, will not fail to be followed by the rest. +And this is precisely what has taken place. It (4) is reasonable to +suppose that it was these same noblest members of the state who combined +(5) to lay the foundation of the ephorate, after they had come to the +conclusion themselves, that of all the blessings which a state, or an +army, or a household, can enjoy, obedience is the greatest. Since, as +they could not but reason, the greater the power with which men fence +about authority, the greater the fascination it will exercise upon the +mind of the citizen, to the enforcement of obedience. + + (1) See Grote, "H. G." v. 516; "Mem." III. v. 18. + + (2) Or, reading after L. Dindorf, {eutaxian}, "this world-renowned + orderliness." + + (3) Or, "from these facts." + + (4) Or, "It was only natural that these same..." + + (5) Or, "helped." See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11, 3; ii. 9, 1 (Jowett, ii. + 224); Plut. "Lycurg." 7, 29; Herod. i. 65; Muller, "Dorians," iii. + 7, 5 (vol. ii. p. 125, Eng. tr.) + +Accordingly the ephors are competent to punish whomsoever they choose; +they have power to exact fines on the spur of the moment; they have +power to depose magistrates in mid career (6)--nay, actually to imprison +them and bring them to trial on the capital charge. Entrusted with +these vast powers, they do not, as do the rest of states, allow the +magistrates elected to exercise authority as they like, right through +the year of office; but, in the style rather of despotic monarchs, or +presidents of the games, at the first symptom of an offence against the +law they inflict chastisement without warning and without hesitation. + + (6) Or, "before the expiration of their term of office." See Plut. + "Agis," 18 (Clough, iv. 464); Cic. "de Leg." iii. 7; "de Rep." ii. + 33. + +But of all the many beautiful contrivances invented by Lycurgus to +kindle a willing obedience to the laws in the hearts of the citizens, +none, to my mind, was happier or more excellent than his unwillingness +to deliver his code to the people at large, until, attended by the most +powerful members of the state, he had betaken himself to Delphi, (7) +and there made inquiry of the god whether it were better for Sparta, and +conducive to her interests, to obey the laws which he had framed. And +not until the divine answer came: "Better will it be in every way," +did he deliver them, laying it down as a last ordinance that to refuse +obedience to a code which had the sanction of the Pythian god himself +(8) was a thing not illegal only, but profane. + + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 5, 6, 29 (Clough, i. 89, 122); Polyb. x. 2, 9. + + (8) Or, "a code delivered in Pytho, spoken by the god himself." + + + +IX + +The following too may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus. I speak +of the consummate skill with which he induced the whole state of Sparta +to regard an honourable death as preferable to an ignoble life. And +indeed if any one will investigate the matter, he will find that by +comparison with those who make it a principle to retreat in face of +danger, actually fewer of these Spartans die in battle, since, to speak +truth, salvation, it would seem, attends on virtue far more frequently +than on cowardice--virtue, which is at once easier and sweeter, richer +in resource and stronger of arm, (1) than her opposite. And that virtue +has another familiar attendant--to wit, glory--needs no showing, since +the whole world would fain ally themselves after some sort in battle +with the good. + + (1) See Homer, "Il." v. 532; Tyrtaeus, 11, 14, {tressanton d' andron + pas' apolol arete}. + +Yet the actual means by which he gave currency to these principles is a +point which it were well not to overlook. It is clear that the lawgiver +set himself deliberately to provide all the blessings of heaven for the +good man, and a sorry and ill-starred existence for the coward. + +In other states the man who shows himself base and cowardly wins to +himself an evil reputation and the nickname of a coward, but that is +all. For the rest he buys and sells in the same market-place as the +good man; he sits beside him at play; he exercises with him in the same +gymnasium, and all as suits his humour. But at Lacedaemon there is not +one man who would not feel ashamed to welcome the coward at the common +mess-tabe, or to try conclusions with such an antagonist in a wrestling +bout. Consider the day's round of his existence. The sides are being +picked up in a football match, (2) but he is left out as the odd man: +there is no place for him. During the choric dance (3) he is driven away +into ignominious quarters. Nay, in the very streets it is he who must +step aside for others to pass, or, being seated, he must rise and make +room, even for a younger man. At home he will have his maiden relatives +to support in isolation (and they will hold him to blame for their +unwedded lives). (4) A hearth with no wife to bless it--that is a +condition he must face, (5) and yet he will have to pay damages to the +last farthing for incurring it. Let him not roam abroad with a smooth +and smiling countenance; (6) let him not imitate men whose fame is +irreproachable, or he shall feel on his back the blows of his superiors. +Such being the weight of infamy which is laid upon all cowards, I, for +my part, am not surprised if in Sparta they deem death preferable to a +life so steeped in dishonour and reproach. + + (2) See Lucian, "Anacharsis," 38; Muller, "Dorians," (vol. ii. 309, + Eng. tr.) + + (3) The {khoroi}, e.g. of the Gymnopaedia. See Muller, op. cit. iv. 6, + 4 (vol. ii. 334, Eng. tr.) + + (4) {tes anandrias}, cf. Plut. "Ages." 30; or, {tes anandreias}, "they + must bear the reproach of his cowardice." + + (5) Omitting {ou}, or translate, "that is an evil not to be + disregarded." See Dindorf, ad loc.; Sturz, "Lex. Xen." {Estia}. + + (6) See Plut. "Ages." 30 (Clough, iv. 36); "Hell." VI. iv. 16. + + + +X + +That too was a happy enactment, in my opinion, by which Lycurgus +provided for the continual cultivation of virtue, even to old age. By +fixing (1) the election to the council of elders (2) as a last ordeal at +the goal of life, he made it impossible for a high standard of virtuous +living to be disregarded even in old age. (So, too, it is worthy of +admiration in him that he lent his helping hand to virtuous old age. +(3) Thus, by making the elders sole arbiters in the trial for life, he +contrived to charge old age with a greater weight of honour than that +which is accorded to the strength of mature manhood.) And assuredly +such a contest as this must appeal to the zeal of mortal man beyond all +others in a supreme degree. Fair, doubtless, are contests of gymnastic +skill, yet are they but trials of bodily excellence, but this contest +for the seniority is of a higher sort--it is an ordeal of the soul +itself. In proportion, therefore, as the soul is worthier than the body, +so must these contests of the soul appeal to a stronger enthusiasm than +their bodily antitypes. + + (1) Reading {protheis}. See Plut. "Lycurg." 26 (Clough. i. 118); + Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 25. + + (2) Or, "seniory," or "senate," or "board of elders"; lit. "the + Gerontia." + + (3) Or, "the old age of the good. Yet this he did when he made... + since he contrived," etc. + +And yet another point may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus +largely. It had not escaped his observation that communities exist +where those who are willing to make virtue their study and delight fail +somehow in ability to add to the glory of their fatherland. (4) That +lesson the legislator laid to heart, and in Sparta he enforced, as a +matter of public duty, the practice of virtue by every citizen. And so +it is that, just as man differs from man in some excellence, according +as he cultivates or neglects to cultivate it, this city of Sparta, with +good reason, outshines all other states in virtue; since she, and she +alone, as made the attainment of a high standard of noble living a +public duty. + + (4) Is this an autobiographical touch? + +And was this not a noble enactment, that whereas other states are +content to inflict punishment only in cases where a man does wrong +against his neighbour, Lycurgus imposed penalties no less severe on him +who openly neglected to make himself as good as possible? For this, it +seems, was his principle: in the one case, where a man is robbed, or +defrauded, or kidnapped, and made a slave of, the injury of the misdeed, +whatever it be, is personal to the individual so maltreated; but in the +other case whole communities suffer foul treason at the hands of the +base man and the coward. So that it was only reasonable, in my opinion, +that he should visit the heaviest penalty upon these latter. + +Moreover, he laid upon them, like some irresistible necessity, the +obligation to cultivate the whole virtue of a citizen. Provided they +duly performed the injunctions of the law, the city belonged to them, +each and all, in absolute possession and on an equal footing. Weakness +of limb or want of wealth (5) was no drawback in his eyes. But as for +him who, out of the cowardice of his heart, shrank from the painful +performance of the law's injunction, the finger of the legislator +pointed him out as there and then disqualified to be regarded longer as +a member of the brotherhood of peers. (6) + + (5) But see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 32. + + (6) Grote, "H. G." viii. 81; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + +It may be added, that there was no doubt as to the great antiquity of +this code of laws. The point is clear so far, that Lycurgus himself is +said to have lived in the days of the Heraclidae. (7) But being of so +long standing, these laws, even at this day, still are stamped in the +eyes of other men with all the novelty of youth. And the most marvellous +thing of all is that, while everybody is agreed to praise these +remarkable institutions, there is not a single state which cares to +imitate them. + + (7) See Plut. "Lycurg." 1. + + + +XI + +The above form a common stock of blessings, open to every Spartan to +enjoy, alike in peace and in war. But if any one desires to be informed +in what way the legislator improved upon the ordinary machinery of +warfare and in reference to an army in the field, it is easy to satisfy +his curiosity. + +In the first instance, the ephors announce by proclamation the limit of +age to which the service applies (1) for cavalry and heavy infantry; +and in the next place, for the various handicraftsmen. So that, even +on active service, the Lacedaemonians are well supplied with all the +conveniences enjoyed by people living as citizens at home. (2) All +implements and instruments whatsoever, which an army may need in common, +are ordered to be in readiness, (3) some on waggons and others on +baggage animals. In this way anything omitted can hardly escape +detection. + + (1) I.e. "in the particular case." See "Hell." VI. iv. 17; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 12 (vol. ii. 242 foll., Eng. tr.) + + (2) Or, "the conveniences of civil life at home." + + (3) Reading {parekhein}, or if {paragein}, "to be conveyed." Cf. + Pausan. I. xix. 1. See "Cyrop." VI. ii. 34. + +For the actual encounter under arms, the following inventions are +attributed to him. The soldier has a crimson-coloured uniform and a +heavy shield of bronze; his theory being that such an equipment has no +sort of feminine association, and is altogether most warrior-like. (4) +It is most quickly burnished; it is least readily soiled. (5) + + (4) Cf. Aristoph. "Acharn." 320, and the note of the scholiast. + + (5) See Ps. Plut. "Moral." 238 F. + +He further permitted those who were above the age of early manhood to +wear their hair long. (6) For so, he conceived, they would appear +of larger stature, more free and indomitable, and of a more terrible +aspect. + + (6) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). + +So furnished and accoutred, he divided his citizen soldiers into six +morai (7) (or regimental divisions) of cavalry (8) and heavy infantry. +Each of these citizen regiments (political divisions) has one polemarch +(9) (or colonel), four lochagoi (or captains of companies), eight +penteconters (or lieutenants, each in command of half a company), and +sixteen enomotarchs (or commanders of sections). At the word of command +any such regimental division can be formed readily either into enomoties +(i.e. single file) or into threes (i.e. three files abreast), or into +sixes (i.e. six files abreast). (10) + + (7) The {mora}. Jowett, "Thuc." ii. 320, note to Thuc. v. 68, 3. + + (8) See Plut. "Lycurg." 23 (Clough, i. 115); "Hell." VI. iv. 11; Thuc. + v. 67; Paus. IV. viii. 12. + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66, 71. + + (10) See Thuch. v. 68, and Arnold's note ad loc.; "Hell." VI. iv. 12; + "Anab." II. iv. 26; Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 117. + +As to the idea, commonly entertained, that the tactical arrangement of +the Laconian heavy infantry is highly complicated, no conception could +be more opposed to fact. For in the Laconian order the front rank men +are all leaders, (11) so that each file has everything necessary to play +its part efficiently. In fact, this disposition is so easy to understand +that no one who can distinguish one human being from another could fail +to follow it. One set have the privilege of leaders, the other the duty +of followers. The evolutional orders, (12) by which greater depth or +shallowness is given to the battle line, are given by word of mouth by +the enomotarch (or commander of the section), who plays the part of the +herald, and they cannot be mistaken. None of these manouvres presents +any difficulty whatsoever to the understanding. + + (11) See "Anab." IV. iii. 26; "Cyrop." III. iii. 59; VI. iii. 22. + + (12) I.e. "for doubling depth"; e.g. anglice, "form two deep," etc., + when marching to a flank. Grote, "H. G." vii. 108; Thuc. v. 66; + also Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 111, S. 8, note 19; p. 121, + $17, note 41. + +But when it comes to their ability to do battle equally well in spite +of some confusion which has been set up, and whatever the chapter of +accidents may confront them with, (13) I admit that the tactics here are +not so easy to understand, except for people trained under the laws of +Lycurgus. Even movements which an instructor in heavy-armed warfare (14) +might look upon as difficult are performed by the Lacedaemonians with +the utmost ease. (15) Thus, the troops, we will suppose, are marching in +column; one section of a company is of course stepping up behind another +from the rear. (16) Now, if at such a moment a hostile force appears in +front in battle order, the word is passed down to the commander of each +section, "Deploy (into line) to the left." And so throughout the whole +length of the column, until the line is formed facing the enemy. Or +supposing while in this position an enemy appears in the rear. Each file +performs a counter-march (17) with the effect of bringing the best men +face to face with the enemy all along the line. (18) As to the point +that the leader previously on the right finds himself now on the left, +(19) they do not consider that they are necessarily losers thereby, but, +as it may turn out, even gainers. If, for instance, the enemy attempted +to turn their flank, he would find himself wrapping round, not their +exposed, but their shielded flank. (20) Or if, for any reason, it be +thought advisable for the general to keep the right wing, they turn the +corps about, (21) and counter-march by ranks, until the leader is on the +right, and the rear rank on the left. Or again, supposing a division of +the enemy appears on the right whilst they are marching in column, they +have nothing further to do but to wheel each company to the right, like +a trireme, prow forwards, (22) to meet the enemy, and thus the rear +company again finds itself on the right. If, however, the enemy should +attack on the left, either they will not allow of that and push him +aside, (23) or else they wheel their companies to the left to face the +antagonist, and thus the rear company once more falls into position on +the left. + + (13) Or, "alongside of any comrade who may have fallen in their way." + See Plut. "Pelop." 23 (Clough, ii. 222); Thuc. v. 72. + + (14) Or, "drill sergeant." + + (15) See Jebb, note to "Theophr." viii. 3. + + (16) Or, "marching in rear of another." + + (17) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (18) Or, "every time." + + (19) See Thuc. v. 67, 71. + + (20) See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + + (21) For these movements, see "Dict. of Antiq." "Exercitus"; Grote, + "H. G." vii. 111. + + (22) See "Hell." VII. v. 23. + + (23) I am indebted to Professor Jebb for the following suggestions + with regard to this passage: "The words {oude touto eosin, all + apothousin e}, etc., contain some corruption. The sense ought + clearly to be roughly parallel with that of the phrase used a + little before, {ouden allo pragmateuontai e}, etc. Perhaps + {apothousin} is a corruption of {apothen ousin}, and this + corruption occasioned the insertion of {e}. Probably Xenophon + wrote {oude touto eosin, all apothen ousin antipalous}, etc.: + 'while the enemy is still some way off, they turn their companies + so as to face him.' The words {apothen ousin} indirectly suggest + the celerity of the Spartan movement." + + + +XII + +I will now speak of the mode of encampment sanctioned by the regulation +of Lycurgus. To avoid the waste incidental to the angles of a square, +(1) the encampment, according to him, should be circular, except where +there was the security of a hill, (2) or fortification, or where they +had a river in their rear. He had sentinels posted during the day along +the place of arms and facing inwards; (3) since they are appointed not +so much for the sake of the enemy as to keep an eye on friends. The +enemy is sufficiently watched by mounted troopers perched on various +points commanding the widest prospect. + + (1) Or, "Regarding the angles of a square as a useless inconvenience, + he arranged that an encampment should be circular," etc. See + Polyb. vi. 31, 42. + + (2) Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 14; Polyaen. II. iii. 11, ap. Schneider. + + (3) Lit. "these," {tas men}. Or, "He had lines of sentinels posted + throughout the day; one line facing inwards towards the place of + arms (and these were appointed, etc.); while observation of the + enemy was secured by mounted troopers," etc. + +To guard against hostile approach by night, sentinel duty according to +the ordinance was performed by the Sciritae (4) outside the main +body. At the present time the rule is so far modified that the duty is +entrusted to foreigners, (5) if there be a foreign contingent present, +with a leaven of Spartans themselves to keep them company. (6) + + (4) See Muller's "Dorians," ii. 253; "Hell." VI. v. 24; "Cyrop." IV. + ii. 1; Thuc. v. 67, 71; Grote, "H. G." vii. 110. + + (5) See "Hipparch." ix. 4. + + (6) Reading {auton de}. The passage is probably corrupt. See L. + Dindorf ad loc. + +The custom of always taking their spears (7) with them when they go +their rounds must certainly be attributed to the same cause which +makes them exclude their slaves from the place of arms. Nor need we be +surprised if, when retiring for necessary purposes, they only withdraw +just far enough from one another, or from the place of arms itself, not +to create annoyance. The need of precaution is the whole explanation. + + (7) See Critias, ap. Schneider ad loc. + +The frequency with which they change their encampments is another point. +It is done quite as much for the sake of benefiting their friends as of +annoying their enemies. + +Further, the law enjoins upon all Lacedaemonians, during the whole +period of an expedition, the constant practice of gymnastic (8) +exercises, whereby their pride (9) in themselves is increased, and they +appear freer and of a more liberal aspect than the rest of the world. +(10) The walk and the running ground must not exceed in length (11) the +space covered by a regimental division, (12) so that no one may find +himself far from his own stand of arms. After the gymnastic exercises +the senior polemarch gives the order (by herald) to be seated. This +serves all the purposes of an inspection. After this the order is given +"to get breakfast," and for "the outposts (13) to be relieved." After +this, again, come pastimes and relaxations before the evening exercises, +after which the herald's cry is heard "to take the evening meal." When +they have sung a hymn to the gods to whom the offerings of happy omen +had been performed, the final order, "Retire to rest at the place of +arms," (14) is given. + + (8) Cf. Herod. vii. 208; Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 113 foll.) + + (9) Reading {megalophronesterous} (L. Dindorf's emendation) for the + vulg. {megaloprepesterous}. Xen "Opusc. polit." Ox. MDCCCLVI. + + (10) Or, "the proud self-consciousness of their own splendour is + increased, and by comparison with others they bear more notably + the impress of freemen." + + (11) The word {masso} is "poetical" (old Attic?). See "Cyrop." II. iv. + 27, and L. Dindorf ad loc. + + (12) A single mora, or an army corps. + + (13) Or, "vedettes," {proskopon}. See "Cyrop." V. ii. 6. + + (14)? Or, "on your arms." See Sturz, "Lex. Xen." s.v. + +If the story is a little long the reader must not be surprised, since it +would be difficult to find any point in military matters omitted by the +Lacedaemonians which seems to demand attention. + + + +XIII + +I will now give a detailed account of the power and privilege assigned +by Lycurgus to the king during a campaign. To begin with, so long as he +is on active service, the state maintains the king and those with him. +(1) The polemarchs mess with him and share his quarters, so that by dint +of constant intercourse they may be all the better able to consult in +common in case of need. Besides the polemarch three other members of the +peers (2) share the royal quarters, mess, etc. The duty of these is to +attend to all matters of commisariat, (3) in order that the king and the +rest may have unbroken leisure to attend to affairs of actual warfare. + + (1) I.e. "the Thirty." See "Ages." i. 7; "Hell." III. iv. 2; Plut. + "Ages." 6 (Clough, iv. 6); Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 29. + + (2) For these {oi omoioi}, see "Cyrop." I. v. 5; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + + (3) Lit. "supplies and necessaries." + +But I will resume at a somewhat higher point and describe the manner in +which the king sets out on an expedition. As a preliminary step, before +leaving home he offers sacrifice (in company with (4) his staff) to Zeus +Agetor (the Leader), and if the victims prove favourable then and there +the priest, (5) who bears the sacred fire, takes thereof from off the +altar and leads the way to the boundaries of the land. Here for the +second time the king does sacrifice (6) to Zeus and Athena; and as soon +as the offerings are accepted by those two divinities he steps across +the boundaries of the land. And all the while the fire from those +sacrifices leads the way, and is never suffered to go out. Behind follow +beasts for sacrifice of every sort. + + (4) Lit. reading {kai oi sun auto}, after L. Dindorf, "he and those + with him." + + (5) Lit. "the Purphuros." See Nic. Damasc. ap. Stob. "Fl." 44, 41; + Hesych. ap. Schneider, n. ad loc. + + (6) These are the {diabateria}, so often mentioned in the "Hellenica." + +Invariably when he offers sacrifice the king begins the work in the +gloaming ere the day has broken, being minded to anticipate the goodwill +of the god. And round about the place of sacrifice are present the +polemarchs and captains, the lieutenants and sub-lieutenants, with the +commandants of the baggage train, and any general of the states (7) who +may care to assist. There, too, are to be seen two of the ephors, who +neither meddle nor make, save only at the summons of the king, yet have +they their eyes fixed on the proceedings of each one there and keep +all in order, (8) as may well be guessed. When the sacrifices are +accomplished the king summons all and issues his orders (9) as to +what has to be done. And all with such method that, to witness the +proceedings, you might fairly suppose the rest of the world to be +but bungling experimenters, (10) and the Lacedaemonians alone true +handicraftsmen in the art of soldiering. + + (7) I.e. "allied"? or "perioecid"? + + (8) {sophronizousin}, "keep every one in his sober senses." + + (9) See Thuc. v. 66. + + (10) {autoskhediastai, tekhnitai}. See Jebb, "Theophr." x. 3. + +Anon the king puts himself at the head of the troops, and if no enemy +appears he heads the line of march, no one preceding him except the +Sciritae, and the mounted troopers exploring in front. (11) If, however, +there is any reason to anticipate a battle, the king takes the leading +column of the first army corps (12) and wheels to the right until he has +got into position with two army corps and two generals of division on +either flank. The disposition of the supports is assigned to the eldest +of the royal council (13) (or staff corps) acting as brigadier--the +staff consisting of all peers who share the royal mess and quarters, +with the soothsayers, surgeons, (14) and pipers, whose place is in the +front of the troops, (15) with, finally, any volunteers who happen to be +present. So that there is no check or hesitation in anything to be done; +every contingency is provided for. + + (11) Or, "who are on scouting duty. If, however, they expect a + battle," etc. + + (12) Technically, "mora." + + (13) {ton peri damosian}. See "Hell." IV. v. 8; vii. 4. + + (14) See "Anab." III. iv. 30; "Cyrop." I. vi. 15; L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. + + (15) Schneider refers to Polyaenus, i. 10. + +The following details also seem to me of high utility among the +inventions of Lycurgus with a view to the final arbitrament of battle. +Whensoever, the enemy being now close enough to watch the proceedings, +(16) the goat is sacrificed; then, says the law, let all the pipers, +in their places, play upon the pipes, and let every Lacedaemonian don +a wreath. Then, too, so runs the order, let the shields be brightly +polished. The privilege is accorded to the young man to enter battle +with his long locks combed. (17) To be of cheery countenance--that, +too, is of good repute. Onwards they pass the word of command to the +subaltern (18) in command of his section, since it is impossible to hear +along the whole of each section from the particular subaltern posted on +the outside. It devolves, finally, on the polemarch to see that all goes +well. + + (16) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114); and for the goat + sacrificed to Artemis Agrotera, see "Hell." IV. ii. 20; Pause. IX. + xiii. 4; Plut. "Marcell." 22 (Clough, ii. 264). + + (17) See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). The passage is corrupt, + and possibly out of its place. I cite the words as they run in the + MSS. with various proposed emendations. See Schneider, n. ad loc. + {exesti de to neo kai kekrimeno eis makhen sunienai kai phaidron + einai kai eudokimon. kai parakeleuontai de k.t.l.} Zeune, + {kekrimeno komen}, after Plut. "Lycurg." 22. Weiske, {kai komen + diakekrimeno}. Cobet, {exesti de to neo liparo kai tas komas + diakekrimeno eis makhen ienai}. + + (18) Lit. "to the enomotarch." + +When the right moment for encamping has come, the king is responsible +for that, and has to point out the proper place. The despatch of +emissaries, however, whether to friends or to foes, is (not) (19) the +king's affair. Petitioners in general wishing to transact anything +treat, in the first instance, with the king. If the case concerns some +point of justice, the king despatches the petitioner to the Hellanodikai +(who form the court-martial); if of money, to the paymasters. (20) If +the petitioner brings booty, he is sent off to the Laphuropolai (or +sellers of spoil). This being the mode of procedure, no other duty is +left to the king, whilst he is on active service, except to play the +part of priest in matters concerning the gods and of commander-in-chief +in his relationship to men. (21) + + (19) The MSS. give {au}, "is again," but the word {mentoi}, "however," + and certain passages in "Hell." II. ii. 12, 13; II. iv. 38 suggest + the negative {ou} in place of {au}. If {au} be right, then we + should read {ephoren} in place of {basileos}, "belongs to the + ephors." + + (20) Technically the {tamiai}. + + (21) See Aristot. "Pol." iii. 14. + + + +XIV (1) + +Now, if the question be put to me, Do you maintain that the laws of +Lycurgus remain still to this day unchanged? that indeed is an assertion +which I should no longer venture to maintain; knowing, as I do, that in +former times the Lacedaemonians preferred to live at home on moderate +means, content to associate exclusively with themselves rather than +to play the part of governor-general (2) in foreign states and to be +corrupted by flattery; knowing further, as I do, that formerly they +dreaded to be detected in the possession of gold, whereas nowadays there +are not a few who make it their glory and their boast to be possessed of +it. I am very well aware that in former days alien acts (3) were put +in force for this very object. To live abroad was not allowed. And why? +Simply in order that the citizens of Sparta might not take the infection +of dishonesty and light-living from foreigners; whereas now I am very +well aware that those who are reputed to be leading citizens have +but one ambition, and that is to live to the end of their days as +governors-general on a foreign soil. (4) The days were when their sole +anxiety was to fit themselves to lead the rest of Hellas. But nowadays +they concern themselves much more to wield command than to be fit +themselves to rule. And so it has come to pass that whereas in old days +the states of Hellas flocked to Lacedaemon seeking her leadership (5) +against the supposed wrongdoer, now numbers are inviting one another to +prevent the Lacedaemonians again recovering their empire. (6) Yet, if +they have incurred all these reproaches, we need not wonder, seeing that +they are so plainly disobedient to the god himself and to the laws of +their own lawgiver Lycurgus. + + (1) For the relation of this chapter to the rest of the treatise, see + Grote, ix. 325; Ern. Naumann, "de Xen. libro qui" {LAK. POLITEIA} + inscribitur, p. 18 foll.; Newmann, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 326. + + (2) Harmosts. + + (3) "Xenelasies," {xenelasiai} technically called. See Plut. "Lycurg." + 27; "Agis," 10; Thuc. ii. 39, where Pericles contrasts the liberal + spirit of the democracy with Spartan exclusiveness; "Our city is + thrown open to the world, and we never expel a foreigner or + prevent him from seeing or learning anything of which the secret, + if revealed to an enemy, might profit him."--Jowett, i. 118. + + (4) Lit. "harmosts"; and for the taste of living abroad, see what is + said of Dercylidas, "Hell." IV. iii. 2. The harmosts were not + removed till just before Leuctra (371 B.C.), "Hell." VI. iv. 1, + and after, see Paus. VIII. lii. 4; IX. lxiv. + + (5) See Plut. "Lycurg." 30 (Clough, i. 124). + + (6) This passage would seem to fix the date of the chapter xiv. as + about the time of the Athenian confederacy of 378 B.C.; "Hell." V. + iv. 34; "Rev." v. 6. See also Isocr. "Panegyr." 380 B.C.; Grote, + "H. G." ix. 325. See the text of a treaty between Athens, Chios, + Mytilene, and Byzantium; Kohler, "Herm." v. 10; Rangabe, "Antiq. + Hellen." ii. 40, 373; Naumann, op. cit. 26. + + + +XV + +I wish to explain with sufficient detail the nature of the covenant +between king and state as instituted by Lycurgus; for this, I take it, +is the sole type of rule (1) which still preserves the original form +in which it was first established; whereas other constitutions will +be found either to have been already modified or else to be still +undergoing modifications at this moment. + + (1) Or, "magistracy"; the word {arkhe} at once signifies rule and + governmental office. + +Lycurgus laid it down as law that the king shall offer in behalf of the +state all public sacrifices, as being himself of divine descent, (2) and +whithersoever the state shall despatch her armies the king shall take +the lead. He granted him to receive honorary gifts of the things offered +in sacrifice, and he appointed him choice land in many of the provincial +cities, enough to satisfy moderate needs without excess of wealth. And +in order that the kings also might camp and mess in public he appointed +them public quarters; and he honoured them with a double portion (3) +each at the evening meal, not in order that they might actually eat +twice as much as others, but that the king might have wherewithal to +honour whomsoever he desired. He also granted as a gift to each of the +two kings to choose two mess-fellows, which same are called Puthioi. He +also granted them to receive out of every litter of swine one pig, so +that the king might never be at a loss for victims if in aught he wished +to consult the gods. + + (2) I.e. a Heracleid, in whichever line descended, and, through + Heracles, from Zeus himself. The kings are therefore "heroes," + i.e. demigods. See below; and for their privileges, see Herod. vi. + 56, 57. + + (3) See "Ages." v. 1. + +Close by the palace a lake affords an unrestricted supply of water; and +how useful that is for various purposes they best can tell who lack the +luxury. (4) Moreover, all rise from their seats to give place to the +king, save only that the ephors rise not from their thrones of office. +Monthly they exchange oaths, the ephors in behalf of the state, the king +himself in his own behalf. And this is the oath on the king's part: "I +will exercise my kingship in accordance with the established laws of the +state." And on the part of the state the oath runs: "So long as he (5) +(who exercises kingship) shall abide by his oaths we will not suffer his +kingdom to be shaken." (6) + + (4) See Hartman, "An. Xen. N." p. 274; but cf. "Cyneget." v. 34; + "Anab." V. iii. 8. + + (5) Lit. "he yonder." + + (6) Lit. "we will keep it for him unshaken." See L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. and praef. p. 14 D. + +These then are the honours bestowed upon the king during his lifetime +(at home) (7)--honours by no means much exceeding those of private +citizens, since the lawgiver was minded neither to suggest to the kings +the pride of the despotic monarch, (8) nor, on the other hand, to +engender in the heart of the citizen envy of their power. As to those +other honours which are given to the king at his death, (9) the laws of +Lycurgus would seem plainly to signify hereby that these kings of +Lacedaemon are not mere mortals but heroic beings, and that is why they +are preferred in honour. (10) + + (7) The words "at home" look like an insertion. + + (8) Lit. "the tyrant's pride." + + (9) See "Hell." III. iii. 1; "Ages." xi. 16; Herod. vi. 58. + + (10) Intentionally or not on the part of the writer, the concluding + words, in which the intention of the Laws is conveyed, assume a + metrical form: + + {oukh os anthropous all os eroas tous + Lakedaimonion basileis protetimekasin.} + + See Ern. 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He marched with the Spartans, +and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land +and property in Scillus, where he lived for many +years before having to move once more, to settle +in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + +The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the +laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which +train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to +old age. + + + + +PREPARER'S NOTE + +This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a +four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though +there is doubt about some of these) is: + +Work Number of books + +The Anabasis 7 +The Hellenica 7 +The Cyropaedia 8 +The Memorabilia 4 +The Symposium 1 +The Economist 1 +On Horsemanship 1 +The Sportsman 1 +The Cavalry General 1 +The Apology 1 +On Revenues 1 +The Hiero 1 +The Agesilaus 1 +The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + +Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into +English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The +diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + +Etext prepared by John Bickers, jbickers@templar.actrix.gen.nz. + + + + +The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians + +by Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + +The Polity of the Lacedaemonians talks about the +laws and institutions created by Lycurgus, which +train and develop Spartan citizens from birth to +old age. + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE ATHENIANS + + + +I + +Now, as concerning the Polity of the Athenians,[1] and the type or +manner of constitution which they have chosen,[2] I praise it not, in +so far as the very choice involves the welfare of the baser folk as +opposed to that of the better class. I repeat, I withhold my praise so +far; but, given the fact that this is the type agreed upon, I propose +to show that they set about its preservation in the right way; and +that those other transactions in connection with it, which are looked +upon as blunders by the rest of the Hellenic world, are the reverse. + +[1] See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 47 foll.; Thuc. i. 76, 77; viii. 48; + Boeckh, "P. E. A." passim; Hartman, "An. Xen. N." cap. viii.; + Roquette, "Xen. Vit." S. 26; Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 538; and + "Xenophontis qui fertur libellus de Republica Atheniensium," ed. + A. Kirchhoff (MDCCCLXXIV), whose text I have chiefly followed. + +[2] Lit. "I do not praise their choice of the (particular) type, in so + far as . . ." + +In the first place, I maintain, it is only just that the poorer +classes[3] and the People of Athens should be better off than the men +of birth and wealth, seeing that it is the people who man the +fleet,[4] and put round the city her girdle of power. The +steersman,[5] the boatswain, the lieutenant,[6] the look-out-man at +the prow, the shipright--these are the people who engird the city with +power far rather than her heavy infantry[7] and men of birth of +quality. This being the case, it seems only just that offices of state +should be thrown open to every one both in the ballot[8] and the show +of hands, and that the right of speech should belong to any one who +likes, without restriction. For, observe,[9] there are many of these +offices which, according as they are in good or in bad hands, are a +source of safety or of danger to the People, and in these the People +prudently abstains from sharing; as, for instance, it does not think +it incumbent on itself to share in the functions of the general or of +the commander of cavalry.[10] The sovereign People recognises the fact +that in forgoing the personal exercise of these offices, and leaving +them to the control of the more powerful[11] citizens, it secures the +balance of advantage to itself. It is only those departments of +government which bring emolument[12] and assist the private estate +that the People cares to keep in its own hands. + +[3] Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 58 foll. + +[4] Lit. "ply the oar and propel the galleys." + +[5] See "Econ." viii. 14; Pollux, i. 96; Arist. "Knights," 543 foll.; + Plat. "Laws," v. 707 A; Jowett, "Plat." v. 278 foll.; Boeckh, "P. + E. A." bk. ii. ch. xxi. + +[6] Lit. "pentecontarch;" see Dem. "In Pol." 1212. + +[7] Aristot. "Pol." vi. 7; Jowett, "The Politics of Aristotle," vol. + i. p. 109. + +[8] {klerotoi}, {airetoi}. + +[9] Reading with Kirchhoff, {epeo tou}, or if {epeita}, "in the next + place." + +[10] Hipparch. + +[11] Cf. "Hipparch." i. 9; "Econ." ii. 8. + +[12] E.g. the {dikasteria}. + +In the next place, in regard to what some people are puzzled to +explain--the fact that everywhere greater consideration is shown to +the base, to poor people and to common folk, than to persons of good +quality--so far from being a matter of surprise, this, as can be +shown, is the keystone of the preservation of the democracy. It is +these poor people, this common folk, this riff-raff,[13] whose +prosperity, combined with the growth of their numbers, enhances the +democracy. Whereas, a shifting of fortune to the advantage of the +wealthy and the better classes implies the establishment on the part +of the commonalty of a strong power in opposition to itself. In fact, +all the world over, the cream of society is in opposition to the +democracy. Naturally, since the smallest amount of intemperance and +injustice, together with the highest scrupulousness in the pursuit of +excellence, is to be found in the ranks of the better class, while +within the ranks of the People will be found the greatest amount of +ignorance, disorderliness, rascality--poverty acting as a stronger +incentive to base conduct, not to speak of lack of education and +ignorance, traceable to the lack of means which afflicts the average +of mankind.[14] + +[13] Or, "these inferiors," "these good-for-nothings." + +[14] Or, "some of these folk." The passage is corrupt. + +The objection may be raised that it was a mistake to allow the +universal right of speech[15] and a seat in council. These should have +been reserved for the cleverest, the flower of the community. But +here, again, it will be found that they are acting with wise +deliberation in granting to[16] even the baser sort the right of +speech, for supposing only the better people might speak, or sit in +council, blessings would fall to the lot of those like themselves, but +to the commonalty the reverse of blessings. Whereas now, any one who +likes, any base fellow, may get up and discover something to the +advantage of himself and his equals. It may be retorted: "And what +sort of advantage either for himself or for the People can such a +fellow be expected to hit upon?" The answer to which is, that in their +judgment the ignorance and baseness of this fellow, together with his +goodwill, are worth a great deal more to them than your superior +person's virtue and wisdom, coupled with animosity. What it comes to, +therefore, is that a state founded upon such institutions will not be +the best state;[17] but, given a democracy, these are the right means +to procure its preservation. The People, it must be borne in mind, +does not demand that the city should be well governed and itself a +slave. It desires to be free and to be master.[18] As to bad +legislation it does not concern itself about that.[19] In fact, what +you believe to be bad legislation is the very source of the People's +strength and freedom. But if you seek for good legislation, in the +first place you will see the cleverest members of the community laying +down the laws for the rest. And in the next place, the better class +will curb and chastise the lower orders; the better class will +deliberate in behalf of the state, and not suffer crack-brained +fellows to sit in council, or to speak or vote in Parliament.[20] No +doubt; but under the weight of such blessings the People will in a +very short time be reduced to slavery. + +[15] Lit. "everybody to speak in turn." + +[16] Or, "it is a counsel of perfection on their part to grant to," + etc. + +[17] Or, "the ideal state." + +[18] Or, "and to govern and hold office." + +[19] Or, "it will take the risk of that." + +[20] See Grote, "H. G." v. p. 510 note. + +Another point is the extraordinary amount of license[21] granted to +slaves and resident aliens at Athens, where a blow is illegal, and a +slave will not step aside to let you pass him in the street. I will +explain the reason of this peculiar custom. Supposing it were legal +for a slave to be beaten by a free citizen, or for a resident alien or +freedman to be beaten by a citizen, it would frequently happen that an +Athenian might be mistaken for a slave or an alien and receive a +beating; since the Athenian People is no better clothed than the slave +or alien, nor in personal appearance is there any superiority. Or if +the fact itself that slaves in Athens are allowed to indulge in +luxury, and indeed in some cases to live magnificently, be found +astonishing, this too, it can be shown, is done of set purpose. Where +you have a naval power[22] dependent upon wealth[23] we must perforce +be slaves to our slaves, in order that we may get in our slave- +rents,[24] and let the real slave go free. Where you have wealthy +slaves it ceases to be advantageous that my slave should stand in awe +of you. In Lacedaemon my slave stands in awe of you.[25] But if your +slave is in awe of me there will be a risk of his giving away his own +moneys to avoid running a risk in his own person. It is for this +reason then that we have established an equality between our slaves +and free men; and again between our resident aliens and full +citizens,[26] because the city stands in need of her resident aliens +to meet the requirements of such a multiplicity of arts and for the +purposes of her navy. That is, I repeat, the justification for the +equality conferred upon our resident aliens. + +[21] See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11 and vi. 4; Jowett, op. cit. vol. i. pp. + 179, 196; Welldon, "The Politics of Aristotle," pp. 394 323; Dem. + "Phil." III. iii. 10; Plaut. "Stich." III. i. 37. + +[22] See Diod. xi. 43. + +[23] Reading, {apo khrematon, anagke}, or (reading, {apo khrematon + anagke}) "considerations of money force us to be slaves." + +[24] See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xiii. (Eng. trans. p. 72). "The rights + of property with regard to slaves in no way differed from any + other chattel; they could be given or taken as pledges. They + laboured either on their master's account or their own, in + consideration of a certain sum to be paid to the master, or they + were let out on hire either for the mines or any other kind of + labour, and even for other persons' workshops, or as hired + servants for wages ({apophora}): a similar payment was also + exacted by the masters for their slaves serving in the fleet." Ib. + "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurion," p. 659 (Eng. + trans.) + +[25] See "Pol. Lac." vi. 3. + +[26] Or, "we have given to our slaves the right to talk like equals + with free men, just as to resident aliens the right of so talking + with citizens." See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xiv. 4, note, p. 221. + See Demosth. "against Midias," 529, where the law is cited. "If + any one commit a personal outrage upon man, woman, or child, + whether free-born or slave, or commit any illegal act against any + such person, let any Athenian that chooses" (not being under + disability) "indict him before the judges," etc; and the orator + exclaims: "You know, O Athenians, the humanity of the law, which + allows not even slaves to be insulted in their persons."--C. R. + Kennedy. + +Citizens devoting their time to gymnastics and to the cultivation of +music are not to be found in Athens;[27] the sovereign People has +disestablished them,[28] not from any disbelief in the beauty and +honour of such training, but recognising the fact that these are +things the cultivation of which is beyond its power. On the same +principle, in the case of the coregia,[29] the gymnasiarchy, and the +trierarchy, the fact is recognised that it is the rich man who trains +the chorus, and the People for whom the chorus is trained; it is the +rich man who is trierarch or gymnasiarch, and the People that profits +by their labours.[30] In fact, what the People looks upon as its right +is to pocket the money.[31] To sing and run and dance and man the +vessels is well enough, but only in order that the People may be the +gainer, while the rich are made poorer. And so in the courts of +justice,[32] justice is not more an object of concern to the jurymen +than what touches personal advantage. + +[27] For {mousike} and {gumnastike}, see Becker's "Charicles," Exc. + "Education." + +[28] See "Revenues," iv. 52; Arist. "Frogs," 1069, {e xekenosen tas te + palaistras}, "and the places of exercise vacant and bare."--Frere. + +[29] "The duties of the choregia consisted in finding maintenance and + instruction for the chorus" (in tragedy, usually of fifteen + persons) "as long as they were in training; and in providing the + dresses and equipments for the performance."--Jebb, "Theophr. + Char." xxv. 3. For those of the gymnasiarchy, see "Dict. of + Antiq." "Gymnasium." For that of the trierarchy, see Jebb, op. + cit. xxv. 9; xxix. 16; Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. xi. + +[30] See "Econ." ii. 6; Thuc. vi. 31. + +[31] See Boeckh, "P. E. A." II. xvi. p. 241. + +[32] For the system of judicature, the {dikasteria}, and the boards of + jurymen or judges, see Aristot. "Constitution of Athens," ch. + lxiii.; "Dict. of Antiq." s.v. + +To speak next of the allies, and in reference to the point that +emissaries[33] from Athens come out, and, according to common opinion, +calumniate and vent their hatred[34] upon the better sort of people, +this is done[35] on the principle that the ruler cannot help being +hated by those whom he rules; but that if wealth and respectability +are to wield power in the subject cities the empire of the Athenian +People has but a short lease of existence. This explains why the +better people are punished with infamy,[36] robbed of their money, +driven from their homes, and put to death, while the baser sort are +promoted to honour. On the other hand, the better Athenians throw +their aegis over the better class in the allied cities.[37] And why? +Because they recognise that it is to the interest of their own class +at all times to protect the best element in the cities. It may be +urged[38] that if it comes to strength and power the real strength of +Athens lies in the capacity of her allies to contribute their money +quota. But to the democratic mind[39] it appears a higher advantage +still for the individual Athenian to get hold of the wealth of the +allies, leaving them only enough to live upon and to cultivate their +estates, but powerless to harbour treacherous designs. + +[33] For {oi ekpleontes}, see Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 41. + +[34] Reading {misousi}; or, if with Kirchhoff, {meiousi}, "in every + way humiliate." + +[35] Or, "[they do so] as recognising the fact." + +[36] {atimia} = the loss of civil rights, either total or partial. See + C. R. Kennedy, "Select Speeches of Demosthenes," Note 13, + Disenfranchisement. + +[37] See Thuc. viii. 48. + +[38] See Grote, "H. G." vi. 53. + +[39] Or, "to a thorough democrat." + +Again,[40] it is looked upon as a mistaken policy on the part of the +Athenian democracy to compel her allies to voyage to Athens in order +to have their cases tried.[41] On the other hand, it is easy to reckon +up what a number of advantages the Athenian People derive from the +practice impugned. In the first place, there is the steady receipt of +salaries throughout the year[42] derived from the court fees.[43] +Next, it enables them to manage the affairs of the allied states while +seated at home without the expense of naval expeditions. Thirdly, they +thus preserve the partisans of the democracy, and ruin her opponents +in the law courts. Whereas, supposing the several allied states tried +their cases at home, being inspired by hostility to Athens, they would +destroy those of their own citizens whose friendship to the Athenian +People was most marked. But besides all this the democracy derives the +following advantages from hearing the cases of her allies in Athens. +In the first place, the one per cent[44] levied in Piraeus is +increased to the profit of the state; again, the owner of a lodging- +house[45] does better, and so, too, the owner of a pair of beasts, or +of slaves to be let out on hire;[46] again, heralds and criers[47] are +a class of people who fare better owing to the sojourn of foreigners +at Athens. Further still, supposing the allies had not to resort to +Athens for the hearing of cases, only the official representative of +the imperial state would be held in honour, such as the general, or +trierarch, or ambassador. Whereas now every single individual among +the allies is forced to pay flattery to the People of Athens because +he knows that he must betake himself to Athens and win or lose[48] his +case at the bar, not of any stray set of judges, but of the sovereign +People itself, such being the law and custom at Athens. He is +compelled to behave as a suppliant[49] in the courts of justice, and +when some juryman comes into court, to grasp his hand. For this +reason, therefore, the allies find themselves more and more in the +position of slaves to the people of Athens. + +[40] Grote, "H. G." vi. 61. + +[41] See Isocr. "Panath." 245 D. + +[42] See Arist. "Clouds," 1196; Demosth. "c. Timoc." 730. + +[43] For the "Prytaneia," see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 12, 4. "Ephialtes + and Pericles curtailed the privileges of the Areopagus, Pericles + converted the Courts of Law into salaried bodies, and so each + succeeding demagogue outdid his predecessor in the privileges he + conferred upon the commons, until the present democracy was the + result" (Welldon). "The writer of this passage clearly intended to + class Pericles among the demagogues. He judges him in the same + deprecatory spirit as Plato in the 'Gorgias,' pp. 515, 516."-- + Jowett, "Pol. of Aristot." vol. ii. p. 101. But see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. xxv., a portion of the newly- + discovered treatise, which throws light on an obscure period in + the history of Athens; and Mr. Kenyon's note ad loc.; and Mr. + Macan's criticism, "Journal of Hellenic Studies," vol. xii. No. 1. + +[44] For the {ekatoste}, see Thuc. vii. 28, in reference to the year + B.C. 416; Arist. "Wasps," 658; "Frogs," 363. + +[45] See Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. xii. p. 65 (Eng. trans.); I. xxiv. p. + 141. + +[46] See "Revenues," iv. 20, p. 338; Jebb, "Theophr. Char." xxvi. 16. + +[47] For these functionaries, see Jebb, op. cit. xvi. 10. + +[48] Lit. "pay or get justice." + +[49] Se Arist. "Wasps," 548 foll.; Grote, "H. G." v. 520 note; Newman, + op. cit. i. 383. + +Furthermore, owing to the possession of property beyond the limits of +Attica,[50] and the exercise of magistracies which take them into +regions beyond the frontier, they and their attendants have insensibly +acquired the art of navigation.[51] A man who is perpetually voyaging +is forced to handle the oar, he and his domestics alike, and to learn +the terms familiar in seamanship. Hence a stock of skilful mariners is +produced, bred upon a wide experience of voyaging and practice. They +have learnt their business, some in piloting a small craft, others a +merchant vessel, whilst others have been drafted off from these for +service on a ship-of-war. So that the majority of them are able to row +the moment they set foot on board a vessel, having been in a state of +preliminary practice all their lives. + +[50] See "Mem." II. viii. 1. + +[51] See "Hell." VII. i. 4. + + + +II + +As to the heavy infantry, an arm the deficiency of which at Athens is +well recognised, this is how the matter stands. They recognise the +fact that, in reference to the hostile power, they are themselves +inferior, and must be, even if their heavy infantry were more +numerous.[1] But relatively to the allies, who bring in the tribute, +their strength even on land is enormous. And they are persuaded that +their heavy infantry is sufficient for all purposes, provided they +retain this superiority.[2] Apart from all else, to a certain extent +fortune must be held responsible for the actual condition. The +subjects of a power which is dominant by land have it open to them to +form contingents from several small states and to muster in force for +battle. But with the subjects of a naval power it is different. As far +as they are groups of islanders it is impossible for their states to +meet together for united action, for the sea lies between them, and +the dominant power is master of the sea. And even if it were possible +for them to assemble in some single island unobserved, they would only +do so to perish by famine. And as to the states subject to Athens +which are not islanders, but situated on the continent, the larger are +held in check by need[3] and the small ones absolutely by fear, since +there is no state in existence which does not depend upon imports and +exports, and these she will forfeit if she does not lend a willing ear +to those who are masters by sea. In the next place, a power dominant +by sea can do certain things which a land power is debarred from +doing; as for instance, ravage the territory of a superior, since it +is always possible to coast along to some point, where either there is +no hostile force to deal with or merely a small body; and in case of +an advance in force on the part of the enemy they can take to their +ships and sail away. Such a performance is attended with less +difficulty than that experienced by the relieving force on land.[4] +Again, it is open to a power so dominating by sea to leave its own +territory and sail off on as long a voyage as you please. Whereas the +land power cannot place more than a few days' journey between itself +and its own territory, for marches are slow affairs; and it is not +possible for an army on the march to have food supplies to last for +any great length of time. Such an army must either march through +friendly territory or it must force a way by victory in battle. The +voyager meanwhile has it in his power to disembark at any point where +he finds himself in superior force, or, at the worst, to coast by +until he reaches either a friendly district or an enemy too weak to +resist. Again, those diseases to which the fruits of the earth are +liable as visitations from heaven fall severely on a land power, but +are scarcely felt by the navel power, for such sicknesses do not visit +the whole earth everywhere at once. So that the ruler of the sea can +get in supplies from a thriving district. And if one may descend to +more trifling particulars, it is to this same lordship of the sea that +the Athenians owe the discovery, in the first place, of many of the +luxuries of life through intercourse with other countries. So that the +choice things of Sicily and Italy, of Cyprus and Egypt and Lydia, of +Pontus or Peloponnese, or wheresoever else it be, are all swept, as it +were, into one centre, and all owing, as I say, to their maritime +empire. And again, in process of listening to every form of speech,[5] +they have selected this from one place and that from another--for +themselves. So much so that while the rest of the Hellenes employ[6] +each pretty much their own peculiar mode of speech, habit of life, and +style of dress, the Athenians have adopted a composite type,[7] to +which all sections of Hellas, and the foreigner alike, have +contributed. + +[1] Reading after Kirchhoff, {ettous ge . . . kan ei meizon en, ton + dia k.t.l.} See Thuc. i. 143; Isocr. "de Pace," 169 A; Plut. + "Them." 4 (Clough, i. 235). + +[2] Lit. "they are superior to their allies." + +[3] Reading with Kirchhoff, {dia khreian . . . dia deos}. + +[4] Or, "the army marching along the seaboard to the rescue." + +[5] Or, "a variety of dialects." + +[6] Or, "maintain somewhat more." + +[7] Or, "have contracted a mixed style, bearing traces of Hellenic and + foreign influence alike." See Mahaffy, "Hist. of Greek Lit." vol. + ii. ch. x. p. 257 (1st ed.); cf. Walt Whitman, "Preface to" + original edition of "Leaves of Grass," p. 29--"The English + language befriends the grand American expression: it is brawny + enough and limber and full enough, on the tough stock of a race, + who through all change of circumstances was never without the idea + of a political liberty, which is the animus of all liberty; it has + attracted the terms of daintier and gayer and subtler and more + elegant tongues." + +As regards sacrifices and temples and festivals and sacred enclosures, +the People sees that it is not possible for every poor citizen to do +sacrifice and hold festival, or to set up[8] temples and to inhabit a +large and beautiful city. But it has hit upon a means of meeting the +difficulty. They sacrifice--that is, the whole state sacrifices--at +the public cost a large number of victims; but it is the People that +keeps holiday and distributes the victims by lot amongst its members. +Rich men have in some cases private gymnasia and baths with dressing- +rooms,[9] but the People takes care to have built at the public +cost[10] a number of palaestras, dressing-rooms, and bathing +establishments for its own special use, and the mob gets the benefit +of the majority of these, rather than the select few or the well-to- +do. + +[8] Reading with Kirchhoff, {istasthai}. + +[9] See Jebb, "Theophr. Char." vii. 18, p. 202. + +[10] Reading with Kirchhoff, {demosia}. + +As to wealth, the Athenians are exceptionally placed with regard to +Hellenic and foreign communities alike,[11] in their ability to hold +it. For, given that some state or other is rich in timber for +shipbuilding, where is it to find a market[12] for the product except +by persuading the ruler of the sea? Or, suppose the wealth of some +state or other to consist of iron, or may be of bronze,[13] or of +linen yarn, where will it find a market except by permission of the +supreme maritime power? Yet these are the very things, you see, which +I need for my ships. Timber I must have from one, and from another +iron, from a third bronze, from a fourth linen yarn, from a fifth wax, +etc. Besides which they will not suffer their antagonists in those +parts[14] to carry these products elsewhither, or they will cease to +use the sea. Accordingly I, without one stroke of labour, extract from +the land and possess all these good things, thanks to my supremacy on +the sea; whilst not a single other state possesses the two of them. +Not timber, for instance, and yarn together, the same city. But where +yarn is abundant, the soil will be light and devoid of timber. And in +the same way bronze and iron will not be products of the same city. +And so for the rest, never two, or at best three, in one state, but +one thing here and another thing there. Moreover, above and beyond +what has been said, the coast-line of every mainland presents, either +some jutting promontory, or adjacent island, or narrow strait of some +sort, so that those who are masters of the sea can come to moorings at +one of these points and wreak vengeance[15] on the inhabitants of the +mainland. + +[11] Or, "they have a practical monopoly." + +[12] Or, "how is it to dispose of the product?" + +[13] Or, "coppert." + +[14] Reading {ekei}. For this corrupt passage see L. Dindorf, ad. + loc.; also Boeckh, "P. E. A." I. ix. p. 55. Perhaps (as my friend + Mr. J. R. Mozley suggests) the simplest supposition is to suppose + that there is an ellipsis before {e ou khresontai te thalatte}: + thus, "Besides which they will not suffer their antagonists to + transport goods to countries outside Attica; they must yield, or + they shall not have the use of the sea." + +[15] {lobasthai}. This "poetical" word comes to mean "harry," + "pillage," in the common dialect. + +There is just one thing which the Athenians lack. Supposing that they +were the inhabitants of an island,[16] and were still, as now, rulers +of the sea, they would have had it in their power to work whatever +mischief they liked, and to suffer no evil in return (as long as they +kept command of the sea), neither the ravaging of their territory nor +the expectation of an enemy's approach. Whereas at present the farming +portion of the community and the wealthy landowners are ready[17] to +cringe before the enemy overmuch, whilst the People, knowing full well +that, come what may, not one stock or stone of their property will +suffer, nothing will be cut down, nothing burnt, lives in freedom from +alarm, without fawning at the enemy's approach. Besides this, there is +another fear from which they would have been exempt in an island home +--the apprehension of the city being at any time betrayed by their +oligarchs[18] and the gates thrown open, and an enemy bursting +suddenly in. How could incidents like these have taken place if an +island had been their home? Again, had they inhabited an island there +would have been no stirring of sedition against the people; whereas at +present, in the event of faction, those who set it in foot base their +hopes of success on the introduction of an enemy by land. But a people +inhabiting an island would be free from all anxiety on that score. +Since, however, they did not chance to inhabit an island from the +first, what they now do is this--they deposit their property in the +islands,[19] trusting to their command of the sea, and they suffer the +soil of Aticca to be ravaged without a sigh. To expend pity on that, +they know, would be to deprive themselves of other blessings still +more precious.[20] + +[16] See Thuc. i. 143. Pericles says: "Reflect, if we were islanders, + who would be more invulnerable? Let us imagine that we are." + +[17] Or, "are the more ready to cringe." See, for the word + {uperkhontai}, "Pol. Lac." viii. 2; Plat. "Crit." 53 E; + Rutherford, "New Phrynichus," p. 110. + +[18] Or, "by the minority"; or, "by a handful of people." + +[19] As they did during the Peloponnesian war; and earlier still, + before the battle of Salamis, in the case of that one island. + +[20] Or, "but mean the forfeiture of others." + +Further, states oligarchically governed are forced to ratify their +alliances and solemn oaths, and if they fail to abide by their +contracts, the offence, by whomsoever committed,[21] lies nominally at +the door of the oligarchs who entered upon the contract. But in the +case of engagements entered into by a democracy it is open to the +People to throw the blame on the single individual who spoke in favour +of some measure, or put it to the vote, and to maintain to the rest of +the world, "I was not present, nor do I approve of the terms of the +agreement." Inquiries are made in a full meeting of the People, and +should any of these things be disapproved of, it can at once discover +ten thousand excuses to avoid doing whatever they do not wish. And if +any mischief should spring out of any resolutions which the People has +passed in council, the People can readily shift the blame from its own +shoulders. "A handful of oligarchs[22] acting against the interests of +the People have ruined us." But if any good result ensue, they, the +People, at once take the credit of that to themselves. + +[21] Reading {uph otououn adikeitai onomati upo ton oligon}, which I + suggest as a less violent emendation of this corrupt passage than + any I have seen; or, reading with Sauppe, {uph otou adikei + anomeitai apo ton oligon}, "the illegality lies at the door of." + +[22] Or, "a few insignificant fellows." + +In the same spirit it is not allowed to caricature on the comic +stage[23] or otherwise libel the People, because[24] they do not care +to hear themselves ill spoken of. But if any one has a desire to +satirise his neighbour he has full leave to do so. And this because +they are well aware that, as a general rule, this person +caricatured[25] does not belong to the People, or the masses. He is +more likely to be some wealthy or well-born person, or man of means +and influence. In fact, but few poor people and of the popular stamp +incur the comic lash, or if they do they have brought it on themselves +by excessive love of meddling or some covetous self-seeking at the +expense of the People, so that no particular annoyance is felt at +seeing such folk satirised. + +[23] See Grote, "H. G." viii. 446, especially p. 449, "growth and + development of comedy at Athens"; Curtius, "H. G." iii. pp. 242, + 243; Thirlwall, "H. G." ch. xviii. vol. iii. p. 42. + +[24] Or, more lit. "it would not do for the People to hear," etc. + +[25] Or, "the butt of comedy." + +What, then, I venture to assert is, that the People of Athens has no +difficulty in recognising which of its citizens are of the better sort +and which the opposite.[26] And so recognising those who are +serviceable and advantageous[27] to itself, even though they be base, +the People loves them; but the good folk they are disposed rather to +hate. This virtue of theirs, the People holds, is not engrained in +their nature for any good to itself, but rather for its injury. In +direct opposition to this, there are some persons who, being[28] born +of the People, are yet by natural instinct not commoners. For my part +I pardon the People its own democracy, as, indeed, it is pardonable in +any one to do good to himself.[29] But the man who, not being himself +one of the People, prefers to live in a state democratically governed +rather than in an oligarchical state may be said to smooth his own +path towards iniquity. He knows that a bad man has a better chance of +slipping through the fingers of justice in a democratic than in an +oligarchical state. + +[26] Or, "and which are good for nothing." + +[27] Or,"its own friends and supporters." + +[28] Reading {ontes} or (if {gnontes}), "who, recognising the nature + of the People, have no popular leaning." Gutschmidt conj. {enioi + egguoi ontes}, i.e. Pericles. + +[29] On the principle that "the knee is nearer than the shin-bone," + {gonu knemes}, or, as we say, "charity begins at home." + + + +III + +I repeat that my position concerning the polity of the Athenians is +this: the type[1] of polity is not to my taste, but given that a +democratic form of government has been agreed upon, they do seem to me +to go the right way to preserve the democracy by the adoption of the +particular type[2] which I have set forth. + +[1] Or, "manner." + +[2] Or, "manner." + +But there are other objections brought, as I am aware, against the +Athenians, by certain people, and to this effect. It not seldom +happens, they tell us, that a man is unable to transact a piece of +business with the senate or the People, even if he sit waiting a whole +year. Now this does happen at Athens, and for no other reason save +that, owing to the immense mass of affairs they are unable to work off +all the business on hand, and dismiss the applicants. And how in the +world should they be able, considering in the first place, that they, +the Athenians, have more festivals[3] to celebrate than any other +state throughout the length and breadth of Hellas? [During these +festivals, of course, the transaction of any sort of affairs of state +is still more out of the question.][4] In the next place, only +consider the number of cases they have to decide--what with private +suits and public causes and scrutinies of accounts, etc., more than +the whole of the rest of mankind put together; while the senate has +multifarious points to advise upon concerning peace and war,[5] +concerning ways and means, concerning the framing and passing of +laws,[6] and concerning the thousand and one matters affecting the +state perpetually occurring, and endless questions touching the +allies; besides the receipt of the tribute, the superintendence of +dockyards and temples, etc. Can, I ask again, any one find it at all +surprising that, with all these affairs on their hands, they are +unequal to doing business with all the world? + +[3] See Arist. "Wasps," 661. + +[4] This sentence is perhaps a gloss. + +[5] Or, "about the war," {peri tou polemou}. + +[6] See Thirlwall, ch. xxxii. vol. iv. p. 221, note 3. + +But some people tell us that if the applicant will only address +himself to the senate or the People with a fee in his hand he will do +a good stroke of business. And for my part I am free to confess to +these gainsayers that a good many things may be done at Athens by dint +of money; and I will add, that a good many more still might be done, +if the money flowed still more freely and from more pockets. One +thing, however, I know full well, that as to transacting with every +one of these applicants all he wants, the state could not do it, not +even if all the gold and silver in the world were the inducement +offered. + +Here are some of the cases which have to be decided on. Some one fails +to fit out a ship: judgement must be given. Another puts up a building +on a piece of public land: again judgement must be given. Or, to take +another class of cases: adjudication has to be made between the +choragi for the Dionysia, the Thargelia, the Panathenaea, year after +year. [[7] And again in behalf of the gymnasiarchs a similar +adjudication for the Panathenaea, the Prometheia, and the Hephaestia, +also year after year.] Also as between the trierarchs, four hundred of +whom are appointed each year, of these, too, any who choose must have +their cases adjudicated on, year after year. But that is not all. +There are various magistrates to examine and approve[8] and decide +between; there are orphans[9] whose status must be examined; and +guardians of prisoners to appoint. These, be it borne in mind, are all +matters of yearly occurrence; while at intervals there are exemptions +and abstentions from military service[10] which call for adjudication, +or in connection with some other extraordinary misdemeanour, some case +of outrage and violence of an exceptional character, or some charge of +impiety. A whole string of others I simply omit; I am content to have +named the most important part with the exception of the assessments of +tribute which occur, as a rule, at intervals of five years.[11] + +[7] Adopting the emendation of Kirchhoff, who inserts the sentence in + brackets. For the festivals in question, see "Dict. of Antiq." + "Lampadephoria"; C. R. Kenney, "Demosth. against Leptines," etc., + App. vi. + +[8] For the institution called the {dokimasia}, see Aristot. + "Constitution of Athens," ch. lv. + +[9] See Dem. "against Midias," 565, 17; "against Apholus" (1), 814, + 20. + +[10] See Lys. "Or." xiv. and xv. + +[11] See Grote, "H. G." vi. p. 48; Thuc. vii. 78; i. 96; Arist. + "Wasps," 707; Aristot. "Pol." v. 8. + +I put it to you, then: can any one suppose that all, or any, of these +may dispense with adjudication?[12] If so, will any one say which +ought, and which ought not, to be adjudicated on, there and then? If, +on the other hand, we are forced to admit that these are all fair +cases for adjudication, it follows of necessity that they should be +decided during the twelve-month; since even now the boards of judges +sitting right through the year are powerless to stay the tide of +evildoing by reason of the multitude of the people. + +[12] Reading with Kirchhoff. Cf. for {oiesthai khre}, "Hell." VI. iv. + 23; "Cyr." IV. ii. 28. + +So far so good.[13] "But," some one will say, "try the cases you +certainly must, but lessen the number of the judges." But if so, it +follows of necessity that unless the number of courts themselves are +diminished in number there will only be a few judges sitting in each +court,[14] with the further consequence that in dealing with so small +a body of judges it will be easier for a litigant to present an +invulnerable front[15] to the court, and to bribe[16] the whole body, +to the great detriment of justice.[17] + +[13] See Grote, "H. G." v. 514, 520; Machiavelli, "Disc. s. Livio," i. + 7. + +[14] Reading with Sauppe, {anagke toinun, ean me} [for the vulgate + {ean men oliga k.t.l.}] {oliga poiontai dikasteria, oligoi en + ekasto esontai to dikasterio}. Or, adopting Weiske's emendation, + {ean men polla poiontai dikasteria k.t.l.} Translate, "Then, if by + so doing they manage to multiply the law courts, there will be + only a few judges sitting," etc. + +[15] Or, as Liddell and Scott, "to prepare all his tricks." + +[16] {sundekasoi}, "to bribe in the lump." This is Schneider's happy + emendation of the MS. {sundikasai}; see Demosthenes, 1137, 1. + +[17] Reading {oste}, lit. "so as to get a far less just judgment." + +But besides this we cannot escape the conclusion that the Athenians +have their festivals to keep, during which the courts cannot sit.[18] +As a matter of fact these festivals are twice as numerous as those of +any other people. But I will reckon them as merely equal to those of +the state which has the fewest. + +[18] Lit. "it is not possible to give judgment"; or, "for juries to + sit." + +This being so, I maintain that it is not possible for business affairs +at Athens to stand on any very different footing from the present, +except to some slight extent, by adding here and deducting there. Any +large modification is out of the question, short of damaging the +democracy itself. No doubt many expedients might be discovered for +improving the constitution, but if the problem be to discover some +adequate means of improving the constitution, while at the same time +the democracy is to remain intact, I say it is not easy to do this, +except, as I have just stated, to the extent of some trifling addition +here or deduction there. + +There is another point in which it is sometimes felt that the +Athenians are ill advised, in their adoption, namely, of the less +respectable party, in a state divided by faction. But if so, they do +it advisedly. If they chose the more respectable, they would be +adopting those whose views and interests differ from their own, for +there is no state in which the best element is friendly to the people. +It is the worst element which in every state favours the democracy--on +the principle that like favours like.[19] It is simple enough then. +The Athenians choose what is most akin to themselves. Also on every +occasion on which they have attempted to side with the better classes, +it has not fared well with them, but within a short interval the +democratic party has been enslaved, as for instance in Boeotia;[20] +or, as when they chose the aristocrats of the Milesians, and within a +short time these revolted and cut the people to pieces; or, as when +they chose the Lacedaemonians as against the Messenians, and within a +short time the Lacedaemonians subjugated the Messenians and went to +war against Athens. + +[19] I.e. "birds of a feather." + +[20] The references are perhaps (1) to the events of the year 447 + B.C., see Thuc. i. 113; cf. Aristot. "Pol." v. 3, 5; (2) to 440 + B.C., Thuc. i. 115; Diod. xii. 27, 28; Plut. "Pericl." c. 24; (3) + to those of 464 B.C., followed by 457 B.C., Thuc. i. 102; Plut. + "Cimon," c. 16; and Thuc. i. 108. + +I seem to overhear a retort, "No one, of course, is deprived of his +civil rights at Athens unjustly." My answer is, that there are some +who are unjustly deprived of their civil rights, though the cases are +certainly rare. But it will take more than a few to attack the +democracy at Athens, since you may take it as an established fact, it +is not the man who has lost his civil rights justly that takes the +matter to heart, but the victims, if any, of injustice. But how in the +world can any one imagine that many are in a state of civil disability +at Athens, where the People and the holders of office are one and the +same? It is from iniquitous exercise of office, from iniquity +exhibited either in speech or action, and the like circumstances, that +citizens are punished with deprivation of civil rights in Athens. Due +reflection on these matters will serve to dispel the notion that there +is any danger at Athens from persons visited with disenfranchisement. + + + + + +THE POLITY OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS + + + +I + +I recall the astonishment with which I[1] first noted the unique +position[2] of Sparta amongst the states of Hellas, the relatively +sparse population,[3] and at the same time the extraordinary power and +prestige of the community. I was puzzled to account for the fact. It +was only when I came to consider the peculiar institutions of the +Spartans that my wonderment ceased. Or rather, it is transferred to +the legislator who gave them those laws, obedience to which has been +the secret of their prosperity. This legislator, Lycurgus, I must +needs admire, and hold him to have been one of the wisest of mankind. +Certainly he was no servile imitator of other states. It was by a +stroke of invention rather, and on a pattern much in opposition to the +commonly-accepted one, that he brought his fatherland to this pinnacle +of prosperity. + +[1] See the opening words of the "Cyrop." and of the "Symp." + +[2] Or, "the phenomenal character." See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320 foll.; + Newman, "Pol. Arist." i. 202. + +[3] See Herod. vii. 234; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 14 foll.; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10 (vol. i. p. 203, Eng. tr.) + +Take for example--and it is well to begin at the beginning[4]--the +whole topic of the begetting and rearing of children. Throughout the +rest of the world the young girl, who will one day become a mother +(and I speak of those who may be held to be well brought up), is +nurtured on the plainest food attainable, with the scantiest addition +of meat or other condiments; whilst as to wine they train them either +to total abstinence or to take it highly diluted with water. And in +imitation, as it were, of the handicraft type, since the majority of +artificers are sedentary,[5] we, the rest of the Hellenes, are content +that our girls should sit quietly and work wools. That is all we +demand of them. But how are we to expect that women nurtured in this +fashion should produce a splendid offspring? + +[4] Cf. a fragment of Critias cited by Clement, "Stromata," vi. p. + 741, 6; Athen. x. 432, 433; see "A Fragment of Xenophon" (?), ap. + Stob. "Flor." 88. 14, translated by J. Hookham Frere, "Theognis + Restitutus," vol. i. 333; G. Sauppe, "Append. de Frag. Xen." p. + 293; probably by Antisthenes (Bergk. ii. 497). + +[5] Or, "such technical work is for the most part sedentary." + +Lycurgus pursued a different path. Clothes were things, he held, the +furnishing of which might well enough be left to female slaves. And, +believing that the highest function of a free woman was the bearing of +children, in the first place he insisted on the training of the body +as incumbent no less on the female than the male; and in pursuit of +the same idea instituted rival contests in running and feats of +strength for women as for men. His belief was that where both parents +were strong their progeny would be found to be more vigorous. + +And so again after marriage. In view of the fact that immoderate +intercourse is elsewhere permitted during the earlier period of +matrimony, he adopted a principle directly opposite. He laid it down +as an ordinance that a man should be ashamed to be seen visiting the +chamber of his wife, whether going in or coming out. When they did +meet under such restraint the mutual longing of these lovers could not +but be increased, and the fruit which might spring from such +intercourse would tend to be more robust than theirs whose affections +are cloyed by satiety. By a farther step in the same direction he +refused to allow marriages to be contracted[6] at any period of life +according to the fancy of the parties concerned. Marriage, as he +ordained it, must only take place in the prime of bodily vigour,[7] +this too being, as he believed, a condition conducive to the +production of healthy offspring. Or again, to meet the case which +might occur of an old man[8] wedded to a young wife. Considering the +jealous watch which such husbands are apt to keep over their wives, he +introduced a directly opposite custom; that is to say, he made it +incumbent on the aged husband to introduce some one whose qualities, +physical and moral, he admired, to play the husband's part and to +beget him children. Or again, in the case of a man who might not +desire to live with a wife permanently, but yet might still be anxious +to have children of his own worthy the name, the lawgiver laid down a +law[9] in his behalf. Such a one might select some woman, the wife of +some man, well born herself and blest with fair offspring, and, the +saction and consent of her husband first obtained, raise up children +for himself through her. + +[6] "The bride to be wooed and won." The phrase {agesthai} perhaps + points to some primitive custom of capturing and carrying off the + bride, but it had probably become conventional. + +[7] Cf. Plut. "Lycurg," 15 (Clough, i. 101). "In their marriages the + husband carried off his bride by a sort of force; nor were their + brides ever small and of tender years, but in their full bloom and + ripeness." + +[8] Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 103). + +[9] Or, "established a custom to suit the case." + +These and many other adaptations of a like sort the lawgiver +sanctioned. As, for instance, at Sparta a wife will not object to bear +the burden of a double establishment,[10] or a husband to adopt sons +as foster-brothers of his own children, with a full share in his +family and position, but possessing no claim to his wealth and +property. + +[10] Cf. Plut. "Comp. of Numa with Lycurgus," 4; "Cato mi." 25 + (Clough, i. 163; iv. 395). + +So opposed to those of the rest of the world are the principles which +Lycurgus devissed in reference to the production of children. Whether +they enabled him to provide Sparta with a race of men superior to all +in size and strength I leave to the judgment of whomsoever it may +concern. + + + +II + +With this exposition of the customs in connection with the birth of +children, I wish now to explain the systems of education in fashion +here and elsewhere. Throughout the rest of Hellas the custom on the +part of those who claim to educate their sons in the best way is as +follows. As soon as the children are of an age to understand what is +said to them they are immediately placed under the charge of +Paidagogoi[1] (or tutors), who are also attendants, and sent off to +the school of some teacher to be taught "grammar," "music," and the +concerns of the palestra.[2] Besides this they are given shoes[3] to +wear which tend to make their feet tender, and their bodies are +enervated by various changes of clothing. And as for food, the only +measure recognised is that which is fixed by appetite. + +[1] = "boy-leaders." Cf. St. Paul, "Ep. Gal." iii. 24; The Law was our + schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ. + +[2] Cf. Plato, "Alc. maj." 106 E; "Theages," 122 E; Aristot. "Pol." + viii. 3. + +[3] Or, "sandals." + +But when we turn to Lycurgus, instead of leaving it to each member of +the state privately to appoint a slave to be his son's tutor, he set +over the young Spartans a public guardian, the Paidonomos[4] or +"pastor," to give them his proper title,[5] with complete authority +over them. This guardian was selected from those who filled the +highest magistracies. He had authority to hold musters of the boys,[6] +and as their overseer, in case of any misbehaviour, to chastise +severely. The legislator further provided his pastor with a body of +youths in the prime of life, and bearing whips,[7] to inflict +punishment when necessary, with this happy result that in Sparta +modesty and obedience ever go hand in hand, nor is there lack of +either. + +[4] = "boyherd." + +[5] Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 107); Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, + 13; vii. 17, 5. + +[6] Or, "assemble the boys in flocks." + +[7] {mastigophoroi} = "flagellants." + +Instead of softening their feet with shoe or sandal, his rule was to +make them hardy through going barefoot.[8] This habit, if practised, +would, as he believed, enable them to scale heights more easily and +clamber down precipices with less danger. In fact, with his feet so +trained the young Spartan would leap and spring and run faster unshod +than another shod in the ordinary way. + +[8] Cf. Plut. "Lycurg." 16 (Clough, i. 106). + +Instead of making them effeminate with a variety of clothes, his rule +was to habituate them to a single garment the whole year through, +thinking that so they would be better prepared to withstand the +variations of heat and cold. + +Again, as regards food, according to his regulation the Eiren,[9] or +head of the flock, must see that his messmates gathered to the club +meal,[10] with such moderate food as to avoid that heaviness[11] which +is engendered by repletion, and yet not to remain altogether +unacquainted with the pains of penurious living. His belief was that +by such training in boyood they would be better able when occasion +demanded to continue toiling on an empty stomach. They would be all +the fitter, if the word of command were given, to remain on the +stretch for a long time without extra dieting. The craving for +luxuries[12] would be less, the readiness to take any victual set +before them greater, and, in general, the regime would be found more +healthy.[13] Under it he thought the lads would increase in stature +and shape into finer men, since, as he maintained, a dietary which +gave suppleness to the limbs must be more conducive to both ends than +one which added thickness to the bodily parts by feeding.[14] + +[9] For the Eiren, see Plut. "Lycurg." (Clough, i. 107). + +[10] Reading {sumboleuein} (for the vulg. {sumbouleuein}). The + emendation is now commonly adopted. For the word itself, see L. + Dindorf, n. ad loc., and Schneider. {sumbolon} = {eranos} or club + meal. Perhaps we ought to read {ekhontas} instead of {ekhonta}. + +[11] See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 108). + +[12] Lit. "condiments," such as "meat," "fish," etc. See "Cyrop." I. + ii. 8. + +[13] Or, "and in general they would live more healthily and increase + in stature." + +[14] See L. Dindorf's emendation of this corrupt passage, n. ad loc. + (based upon Plut. "Lycurg." 17 and Ps. Plut. "Moral." 237), {kai + eis mekos d' an auxanesthai oeto kai eueidesterous} vel {kallious + gignesthai, pros amphotera ton radina ta somata poiousan trophen + mallon sullambanein egesamenos e ten diaplatunousan}. Otherwise I + would suggest to read {kai eis mekos an auxanesthai ten [gar] + radina . . . egesato k.t.l.}, which is closer to the vulgate, and + gives nearly the same sense. + +On the other hand, in order to guard against a too great pinch of +starvation, though he did not actually allow the boys to help +themselves without further trouble to what they needed more, he did +give them permission to steal[15] this thing or that in the effort to +alleviate their hunger. It was not of course from any real difficulty +how else to supply them with nutriment that he left it to them to +provide themselves by this crafty method. Nor can I conceieve that any +one will so misinterpret the custom. Clearly its explanation lies in +the fact that he who would live the life of a robber must forgo sleep +by night, and in the daytime he must employ shifts and lie in +ambuscade; he must prepare and make ready his scouts, and so forth, if +he is to succeed in capturing the quarry.[16] + +[15] See "Anab." IV. vi. 14. + +[16] For the institution named the {krupteia}, see Plut. "Lycurg." 28 + (Clough, i. 120); Plato, "Laws," i. 633 B; for the {klopeia}, ib. + vii. 823 E; Isocr. "Panathen." 277 B. + +It is obvious, I say, that the whole of this education tended, and was +intended, to make the boys craftier and more inventive in getting in +supplies, whilst at the same time it cultivated their warlike +instincts. An objector may retort: "But if he thought it so fine a +feat to steal, why did he inflict all those blows on the unfortunate +who was caught?" My answer is: for the self-same reason which induces +people, in other matters which are taught, to punish the mal- +performance of a service. So they, the Lacedaemonians, visit penalties +on the boy who is detected thieving as being but a sorry bungler in +the art. So to steal as many cheeses as possible [off the shrine of +Orthia[17]] was a feat to be encouraged; but, at the same moment, +others were enjoined to scourge the thief, which would point a moral +not obscurely, that by pain endured for a brief season a man may earn +the joyous reward of lasting glory.[18] Herein, too, it is plainly +shown that where speed is requisite the sluggard will win for himself +much trouble and scant good. + +[17] I.e. "Artemis of the Steep"--a title connecting the goddess with + Mount Orthion or Orthosion. See Pausan. VIII. xxiii. 1; and for + the custom, see Themistius, "Or." 21, p. 250 A. The words have + perhaps got out of their right place. See Schneider's Index, s.v. + +[18] See Plut. "Lycurg." 18; "Morals," 239 C; "Aristid." 17; Cic. + "Tusc." ii. 14. + +Furthermore, and in order that the boys should not want a ruler, even +in case the pastor[19] himself were absent, he gave to any citizen who +chanced to be present authority to lay upon them injunctions for their +good, and to chastise them for any trespass committed. By so doing he +created in the boys of Sparta a most rare modesty and reverence. And +indeed there is nothing which, whether as boys or men, they respect +more highly than the ruler. Lastly, and with the same intention, that +the boys must never be reft of a ruler, even if by chance there were +no grown man present, he laid down the rule that in such a case the +most active of the Leaders or Prefects[20] was to become ruler for the +nonce, each of his own division. The conclusion being that under no +circumstances whatever are the boys of Sparta destitute of one to rule +them. + +[19] Lit. "Paidonomos." + +[20] Lit. "Eirens." + +I ought, as it seems to me, not to omit some remark on the subject of +boy attachments,[21] it being a topic in close connection with that of +boyhood and the training of boys. + +[21] See Plut. "Lycurg." 17 (Clough, i. 109). + +We know that the rest of the Hellenes deal with this relationship in +different ways, either after the manner of the Boeotians,[22] where +man and boy are intimately united by a bond like that of wedlock, or +after the manner of the Eleians, where the fruition of beauty is an +act of grace; whilst there are others who would absolutely debar the +lover from all conversation[23] and discourse with the beloved. + +[22] See Xen. "Symp." viii. 34; Plato, "Symp." 182 B (Jowett, II. p. + 33). + +[23] {dialegesthai} came to mean philosophic discussion and debate. Is + the author thinking of Socrates? See "Mem." I. ii. 35; IV. v. 12. + +Lycurgus adopted a system opposed to all of these alike. Given that +some one, himself being all that a man ought to be, should in +admiration of a boy's soul[24] endeavour to discover in him a true +friend without reproach, and to consort with him--this was a +relationship which Lycurgus commended, and indeed regarded as the +noblest type of bringing up. But if, as was evident, it was not an +attachment to the soul, but a yearning merely towards the body, he +stamped this thing as foul and horrible; and with this result, to the +credit of Lycurgus be it said, that in Lacedaemon the relationship of +lover and beloved is like that of parent and child or brother and +brother where carnal appetite is in abeyance. + +[24] See Xen. "Symp." viii. 35; Plut. "Lycurg." 18. + +That this, however, which is the fact, should be scarcely credited in +some quarters does not surprise me, seeing that in many states the +laws[25] do not oppose the desires in question. + +[25] I.e. "law and custom." + +I have now described the two chief methods of education in vogue; that +is to say, the Lacedaemonian as contrasted with that of the rest of +Hellas, and I leave it to the judgment of him whom it may concern, +which of the two has prodcued the finer type of men. And by finer I +mean the better disciplined, the more modest and reverential, and, in +matters where self-restraint is a virtue, the more continent. + + + +III + +Coming to the critical period at which a boy ceases to be a boy and +becomes a youth,[1] we find that it is just then that the rest of the +world proceed to emancipate their children from the private tutor and +the schoolmaster, and, without substituting any further ruler, are +content to launch them into absolute independence. + +[1] {eis to meirakiousthai}, "with reference to hobbledehoy-hood." + Cobet erases the phrase as post-Xenophontine. + +Here, again, Lycurgus took an entirely opposite view of the matter. +This, if observation might be trusted, was the season when the tide of +animal spirits flows fast, and the froth of insolence rises to the +surface; when, too, the most violent appetites for divers pleasures, +in serried ranks, invade[2] the mind. This, then, was the right moment +at which to impose tenfold labours upon the growing youth, and to +devise for him a subtle system of absorbing occupation. And by a +crowning enactment, which said that "he who shrank from the duties +imposed on him would forfeit henceforth all claim to the glorious +honours of the state," he caused, not only the public authorities, but +those personally interested[3] in the several companies of youths to +take serious pains so that no single individual of them should by an +act of craven cowardice find himself utterly rejected and reprobate +within the body politic. + +[2] Lit. "range themselves." For the idea, see "Mem."I. ii. 23; + Swinburne, "Songs before Sunrise": Prelude, "Past youth where + shoreward shallows are." + +[3] Or, "the friends and connections." + +Furthermore, in his desire to implant in their youthful souls a root +of modesty he imposed upon these bigger boys a special rule. In the +very streets they were to keep their two hands[4] within the folds of +the cloak; they were to walk in silence and without turning their +heads to gaze, now here, now there, but rather to keep their eyes +fixed upon the ground before them. And hereby it would seem to be +proved conclusively that, even in the matter of quiet bearing and +sobreity,[5] the masculine type may claim greater strength than that +which we attribute to the nature of women. At any rate, you might +sooner expect a stone image to find voice than one of those Spartan +youths; to divert the eyes of some bronze stature were less difficult. +And as to quiet bearing, no bride ever stepped in bridal bower[6] with +more natural modesty. Note them when they have reached the public +table.[7] The plainest answer to the question asked--that is all you +need expect to hear from their lips. + +[4] See Cic. "pro Coelio," 5. + +[5] See Plat. "Charmid." 159 B; Jowett, "Plato," I. 15. + +[6] Longinus, {peri ups}, iv. 4, reading {ophthalmois} for + {thalamois}, says: "Yet why speak of Timaeus, when even men like + Xenophon and Plato, the very demigods of literature, though they + had sat at the feet of Socrates, sometimes forget themselves in + the pursuit of such pretty conceits? The former in his account of + the Spartan Polity has these words: 'Their voice you would no more + hear, than if they were of marble, their gaze is as immovable as + if they were cast in bronze. You would deem them more modest than + the very maidens in their eyes.' To speak of the pupils of the + eyes as modest maidens was a piece of absurdity becoming + Amphicrates rather than Xenophon; and then what a strange notion + to suppose that modesty is always without exception, expressed in + the eye!"--H. L. Howell, "Longinus," p. 8. See "Spectator," No. + 354. + +[7] See Paus. VII. i. 8, the {phidition} or {philition}; "Hell." V. + iv. 28. + + + +IV + +But if he was thus careful in the education of the stripling,[1] the +Spartan lawgiver showed a still greater anxiety in dealing with those +who had reached the prime of opening manhood; considering their +immense importance to the city in the scale of good, if only they +proved themselves the men they should be. He had only to look around +to see what wherever the spirit of emulation[2] is most deeply seated, +there, too, their choruses and gymnastic contests will present alike a +far higher charm to eye and ear. And on the same principle he +persuaded himself that he needed only to confront[3] his youthful +warriors in the strife of valour, and with like result. They also, in +their degree, might be expected to attain to some unknown height of +manly virtue. + +[1] See "Hell." V. iv. 32. + +[2] Cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22. + +[3] Or, "pit face to face." + +What method he adopted to engage these combatants I will now explain. +It is on this wise. Their ephors select three men out of the whole +body of the citizens in the prime of life. These three are named +Hippagretai, or masters of the horse. Each of these selects one +hundred others, being bound to explain for what reason he prefers in +honour these and disapproves of those. The result is that those who +fail to obtain the distinction are now at open war, not only with +those who rejected them, but with those who were chosen in their +stead; and they keep ever a jealous eye on one another to detect some +slip of conduct contrary to the high code of honour there held +customary. And so is set on foot that strife, in truest sense +acceptable to heaven, and for the purposes of state most politic. It +is a strife in which not only is the pattern of a brave man's conduct +fully set forth, but where, too, each against other and in separate +camps, the rival parties train for victory. One day the superiority +shall be theirs; or, in the day of need, one and all to the last man, +they will be ready to aid the fatherland with all their strength. + +Necessity, moreover, is laid upon them to study a good habit of the +body, coming as they do to blows with their fists for very strife's +sake whenever they meet. Albeit, any one present has a right to +separate the combatants, and, if obedience is not shown to the +peacemaker, the Pastor of youth[4] hales the delinquent before the +ephors, and the ephors inflict heavy damages, since they will have it +plainly understood that rage must never override obedience to law. + +[4] Lit. "the Paidonomos." + +With regard to those who have already passed[5] the vigour of early +manhood, and on whom the highest magistracies henceforth devolve, +there is a like contrast. In Hellas generally we find that at this age +the need of further attention to physical strength is removed, +although the imposition of military service continues. But Lycurgus +made it customary for that section of his citizens to regard hunting +as the highest honour suited to their age; albeit, not to the +exclusion of any public duty.[6] And his aim was that they might be +equally able to undergo the fatigues of war with those in the prime of +early manhood. + +[5] Probably the {agathoergoi}, technically so called. See Herod. i. + 67; Schneider, ap. Dindorf. + +[6] Lit. "save only if some public duty intervened." See "Cyrop." I. + ii. + + + +V + +The above is a fairly exhaustive statement of the institutions +traceable to the legislation of Lycurgus in connection with the +successive stages[1] of a citizen's life. It remains that I should +endeavour to describe the style of living which he established for the +whole body, irrespective of age. It will be understood that, when +Lycurgus first came to deal with the question, the Spartans like the +rest of the Hellenes, used to mess privately at home. Tracing more +than half the current misdemeanours to this custom,[2] he was +determined to drag his people out of holes and corners into the broad +daylight, and so he invented the public mess-rooms. Whereby he +expected at any rate to minimise the transgression of orders. + +[1] Lit. "with each age."; see Plut. "Lycurg." 25; Hesychius, {s. u. + irinies}; "Hell." VI. iv. 17; V. iv. 13. + +[2] Reading after Cobet, {en touto}. + +As to food,[3] his ordinance allowed them so much as, while not +inducing repletion, should guard them from actual want. And, in fact, +there are many exceptional[4] dishes in the shape of game supplied +from the hunting field. Or, as a substitute for these, rich men will +occasionally garnish the feast with wheaten loaves. So that from +beginning to end, till the mess breaks up, the common board is never +stinted for viands, nor yet extravagantly furnished. + +[3] See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 97). + +[4] {paraloga}, i.e. unexpected dishes, technically named {epaikla} + (hors d'oeuvres), as we learn from Athenaeus, iv. 140, 141. + +So also in the matter of drink. Whilst putting a stop to all +unnecessary potations, detrimental alike to a firm brain and a steady +gait,[5] he left them free to quench thirst when nature dictated[6]; a +method which would at once add to the pleasure whilst it diminished +the danger of drinking. And indeed one may fairly ask how, on such a +system of common meals, it would be possible for any one to ruin +either himself or his family either through gluttony or wine-bibbing. + +[5] Or, "apt to render brain and body alike unsteady." + +[6] See "Agesilaus"; also "Mem." and "Cyrop." + +This too must be borne in mind, that in other states equals in age,[7] +for the most part, associate together, and such an atmosphere is +little conducive to modesty.[8] Whereas in Sparta Lycurgus was careful +so to blend the ages[9] that the younger men must benefit largely by +the experience of the elder--an education in itself, and the more so +since by custom of the country conversation at the common meal has +reference to the honourable acts which this man or that man may have +performed in relation to the state. The scene, in fact, but little +lends itself to the intrusion of violence or drunken riot; ugly speech +and ugly deeds alike are out of place. Amongst other good results +obtained through this out-door system of meals may be mentioned these: +There is the necessity of walking home when the meal is over, and a +consequent anxiety not to be caught tripping under the influence of +wine, since they all know of course that the supper-table must be +presently abandoned,[10] and that they must move as freely in the dark +as in the day, even the help of a torch[11] to guide the steps being +forbidden to all on active service. + +[7] Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 240 C; {elix eklika terpei}, "Equals delight + in equals." + +[8] Or, "these gatherings for the most part consist of equals in age + (young fellows), in whose society the virtue of modesty is least + likely to display itself." + +[9] See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 98). + +[10] Or, "that they are not going to stay all night where they have + supped." + +[11] See Plut. "Lycurg." 12 (Clough, i. 99). + +In connection with this matter, Lycurgus had not failed to observe the +effect of equal amounts of food on different persons. The hardworking +man has a good complexion, his muscles are well fed, he is robust and +strong. The man who abstains from work, on the other hand, may be +detected by his miserable appearance; he is blotched and puffy, and +devoid of strength. This observation, I say, was not wasted on him. On +the contrary, turning it over in his mind that any one who chooses, as +a matter of private judgment, to devote himself to toil may hope to +present a very creditable appearance physically, he enjoined upon the +eldest for the time being in every gymnasium to see to it that the +labours of the class were proportional to the meats.[12] And to my +mind he was not out of his reckoning in this matter more than +elsehwere. At any rate, it would be hard to discover a healthier or +more completely developed human being, physically speaking, than the +Spartan. Their gymnastic training, in fact, makes demands alike on the +legs and arms and neck,[13] etc., simultaneously. + +[12] I.e. "not inferior in excellence to the diet which they enjoyed." + The reading here adopted I owe to Dr. Arnold Hug, {os me ponous + auton elattous ton sition gignesthai}. + +[13] See Plat. "Laws," vii. 796 A; Jowett, "Plato," v. p. 365; Xen. + "Symp." ii. 7; Plut. "Lycurg." 19. + + + +VI + +There are other points in which this legislator's views run counter to +those commonly accepted. Thus: in other states the individual citizen +is master over his own children, domestics,[1] goods and chattels, and +belongings generally; but Lycurgus, whose aim was to secure to all the +citizens a considerable share in one another's goods without mutual +injury, enacted that each one should have an equal power of his +neighbour's children as over his own.[2] The principle is this. When a +man knows that this, that, and the other person are fathers of +children subject to his authority, he must perforce deal by them even +as he desires his own child to be dealt by. And, if a boy chance to +have received a whipping, not from his own father but some other, and +goes and complains to his own father, it would be thought wrong on the +part of that father if he did not inflict a second whipping on his +son. A striking proof, in its way, how completely they trust each +other not to impose dishonourable commands upon their children.[3] + +[1] Or rather, "members of his household." + +[2] See Plut. "Lycurg." 15 (Clough, i. 104). + +[3] See Plut. "Moral." 237 D. + +In the same way he empowered them to use their neighbour's[4] +domestics in case of need. This communism he applied also to dogs used +for the chase; in so far that a party in need of dogs will invite the +owner to the chase, and if he is not at leisure to attend himself, at +any rate he is happy to let his dogs go. The same applies to the use +of horses. Some one has fallen sick perhaps, or is in want of a +carriage,[5] or is anxious to reach some point or other quickly--in +any case he has a right, if he sees a horse anywhere, to take and use +it, and restores it safe and sound when he has done with it. + +[4] See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 5 (Jowett, i. pp. xxxi. and 34; ii. p. + 53); Plat. "Laws," viii. 845 A; Newman, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 249 + foll. + +[5] "Has not a carriage of his own." + +And here is another institution attributed to Lycurgus which scarcely +coincides with the customs elsewhere in vogue. A hunting party returns +from the chase, belated. They want provisions--they have nothing +prepared themselves. To meet this contingency he made it a rule that +owners[6] are to leave behind the food that has been dressed; and the +party in need will open the seals, take out what they want, seal up +the remainder, and leave it. Accordingly, by his system of give-and- +take even those with next to nothing[7] have a share in all that the +country can supply, if ever they stand in need of anything. + +[6] Reading {pepamenous}, or if {pepasmenous}, "who have already + finished their repasts." + +[7] See Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9 (Jowett, i. pp. xlii. and 52); Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 10, 1 (vol. ii. 197, Eng. tr.) + + + +VII + +There are yet other customs in Sparta which Lycurgus instituted in +opposition to those of the rest of Hellas, and the following among +them. We all know that in the generality of states every one devotes +his full energy to the business of making money: one man as a tiller +of the soil, another as a mariner, a third as a merchant, whilst +others depend on various arts to earn a living. But at Sparta Lycurgus +forbade his freeborn citizens to have anything whatsoever to do with +the concerns of money-making. As freemen, he enjoined upon them to +regard as their concern exclusively those activities upon which the +foundations of civic liberty are based. + +And indeed, one may well ask, for what reason should wealth be +regarded as a matter for serious pursuit[1] in a community where, +partly by a system of equal contributions to the necessaries of life, +and partly by the maintenance of a common standard of living, the +lawgiver placed so effectual a check upon the desire of riches for the +sake of luxury? What inducement, for instance, would there be to make +money, even for the sake of wearing apparel, in a state where personal +adornment is held to lie not in the costliness of the clothes they +wear, but in the healthy condition of the body to be clothed? Nor +again could there be much inducement to amass wealth, in order to be +able to expend it on the members of a common mess, where the +legislator had made it seem far more glorious that a man should help +his fellows by the labour of his body than by costly outlay. The +latter being, as he finely phrased it, the function of wealth, the +former an activity of the soul. + +[1] See Plut. "Lycurg." 10 (Clough, i. 96). + +He went a step further, and set up a strong barrier (even in a society +such as I have described) against the pursuance of money-making by +wrongful means.[2] In the first place, he established a coinage[3] of +so extraordinary a sort, that even a single sum of ten minas[4] could +not come into a house without attracting the notice, either of the +master himself, or of some member of his household. In fact, it would +occupy a considerable space, and need a waggon to carry it. Gold and +silver themselves, moreover, are liable to search,[5] and in case of +detection, the possessor subjected to a penalty. In fact, to repeat +the question asked above, for what reason should money-making become +an earnest pursuit in a community where the possession of wealth +entails more pain than its employment brings satisfaction? + +[2] Or, "against illegitimate commerce." + +[3] See Plut. "Lycurg." 9 (Clough, i. 94). + +[4] = 40 pounds, circa. + +[5] See Grote, "H. G." ix. 320; Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 37. + + + +VIII + +But to proceed. We are all aware that there is no state[1] in the +world in which greater obedience is shown to magistrates, and to the +laws themselves, than Sparta. But, for my part, I am disposed to think +that Lycurgus could never have attempted to establish this healthy +condition,[2] until he had first secured the unanimity of the most +powerful members of the state. I infer this for the following +reasons.[3] In other states the leaders in rank and influence do not +even desire to be thought to fear the magistrates. Such a thing they +would regard as in itself a symbol of servility. In Sparta, on the +contrary, the stronger a man is the more readily does he bow before +constituted authority. And indeed, they magnify themselves on their +humility, and on a prompt obedience, running, or at any rate not +crawling with laggard step, at the word of command. Such an example of +eager discipline, they are persuaded, set by themselves, will not fail +to be followed by the rest. And this is precisely what has taken +place. It[4] is reasonable to suppose that it was these same noblest +members of the state who combined[5] to lay the foundation of the +ephorate, after they had come to the conclusion themselves, that of +all the blessings which a state, or an army, or a household, can +enjoy, obedience is the greatest. Since, as they could not but reason, +the greater the power with which men fence about authority, the +greater the fascination it will exercise upon the mind of the citizen, +to the enforcement of obedience. + +[1] See Grote, "H. G." v. 516; "Mem." III. v. 18. + +[2] Or, reading after L. Dindorf, {eutaxian}, "this world-renowned + orderliness." + +[3] Or, "from these facts." + +[4] Or, "It was only natural that these same . . ." + +[5] Or, "helped." See Aristot. "Pol." v. 11, 3; ii. 9, 1 (Jowett, ii. + 224); Plut. "Lycurg." 7, 29; Herod. i. 65; Muller, "Dorians," iii. + 7, 5 (vol. ii. p. 125, Eng. tr.) + +Accordingly the ephors are competent to punish whomsoever they choose; +they have power to exact fines on the spur of the moment; they have +power to depose magistrates in mid career[6]--nay, actually to +imprison them and bring them to trial on the capital charge. Entrusted +with these vast powers, they do not, as do the rest of states, allow +the magistrates elected to exercise authority as they like, right +through the year of office; but, in the style rather of despotic +monarchs, or presidents of the games, at the first symptom of an +offence against the law they inflict chastisement without warning and +without hesitation. + +[6] Or, "before the expiration of their term of office." See Plut. + "Agis," 18 (Clough, iv. 464); Cic. "de Leg." iii. 7; "de Rep." ii. + 33. + +But of all the many beautiful contrivances invented by Lycurgus to +kindle a willing obedience to the laws in the hearts of the citizens, +none, to my mind, was happier or more excellent than his unwillingness +to deliver his code to the people at large, until, attended by the +most powerful members of the state, he had betaken himself to +Delphi,[7] and there made inquiry of the god whether it were better +for Sparta, and conducive to her interests, to obey the laws which he +had framed. And not until the divine answer came: "Better will it be +in every way," did he deliver them, laying it down as a last ordinance +that to refuse obedience to a code which had the sanction of the +Pythian god himself[8] was a thing not illegal only, but profane. + +[7] See Plut. "Lycurg." 5, 6, 29 (Clough, i. 89, 122); Polyb. x. 2, 9. + +[8] Or, "a code delivered in Pytho, spoken by the god himself." + + + +IX + +The following too may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus. I speak +of the consummate skill with which he induced the whole state of +Sparta to regard an honourable death as preferable to an ignoble life. +And indeed if any one will investigate the matter, he will find that +by comparison with those who make it a principle to retreat in face of +danger, actually fewer of these Spartans die in battle, since, to +speak truth, salvation, it would seem, attends on virtue far more +frequently than on cowardice--virtue, which is at once easier and +sweeter, richer in resource and stronger of arm,[1] than her opposite. +And that virtue has another familiar attendant--to wit, glory--needs +no showing, since the whole world would fain ally themselves after +some sort in battle with the good. + +[1] See Homer, "Il." v. 532; Tyrtaeus, 11, 14, {tressanton d' andron + pas' apolol arete}. + +Yet the actual means by which he gave currency to these principles is +a point which it were well not to overlook. It is clear that the +lawgiver set himself deliberately to provide all the blessings of +heaven for the good man, and a sorry and ill-starred existence for the +coward. + +In other states the man who shows himself base and cowardly wins to +himself an evil reputation and the nickname of a coward, but that is +all. For the rest he buys and sells in the same market-place as the +good man; he sits beside him at play; he exercises with him in the +same gymnasium, and all as suits his humour. But at Lacedaemon there +is not one man who would not feel ashamed to welcome the coward at the +common mess-tabe, or to try conclusions with such an antagonist in a +wrestling bout. Consider the day's round of his existence. The sides +are being picked up in a football match,[2] but he is left out as the +odd man: there is no place for him. During the choric dance[3] he is +driven away into ignominious quarters. Nay, in the very streets it is +he who must step aside for others to pass, or, being seated, he must +rise and make room, even for a younger man. At home he will have his +maiden relatives to support in isolation (and they will hold him to +blame for their unwedded lives).[4] A hearth with no wife to bless it +--that is a condition he must face,[5] and yet he will have to pay +damages to the last farthing for incurring it. Let him not roam abroad +with a smooth and smiling countenance;[6] let him not imitate men +whose fame is irreproachable, or he shall feel on his back the blows +of his superiors. Such being the weight of infamy which is laid upon +all cowards, I, for my part, am not surprised if in Sparta they deem +death preferable to a life so steeped in dishonour and reproach. + +[2] See Lucian, "Anacharsis," 38; Muller, "Dorians," (vol. ii. 309, + Eng. tr.) + +[3] The {khoroi}, e.g. of the Gymnopaedia. See Muller, op. cit. iv. 6, + 4 (vol. ii. 334, Eng. tr.) + +[4] {tes anandrias}, cf. Plut. "Ages." 30; or, {tes anandreias}, "they + must bear the reproach of his cowardice." + +[5] Omitting {ou}, or translate, "that is an evil not to be + disregarded." See Dindorf, ad loc.; Sturz, "Lex. Xen." {Estia}. + +[6] See Plut. "Ages." 30 (Clough, iv. 36); "Hell." VI. iv. 16. + + + +X + +That too was a happy enactment, in my opinion, by which Lycurgus +provided for the continual cultivation of virtue, even to old age. By +fixing[1] the election to the council of elders[2] as a last ordeal at +the goal of life, he made it impossible for a high standard of +virtuous living to be disregarded even in old age. (So, too, it is +worthy of admiration in him that he lent his helping hand to virtuous +old age.[3] Thus, by making the elders sole arbiters in the trial for +life, he contrived to charge old age with a greater weight of honour +than that which is accorded to the strength of mature manhood.) And +assuredly such a contest as this must appeal to the zeal of mortal man +beyond all others in a supreme degree. Fair, doubtless, are contests +of gymnastic skill, yet are they but trials of bodily excellence, but +this contest for the seniority is of a higher sort--it is an ordeal of +the soul itself. In proportion, therefore, as the soul is worthier +than the body, so must these contests of the soul appeal to a stronger +enthusiasm than their bodily antitypes. + +[1] Reading {protheis}. See Plut. "Lycurg." 26 (Clough. i. 118); + Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 25. + +[2] Or, "seniory," or "senate," or "board of elders"; lit. "the + Gerontia." + +[3] Or, "the old age of the good. Yet this he did when he made . . . + since he contrived," etc. + +And yet another point may well excite our admiration for Lycurgus +largely. It had not escaped his observation that communities exist +where those who are willing to make virtue their study and delight +fail somehow in ability to add to the glory of their fatherland.[4] +That lesson the legislator laid to heart, and in Sparta he enforced, +as a matter of public duty, the practice of virtue by every citizen. +And so it is that, just as man differs from man in some excellence, +according as he cultivates or neglects to cultivate it, this city of +Sparta, with good reason, outshines all other states in virtue; since +she, and she alone, as made the attainment of a high standard of noble +living a public duty. + +[4] Is this an autobiographical touch? + +And was this not a noble enactment, that whereas other states are +content to inflict punishment only in cases where a man does wrong +against his neighbour, Lycurgus imposed penalties no less severe on +him who openly neglected to make himself as good as possible? For +this, it seems, was his principle: in the one case, where a man is +robbed, or defrauded, or kidnapped, and made a slave of, the injury of +the misdeed, whatever it be, is personal to the individual so +maltreated; but in the other case whole communities suffer foul +treason at the hands of the base man and the coward. So that it was +only reasonable, in my opinion, that he should visit the heaviest +penalty upon these latter. + +Moreover, he laid upon them, like some irresistible necessity, the +obligation to cultivate the whole virtue of a citizen. Provided they +duly performed the injunctions of the law, the city belonged to them, +each and all, in absolute possession and on an equal footing. Weakness +of limb or want of wealth[5] was no drawback in his eyes. But as for +him who, out of the cowardice of his heart, shrank from the painful +performance of the law's injunction, the finger of the legistlator +pointed him out as there and then disqualified to be regarded longer +as a member of the brotherhood of peers.[6] + +[5] But see Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 32. + +[6] Grote, "H. G." viii. 81; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + +It may be added, that there was no doubt as to the great antiquity of +this code of laws. The point is clear so far, that Lycurgus himself is +said to have lived in the days of the Heraclidae.[7] But being of so +long standing, these laws, even at this day, still are stamped in the +eyes of other men with all the novelty of youth. And the most +marvellous thing of all is that, while everybody is agreed to praise +these remarkable institutions, there is not a single state which cares +to imitate them. + +[7] See Plut. "Lycurg." 1. + + + +XI + +The above form a common stock of blessings, open to every Spartan to +enjoy, alike in peace and in war. But if any one desires to be +informed in what way the legislator improved upon the ordinary +machinery of warfare and in reference to an army in the field, it is +easy to satisfy his curiosity. + +In the first instance, the ephors announce by proclamation the limit +of age to which the service applies[1] for cavalry and heavy infantry; +and in the next place, for the various handicraftsmen. So that, even +on active service, the Lacedaemonians are well supplied with all the +conveniences enjoyed by people living as citizens at home.[2] All +implements and instruments whatsoever, which an army may need in +common, are ordered to be in readiness,[3] some on waggons and others +on baggage animals. In this way anything omitted can hardly escape +detection. + +[1] I.e. "in the particular case." See "Hell." VI. iv. 17; Muller, + "Dorians," iii. 12 (vol. ii. 242 foll., Eng. tr.) + +[2] Or, "the conveniences of civil life at home." + +[3] Reading {parekhein}, or if {paragein}, "to be conveyed." Cf. + Pausan. I. xix. 1. See "Cyrop." VI. ii. 34. + +For the actual encounter under arms, the following inventions are +attributed to him. The soldier has a crimson-coloured uniform and a +heavy shield of bronze; his theory being that such an equipment has no +sort of feminine association, and is altogether most warrior-like.[4] +It is most quickly burnished; it is least readily soiled.[5] + +[4] Cf. Aristoph. "Acharn." 320, and the note of the scholiast. + +[5] See Ps. Plut. "Moral." 238 F. + +He futher permitted those who were above the age of early manhood to +wear their hair long.[6] For so, he conceived, they would appear of +larger stature, more free and indomitable, and of a more terrible +aspect. + +[6] See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). + +So furnished and accoutred, he divided his citizen soldiers into six +morai[7] (or regimental divisions) of cavalry[8] and heavy infantry. +Each of these citizen regiments (political divisions) has one +polemarch[9] (or colonel), four lochagoi (or captains of companies), +eight penteconters (or lieutenants, each in command of half a +company), and sixteen enomotarchs (or commanders of sections). At the +word of command any such regimental division can be formed readily +either into enomoties (i.e. single file) or into threes (i.e. three +files abreast), or into sixes (i.e. six files abreast).[10] + +[7] The {mora}. Jowett, "Thuc." ii. 320, note to Thuc. v. 68, 3. + +[8] See Plut. "Lycurg." 23 (Clough, i. 115); "Hell." VI. iv. 11; Thuc. + v. 67; Paus. IV. viii. 12. + +[9] See Thuc. v. 66, 71. + +[10] See Thuch. v. 68, and Arnold's note ad loc.; "Hell." VI. iv. 12; + "Anab." II. iv. 26; Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 117. + +As to the idea, commonly entertained, that the tactical arrangement of +the Laconian heavy infantry is highly complicated, no conception could +be more opposed to fact. For in the Laconian order the front rank men +are all leaders,[11] so that each file has everything necessary to +play its part efficiently. In fact, this disposition is so easy to +understand that no one who can distinguish one human being from +another could fail to follow it. One set have the privilege of +leaders, the other the duty of followers. The evolutional orders,[12] +by which greater depth or shallowness is given to the battle line, are +given by word of mouth by the enomotarch (or commander of the +section), who plays the part of the herald, and they cannot be +mistaken. None of these manouvres presents any difficulty whatsoever +to the understanding. + +[11] See "Anab." IV. iii. 26; "Cyrop." III. iii. 59; VI. iii. 22. + +[12] I.e. "for doubling depth"; e.g. anglice, "form two deep," etc., + when marching to a flank. Grote, "H. G." vii. 108; Thuc. v. 66; + also Rustow and Kochly, op. cit. p. 111, S. 8, note 19; p. 121, + $17, note 41. + +But when it comes to their ability to do battle equally well in spite +of some confusion which has been set up, and whatever the chapter of +accidents may confront them with,[13] I admit that the tactics here +are not so easy to understand, except for people trained under the +laws of Lycurgus. Even movements which an instructor in heavy-armed +warfare[14] might look upon as difficult are performed by the +Lacedaemonians with the utmost ease.[15] Thus, the troops, we will +suppose, are marching in column; one section of a company is of course +stepping up behind another from the rear.[16] Now, if at such a moment +a hostile force appears in front in battle order, the word is passed +down to the commander of each section, "Deploy (into line) to the +left." And so throughout the whole length of the column, until the +line is formed facing the enemy. Or supposing while in this position +an enemy appears in the rear. Each file performs a counter-march[17] +with the effect of bringing the best men face to face with the enemy +all along the line.[18] As to the point that the leader previously on +the right finds himself now on the left,[19] they do not consider that +they are necessarily losers thereby, but, as it may turn out, even +gainers. If, for instance, the enemy attempted to turn their flank, he +would find himself wrapping round, not their exposed, but their +shielded flank.[20] Or if, for any reason, it be thought advisable for +the general to keep the right wing, they turn the corps about,[21] and +counter-march by ranks, until the leader is on the right, and the rear +rank on the left. Or again, supposing a division of the enemy appears +on the right whilst they are marching in column, they have nothing +further to do but to wheel each company to the right, like a trireme, +prow forwards,[22] to meet the enemy, and thus the rear company again +finds itself on the right. If, however, the enemy should attack on the +left, either they will not allow of that and push him aside,[23] or +else they wheel their companies to the left to face the antagonist, +and thus the rear company once more falls into position on the left. + +[13] Or, "alongside of any comrade who may have fallen in their way." + See Plut. "Pelop." 23 (Clough, ii. 222); Thuc. v. 72. + +[14] Or, "drill sergeant." + +[15] See Jebb, note to "Theophr." viii. 3. + +[16] Or, "marching in rear of another." + +[17] See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + +[18] Or, "every time." + +[19] See Thuc. v. 67, 71. + +[20] See Rustow and Kochly, p. 127. + +[21] For these movements, see "Dict. of Antiq." "Exercitus"; Grote, + "H. G." vii. 111. + +[22] See "Hell." VII. v. 23. + +[23] I am indebted to Professor Jebb for the following suggestions + with regard to this passage: "The words {oude touto eosin, all + apothousin e}, etc., contain some corruption. The sense ought + clearly to be roughly parallel with that of the phrase used a + little before, {ouden allo pragmateuontai e}, etc. Perhaps + {apothousin} is a corruption of {apothen ousin}, and this + corruption occasioned the insertion of {e}. Probably Xenophon + wrote {oude touto eosin, all apothen ousin antipalous}, etc.: + 'while the enemy is still some way off, they turn their companies + so as to face him.' The words {apothen ousin} indirectly suggest + the celerity of the Spartan movement." + + + +XII + +I will now speak of the mode of encampment sanctioned by the +regulation of Lycurgus. To avoid the waste incidental to the angles of +a square,[1] the encampment, according to him, should be circular, +except where there was the security of a hill,[2] or fortification, or +where they had a river in their rear. He had sentinels posted during +the day along the place of arms and facing inwards;[3] since they are +appointed not so much for the sake of the enemy as to keep an eye on +friends. The enemy is sufficiently watched by mounted troopers perched +on various points commanding the widest prospect. + +[1] Or, "Regarding the angles of a square as a useless inconvenience, + he arranged that an encampment should be circular," etc. See + Polyb. vi. 31, 42. + +[2] Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 14; Polyaen. II. iii. 11, ap. Schneider. + +[3] Lit. "these," {tas men}. Or, "He had lines of sentinels posted + throughout the day; one line facing inwards towards the place of + arms (and these were appointed, etc.); while observation of the + enemy was secured by mounted troopers," etc. + +To guard against hostile approach by night, sentinel duty according to +the ordinance was performed by the Sciritae[4] outside the main body. +At the present time the rule is so far modified that the duty is +entrusted to foreigners,[5] if there be a foreign contingent present, +with a leaven of Spartans themselves to keep them company.[6] + +[4] See Muller's "Dorians," ii. 253; "Hell." VI. v. 24; "Cyrop." IV. + ii. 1; Thuc. v. 67, 71; Grote, "H. G." vii. 110. + +[5] See "Hipparch." ix. 4. + +[6] Reading {auton de}. The passage is probably corrupt. See L. + Dindorf ad loc. + +The custom of always taking their spears[7] with them when they go +their rounds must certainly be attributed to the same cause which +makes them exclude their slaves from the place of arms. Nor need we be +surprised if, when retiring for necessary purposes, they only withdraw +just far enough from one another, or from the place of arms itself, +not to create annoyance. The need of precaution is the whole +explanation. + +[7] See Critias, ap. Schneider ad loc. + +The frequency with which they change their encampments is another +point. It is done quite as much for the sake of benefiting their +friends as of annoying their enemies. + +Further, the law enjoins upon all Lacedaemonians, during the whole +period of an expedition, the constant practice of gymnastic[8] +exercises, whereby their pride[9] in themselves is increased, and they +appear freer and of a more liberal aspect than the rest of the +world.[10] The walk and the running ground must not exceed in +length[11] the space covered by a regimental division,[12] so that no +one may find himself far from his own stand of arms. After the +gymnastic exercises the senior polemarch gives the order (by herald) +to be seated. This serves all the purposes of an inspection. After +this the order is given "to get breakfast," and for "the outposts[13] +to be relieved." After this, again, come pastimes and relaxations +before the evening exercises, after which the herald's cry is heard +"to take the evening meal." When they have sung a hymn to the gods to +whom the offerings of happy omen had been performed, the final order, +"Retire to rest at the place of arms,"[14] is given. + +[8] Cf. Herod. vii. 208; Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 113 foll.) + +[9] Reading {megalophronesterous} (L. Dindorf's emendation) for the + vulg. {megaloprepesterous}. Xen "Opusc. polit." Ox. MDCCCLVI. + +[10] Or, "the proud self-consciousness of their own splendour is + increased, and by comparison with others they bear more notably + the impress of freemen." + +[11] The word {masso} is "poetical" (old Attic?). See "Cyrop." II. iv. + 27, and L. Dindorf ad loc. + +[12] A single mora, or an army corps. + +[13] Or, "vedettes," {proskopon}. See "Cyrop." V. ii. 6. + +[14] ? Or, "on your arms." See Sturz, "Lex. Xen." s.v. + +If the story is a little long the reader must not be surprised, since +it would be difficult to find any point in military matters omitted by +the Lacedaemonians which seems to demand attention. + + + +XIII + +I will now give a detailed account of the power and privilege assigned +by Lycurgus to the king during a campaign. To begin with, so long as +he is on active service, the state maintains the king and those with +him.[1] The polemarchs mess with him and share his quarters, so that +by dint of constant intercourse they may be all the better able to +consult in common in case of need. Besides the polemarch three other +members of the peers[2] share the royal quarters, mess, etc. The duty +of these is to attend to all matters of commisariat,[3] in order that +the king and the rest may have unbroken leisure to attend to affairs +of actual warfare. + +[1] I.e. "the Thirty." See "Ages." i. 7; "Hell." III. iv. 2; Plut. + "Ages." 6 (Clough, iv. 6); Aristot. "Pol." ii. 9, 29. + +[2] For these {oi omoioi}, see "Cyrop." I. v. 5; "Hell." III. iii. 5. + +[3] Lit. "supplies and necessaries." + +But I will resume at a somewhat higher point and describe the manner +in which the king sets out on an expedition. As a preliminary step, +before leaving home he offers sacrifice (in company with[4] his staff) +to Zeus Agetor (the Leader), and if the victims prove favourable then +and there the priest,[5] who bears the sacred fire, takes thereof from +off the altar and leads the way to the boundaries of the land. Here +for the second time the king does sacrifice[6] to Zeus and Athena; and +as soon as the offerings are accepted by those two divinities he steps +across the boundaries of the land. And all the while the fire from +those sacrifices leads the way, and is never suffered to go out. +Behind follow beasts for sacrifice of every sort. + +[4] Lit. reading {kai oi sun auto}, after L. Dindorf, "he and those + with him." + +[5] Lit. "the Purphuros." See Nic. Damasc. ap. Stob. "Fl." 44, 41; + Hesych. ap. Schneider, n. ad loc. + +[6] These are the {diabateria}, so often mentioned in the "Hellenica." + +Invariably when he offers sacrifice the king begins the work in the +gloaming ere the day has broken, being minded to anticipate the +goodwill of the god. And round about the place of sacrifice are +present the polemarchs and captains, the lieutenants and sub- +lieutenants, with the commandants of the baggage train, and any +general of the states[7] who may care to assist. There, too, are to be +seen two of the ephors, who neither meddle nor make, save only at the +summons of the king, yet have they their eyes fixed on the proceedings +of each one there and keep all in order,[8] as may well be guessed. +When the sacrifices are accomplished the king summons all and issues +his orders[9] as to what has to be done. And all with such method +that, to witness the proceedings, you might fairly suppose the rest of +the world to be but bungling experimenters,[10] and the Lacedaemonians +alone true handicraftsmen in the art of soldiering. + +[7] I.e. "allied"? or "perioecid"? + +[8] {sophronizousin}, "keep every one in his sober senses." + +[9] See Thuc. v. 66. + +[10] {autoskhediastai, tekhnitai}. See Jebb, "Theophr." x. 3. + +Anon the king puts himself at the head of the troops, and if no enemy +appears he heads the line of march, no one preceding him except the +Sciritae, and the mounted troopers exploring in front.[11] If, +however, there is any reason to anticipate a battle, the king takes +the leading column of the first army corps[12] and wheels to the right +until he has got into position with two army corps and two generals of +division on either flank. The disposition of the supports is assigned +to the eldest of the royal council[13] (or staff corps) acting as +brigadier--the staff consisting of all peers who share the royal mess +and quarters, with the soothsayers, surgeons,[14] and pipers, whose +place is in the front of the troops,[15] with, finally, any volunteers +who happen to be present. So that there is no check or hesitation in +anything to be done; every contingency is provided for. + +[11] Or, "who are on scouting duty. If, however, they expect a + battle," etc. + +[12] Technically, "mora." + +[13] {ton peri damosian}. See "Hell." IV. v. 8; vii. 4. + +[14] See "Anab." III. iv. 30; "Cyrop." I. vi. 15; L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. + +[15] Schneider refers to Polyaenus, i. 10. + +The following details also seem to me of high utility among the +inventions of Lycurgus with a view to the final arbitrament of battle. +Whensoever, the enemy being now close enough to watch the +proceedings,[16] the goat is sacrificed; then, says the law, let all +the pipers, in their places, play upon the pipes, and let every +Lacedaemonian don a wreath. Then, too, so runs the order, let the +shields be brightly polished. The privilege is accorded to the young +man to enter battle with his long locks combed.[17] To be of cheery +countenance--that, too, is of good repute. Onwards they pass the word +of command to the subaltern[18] in command of his section, since it is +impossible to hear along the whole of each section from the particular +subaltern posted on the outside. It devolves, finally, on the +polemarch to see that all goes well. + +[16] See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114); and for the goat + sacrificed to Artemis Agrotera, see "Hell." IV. ii. 20; Pause. IX. + xiii. 4; Plut. "Marcell." 22 (Clough, ii. 264). + +[17] See Plut. "Lycurg." 22 (Clough, i. 114). The passage is corrupt, + and possibly out of its place. I cite the words as they run in the + MSS. with various proposed emendations. See Schneider, n. ad loc. + {exesti de to neo kai kekrimeno eis makhen sunienai kai phaidron + einai kai eudokimon. kai parakeleuontai de k.t.l.} Zeune, + {kekrimeno komen}, after Plut. "Lycurg." 22. Weiske, {kai komen + diakekrimeno}. Cobet, {exesti de to neo liparo kai tas komas + diakekrimeno eis makhen ienai}. + +[18] Lit. "to the enomotarch." + +When the right moment for encamping has come, the king is responsible +for that, and has to point out the proper place. The despatch of +emissaries, however, whether to friends or to foes, is [not][19] the +king's affair. Petitioners in general wishing to transact anything +treat, in the first instance, with the king. If the case concerns some +point of justice, the king despatches the petitioner to the +Hellanodikai (who form the court-martial); if of money, to the +paymasters.[20] If the petitioner brings booty, he is sent off to the +Laphuropolai (or sellers of spoil). This being the mode of procedure, +no other duty is left to the king, whilst he is on active service, +except to play the part of priest in matters concerning the gods and +of commander-in-chief in his relationship to men.[21] + +[19] The MSS. give {au}, "is again," but the word {mentoi}, "however," + and certain passages in "Hell." II. ii. 12, 13; II. iv. 38 suggest + the negative {ou} in place of {au}. If {au} be right, then we + should read {ephoren} in place of {basileos}, "belongs to the + ephors." + +[20] Technically the {tamiai}. + +[21] See Aristot. "Pol." iii. 14. + + + +XIV[1] + +Now, if the question be put to me, Do you maintain that the laws of +Lycurgus remain still to this day unchanged? that indeed is an +assertion which I should no longer venture to maintain; knowing, as I +do, that in former times the Lacedaemonians preferred to live at home +on moderate means, content to associate exclusively with themselves +rather than to play the part of governor-general[2] in foreign states +and to be corrupted by flattery; knowing further, as I do, that +formerly they dreaded to be detected in the possession of gold, +whereas nowadays there are not a few who make it their glory and their +boast to be possessed of it. I am very well aware that in former days +alien acts[3] were put in force for this very object. To live abroad +was not allowed. And why? Simply in order that the citizens of Sparta +might not take the infection of dishonesty and light-living from +foreigners; whereas now I am very well aware that those who are +reputed to be leading citizens have but one ambition, and that is to +live to the end of their days as governors-general on a foreign +soil.[4] The days were when their sole anxiety was to fit themselves +to lead the rest of Hellas. But nowadays they concern themselves much +more to wield command than to be fit themselves to rule. And so it has +come to pass that whereas in old days the states of Hellas flocked to +Lacedaemon seeking her leadership[5] against the supposed wrongdoer, +now numbers are inviting one another to prevent the Lacedaemonians +again recovering their empire.[6] Yet, if they have incurred all these +reproaches, we need not wonder, seeing that they are so plainly +disobedient to the god himself and to the laws of their own lawgiver +Lycurgus. + +[1] For the relation of this chapter to the rest of the treatise, see + Grote, ix. 325; Ern. Naumann, "de Xen. libro qui" {LAK. POLITEIA} + inscribitur, p. 18 foll.; Newmann, "Pol. Aristot." ii. 326. + +[2] Harmosts. + +[3] "Xenelasies," {xenelasiai} technically called. See Plut. "Lycurg." + 27; "Agis," 10; Thuc. ii. 39, where Pericles contrasts the liberal + spirit of the democracy with Spartan exclusiveness; "Our city is + thrown open to the world, and we never expel a foreigner or + prevent him from seeing or learning anything of which the secret, + if revealed to an enemy, might profit him."--Jowett, i. 118. + +[4] Lit. "harmosts"; and for the taste of living abroad, see what is + said of Dercylidas, "Hell." IV. iii. 2. The harmosts were not + removed till just before Leuctra (371 B.C.), "Hell." VI. iv. 1, + and after, see Paus. VIII. lii. 4; IX. lxiv. + +[5] See Plut. "Lycurg." 30 (Clough, i. 124). + +[6] This passage would seem to fix the date of the chapter xiv. as + about the time of the Athenian confederacy of 378 B.C.; "Hell." V. + iv. 34; "Rev." v. 6. See also Isocr. "Panegyr." 380 B.C.; Grote, + "H. G." ix. 325. See the text of a treaty between Athens, Chios, + Mytilene, and Byzantium; Kohler, "Herm." v. 10; Rangabe, "Antiq. + Hellen." ii. 40, 373; Naumann, op. cit. 26. + + + +XV + +I wish to explain with sufficient detail the nature of the covenant +between king and state as instituted by Lycurgus; for this, I take it, +is the sole type of rule[1] which still preserves the original form in +which it was first established; whereas other constitutions will be +found either to have been already modified or else to be still +undergoing modifications at this moment. + +[1] Or, "magistracy"; the word {arkhe} at once signifies rule and + governmental office. + +Lycurgus laid it down as law that the king shall offer in behalf of +the state all public sacrifices, as being himself of divine +descent,[2] and whithersoever the state shall despatch her armies the +king shall take the lead. He granted him to receive honorary gifts of +the things offered in sacrifice, and he appointed him choice land in +many of the provincial cities, enough to satisfy moderate needs +without excess of wealth. And in order that the kings also might camp +and mess in public he appointed them public quarters; and he honoured +them with a double portion[3] each at the evening meal, not in order +that they might actually eat twice as much as others, but that the +king might have wherewithal to honour whomsoever he desired. He also +granted as a gift to each of the two kings to choose two mess-fellows, +which same are called Puthioi. He also granted them to receive out of +every litter of swine one pig, so that the king might never be at a +loss for victims if in aught he wished to consult the gods. + +[2] I.e. a Heracleid, in whichever line descended, and, through + Heracles, from Zeus himself. The kings are therefore "heroes," + i.e. demigods. See below; and for their privileges, see Herod. vi. + 56, 57. + +[3] See "Ages." v. 1. + +Close by the palace a lake affords an unrestricted supply of water; +and how useful that is for various purposes they best can tell who +lack the luxury.[4] Moreover, all rise from their seats to give place +to the king, save only that the ephors rise not from their thrones of +office. Monthly they exchange oaths, the ephors in behalf of the +state, the king himself in his own behalf. And this is the oath on the +king's part: "I will exercise my kingship in accordance with the +established laws of the state." And on the part of the state the oath +runs: "So long as he[5] (who exercises kingship) shall abide by his +oaths we will not suffer his kingdom to be shaken."[6] + +[4] See Hartman, "An. Xen. N." p. 274; but cf. "Cyneget." v. 34; + "Anab." V. iii. 8. + +[5] Lit. "he yonder." + +[6] Lit. "we will keep it for him unshaken." See L. Dindorf, n. ad + loc. and praef. p. 14 D. + +These then are the honours bestowed upon the king during his lifetime +[at home][7]--honours by no means much exceeding those of private +citizens, since the lawgiver was minded neither to suggest to the +kings the pride of the despotic monarch,[8] nor, on the other hand, to +engender in the heart of the citizen envy of their power. As to those +other honours which are given to the king at his death,[9] the laws of +Lycurgus would seem plainly to signify hereby that these kings of +Lacedaemon are not mere mortals but heroic beings, and that is why +they are preferred in honour.[10] + +[7] The words "at home" look like an insertion. + +[8] Lit. "the tyrant's pride." + +[9] See "Hell." III. iii. 1; "Ages." xi. 16; Herod. vi. 58. + +[10] Intentionally or not on the part of the writer, the concluding + words, in which the intention of the Laws is conveyed, assume a + metrical form: + +{oukh os anthropous all os eroas +tous Lakedaimonion basileis protetimekasin.} + + See Ern. Naumann, op. cit. p. 18. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg Etext of Polity of Athenians and Lacedaemonians + diff --git a/old/old/pltis10.zip b/old/old/pltis10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8156a49 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old/pltis10.zip |