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The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 586,
March 26, 1887, by Various
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re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 586, March 26, 1887
Author: Various
Release Date: March 28, 2004 [EBook #11736]
Language: English
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*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 586 ***
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<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 586</h1>
<h2>NEW YORK, MARCH 26, 1887</h2>
<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIII, No. 586.</h4>
<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
<hr>
<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
<tr>
<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">I.</td>
<td><a href="#1">BIOGRAPHY.—George W. Whistler, C.E.—By
Professor G.L. VOSE.—Full biography of the eminent railroad
engineer.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">II.</td>
<td><a href="#2">CHEMISTRY.—A Newly Discovered Substance in
Urine.—A substance possessing greater reducing power than
grape sugar found in diabetic urine.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#3">On Electro Dissolution and its Use as Regards
Analysis.—By H. N. WARREN, research
analyst.—Interesting decomposition of cast iron with
production of boron and silicon; experiments with other metals.</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">III.</td>
<td><a href="#4">ELECTRICITY.—No Electricity from the
Condensation of Vapor.—Note on Herr S. Kalischer's
conclusions.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#5">On Nickel Plating.—By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE
WARREN.—Notes on this industry, and suggested improvement for
procuring a bright coat.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#6">The Electro-Magnetic Telephone
Transmitter.—New theory of the telephone's action.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">IV.</td>
<td><a href="#7">ENGINEERING.—Fuel and Smoke.—By Prof.
OLIVER LODGE.—The second and concluding one of these
important lectures.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#8">Gas Engine for Use on Railroads.—The
application of six horse power Koerting gas engine to a dummy
locomotive.—1 illustration.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#9">New Gas Holder at Erdberg.—The largest gas
holder out of England.—3 illustrations.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#10">Tar for Firing Retorts.—Simple arrangement
adapted for use in ordinary gas retort benches; results
attained.—1 illustration.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#11">The Anti-Friction Conveyer.—An improvement
on the screw of Archimedes; an apparatus of wonderful simplicity
and efficacy in the moving of grain.—2 illustrations.</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#12">The Retiro Viaduct.—Combined iron and stone
viaduct over the river Retiro, Brazil.—5 illustrations.</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#13">Western North Carolina Location over the Blue
Ridge.—Interesting instance of railroad topography.—1
illustration.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">V.</td>
<td><a href="#14">METALLURGY.—Chilled Cast Iron.—The
various uses of this product; adaptability of American iron for its
application.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">VI.</td>
<td><a href="#15">MISCELLANEOUS.—Coal in the Argentine
Republic.—Note.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#16">History of the World's Postal
Service.—Conclusion of this interesting article.—The
service in Germany, China. Russia, and elsewhere.—10
illustrations.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#17">Snow Hall—The new science and natural
history building of the University of Kansas.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">VII.</td>
<td><a href="#18">NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Improvement in Laying
Out Frames of Vessels.—The Frame Placer.—By GUSTAVE
SONNENBURG.—Ingenious apparatus for use in ship
yards.—1 illustration.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#19">Sea-going Torpedo Boats.—The inutility of
small torpedo boats at sea.—The construction of larger ones
discussed.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
<td><a href="#20">ORDNANCE.—Firing Trial of the 110½
Ton B.L. Elswick Gun. Full dimensions of this piece and it
projectiles.—Results of proof firing.—9
illustrations.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">IX.</td>
<td><a href="#21">PHOTOGRAPHY.—Experiments in Toning
Gelatino-Chloride Paper.—Trials of ten different gold toning
baths, formulas, and results.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#22">Printing Lantern Pictures by Artificial Light on
Bromide Plates from Various Sizes.—By A. PUMPHREY.—The
processor producing smaller or larger transparencies from
negatives.—1 illustration.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">X.</td>
<td><a href="#23">PHYSICS.—A New Mercury Pump.—Simple
air pump for high vacua.—1 illustration.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#24">The Laws of the Absorption of Light in
Crystals.—By H. BECQUEREL.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#25">Varying Cylindrical Lens.—By TEMPEST
ANDERSON, M.D., B. Sc.—Combination of two conoidal
lenses.—Range of power obtained.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">XI.</td>
<td><a href="#26">PHYSIOLOGY.—Elimination of
Poisons.—Treatment of poison cases by establishment of a
strong diuresis. The Filtration and the Secretion
Theories.—Experiments on the action of and secretions of the
kidneys.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top">XII.</td>
<td><a href="#27">TECHNOLOGY.—Furnace for Decomposing
Chloride of Magnesium.—Furnace with rotating chamber for use
by alkali manufacturers.—1 illustration.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#28">Notes on Garment Dyeing.—The production of
blacks on silk and wool.—Formulas for mordants.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#29">Studies in Pyrotechny.—II. Methods of
Illumination.—Continuation of this valuable treatise.—9
illustrations.</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><a href="#30">The "Sensim" Preparing Box.—New machine for
treatment of fiber.—An improvement on the ordinary gill
box.—3 illustrations.</a> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr>
<p><a name="12"></a></p>
<h2>THE RETIRO VIADUCT.</h2>
<p>We give engravings of the viaduct over the river Retiro, Brazil,
our illustrations being reproduced by permission from the
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. In a "selected
paper" contributed to the volume of these proceedings just
published, Mr. Jorge Rademaker Grunewald, Memb. Inst. C.E.,
describes the work as follows:</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt=
" VIADUCT OVER THE RETIRO, BRAZIL."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">VIADUCT OVER THE RETIRO, BRAZIL.</p>
<p>This viaduct was constructed in the year 1875, according to
designs furnished by the author, for the purpose of passing the Dom
Pedro Segundo State Railway over the valley which forms the bed of
the river Retiro, a small confluent on the left bank of the river
Parahybuna. It is 265 kilometers (165 miles) from Rio de Janeiro,
and about 10 kilometers (6.4 miles) from the city of Juiz de Fora,
in the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil. It has a curve of 382
meters (1,253 ft.) radius, and a gradient of 1 in 83.3. Its total
length is 109 meters (357 ft. 7 in.); width between handrails, 4
meters (13 ft.); and greatest height above the bed of the river, 20
meters (65 ft. 7 in.).</p>
<p>The viaduct is composed of seven semicircular arches, each end
arch being built of ashlar masonry, and of 6 meters (19 ft. 8 in.)
diameter; five intermediate arches, 15 meters (49 ft. 2 in.) in
diameter, are of iron. The four central piers are of iron erected
on pillars of ashlar masonry. The metallic part of this viaduct is
80 meters (262 ft. 6 in.) long, and is constructed in the following
manner: The arches, and the longitudinal girders which they
support, are made of two Barlow rails riveted together, with an
iron plate ½ inch thick placed between them. The spandrels
are formed of uprights and diagonals, the former being made of four
angle-irons, and the latter of one angle-iron. Each pair of arches,
longitudinal girders and uprights, is transversely 3 meters (9 ft.
10 in.) from center to center, and is connected by cross and
diagonal bracing. On the top of the longitudinal girders are fixed
cross pieces of single Barlow rails, upon which again are fastened
two longitudinals of wood 12 in. square in section, and which in
their turn carry the rails of the permanent way.</p>
<p>The gauge of the Dom Pedro Segundo Railway is 1.60 meters, or 5
ft. 3 in. nearly, between the rails. At each end of the transverse
Barlow rails is fixed the customary simple iron handrail, carried
by light cast-iron standards. The iron piers are each formed of
four columns, and the columns consist of two Barlow rails, with a
slotted iron plate ½ inch thick let in between the rails,
and the whole being riveted together connects each pair of side
columns.</p>
<p>The details show the system of cross and diagonal bracing. The
columns are each supported by four buttresses formed of plates and
angle-irons. These buttresses, fastened with bolts 8 ft. 3 in.
long, let into the masonry pillars, secure the stability of the
viaduct against lateral strains, due mostly to the centrifugal
force caused by the passage of the trains.</p>
<p>The Barlow rails, which constitute the peculiarity of the
structure, are from those taken up from the permanent way when the
Vignoles pattern of rail was adopted on this railway. The whole of
the foundations were built without difficulty. The principal parts
of the iron work were calculated to resist the strains resulting
from a weight of 4 tons 8 cwt. per lineal meter traveling over the
viaduct at a velocity of 60 kilometers, or about 37 miles, per
hour.</p>
<p>In spite of its fragile appearance this viaduct has, up to the
present time, served in a most satisfactory manner the purpose for
which it was built.—<i>Engineering</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="19"></a></p>
<h2>SEA-GOING TORPEDO BOATS.</h2>
<p>All investigations of the sea-going qualities of torpedo boats
show that while the basin experiments are highly satisfactory,
those made at sea prove with equal force the unreliability of these
craft when they leave the coast. At the beginning of the Milford
Haven operations, the boisterous weather necessitated the
postponing of operations, on account of the unfitness of the
torpedo boat crews to continue work after the twelve hours of
serious fatigue they had already undergone. In the French
evolutions, the difficulties of the passage from Bastia to Ajaccio,
although not remarkably severe, so unfitted fifteen of the twenty
boats that they could take no part in the final attack. In two
nights we find recorded collisions which disable boats Nos. 52, 61,
63, and 72, and required their return to port for repairs.</p>
<p>Of the twenty-two torpedo boats leaving Toulon a few days
before, but six arrived near the enemy, although their commanders
displayed admirable energy. One had run aground, and was full of
water; another had been sunk by collision; another's engine was
seriously injured; and as for the rest, they could not follow.</p>
<p>Of the boats under the command of Admiral Brown de Colstoun, but
five remained for service, for the sixth received an accident to
her machinery which prevented her taking part in the attack.</p>
<p>During the operations off the Balearic Isles, only one of six
boats attacked, and none was able to follow the armorclads, all
meeting with circumstances quite unexpected and embarrassing.</p>
<p>With the weather as it existed May 13, the armorclads had the
torpedo fleet completely at their mercy, for even if they had not
been destroyed by the excellent practice of the Hotchkiss gunners,
they would have been of no use, as they could not with safety
discharge their torpedoes. In fact, the search lights discovered
distinctly that one of the boats, which burned her Coston's signal
to announce victory, did not have her torpedo tube open, on account
of the heavy sea.</p>
<p>Furthermore, their positions were frequently easily discovered
by the immense volume of smoke and flame ejected while going at
great speed. This applies as well by night as by day. It was also
reported that after the four days' running the speed of the boats
was reduced to twelve knots.</p>
<p>With such evidence before us, the seaworthiness of boats of the
Nos. 63 and 64 type may be seriously questioned. Weyl emphasizes
the facts that "practice has shown that boats of No. 61 type cannot
make headway in a heavy sea, and that it is then often impossible
to open their torpedo tubes. On this account they are greatly
inferior to ships of moderate tonnage, which can certainly make
some progress, fire their torpedoes, and use their artillery in
weather when a torpedo boat will be utterly helpless. The torpedo
boat abandoned to itself has a very limited field of action."</p>
<p>Du Pin de Saint Andre admits the success of the torpedo boat for
harbor and coast work, but wisely concludes that this can prove
nothing as to what they may or may not be able to do at sea.</p>
<p>In an article which appeared in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>
in June last, he presented able reasons why the torpedo boats of
to-day's type, being destitute of most, if not all, of the
requisites of sea-going craft, cannot go to sea, take care of
themselves, and remain there prepared to attack an enemy wherever
he may be found. Invisibility to an enemy may facilitate attack,
but it has to be dearly paid for in diminished safety. Further, the
life that must be led in such vessels in time of war would very
quickly unfit men for their hazardous duties.</p>
<p>He points out that the effect of such a life upon the bodies and
minds of the officers and crew would be most disastrous. The want
of exercise alone would be sufficient to unfit them for the demands
that service would make upon them. He has intelligently depicted
the consequences of such a life, and his reasoning has been
indorsed by the reports of French officers who have had experience
in the boats in question.</p>
<p>No weapon, no matter how ingenious, is of utility in warfare
unless it can be relied upon, and no vessel that is not tenantable
can be expected to render any service at sea.</p>
<p>From the evidence before us, we must conclude that the type of
torpedo boat under discussion is capable of making sea passages,
provided it can communicate frequently with its supply stations and
secure the bodily rest so necessary to its crew. But even in a
moderate sea it is useless for attack, and in the majority of cases
will not be able even to open its impulse tubes. Should it succeed
in doing this, the rolling and yawing will render its aim very
uncertain.</p>
<p>An experiment conducted against the Richelieu in October last,
at Toulon, before Admiral O'Neil, the director-general of the
torpedo service, has added its testimony to the uncertainty of the
Whitehead torpedo. The Richelieu had been fitted with Bullivant
nets, and the trial was made to learn what protection they would
afford.</p>
<p>The weather was fair, the sea moderate, and the conditions
generally favorable to the torpedo; but the Whitehead missed its
mark, although the Richelieu's speed was only three knots. Running
at full speed, the torpedo boat, even in this moderate sea, deemed
it prudent to keep the launching tube closed, and selected a range
of 250 yards for opening it and firing. Just at the moment of
discharge a little sea came on board, the boat yawed, the torpedo
aim was changed more than 30 deg., and it passed astern without
touching its object.</p>
<p>While the Milford Haven operations have taught some valuable
lessons, they were conducted under but few of the conditions that
are most likely to occur in actual warfare; and had the defense
been carried on with an organization and command equal to that of
the attack, the Navy's triumph would, perhaps, not have been so
easily secured, and the results might have been very different.</p>
<p>May not the apparent deficiencies of the defense have been due
to the fact that soldiers instead of sailors are given the control
of the harbor and coast defense? Is this right? Ought they not to
be organized on a naval basis? This is no new suggestion, but its
importance needs emphasis.</p>
<p>These operations, however, convinced at least one deeply
interested spectator, Lord Brassey, to the extent of calling
attention "to the urgent necessity for the construction of a class
of torpedo vessels capable of keeping the sea in company with an
armored fleet."</p>
<p>There is no one in Great Britain who takes a greater interest in
the progress of the British Navy than Lord Brassey, and we take
pleasure in quoting from his letter of August 23 last to the
<i>Times</i>, in which he expressed the following opinion: "The
torpedo boats ordered last year from Messrs. Thornycroft and Yarrow
are excellent in their class. But their dimensions are not
sufficient for sea-going vessels. We must accept a tonnage of not
less than 300 tons in order to secure thorough seaworthiness and
sufficient coal endurance.</p>
<p>"A beginning has been made in the construction of vessels of the
type required. To multiply them with no stinting hand is the
paramount question of the day in the department of construction.
The boats attached to the Channel fleet at Milford Haven will be
most valuable for harbor defense, and for that purpose they are
greatly needed. Torpedo boat catchers are not less essential to the
efficiency of a fleet. The gunboats attached to the Channel fleet
were built for service in the rivers of China. They should be
reserved for the work for which they were designed.</p>
<p>"We require for the fleet more fast gunboats of the Curlew and
Landrail type. I trust that the next estimates for the Navy will
contain an ample provision for building gun vessels of high
speed."</p>
<p>As torpedoes must be carried, the next point to which we would
call the attention of our readers is the very rapid progress that
has been made in the boats designed to carry automatic
torpedoes.</p>
<p>A very few years ago the names of Thornycroft and Yarrow were
almost alone as builders of a special type of vessel to carry them.
To-day, in addition, we have Schichau, White, Herreshoff, Creusot,
Thomson, and others, forming a competitive body of high speed
torpedo-boat builders who are daily making new and rapid
development—almost too rapid, in fact, for the military
student to follow.</p>
<p>As new types are designed, additional speed gained, or increased
seaworthiness attained, public descriptions quickly follow, and we
have ourselves recorded the various advances made so fully that it
will be unnecessary to enter into details here.</p>
<p>As late as October, 1885, an able writer said: "The two most
celebrated builders of torpedo boats in the world are Thornycroft
and Yarrow, in England. Each is capable of producing a first class
torpedo boat, from 100 ft. to 130 ft. long, and with 10 ft. to 14
ft. beam, that will steam at the rate of from 18 knots to 22 knots
per hour for 370 knots, or at the rate of 10 knots per hour for
3000 miles. A second class torpedo boat is from 40 ft. to 60 ft.
long, and with 6 ft. or 8 ft. beam.</p>
<p>The use of these boats is gradually being abandoned in Europe
except for use from sea-going ships; but in Europe the harbors are
very small, and it has been found that practically every torpedo
boat for coast defense must be able to go to sea. The tendency is,
therefore, to confinement to the first class boats."</p>
<p>In a paper on "Naval Torpedo Warfare," prepared in January,
1886, for a special committee of the American Senate, by Lieutenant
Jaques of the American Navy, we find the following reference to the
progress in torpedo boat construction: "The development in torpedo
boats has been phenomenal, the last year alone showing an advance
from a length of 120 ft. and a speed of 19 knots, which were
considered remarkable qualities in a first class boat, to a length
of 140 ft. and a speed of 23 knots loaded (carrying 15 tons), and
25 knots light, together with the introduction of novel features of
importance.</p>
<p>"Although Messrs. Yarrow and Thornycroft have brought the second
class boats to a very high standard in Europe, I believe they will
soon be abandoned there even for sea-going ships (very few are now
laid down), and that the great development will be in overcoming
the disadvantages of delicacy and weakness by increasing their
size, giving them greater maneuvering power and safety by the
introduction of two engines and twin screws, and steel plate and
coal protection against rapid firing ammunition. Yarrow and Co.
have already laid down some boats of this character that give
promise of developing a speed of from 23 to 25 knots."</p>
<p>In the Russian boat recently built at Glasgow, progress in this
direction is also seen in the 148 ft. length, 17 ft. beam, the
maneuvering powers and safety element of the twin screws. But while
the boat is fitted for the 19 ft. torpedo, a weapon of increased
range and heavier explosive charge, it suffers from the
impossibility of broadside fire and the disadvantages that Gallwey
has named: "The great length of this torpedo, however, makes it a
very unhandy weapon for a boat, besides which its extra weight
limits the number which can be carried."</p>
<p>While perhaps Messrs. Thomson have been the first to show the
performance of a twin screw torpedo boat in England, the one
completed in June last by Yarrow for the Japanese government
recalls the intelligence that Japan has exercised in the selection
of types.</p>
<p>Commencing as far back as nine years ago, the Japanese were
probably the first to introduce sea-going boats, and they have been
the first power to initiate the armor type, one of which was
shipped last summer to be put together in Japan. As before stated,
it was built by Messrs. Yarrow and Co., was 166 ft. long, 19 ft.
beam, with twin screws, 1 in. steel armor, double engines, with bow
and broadside torpedo guns, the latter so arranged as to greatly
increase their efficiency.</p>
<p>While the advances are not restricted to the English builders, a
glance at the points to which Thornycroft and Yarrow have brought
their improvements up to the present time will indicate that their
achievements are not only equal to but greater than those of any
other builders.</p>
<p>The former has boats under construction 148 ft. long, 15 ft.
beam, to make 420 revolutions with 130 lb. of steam, the guaranteed
speed being 23 knots on a continuous run of two hours' duration,
with a load of 15 tons. They will have triple-expansion or compound
direct-acting surface-condensing engines and twin screws,
Thornycroft's patent tubular boilers, double rudders, electric
search lights, three masts and sails.</p>
<p>While the armaments of the various boats differ, Thornycroft is
prepared to fit the launching tubes with either air or powder
impulse, to mount the tubes forward or on deck, and also the
fittings for machine and rapid firing guns.</p>
<p>Yarrow and Co. have contracted for boats varying in length from
117 ft. to 166 ft., with fittings and armament as may be required.
They have obtained excellent results in their last English boat of
the Admiralty type. They are, in fact, prepared to guarantee a
speed of 23 knots in a length of 125 ft. and 25 knots in a length
of 140 ft., carrying in both causes a mean load corresponding to
fuel and armament of 10 tons.</p>
<p>And so the progress goes on, but it will not stop here; it has
already incited a marked development in ship construction, and the
endeavors to withstand torpedo attack have improved the defense
against gun fire also.</p>
<p>In quoting a German opinion on the development of the Russian
torpedo fleet, Charmes refers to the type which will, no doubt, be
most successful upon the sea, namely, the torpedo cruisers, and it
is to this type, more than for any other, that we may expect
torpedo boats to be adapted. Already, writers have dropped the
phrase "torpedo boats" for "torpedo
vessels."—<i>Engineering</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="20"></a></p>
<h2>FIRING TRIAL OF THE 110½ TON B.L. ELSWICK GUN.</h2>
<p>The firing trial of the first new 110½ ton breech loading
gun approved for H.M.'s ships Benbow, Renown, and Sanspareil was
commenced recently at the Woolwich proof butts, under the direction
of Colonel Maitland, the superintendent of the Royal Gun Factories.
We give herewith a section showing the construction of this gun
(<i>vide</i> Fig. 8). It very nearly corresponds to the section
given of it when designed in 1884, in a paper read by Colonel
Maitland at the United Service Institution, of which we gave a long
account in the <i>Engineer</i> of June 27, 1884.</p>
<p>The following figures are authoritative: Length over all, 524
in.; length of bore, 487.5 in. (30 calibers). The breech engages in
the breech piece, leaving the A tube with its full strength for
tangential strain (<i>vide</i> Fig.). The A tube is in a single
piece instead of two lengths, as in the case of the Italia guns. It
is supplied to Elswick from Whitworth's works, one of the few in
England where such a tube could be made. There are four layers of
metal hoops over the breech. Copper and bronze are used to give
longitudinal strength. The obturation is a modification of the De
Bange system, proposed by Vavasseur.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt=
" THE NEW 110½ TON ELSWICK GUNS FOR H.M.S. BENBOW."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">THE NEW 110½ TON ELSWICK GUNS FOR H.M.S.
BENBOW.</p>
<p>The maximum firing charge is 900 lb. of cocoa powder. The
projectile weighs 1,800 lb. The estimated muzzle velocity is 2,216
ft. per second. The capacity of the chamber is 28,610 cubic inches,
and that of the bore 112,595 cubic inches. The estimated total
energy is 61,200 ft. tons. It will be a few days probably before
the full powers of the gun are tested, but the above are
confidently expected to be attained, judging from the results with
the 100 ton guns supplied to Italy. On January 7 last we gave those
of the new Krupp 119 ton gun. It had fired a projectile with a
velocity of almost 1,900 ft. with a charge of less than 864.67 lb.,
with moderate pressure. The estimated maximum for this gun was a
velocity of 2,017 ft. with a projectile weighing 1,632 lb., giving
a total energy of 46,061 ft. tons, or 13,000 ft. tons less than the
Elswick gun, comparing the estimated results.</p>
<p>The proof of the Elswick gun is mounted on a carriage turned out
by the Royal Carriage Department, under Colonel Close. This
carriage is made on bogies so as to run on rails passing easily
round curves of 50 ft. radius. The gun is fired on an inclined
length of rails, the recoil presses of the carriage first receiving
the shock and reducing the recoil. The carriage is made to lift
into the government barge, so as to go easily to Shoeburyness or
elsewhere. It can be altered so as to provide for turning, and it
allows the piece to be fired at angles of elevation up to 24 deg.
The cheeks of the carriage are made to open and close, so as to
take the 12 in. gun and larger pieces. The steel castings for it
are supplied from the Stanners Close Steel Works.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/3b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 4."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.</p>
<p>The first round was fired at about noon. The charge was only 598
lb., consisting of four charges of 112 lb. and one of 130 lb. of
Waltham Abbey brown prism No. 1 powder. The proof shot weighs, like
the service projectile, 1,800 lb. Thus fired, the gun recoiled
nearly 4 ft. on the press, and the carriage ran back on the rails
about 50 ft. The projectile had a velocity of 1,685 ft. per second,
and entered about 52 ft. into the butt. We cannot yet give the
pressure, but unquestionably it was a low one. The charges as the
firing continues will be increased in successive rounds up to the
full 900 lb. charge.</p>
<p>Figs. 1 and 2 show the mounting of the 110½ ton gun in
the barbette towers of the Benbow. The gun is held down on the bed
by steel bands and recoils in its bed on the slide (vide Fig. 2).
The latter is hinged or pivoted in front and is elevated by
elevating ram, shown in Fig. 2. When the slide is fully down, the
gun is in the loading position. The ammunition lift brings up the
projectile and charge, which latter is subdivided, like those
employed in the German guns, in succession to the breech, the
hydraulic rammer forcing them home.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3c.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/3c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 5."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3d.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/3d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.</p>
<p>The simplicity of the arrangement is apparent. The recoil always
acts parallel to the slide. This is much better than allowing its
direction to be affected by elevation, and the distributed hold of
the steel bands is preferable to the single attachment at
trunnions. Theoretically, the recoil is not so perfectly met as in
some of the earlier Elswick designs, in which the presses were
brought opposite to the trunnions, so that they acted symmetrically
on each side of the center of resistance. The barbette tower is
covered by a steel plate, shown in Fig. 1, fitting close to the gun
slide, so that the only opening is that behind the breech when the
gun is in the forward position, and this is closed as it
recoils.</p>
<p>The only man of the detachment even partly exposed is the number
one, while laying the gun, and in that position he is nearly
covered by the gun and fittings. Common shell, shrapnel shell, and
steel armor-piercing projectiles, have been approved for the
110½ ton gun. The common shell is shown in Fig. 3. Like the
common shell for all the larger natures of new type guns, it is
made of steel. It has been found necessary to support the core used
in casting these projectiles at both ends. Consequently, there is a
screw plug at the base as well as at the apex. The hole at the base
is used as a filling hole for the insertion of the bursting charge,
which consists of 179 lb. of powder, the total weight of the filled
shell being 1,800 lb.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3e.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/3e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3f.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/3f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.</p>
<p>The apex has a screw plug of larger diameter than that of the
fuse. This is shown in Fig. 4. The fuse is a direct action one. The
needle, B, is held in the center of a copper disk, C C, and is safe
against explosion until it is actually brought into contact with an
object, when it is forced down, igniting a patch of cap composition
and the magazine at A, and so firing the bursting charge of the
shell below. E E E are each priming charges of seven grains of
pistol powder, made up in shalloon bags to insure the ignition of
the bursting charge, which is in a bag of serge and shalloon
beneath.</p>
<p>The use of this fuse involves the curious question of the
physical conditions now existing in the discharge of our
projectiles by slow burning powder. The forward movement of the
shell is now so gradual that the inertia of a pellet is only
sufficient to shear a wire of one-tenth the strength of that which
might formerly have been sheared by a similar pellet in an old type
gun with quick burning powder. Consequently, in many cases, it is
found better not to depend on a suspending wire thus sheared, but
to adopt direct action. The fuse in question would, we believe, act
even on graze, at any angle over 10°. Probably at less angles
than 10° it would not explode against water, which would be an
advantage in firing at ships.</p>
<p>Shells so gently put in motion, and having no windage, might be
made, it might naturally be supposed, singularly thin, and the
adoption of steel in place of iron calls for some explanation. The
reason is that it has been found that common shells break up
against masonry, instead of penetrating it, when fired from these
large high velocity guns.</p>
<p>The shrapnel shell is shown at Fig. 5. Like the common shell, it
is made of steel, and is of the general form of the pattern of
General Boxer, with wooden head, central tube, and bursting charge
in the base. It contains 2,300 four ounce sand shots and an 8 lb.
bursting charge. It weighs 1,800 lb. The fuse is time and
percussion. It is shown in Figs. 6 and 6A. It closely resembles the
original Armstrong time and percussion pattern.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3g.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/3g_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6A."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 6A.</p>
<p>The action is as follows: The ignition pellet, A, which is
ordinarily held by a safety pin, is, after the withdrawal of the
latter, only held by a fine, suspending wire, which is sheared by
the inertia of the pellet on discharge, a needle lighting a
percussion patch of composition and the composition ring, B B,
which burns round at a given rate until it reaches the
communication passage, C, when it flashes through the percussion
pellet, E, and ignites the magazine, D, and so ignites the primer
shown in Fig. 6, flashes down the central tube of the shell, and
explodes the bursting charge in the base, Fig. 5. The length of
time during which the fuse burns depends on how far the composition
ring is turned round, and what length it consequently has to burn
before it reaches the communication passage, C. If the fuse should
be set too long, or from any other cause the shell strikes before
the fuse fires the charge, the percussion action fires the shell on
graze by the following arrangement: The heavy metal piece
containing the magazine, D, constitutes a striker, which is held in
place by a plain ball, G, near the axis of the fuse and by a safety
pellet, H. On first movement in the gun, this latter by inertia
shears a suspending wire and leaves the ball free to escape above
it, which it does by centrifugal force, leaving the magazine
striker, D, free to fire itself by momentum on the needle shown
above it, on impact. There is a second safety arrangement, not
shown in the figure, consisting of a cross pin, held by a weak
spiral spring, which is compressed by centrifugal force during
flight, leaving the magazine pellet free to act, as above
described, on impact.</p>
<p>The armor-piercing projectile is shown in Fig. 7. It is to be
made of forged steel, and supplied by Elswick. In appearance it
very closely resembles those fired from the 100 ton gun at Spezia,
but if it is made on the Firmini system, it will differ from it in
the composition of its metal, inasmuch as it will contain a large
proportion of chromium, probably from 1 to 2 per cent., whereas an
analysis of Krupp's shell gives none. In fact, as Krupp's agent at
Spezia predicted, the analysis is less instructive than we could
wish.—<i>The Engineer</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="8"></a></p>
<h2>GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS.</h2>
<p>The industrial world has reason to feel considerable interest in
any economical method of traction on railways, owing to the
influence which cost of transportation has upon the price of
produce. We give a description of the gas engine invented by Mr.
Emmanuel Stevens. Many experiments have been made both at Berlin
and Liege during the past few years. They all failed, owing to the
impossibility the builders encountered in securing sufficient
speed.</p>
<p>The Stevens engine does not present this defect, as will be
seen. It has the appearance of an ordinary street car entirely
inclosed, showing none of the machinery from without. On the
interior is a Koerting gas motor of six horse power, which is a
sufficiently well known type not to require a description. In the
experiment which we saw, the motor was supplied with a mixture of
gas and air, obtained by the evaporation of naphtha. On the shaft
of the motor are fixed two pulleys of different sizes, which give
the engine two rates of speed, one of three miles and the other of
8½ miles an hour. Between these two pulleys is a friction
socket, by which either rate of speed may be secured.</p>
<p>The power is transmitted from one of the pulleys by a rubber
belt to an intermediate shaft, which carries a toothed wheel that
transmits the power to the axle by means of an endless chain. On
this axle are three conical gear wheels, two of which are furnished
with hooked teeth, and the third with wooden projections and fixed
permanently in place. This arrangement enables the engine to be
moved forward or backward according as it is thrown in right or
left gear. When the conical pinions are thrown out of gear, the
motive force is no longer applied to the axle, and by the aid of
the brakes the engine may be instantly stopped. The movement of the
pinions is effected by two sets of wheels on each of the platforms
of the engine, and near the door for the conductor. By turning one
of the wheels to the right or left on either platform, the
conductor imparts either the less or the greater speed to the
engine. In case he has caused the engine to move forward by turning
the second wheel, he will not have to touch it again until the end
of the trip. The brake, which is also operated from the two
platforms, is applied to all four wheels at the same time. From
this arrangement it is seen that the movement is continuous.
Nevertheless, the conductor has access to the regulator by a small
chain connected with the outside by a wheel near at hand, but the
action is sufficiently regular not to require much attention to
this feature.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/4a_th.jpg" alt=
" GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS.</p>
<p>The gas is produced by the Wilford apparatus, which regularly
furnishes the requisite quantity necessary for an explosion, which
is produced by a particular kind of light placed near the piston.
The vapor is produced by passing hot water from the envelope of the
cylinder of the motor through the Wilford apparatus. The water is
cooled again in a reservoir (system Koerting) placed in direct
communication with the cylinder. Any permanent heating is therefore
impossible.</p>
<p>The noise of the explosions is prevented by a device invented by
Mr. Stevens himself. It consists of a drum covered with asbestos or
any other material which absorbs noise.</p>
<p>According to the inventor, the saving over the use of horses for
traction is considerable. This system is soon to be tried
practically at Antwerp in Belgium, and then it will be possible to
arrive at the actual cost of traction.—<i>Industrie Moderne,
Brussels</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="13"></a></p>
<h2>WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE.</h2>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/4b_th.jpg" alt=
" LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE.—WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA RAILROAD.">
</a></p>
<p class="ctr">LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE.—WESTERN NORTH
CAROLINA RAILROAD.</p>
<p>The interesting piece of railroad location illustrated in this
issue is on the mountain section of the Western North Carolina
Railroad. This section crosses the Blue Ridge Mountains 18 miles
east of Asheville, at a point known as Swannanoa Gap, 2,660 feet
above tide water. The part of the road shown on the accompanying
cut is 10 miles in length and has an elevation of 1,190 feet; to
overcome the actual distance by the old State pike was somewhat
over 3 miles. The maximum curvature as first located was 10°,
but for economy of time as well as money this was exceeded in a few
instances as the work progressed, but is now being by degrees
reduced. The maximum grades on tangents are 116 feet per mile; on
curves the grade is equated one-tenth to a degree. The masonry is
of the most substantial kind, granite viaducts and arch culverts.
The numbers and lengths of tunnels as indicated by letters on cut
are as follows:</p>
<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
summary="Numbers and lengths of tunnels">
<tr>
<td colspan="4"></td>
<td colspan="2" align="left">Ft. in all of these.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">A.</td>
<td align="left">Point Tunnel.</td>
<td align="right">216</td>
<td></td>
<td align="left">ft.</td>
<td align="left">long.<a name="FNanchor1"></a><a href=
"#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">B.</td>
<td align="left">Jarrett's Tunnel.</td>
<td align="right">125</td>
<td></td>
<td align="left">"</td>
<td align="left">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">C.</td>
<td align="left">Lick Log Tunnel.</td>
<td align="right">562</td>
<td></td>
<td align="left">"</td>
<td align="left">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">D.</td>
<td align="left">McElroy Tunnel.</td>
<td align="right">89</td>
<td></td>
<td align="left">"</td>
<td align="left">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">E.</td>
<td align="left">High Ridge Tunnel.</td>
<td align="right">415</td>
<td></td>
<td align="left">"</td>
<td align="left">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">F.</td>
<td align="left">Burgin Tunnel.</td>
<td align="right">202</td>
<td></td>
<td align="left">"</td>
<td align="left">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">G.</td>
<td align="left">Swannanoa Tunnel.</td>
<td align="right">1,800</td>
<td></td>
<td align="left">"</td>
<td align="left">"</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The work was done by the State of North Carolina with convict
labor, under the direction of Mr. Jas. A. Wilson, as president and
chief engineer, but was sold by the State to the Richmond &
Danville system.—<i>Railroad Gazette</i>.</p>
<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a>
<div class="note">For the sake of economy of space, our cut omits
the Point and Swannanoa tunnels (the latter is the summit tunnel),
but covers all of the location which is of interest to engineers,
the remainder at the Swannanoa end being almost "on tangent" to and
through the summit.</div>
<hr>
<p><a name="9"></a></p>
<h2>NEW GASHOLDER AT ERDBERG.</h2>
<p>The new gasholder which has been erected by Messrs. C. and W.
Walker for the Imperial Continental Gas Company at Erdberg, near
Vienna, has been graphically described by Herr E.R. Leonhardt in a
paper which he read before the Austrian Society of Engineers. The
enormous dimensions and elegant construction of the
holder—being the largest out of England—as well as the
work of putting up the new gasholder, are of special interest to
English engineers, as Erdberg contains the largest and best
appointed works in Austria. The dimensions of the holder
are—inner lift, 195 feet diameter, 40 feet deep; middle lift,
197½ feet diameter, 40 feet deep; outer lift, 200 feet
diameter, 40 feet deep. The diameter over all is about 230 feet.
The impression produced upon the members of the Austrian Society by
their visit to Erdberg was altogether most favorable; and not only
did the inspection of the large gasholder justify every
expectation, but the visitors were convinced that all the buildings
were in excellent condition and well adapted for their purpose,
that the machinery was of the latest and most approved type, and
that the management was in experienced hands.</p>
<h3>THE NEW GASHOLDER</h3>
<p>is contained in a building consisting of a circular wall covered
with a wrought iron roof. The holder itself is telescopic, and is
capable of holding 3½ million cubic feet of gas. The
accompanying illustrations (Figs. 1 and 3) are a sectional
elevation of the holder and its house and a sectional plan of the
roof and holder crown. Having a capacity of close upon 3,200,000
Austrian cubic feet, this gasholder is the largest of its kind on
the Continent, and is surpassed in size by only a few in England
and America. By way of comparison, Hamburg possesses a holder of
50,000 cubic meters (1,765,000 cubic feet) capacity; and there is
one in Berlin which is expected to hold 75,000 cubic meters
(2,647,500 cubic feet) of gas.</p>
<h3>GASHOLDER HOUSE.</h3>
<p>The gasholder house at Erdberg is perfectly circular, and has an
internal diameter of 63.410 meters. It is constructed, in three
stories, with forty piers projecting on the outside, and with four
rows of windows between the piers—one in each of the top and
bottom stories, and two rows in the middle. These windows have a
height of 1.40 meters in the lowest circle, where the wall is 1.40
meters thick, and of 2.90 meters in the two top stories, where it
is respectively 1.11 meters and 0.90 meter thick. The top edge of
the wall is 35.35 meters above the base of the building, and 44.39
meters from the bottom of the tank; the piers rising 1.60 meters
beyond the top of the wall. The highest point of the lantern on the
roof will thus be 48.95 meters above the ground.</p>
<h3>GASHOLDER TANK.</h3>
<p>The tank in which the gasholder floats has an internal diameter
of 61.57 meters, and therefore a superficial area of 3,000 square
meters; and since the coping is 12.31 meters above the floor, it
follows that the tank is capable of holding 35,500 cubic meters
(7,800,000 gallons) of water. The bottom consists of brickwork 1.10
meters thick, rendered with Portland cement, and resting on a layer
of concrete 1 meter thick. The walls are likewise of brick and
cement, of a thickness of 3.30 meters up to the ground level, and
2.40 meters thick to the height of 3.44 meters above the surface.
Altogether, 2,988,680 kilos. of cement and 5,570,000 bricks were
used in its construction. In fact, from the bottom of tank to top
of roof, it reaches as high as the monument at London Bridge.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 1.—SECTION OF GASHOLDER AND HOUSE."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—SECTION OF GASHOLDER AND HOUSE.</p>
<p>The construction of the tank offered many and serious
difficulties. The bottom of the tank is fully 3 meters below the
level of the Danube Canal, which passes close by, and it was not
until twelve large pulsometer pumps were set up, and worked
continually night and day, that it was possible to reach the
necessary depth to allow of the commencement of the foundations of
the boundary wall.</p>
<h3>ROOF OF HOUSE.</h3>
<p>The wrought iron cupola-shaped roof of the gasholder house was
designed by Herr W. Brenner, and consists of 40 radiating rafters,
each weighing about 25 cwt., and joined together by 8 polygonal
circles of angle iron (90×90×10 mm.). The highest
middle circle is uncovered, and carries a round lantern (Fig. 1).
These radiating rafters consist of flat iron bars 7 mm. thick, and
of a height which diminishes gradually, from one interval to
another on the inside, from 252 to 188 mm. At the outside ends
(varying from 80×80×9 mm. in the lowest to
60×60×7 mm. in the last polygon but one) these rafters
are strengthened, at least as far as the five lowest ones are
concerned, by flat irons tightly riveted on. At their respective
places of support, the ends of all the spars are screwed on by
means of a washer 250 mm. high and 31 mm. thick, and surmounted by
a gutter supported by angle irons. From every junction between the
radial rafters and the polygonal circle, diagonal bars are made to
run to the center of the corresponding interval, where they meet,
and are there firmly held together by means of a tongue ring. The
roof is 64.520 meters wide and 14.628 meters high; and its total
weight is 103.300 kilos. for the ironwork—representing a
weight of 31.6 kilos. per square meter of surface. It is proposed
to employ for its covering wooden purlins and tin plates. The whole
construction has a light, pleasing, and yet thoroughly solid
appearance.</p>
<h3>RAISING THE ROOF.</h3>
<p>Herr Brenner, the engineer of the Erdberg Works, gives a
description of how the roof of a house, 54.6 meters wide, for a
gasholder in Berlin, was raised to a height of 22 meters. In that
instance the iron structure was put together at the bottom of the
tank, leaving the rafter ends and the mural ring. The hoisting
itself was effected by means of levers—one to each
rafter—connected with the ironwork below by means of iron
chains. At the top there were apertures at distances of about 26
mm. from each other, and through these the hoisting was proceeded
with. With every lift, the iron structure was raised a distance of
26 mm.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/5b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p>
<p>Herr Brenner had considerable hesitation in raising in the same
way the structure at Erdberg, which was much larger and heavier
than that in Berlin. The simultaneous elevation to 48 meters above
the level, proposed to be effected at forty different points, did
not appear to him to offer sufficient security. He therefore
proposed to put the roof together on the ground, and to raise it
simultaneously with the building of the wall; stating that this
mode would be perfectly safe, and would not involve any additional
cost. The suggestion was adopted, and it was found to possess, in
addition, the important advantage that the structure could be made
to rest on the masonry at any moment; whereas this had been
impossible in the case at the Berlin Gasworks.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5c.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/5c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p>
<h3>HOISTING.</h3>
<p>At a given signal from the foreman, two operatives, stationed at
each of the forty lifting points, with crowbars inserted in the
holes provided for the purpose, give the screws a simultaneous turn
in the same direction. The bars are then inserted in another hole
higher up. The hoisting screws are connected with the structure of
the roof, and rise therewith. All that is requisite for the
hoisting from the next cross beam is to give a forward turn to the
screws. When the workmen had become accustomed to their task, the
hoisting to a distance of 1 meter occupied only about half to
three-quarters of an hour. At the outset, and merely by way of a
trial, the roof was lifted to a height of fully 2 meters, and left
for some time suspended in the air. The eighty men engaged in the
operation carry on the work with great regularity and steadiness,
obeying the signal of the foreman as soon as it was given.</p>
<h3>THE GASHOLDER.</h3>
<p>The holder, which was supplied by the well-known firm of Messrs.
C. and W. Walker, of Finsbury Circus, London, and Donnington,
Salop, was in an outer courtyard. It is a three-lift telescopic
one; the lowest lift being 200 feet, the middle lift 197 ft. 6 in.,
and the top lift 195 ft. in diameter. The height of each lift is 40
feet. The several lifts are raised in the usual way; and they all
work in a circle of 24 vertical U-shaped channel irons, fixed in
the wall of the house by means of 13 supports placed at equal
distances from the base to the summit (as shown in Fig. 2). When
the gasholder is perfectly empty, the three lifts are inclosed, one
in the other, and rest with their lower edges upon the bottom of
the tank. In this case the roof of the top lift rests upon a wooden
framework. Fixed in the floor of the tank are 144 posts, 9 inches
thick at the bottom and 6 inches thick at the top, to support the
crown of the holder in such a way that the tops are fixed in a kind
of socket, each of them being provided with four horizontal bars,
which decrease in thickness from 305 by 100 mm. to 150 by 50 mm.,
and represent 16 parallel polygons, which in their turn are
fastened diagonally by means of iron rails 63 by 100 mm. thick,
arranged crosswise. The top of this framework is perfectly
contiguous with the inside of the crown of the gasholder. The crown
itself is made up of iron plates, the outer rows having a thickness
of 11 mm., decreasing to 5 mm. toward the middle, and to 3 mm. at
the top. The plates used for the side sheets of the holder are: For
the top and bottom rows, 6.4 mm.; and for the other plates, 2.6
mm.</p>
<hr>
<p>A new bleaching compound has been discovered, consisting of
three parts by measure of mustard-seed oil, four of melted
paraffin, three of caustic soda 20° Baume, well mixed to form a
soapy compound. Of this one part of weight and two of pure tallow
soap are mixed, and of this mixture one ounce for each gallon of
water is used for the bleaching bath, and one ounce caustic soda
20° Baume for each gallon is added, when the bath is heated in
a close vessel, the goods entered, and boiled till sufficiently
bleached.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="1"></a></p>
<h2>GEORGE W. WHISTLER, C.E.<a name="FNanchor2"></a><a href=
"#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
<h3>By Prof. G.L. VOSE.</h3>
<p>Few persons, even among those best acquainted with our modern
railroad system, are aware of the early struggles of the men to
whose foresight, energy, and skill the new mode of transportation
owes its introduction into this country. The railroad problem in
the United States was quite a different one from that in Europe.
Had we simply copied the railways of England, we should have ruined
the system at the outset, for this country. In England, where the
railroad had its origin, money was plenty, the land was densely
populated, and the demand for rapid and cheap transportation
already existed. A great many short lines connecting the great
centers of industry were required, and for the construction of such
in the most substantial manner the money was easily obtained. In
America, on the contrary, a land of enormous extent, almost
entirely undeveloped, but of great possibilities, lines of hundreds
and even thousands of miles in extent were to be made, to connect
cities as yet unborn, and accommodate a future traffic of which no
one could possibly foresee the amount. Money was scarce, and in
many districts the natural obstacles to be overcome were infinitely
greater than any which had presented themselves to European
engineers.</p>
<p>By the sound practical sense and the unconquerable will of
George Stephenson, the numerous inventions which together make up
the locomotive engine had been collected into a machine which, in
combination with the improved roadway, was to revolutionize the
transportation of the world. The railroad, as a machine, was
invented. It remained to apply the new invention in such a manner
as to make it a success, and not a failure. To do this in a new
country like America required infinite skill, unbounded energy, the
most careful study of local conditions, and the exercise of well
matured, sound business judgment. To see how well the great
invention has been applied in the United States, we have only to
look at the network of iron roads which now reaches from the Great
Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the
Pacific.</p>
<p>With all the experience we have had, it is not an easy problem,
even at the present time, to determine how much money we are
authorized to spend upon the construction of a given railroad. To
secure the utmost benefit at the least outlay, regarding both the
first cost of building the road and the perpetual cost of operating
it, is the railroad problem which is perhaps less understood at the
present day than any other. It was an equally important problem
fifty years ago, and certainly not less difficult at that time. It
was the fathers of the railroad system in the United States who
first perceived the importance of this problem, and who, adapting
themselves to the new conditions presented in this country,
undertook to solve it. Among the pioneers in this branch of
engineering no one has done more to establish correct methods, nor
has left behind a more enviable or more enduring fame, than Major
George W. Whistler.</p>
<p>The Whistler family is of English origin, and is found toward
the end of the 15th century in Oxfordshire, at Goring and
Whitchurch, on the Thames. One branch of the family settled in
Sussex, at Hastings and Battle, being connected by marriage with
the Websters of Battle Abbey, in which neighborhood some of the
family still live. Another branch lived in Essex, from which came
Dr. Daniel Whistler, President of the College of Physicians in
London in the time of Charles the Second. From the Oxfordshire
branch came Ralph, son of Hugh Whistler, of Goring, who went to
Ireland, and there founded the Irish branch of the family, being
the original tenant of a large tract of country in Ulster, under
one of the guilds or public companies of the city of London. From
this branch of the family came Major John Whistler, father of the
distinguished engineer, and the first representative of the family
in America. It is stated that in some youthful freak he ran away
and enlisted in the British Army. It is certain that he came to
this country during the Revolutionary War, under General Burgoyne,
and remained with his command until its surrender at Saratoga, when
he was taken prisoner of war. Upon his return to England he was
honorably discharged, and, soon after, forming an attachment for a
daughter of Sir Edward Bishop, a friend of his father, he eloped
with her, and came to this country, settling at Hagerstown, in
Maryland. He soon after entered the army of the United States, and
served in the ranks, being severely wounded in the disastrous
campaign against the Indians under Major-General St. Clair in the
year 1791. He was afterward commissioned as lieutenant, rose to the
rank of captain, and later had the brevet of major. At the
reduction of the army in 1815, having already two sons in the
service, he was not retained; but in recognition of his honorable
record, he was appointed Military Storekeeper at Newport, Kentucky,
from which post he was afterward transferred to Jefferson Barracks,
where he lived to a good old age.</p>
<p>Major John Whistler had a large family of sons and daughters,
among whom we may note particularly William, who became a colonel
in the United States Army, and who died at Newport, Ky., in 1863;
John, a lieutenant in the army, who died of wounds received in the
battle of Maguago, near Detroit, in 1812; and George Washington,
the subject of our sketch. Major John Whistler was not only a good
soldier, and highly esteemed for his military services, but was
also a man of refined tastes and well educated, being an uncommonly
good linguist and especially noted as a fine musician. In his
family he is stated to have united firmness with tenderness, and to
have impressed upon his children the importance of a faithful and
thorough performance of duty in whatever position they should be
placed.</p>
<p>George Washington Whistler, the youngest son of Major John
Whistler, was born on the 19th of May, in the year 1800, at Fort
Wayne, in the present State of Indiana, but then part of the
Northwest Territory, his father being at the time in command of
that post. Of the boyhood of Whistler we have no record, except
that he followed his parents from one military station to another,
receiving his early education for the most part at Newport, Ky.,
from which place, on July 31, 1814, he was appointed a cadet to the
United States Military Academy, being then fourteen years of age.
The course of the student at West Point was a very satisfactory
one. Owing to a change in the arrangement of classes after his
entrance, he had the advantage of a longer term than had been given
to those who preceded him, remaining five years under instruction.
His record during his student life was good throughout. In a class
of thirty members he stood No. 1 in drawing, No. 4 in descriptive
geometry, No. 5 in drill, No. 11 in philosophy and in engineering,
No. 12 in mathematics, and No. 10 in general merit. He was
remarkable, says one who knew him at this time, for his frank and
open manner and for his pleasant and cheerful disposition. A good
story is told of the young cadet which shows his ability, even at
this time, to make the best of circumstances apparently untoward,
and to turn to his advantage his surroundings, whatever they might
be. Having been for some slight breach of discipline required to
bestride a gun in the campus for a short time, he saw, to his
dismay, coming down the walk the beautiful daughter of Dr. Foster
Swift, a young lady who, visiting West Point, had taken the hearts
of the cadets by storm, and who, little as he may at the time have
dreamed it, was destined to become his future wife. Pulling out his
handkerchief, he bent over his gun, and appeared absorbed in
cleaning the most inaccessible parts of it with such vigor as to be
entirely unaware that any one was passing; nor did the young lady
dream that a case of discipline had been before her until in after
years, when, on a visit to West Point, an explanation was made to
her by her husband.</p>
<p>It was at this time of his life that the refinement and taste
for which Major Whistler was ever after noted began to show itself.
An accomplished scientific musician and performer, he gained a
reputation in this direction beyond that of a mere amateur, and
scarcely below that of the professionals of the day. His
<i>sobriquet</i> of "Pipes," which his skill upon the flute at this
time gave him, adhered to him through life among his intimates in
the army. His skill with the pencil, too, was something phenomenal,
and would, had not more serious duties prevented, have made him as
noted an artist as he was an engineer. Fortunately for the world
this talent descended to one of his sons, and in his hands has had
full development. These tastes in Major Whistler appeared to be
less the results of study than the spontaneous outgrowth of a
refined and delicate organization, and so far constitutional with
him that they seemed to tinge his entire character. They continued
to be developed till past the meridian of life, and amid all the
pressure of graver duties furnished a most delightful
relaxation.</p>
<p>Upon completing his course at the Military Academy he was
graduated, July 1, 1819, and appointed second lieutenant in the
corps of artillery. From this date until 1821 he served part of the
time on topographical duty, and part of the time he was in garrison
at Fort Columbus. From November 2, 1821, to April 30, 1822, he was
assistant professor at the Military Academy, a position for which
his attainments in descriptive geometry and his skill in drawing
especially fitted him. This employment, however, was not altogether
to his taste. He was too much of an artist to wish to confine
himself to the mechanical methods needed in the training of
engineering students. In 1822, although belonging to the artillery,
he was detailed on topographical duty under Major (afterward
Colonel) Abert, and was connected with the commission employed in
tracing the international boundary between Lake Superior and the
Lake of the Woods. This work continued four years, from 1822 to
1826, and subsequent duties in the cabinet of the commission
employed nearly two years more.</p>
<p>The field service of this engagement was anything but light
work, much of it being performed in the depth of winter with a
temperature fifty degrees below zero. The principal food of the
party was tallow and some other substance, which was warmed over a
fire on stopping at night. The snow was then removed to a
sufficient depth for a bed, and the party wrapped one another up in
their buffalo robes, until the last man's turn came, when he had to
wrap himself up the best he could. In the morning, after warming
their food and eating, the remainder was allowed to harden in the
pan, after which it was carried on the backs of men to the next
stopping place. The work was all done upon snow-shoes, and
occasionally a man became so blinded by the glare of the sun upon
the snow that he had to be led by a rope.</p>
<p>Upon the 1st of June, 1821, Whistler was made second lieutenant
in the First Artillery, in the reorganized army; on the 16th of
August, 1821, he was transferred to the Second Artillery, and on
the 16th of August, 1829, he was made first lieutenant. Although
belonging to the artillery, he was assigned to topographical duty
almost continually until December 31, 1833, when he resigned his
position in the army. A large part of his time during this period
was spent in making surveys, plans, and estimates for public works,
not merely those needed by the national government, but others
which were undertaken by chartered companies in different parts of
the United States. There were at that time very few educated
engineers in the country, besides the graduates of the Military
Academy; and the army engineers were thus frequently applied for,
and for several years government granted their services.</p>
<p>Prominent among the early works of internal improvement was the
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, and the managers of this undertaking
had been successful in obtaining the services of several officers
who were then eminent, or who afterward became so. The names of Dr.
Howard, who, though not a military man, was attached to the Corps
of Engineers, of Lieut.-Col. Long, and of Capt. William Gibbs
McNeill appear in the proceedings of the company as "Chiefs of
Brigade," and those of Fessenden, Gwynne, and Trimble among the
assistants.</p>
<p>In October, 1828, this company made a special request for the
services of Lieutenant Whistler. The directors had resolved on
sending a deputation to England to examine the railroads of that
country, and Jonathan Knight, William Gibbs McNeill, and George W.
Whistler were selected for this duty. They were also accompanied by
Ross Winans, whose fame and fortune, together with those of his
sons, became so widely known afterward in connection with the great
Russian railway. Lieutenant Whistler, says one who knew him well,
was chosen for this service on account of his remarkable
thoroughness in all the details of his profession, as well as for
his superior qualifications in other respects. The party left this
country in November, 1828, and returned in May, 1829.</p>
<p>In the course of the following year the organization of the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, a part of which had already been
constructed under the immediate personal supervision of Lieutenant
Whistler, assumed a more permanent form, and allowed the military
engineers to be transferred to other undertakings of a similar
character. Accordingly, in June, 1830, Captain McNeill and
Lieutenant Whistler were sent to the Baltimore and Susquehanna
Railroad, for which they made the preliminary surveys and a
definite location, and upon which they remained until about twenty
miles were completed, when a lack of funds caused a temporary
suspension of the work. In the latter part of 1831 Whistler went to
New Jersey to aid in the construction of the Paterson and Hudson
River Railroad (now a part of the Erie Railway). Upon this work he
remained until 1833, at which time he moved to Connecticut to take
charge of the location of the railroad from Providence to
Stonington, a line which had been proposed as an extension of that
already in process of construction from Boston to Providence.</p>
<p>In this year, December 31, 1833, Lieut. Whistler resigned his
commission in the army, and this not so much from choice as from a
sense of duty. Hitherto his work as an engineer appears to have
been more an employment than a vocation. He carried on his
undertakings diligently, as it was his nature to do, but without
much anxiety or enthusiasm; and he was satisfied in meeting
difficulties as they came up, with a sufficient solution.
Henceforward he handled his profession from a love of it. He
labored that his resources against the difficulties of matter and
space should be overabundant, and if he had before been content
with the sure-footed facts of observation, he now added the
luminous aid of study. How luminous and how sure these combined
became, his later works show best.</p>
<p>In 1834 Mr. Whistler accepted the position of engineer to the
proprietors of locks and canals at Lowell. This position gave him
among other things the direction of the machine shops, which had
been made principally for the construction of locomotive engines.
The Boston and Lowell Railroad, which at this time was in process
of construction, had imported a locomotive from the works of George
and Robert Stephenson, at Newcastle, and this engine was to be
reproduced, not only for the use of the Lowell road, but for other
railways as well, and to this work Major Whistler gave a large part
of his time from 1834 to 1837. The making of these engines
illustrated those features in his character which then and ever
after were of the utmost value to those he served. It showed the
self-denial with which he excluded any novelties of his own, the
caution with which he admitted those of others, and the judgment
which he exercised in selecting and combining the most meritorious
of existing arrangements. The preference which he showed for what
was simple and had been tried did not arise from a want of
originality, as he had abundant occasion to show during the whole
of his engineering life. He was, indeed, uncommonly fertile in
expedients, as all who knew him testify, and the greater the demand
upon his originality, the higher did he rise to meet the occasion.
The time spent in Lowell was not only to the great advantage of the
company, but it increased also his own stores of mechanical
knowledge, and in a direction, too, which in later years was of
especial value to him.</p>
<p>In 1837 the condition of the Stonington Railroad became such as
to demand the continual presence and attention of the engineer. Mr.
Whistler therefore moved to Stonington, a place to which he became
much attached, and to which he seems during all of his wanderings
to have looked with a view of making it finally his home. While
engaged upon the above road he was consulted in regard to many
other undertakings in different parts of the country, and prominent
among these was the Western Railroad of Massachusetts.</p>
<p>This great work, remarkable for the boldness of its engineering,
was to run from Worcester through Springfield and Pittsfield to
Albany. To surmount the high lands dividing the waters of the
Connecticut from those of the Hudson called for engineering
cautious and skillful as well as heroic. The line from Worcester to
Springfield, though apparently much less formidable, and to one who
now rides over the road showing no very marked features, demanded
hardly less study, as many as twelve several routes having been
examined between Worcester and Brookfield. To undertake the
solution of a problem of so much importance required the best of
engineering talent, and we find associated on this work the names
of three men who in the early railroad enterprises of this country
stood deservedly in the front rank: George W. Whistler, William
Gibbs McNeill, and William H. Swift. McNeill had graduated from the
Military Academy in 1817, and rose to the rank of major in the
Topographical Engineers. Like Whistler, he had been detailed to
take charge of the design and construction of many works of
internal improvement not under the direction of the general
government. These two engineers exercised an influence throughout
the country for many years much greater than that of any others.
Indeed, there were very few works of importance undertaken at that
time in connection with which their names do not appear. This
alliance was further cemented by the marriage between Whistler and
McNeill's sister. Capt. William H. Swift had also graduated from
the Military Academy, and had already shown marked ability as an
engineer. Such were the men who undertook the location and
construction of the railroad which was to surmount the high lands
between the Connecticut and the Hudson, and to connect Boston with
the Great West.</p>
<p>The early reports of these engineers to the directors of the
Western Railroad show an exceedingly thorough appreciation of the
complex problem presented to them, and a much better understanding
of the principles involved in establishing the route than seems to
have been shown in many far more recent works. In these early
reports made in 1836 and 1837, we find elaborate discussions as to
the power of the locomotive engine, and a recognition of the fact
that in comparing different lines we must regard the <i>plan</i> as
well as the <i>profile</i>, "as the resistance from curves on a
level road may even exceed that produced by gravity on an incline;"
and in one place we find the ascents "<i>equated</i> at 18 feet,
the slope which requires double the power needed on a level road,"
resulting in a "<i>virtual increase</i>." We find also a very clear
expression of the fact that an increased expenditure in the power
needed to operate the completed road may overbalance a considerable
saving in first cost. To bear this principle in mind, and at the
same time to work in accordance with the directors' ideas of
economy, in a country where the railroad was regarded very largely
as an experiment, was by no means an easy task. The temptation to
make the first cost low at the expense of the quality of the road
in running up the valley of Westfield River was very great, and the
directors were at one time very strongly urged to make an
exceedingly narrow and crooked road west of Springfield; but Major
Whistler so convinced the President, Thomas B. Wales, of the folly
of such a course, that the latter declared, with a most emphatic
prefix, that he would have nothing to do with such a two-penny
cow-path, and thus prevented its adoption.</p>
<p>Mr. Whistler had many investigations to make concerning the
plans and policy of railroad companies at a time when almost
everything connected with them was comparatively new and untried.
When he commenced, there was no passenger railroad in the country,
and but very few miles of quarry and mining track. If at that time
an ascent of more than 1 in 200 was required, it was thought
necessary to have inclined planes and stationary power. It was
supposed that by frequent relays it would be possible to obtain for
passenger cars a speed of eight or nine miles an hour. Almost
nothing was known of the best form for rails, of the construction
of the track, or of the details for cars or engines. In all of
these things Major Whistler's highly gifted and well balanced mind
enabled him to judge wisely for his employers, and to practice for
them the truest economy.</p>
<p>Major Whistler's employment upon the Western Railroad began
while he was still engaged upon the Stonington line. In connection
with his friend McNeill he acted as consulting engineer for the
Western road from 1836 to 1840. From 1840 to 1842 he was its chief
engineer, with his headquarters at Springfield. The steep grades
west of the Connecticut presented not only a difficult problem in
location and construction, but in locomotive engineering as well.
At the present day we can order any equipment which may best meet
the requirement upon any railroad, and the order will be promptly
met by any one of our great manufactories. But in the early days of
the Western Railroad it was far otherwise, and the locomotive which
should successfully and economically operate the hitherto unheard
of grade of over 80 feet to the mile was yet to be seen. The
Messrs. Winans, of Baltimore, had built some nondescript machines,
which had received the name of "crabs," and had tried to make them
work upon the Western road. But after many attempts they were given
up as unfit for such service.</p>
<p>These "crabs" were eight wheeled engines, weighing about 20
tons, with a vertical boiler. The wheels were 3½ feet in
diameter, but the engine worked on to an intermediate shaft, which
was connected with the driving axle in such a way as to get the
effect of a five foot wheel. These engines did not impress Major
Whistler at all favorably. And it is related that one Sunday the
watchman in charge of the building in which some of them were kept,
hearing some one among the engines, went in quietly and overheard
Major Whistler, apparently conversing with the "crab," and saying:
"No; you miserable, top-heavy, lop-sided abortion of a grasshopper,
you'll never do to haul the trains over this road." His experience
in Lowell was here of great value to him, and he had become
convinced that the engine of George Stephenson was in the main the
coming machine, and needed but to be properly proportioned and of
sufficient size to meet every demand.</p>
<p>With Major Whistler's work upon the Western Railroad his
engineering service in this country concluded, and that by an
occurrence which marked him as the foremost railroad engineer of
his time. Patient, indefatigable, cautious, remarkable for
exhaustless resource, admirable judgment, and the highest
engineering skill, he had begun with the beginning of the railroad
system, and had risen to the chief control of one of the greatest
works in the world, the Western Railroad of Massachusetts. Not only
had he shown the most far-sighted wisdom in fixing the general
features of this undertaking, but no man surpassed him, if, indeed,
any one equaled him, in an exact and thorough knowledge of
technical details. To combine the various elements in such a manner
as to produce the greatest commercial success, and to make the
railroad in the widest sense of the word a public improvement,
never forgetting the amount of money at his disposal, was the
problem he had undertaken to solve. He had proved himself a great
master in his profession, and had shown how well fitted he was to
grapple with every difficulty. He was equally a man of science and
a man of business. And to all this he added the most delicate sense
of honor and the most spotless integrity. He was in the prime of
manhood, and was prepared to enter upon the great work of his
life.</p>
<p>It was not long after the introduction of the railroad that
intelligent persons saw very plainly that the new mode of
transportation was not to be confined to the working of an already
established traffic, in densely populated regions, but that it
would be of equal service in awakening the energies of undeveloped
countries, in bringing the vast interior regions of the continents
into communication with the seaboard, in opening markets to lands
which before were beyond the reach of commerce. And it was seen,
too, that in event of war, a new and invaluable element had been
introduced, viz., the power of transportation to an extent never
before imagined.</p>
<p>Especially were these advantages foreseen in the vast empire of
Russia, and an attempt was very early made to induce private
capitalists to undertake the construction of the lines contemplated
in that country. The Emperor, besides guaranteeing to the
shareholders a minimum profit of four per cent., proposed to give
them, gratuitously, all the lands of the state through which the
lines should pass, and to place at their disposal, also
gratuitously, the timber and raw materials necessary for the way
and works which might be found upon the ground. It was further
proposed, to permit the importation of rails and of the rolling
stock free of duty. Russian proprietors also came forward, and not
only agreed to grant such portions of their land as the railroads
might pass through, gratuitously, but further to dispossess
themselves temporarily of their serfs, and surrender them to the
use of the companies, on the sole condition that they should be
properly supported while thus employed.</p>
<p>With regard to the great line, however, which was to unite the
two capitals, St. Petersburg and Moscow, it was decreed that this
should be made exclusively at the expense of the state, in order to
retain in the hands of the government and in the general interest
of the people a line of communication so important to the industry
and the internal commerce of the country. The local proprietors
agreed to surrender to the government, gratuitously, the lands
necessary for this line.</p>
<p>It was very early understood that the railroad problem in Russia
was much more analogous to that in the United States than to that
in England. The Emperor, therefore, in 1839, sent the Chevalier De
Gerstner to the United States to obtain information concerning the
railroads of this country. It was this person who obtained from the
Emperor the concession for the short railway from St. Petersburg to
Zarskoe Selo, which had been opened in 1837, and who had also made
a careful reconnoissance in 1835 for a line from St. Petersburg to
Moscow, and had very strongly urged its construction on the
American plan. The more De Gerstner examined our roads, the more
impressed he was with the fitness of what he termed the American
system of building and operating railroads to the needs of the
empire of Russia. In one of his letters in explaining the causes of
the cheap construction of American railroads, after noting the fact
that labor as well as material is much dearer in America than in
Europe, he refers to the use of steep grades (93 feet to the mile)
and sharp curves (600 feet radius), upon which the American
equipment works easily, to the use of labor saving machinery,
particularly to a steam excavating machine upon the railroad
between Worcester and Springfield, and to the American system of
wooden bridge building, and says: "The superstructure of the
railroads in America is made conformable to the expected traffic,
and costs therefore more or less accordingly;" and he concludes,
"considering the whole, it appears that the cheapness of the
American railroads has its foundation in the practical sense which
predominates in their construction." Again, under the causes of the
cheap management of the American roads, he notes the less expensive
administration service, the low rate of speed, the use of the eight
wheeled cars and the four-wheeled truck under the engines, and
concludes: "In my opinion it would be of great advantage for every
railroad company in Europe to procure at least one such train" (as
those used in America). "Those companies, however, whose works are
yet under construction I can advise with the fullest conviction to
procure all their locomotive engines and tenders from America, and
to construct their cars after the American model."</p>
<p>Notwithstanding this report, the suggestions of De Gerstner were
not at once accepted. The magnitude of the enterprise would not
admit of taking a false step. Further evidence was needed, and
accordingly it was decided to send a committee of engineer officers
to various countries in Europe, and to the United States, to select
such a system for the road and its equipment as would be best
adapted to Russia. These officers, Colonels Melnikoff and Krofft,
not only reported in the most decided manner in favor of the
American methods, but also stated that of all persons with whom
they had communicated, no one had given them such full and
satisfactory information upon all points, or had so impressed them
as possessing extraordinary ability, as Major George W. Whistler.
This led to his receiving an invitation from the Emperor to go to
Russia and become consulting engineer for the great road which was
to connect the imperial city upon the Baltic with the ancient
capital of the Czars.</p>
<p>When we consider the magnitude of the engineering works with
which the older countries abound, we can but regard with a feeling
of pride the fact that an American should have been selected for so
high a trust by a European government possessing every opportunity
and means for securing the highest professional talent which the
world could offer. Nor should it be forgotten that the selection of
our countryman did not arise from any necessity which the Russian
Government felt for obtaining professional aid from abroad, growing
out of a lack of the requisite material at home. On the contrary,
the engineers of the Russian service are perhaps the most
accomplished body of men to be found in any country. Selected in
their youth, irrespective of any artificial advantages of birth or
position, but for having a genius for such work, and trained to a
degree of excellence in all of the sciences unsurpassed in any
country, they stand deservedly in the front rank. Such was the body
of men with whom Major Whistler was called to co-operate, and whose
professional duties, if not directed specially by him, were to be
controlled by his judgment.</p>
<p>Accepting the position offered to him in so flattering a manner,
he sailed for St. Petersburg about mid-summer in 1842, being
accompanied on his voyage by Major Bouttattz, of the Russian
Engineer Corps, who had been sent to this country by the Emperor as
an escort. Arriving in St. Petersburg, and having learned the
general character of the proposed work, he traveled partly by horse
and partly on foot over the entire route, and made his preliminary
report, which was at once accepted.</p>
<p>The plan contemplated the construction of a double track
railroad 420 miles long, perfect in all its parts, and equipped to
its utmost necessity. The estimates amounted to nearly forty
millions of dollars, and the time for its construction was reckoned
at seven years. The line selected for the road had no reference to
intermediate points, and was the shortest attainable, due regard
being paid to the cost of construction. It is nearly straight, and
passes over so level a country as to encounter no obstacle
requiring a grade exceeding 20 feet to the mile, and for most of
the distance it is level. The right of way taken was 400 feet in
width throughout the entire length. The roadbed was raised from six
to ten feet above the ordinary level of the country, and was 30
feet wide on top.</p>
<p>One of the most important questions to settle at the outset in
regard to this great work was the width of the gauge. At that time
the opinion in England as well as in the United States among
engineers was setting very strongly in favor of a gauge wider than
4 feet 8½ inches, and the Russian engineers were decidedly
in favor of such increased width. Major Whistler, however, in an
elaborate report to the Count Kleinmichel argued very strongly in
favor of the ordinary gauge. To this a commission of the most
distinguished engineers in Russia replied, urging in the most
forcible manner the adoption of a gauge of six feet. Major Whistler
rejoined in a report which is one of the finest models of an
engineering argument ever written, and in which we have perhaps the
best view of the quality of his mind. In this document no point is
omitted, each part of the question is handled with the most
consummate skill, the bearing of the several parts upon the whole
is shown in the clearest possible manner, and in a style which
could only come from one who from his own knowledge was thoroughly
familiar with all the details, not only of the railroad, but of the
locomotive as well.</p>
<p>In this report the history of the ordinary gauge is given, with
the origin of the standard of 4 feet 8½ inches; the
questions of strength, stability, and capacity of cars, of the
dimensions, proportions, and power of engines, the speed of trains,
resistances to motion, weight and strength of rails, the cost of
the roadway, and the removal of snow are carefully considered. The
various claims of the advocates for a wider gauge are fairly and
critically examined, and while the errors of his opponents are laid
bare in the most unsparing manner, the whole is done in a spirit so
entirely unprejudiced, and with so evident a desire for the simple
truth, as to carry conviction to any fair minded person. The dry
way, too, in which he suggests that conclusions based upon actual
results from existing railways are of more value than deductions
from supposed conditions upon imaginary roads, is exceedingly
entertaining. The result was the adoption of the gauge recommended
by him, namely, five feet. Those who remember the "Battle of the
Gauges," and who know how much expense and trouble the wide gauge
has since caused, will appreciate the stand taken thus early by
Major Whistler; and this was but one among many cases which might
be mentioned to show how comprehensive and far-reaching was his
mind.</p>
<p>The roadbed of the St. Petersburg and Moscow Railway was made 30
feet wide on top, for a double track of 5 foot gauge, with a gravel
ballasting two feet deep. The bridges were of wood, of the Howe
pattern, no spans being over 200 feet in length. The stations at
each end, and the station and engine houses along the line, were on
a plan uniform throughout, and of the most ample accommodation.
Fuel and water stations were placed at suitable points, and engine
houses were provided 50 miles apart, built of the most substantial
masonry, circular in form, 180 feet in diameter, surmounted by a
dome, and having stalls for 22 engines each. Repair shops were
attached to every engine house, furnished with every tool or
implement that the wants of the road could suggest.</p>
<p>The equipment of rolling stock and fixed machinery for the shops
was furnished by the American firm of Winans, Harrison &
Eastwick, who from previous acquaintance were known by Major
Whistler to be skillful, energetic, and reliable. Much diplomacy
was needed to procure the large money advances for this part of the
work, the whole Winans contract amounting to nearly five millions
of dollars; but the assurance of Major Whistler was a sufficient
guarantee against disappointment or failure.</p>
<p>In 1843 the plans for the work were all complete, and in 1844
the various operations along the line were well under way, and
proceeding according to the well arranged programme. In 1845 the
work had progressed so far that the construction of the rolling
stock was commenced. The locomotives were of two classes, freight
and passenger. The engines of each class were made throughout from
the same patterns, so that any part of one engine would fit the
same position on any other. The passenger engines had two pairs of
driving wheels, coupled, 6 feet in diameter, and a four wheeled
truck similar to the modern American locomotive. The general
dimensions were: Waist of boiler, 47 inches, 186 two inch tubes
10½ feet long; cylinders, 16 × 22 inches. The freight
engines had the same capacity of boiler and the same number and
length of tubes, three pairs of driving wheels, coupled, 4½
feet in diameter, a truck and cylinders 18 × 22 inches, and
all uniform throughout in workmanship and finish. The passenger
cars were 56 feet long and 9½ feet wide, the first class
carrying 33 passengers, the second class 54, and the third class
80. They all had eight truck wheels under each, and elliptic steel
springs. The freight cars were all 30 feet long and 9½ feet
wide, made in a uniform manner, with eight truck wheels under each.
The imperial saloon carriages were 80 feet long and 9½ feet
wide, having double trucks, or sixteen wheels under each. They were
divided into five compartments and fitted with every
convenience.</p>
<p>Early in 1847 the Emperor Nicholas visited the mechanical works
at Alexandroffsky, where the rolling stock was being made by the
Messrs. Winans, in the shops prepared by them and supplied by
Russian labor. Everything here was on the grandest scale, and the
work was conducted under the most perfect system. Upon this
occasion the Emperor was so much gratified at what had already been
accomplished that he conferred upon Major Whistler the decoration
of the Order of St. Anne. He had previously been pressed to wear
the Russian uniform, which he promptly declined to do; but there
was no escape from the decoration without giving offense. He is
said, however, to have generally contrived to hide it beneath his
coat in such a manner that few ever saw it.</p>
<p>Technically, Major Whistler was consulting engineer, Colonel
Melnikoff being constructing engineer for the northern half of the
road, and Colonel Krofft for the southern half; but as a matter of
fact, by far the larger part of planning the construction in detail
of both railway and equipment fell upon Major Whistler. There was
also a permanent commission having general charge of the
construction of the road, of which the president was General
Destrem, one of the four French engineers whom Napoleon, at the
request of the Emperor Alexander, sent to Russia for the service of
that country.</p>
<p>The year 1848 was a very trying one to Major Whistler. He had
already on several occasions overtasked his strength, and had been
obliged to rest. This year the Asiatic cholera made its appearance.
He sent his family abroad, but remained himself alone in his house.
He would on no account at this time leave his post, nor omit his
periodical inspections along the line of the road, where the
epidemic was raging. In November he had an attack of cholera, and
while he recovered from it, he was left very weak. Still, he
remained upon the work through the winter, though suffering much
from a complication of diseases. As spring advanced he became much
worse, and upon the 7th of April, 1849, he passed quietly away, the
immediate cause of his death being a trouble with the heart.</p>
<p>Funeral services were held in the Anglican (Episcopal) Church in
St. Petersburg. His body was soon afterward carried to Boston and
deposited beneath St. Paul's Church; but the final interment took
place at Stonington. The kindness and attention of the Emperor and
of all with whom Major Whistler had been associated knew no bounds.
Everything was done to comfort and aid his wife, and when she left
St. Petersburg the Emperor sent her in his private barge to the
mouth of the Baltic. "It was not only," says one who knew him weil,
"through his skill, ability, and experience as an engineer that
Major Whistler was particularly qualified for and eminently
successful in the important task he performed so well in Russia.
His military training and bearing, his polished manner, good humor,
sense of honor, knowledge of a language (French) in which he could
converse with officers of the government, his resolution in
adhering to what he thought was right, and in meeting difficulties
only to surmount them, with other admirable personal qualities,
made him soon, and during his whole residence in Russia, much liked
and trusted by all persons by whom he was known, from the Emperor
down to the peasant. Such is the reputation he left behind him, and
which is given to him in Russia to this day."</p>
<p>In 1849 the firm of Winans, Harrison and Eastwick had already
furnished the road with 162 locomotives, 72 passenger and 2,580
freight cars. They had also arranged to instruct a suitable number
of Russian mechanics to take charge of the machinery when
completed. The road was finished its entire length in 1850, being
opened for passenger and freight traffic on the 25th of September
of that year, in two divisions, experimentally, and finally opened
for through business on November 1, 1851. In all of its
construction and equipment it was essentially American of the best
kind, everything being made under a carefully devised system, by
which the greatest economy in maintenance and in management should
be possible. The use of standard patterns, uniformity in design and
duplication of parts was applied, not only to the rolling stock,
but to the railroad as well, wherever it was possible. Indeed, the
whole undertaking in all its parts bore the impress of one master
mind.</p>
<p>On the death of Major Whistler the government with jealous care
prevented any changes whatever being made in his plans, including
those which had not been carried out as well as those already in
process of execution. An American engineer, Major T.S. Brown, was
invited to Russia to succeed Major Whistler as consulting engineer.
The services of the Messrs. Winans also were so satisfactory to the
government that a new contract was afterward made, upon the
completion of the road, for the maintenance and the future
construction of rolling stock.</p>
<p>While the great railroad was the principal work of Major
Whistler in Russia, he was also consulted in regard to all the
important engineering works of the period. The fortifications at
Cronstadt, the Naval Arsenal and docks at the same place, the plans
for improving the Dwina at Archangel, the great iron roof of the
Riding House at St. Petersburg, and the iron bridge over the Neva
all received his attention. The government was accustomed to rely
upon his judgment in all cases requiring the exercise of the
highest combination of science and practical skill; and here, with
a happy tact peculiarly his own, he secured the warm friendship of
men whose professional acts he found himself called upon in the
exercise of his high trust in many cases to condemn. The Russians
are proverbially jealous of strangers, and no higher evidence of
their appreciation of the sterling honesty of Major Whistler, and
of his sound, discriminating judgment, could be afforded than the
fact that all his recommendations on the great questions of
internal improvement, opposed as many of them were to the
principles which had previously obtained, and which were sanctioned
by usage, were yet carried out by the government to the smallest
details.</p>
<p>While in Russia Major Whistler was sometimes placed in positions
most trying to him. It is said that some of the corps of native
engineers, many of whom were nobles, while compelled to look up to
him officially, were inclined to look down upon him socially, and
exercised their supposed privileges in this respect so as to annoy
him exceedingly, for he had not known in his own country what it
was to be the social inferior of any one. The Emperor, hearing of
this annoyance, determined to stop it; so, taking advantage of a
day when he knew the engineer corps would visit a celebrated
gallery of art, he entered it while they were there, and without at
first noticing any one else, looked around for Major Whistler, and
seeing him, went directly toward him, took his arm, and walked
slowly with him entirely around the gallery. After this the conduct
of the nobles was all that could be desired.</p>
<p>Major Whistler's salary while in Russia was $12,000 a year; a
sum no more than necessary for living in a style befitting his
position. He had abundant opportunity for making money, but this
his nice sense of honor forbade. It is even stated that he would
never allow any invention to be used on the road that could by any
possibility be of any profit to himself or to any of his friends.
He was continually besieged by American inventors, but in vain. The
honor of the profession he regarded as a sacred trust. He served
the Emperor with the fidelity that characterized all his actions.
His unswerving devotion to his duty was fully appreciated, and it
is said that no American in Russia, except John Quincy Adams, was
ever held in so high estimation.</p>
<p>Major Whistler married for his first wife Mary, daughter of Dr.
Foster Swift of the U.S. Army, and Deborah, daughter of Capt.
Thomas Delano of Nantucket. By her he had three children: Deborah,
his only daughter, who married Seymour Haden of London, a surgeon,
but later and better known for his skill in etching; George
William, who became an engineer and railway manager, and who went
to Russia, and finally died at Brighton, in England, Dec. 24, 1869;
Joseph Swift, born at New London, Aug. 12, 1825, and who died at
Stonington, Jan. 1, 1840. His first wife died Dec. 9, 1827, at the
early age of 23 years, and is buried in Greenwood Cemetery, in the
shade of the monument erected to the memory of her husband by the
loving hands of his professional brethren. For his second wife he
married Anna Matilda, daughter of Dr. Charles Donald McNeill of
Wilmington, N.C., and sister of his friend and associate, William
Gibbs McNeill. By her he had five sons: James Abbot McNeill, the
noted artist, and William Gibbs McNeill, a well known physician,
both now living in London; Kirk Boott, born in Stonington, July 16,
1838, and who died at Springfield, July 10, 1842; Charles Donald,
born in Springfield, Aug. 27, 1841, and who died in Russia, Sept.
24, 1843; and John Bouttattz, who was born and who died at St.
Petersburg, having lived but little more than a year. His second
wife, who outlived him, returned to America, and remained here
during the education of her children, after which she moved to
England. She died Jan. 31, 1881, at the age of 76 years, and was
buried at Hastings.</p>
<p>At a meeting held in the office of the Panama Railroad Company
in New York, August 27, 1849, for the purpose of suggesting
measures expressive of their respect for the memory of Major
Whistler, Wm. H. Sidell being chairman and A.W. Craven secretary,
it was resolved that a monument in Greenwood Cemetery would be a
suitable mode of expressing the feelings of the profession in this
respect, and that an association be formed to collect funds and
take all necessary steps to carry out the work. At this meeting
Capt. William H. Swift was appointed president, Major T.S. Brown
treasurer, and A.W. Craven secretary, and Messrs. Horatio Allen,
W.C. Young, J.W. Adams, and A.W. Craven were appointed a committee
to procure designs and estimates, and to select a suitable piece of
ground. The design was made by Mr. Adams, and the ground was given
by Mr. Kirkwood. The monument is a beautiful structure of red
standstone, about 15 feet high, and stands in "Twilight Dell." Upon
the several faces are the following inscriptions:</p>
<center>
<p><i>Upon the Front</i>.</p>
<p>IN MEMORY OF</p>
<p>GEORGE WASHINGTON WHISTLER,</p>
<p>CIVIL ENGINEER,</p>
<p>BORN AT FORT WAYNE, INDIANA, MAY, 1800,</p>
<p>DIED AT ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA, APRIL, 1849.</p>
<p><i>Upon the Right Side</i>.</p>
<p>EDUCATED AT THE U.S. MILITARY ACADEMY. HE</p>
<p>RETIRED FROM THE ARMY IN 1833 AND BECAME</p>
<p>ASSOCIATED WITH WILLIAM GIBBS M'NEILL.</p>
<p>THEY WERE IN THEIR TIME ACKNOWLEDGED TO</p>
<p>BE AT THE HEAD OF THEIR PROFESSION IN THIS</p>
<p>COUNTRY.</p>
<p><i>Upon the Back</i>.</p>
<p>HE WAS DISTINGUISHED FOR THEORETICAL AND</p>
<p>PRACTICAL ABILITY, COUPLED WITH SOUND</p>
<p>JUDGMENT AND GREAT INTEGRITY. IN 1842 HE</p>
<p>WAS INVITED TO RUSSIA BY THE EMPEROR</p>
<p>NICHOLAS, AND DIED THERE WHILE CONSTRUCTING</p>
<p>THE ST. PETERSBURG & MOSCOW RAILROAD.</p>
<p><i>Upon the Left Side</i>.</p>
<p>THIS CENOTAPH IS A MONUMENT OF THE ESTEEM</p>
<p>AND AFFECTION OF HIS FRIENDS AND COMPANIONS.</p>
</center>
<p>While the monument thus raised to the memory of the great
engineer stands in that most delightful of the cities of the dead,
his worn-out body rests in the quaint old town of Stonington. It
was here that his several children had been buried, and he had
frequently expressed a desire that when he should die he might be
placed by their side. A deputation of engineers who had been in
their early years associated with him attended the simple service
which was held over his grave, and all felt as they turned away
that they had bid farewell to such a man as the world has not often
seen.</p>
<p>In person Major Whistler was of medium size and well made. His
face showed the finest type of manly beauty, combined with a
delicacy almost feminine. In private life he was greatly prized for
his natural qualities of heart and mind, his regard for the
feelings of others, and his unvarying kindness, especially toward
his inferiors and his young assistants. His duties and his travels
in this and in other countries brought him in contact with men of
every rank; and it is safe to say that the more competent those who
knew him were to judge, the more highly was he valued by them. A
close observer, with a keen sense of humor and unfailing tact, fond
of personal anecdote, and with a mind stored with recollections
from association with every grade of society, he was a most
engaging companion. The charm of his manner was not conventional,
nor due to intercourse with refined society, but came from a sense
of delicacy and a refinement of feeling which was innate, and which
showed itself in him under all circumstances. He was in the widest
and best sense of the word a gentleman; and he was a gentleman
outwardly because he was a gentleman at heart.</p>
<p>As an engineer, Whistler's works speak for him. He was eminently
a practical man, remarkable for steadiness of judgment and for
sound business sense. Whatever he did was so well done that he was
naturally followed as a model by those who were seeking a high
standard. Others may have excelled in extraordinary boldness or in
some remarkable specialty, but in all that rounds out the perfect
engineer, whether natural characteristics, professional training,
or the well digested results of long and valuable experience, we
look in vain for his superior, and those who knew him best will
hesitate to acknowledge his equal.—<i>Journal of the
Association of Engineering Societies</i>.</p>
<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2">[1]</a>
<div class="note">A paper by Prof. G.L. Vose, Member of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers. Read September 15, 1886.</div>
<hr>
<p><a name="22"></a></p>
<h2>PRINTING LANTERN PICTURES BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT ON BROMIDE PLATES
FROM VARIOUS SIZES.<a name="FNanchor3"></a><a href=
"#Footnote_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
<h3>By A. PUMPHREY.</h3>
<p>There can be no question that there is no plan that is so simple
for producing transparencies as contact printing, but in this, as
in other photographic matters, one method of work will not answer
all needs. Reproduction in the camera, using daylight to illuminate
the negative, enables the operator to reduce or enlarge in every
direction, but the lantern is a winter instrument, and comes in for
demand and use during the short days. When even the professional
photographer has not enough light to get through his orders, how
can the amateur get the needed daylight if photography be only the
pursuit in spare time? Besides, there are days in our large towns
when what daylight there is is so yellow from smoke or fog as to
have little actinic power. These considerations and needs have led
me to experiment and test what can be done with artificial light,
and I think I have made the way clear for actual work without
further experiment. I have not been able by any arrangement of
reflected light to get power enough to print negatives of the
ordinary density, and have only succeeded by causing the light to
be equally dispersed over the negative by a lens as used in the
optical lantern, but the arrangements required are somewhat
different to that of the enlarging lantern.</p>
<p>The following is the plan by which I have succeeded best in the
production of transparencies:</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/8a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
<p>B is a lamp with a circular wick, which burns petroleum and
gives a good body of light.</p>
<p>C is a frame for holding the negative, on the opposite side of
which is a double convex lens facing the light.</p>
<p>D is the camera and lens.</p>
<p>All these must be placed in a line, so that the best part of the
light, the center of the condenser, and the lens are of equal
height.</p>
<p>The method of working is as follows: The lamp, B, is placed at
such a distance from the condenser that the rays come to a focus
and enter the lens; the negative is then placed in the frame, the
focus obtained, and the size of reduction adjusted by moving the
camera nearer to or further from the condenser and negative. In
doing this no attention need be paid to the light properly covering
the field, as that cannot be adjusted while the negative is in its
place. When the size and focus are obtained, remove the negative,
and carefully move the lamp till it illuminates the ground glass
equally all over, by a disk of light free from color.</p>
<p>The negative can then be replaced, and no further adjustment
will be needed for any further reproduction of the same size.</p>
<p>There is one point that requires attention: The lens used in the
camera should be a doublet of about 6 inch focus (in reproducing
8½ × 6½ or smaller sizes), and the stop used
must not be a very small one, not less than ½ inch diameter.
If a smaller stop is used, an even disk of light is not obtained,
but ample definition is obtainable with the size stop
mentioned.</p>
<p>In the arrangement described, a single lens is used for the
condenser, not because it is better than a double one, as is
general for such purposes, but because it is quite sufficient for
the purpose. Of course, a large condenser is both expensive and
cumbersome. There is, therefore, no advantage in using a
combination if a single lens will answer.</p>
<p>In reproducing lantern pictures from half-plate negatives, the
time required on my lantern plates is from two to four minutes,
using 6 inch condenser. For whole plate negatives, from two to six
minutes with a 9 inch condenser. In working in this way it is easy
to be developing one picture while exposing another.</p>
<p>The condenser must be of such a size that it will cover the
plate from corner to corner. The best part of an 8½ ×
6½ negative will be covered by a 9 inch condenser, and a
6½ × 4¾ by a 6 inch condenser.</p>
<p>With this arrangement it will be easy to reproduce from half or
whole plate negatives or any intermediate sizes quite independently
of daylight.</p>
<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor3">[1]</a>
<div class="note">Read before the Birmingham Photographic Society.
Reported in the <i>Photo. News</i></div>
<hr>
<p><a name="21"></a></p>
<h2>EXPERIMENTS IN TONING GELATINO-CHLORIDE PAPER.</h2>
<p>From the <i>Photographic News</i> we take the following: The use
of paper coated with a gelatino-citro-chloride emulsion in place of
albumenized paper appears to be becoming daily more common.
Successful toning has generally been the difficulty with such
paper, the alkaline baths commonly in use with albumenized having
proved unsuitable for toning this paper. On the whole, the bath
that has given the best results is one containing, in addition to
gold, a small quantity of hypo and a considerable quantity of
sulphocyanide of ammonium. Such a bath tones very rapidly, and
gives most pleasing colors. It appears, moreover, to be impossible
to overtone the citro-chloro emulsion paper with it in the sense
that it is possible to overtone prints on albumenized paper with
the ordinary alkaline bath. That is to say, it is impossible to
produce a slaty gray image. The result of prolonged toning is
merely an image of an engraving black color. Of this, however, we
shall say more hereafter. We wish first of all to refer to an
elaborate series of experiments by Lionel Clark on the effects of
various toning baths used with the gelatino-citro-chloride
paper.</p>
<p>The results of these experiments we have before us at the time
of writing, and we may at once say that, from the manner in which
the experiments have been carried out and in which the results have
been tabulated, Lionel Clark's work forms a very useful
contribution to our photographic knowledge, and a contribution that
will become more and more useful, the longer the results of the
experiments are kept. A number of small prints have been prepared.
Of these several—in most cases, three—have been toned
by a certain bath, and each print has been torn in two. One-half
has been treated with bichloride of mercury, so as to bleach such
portion of the image as is of silver, and finally the
prints—the two halves of each being brought close
together—have been mounted in groups, each group containing
all the prints toned by a certain formula, with full information
tabulated.</p>
<p>The only improvement we could suggest in the arrangement is that
all the prints should have been from the same negative, or from
only three negatives, so that we should have prints from the same
negatives in every group, and should the better be able to compare
the results of the toning baths. Probably, however, the indifferent
light of the present season of the year made it difficult to get a
sufficiency of prints from one negative.</p>
<p>The following is a description of the toning baths used and of
the appearance of the prints. We refer, in the mean time, only to
those halves that have not been treated with bichloride of
mercury.</p>
<pre>
1.——Gold chloride (AuCl₃).............. 1 gr.
Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 10 gr.
Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>The prints are of a brilliant purple or violet color.</p>
<pre>
2.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 10 gr.
Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr.
Water.............................. 4 oz.
</pre>
<p>There is only one print, which is of a brown color, and in every
way inferior to those toned with the first bath.</p>
<pre>
3.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 12 gr.
Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>The prints toned by this bath are, in our opinion, the finest of
the whole. The tone is a purple of the most brilliant and pleasing
shade.</p>
<pre>
4.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 20 gr.
Hyposulphite of soda............... 5 gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>There is only one print, but it is from the same negative as one
of the No. 3 group. It is very inferior to that in No. 3, the color
less pleasant, and the appearance generally as if the details of
the lights had been bleached by the large quantity either of hypo
or of sulphocyanide of potassium.</p>
<pre>
5.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 50 gr.
Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>Opposite to this description of formula there are no prints, but
the following is written: "These prints were completely destroyed,
the sulphocyanide of potassium (probably) dissolving off the
gelatine."</p>
<pre>
6.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 20 gr.
Hypo............................... 5 gr.
Carbonate of soda.................. 10 gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>This it will be seen is the same as 4, but that the solution is
rendered alkaline with carbonate of soda. The result of the
alkalinity certainly appears to be good, the color is more pleasing
than that produced by No. 4, and there is less appearance of
bleaching. It must be borne in mind in this connection that the
paper itself is strongly acid, and that, unless special means be
taken to prevent it, the toning bath is sure to be more or less
acid.</p>
<pre>
7.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Acetate of soda.................... 30 gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>The color of the prints toned by this bath is not exceedingly
pleasing. It is a brown tending to purple, but is not very pure or
bright. The results show, however, the possibility of toning the
gelatino-chloro-citrate paper with the ordinary acetate bath if it
be only made concentrated enough.</p>
<pre>
8.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Carbonate of soda.................. 3 gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>Very much the same may be said of the prints toned by this bath
as of those toned by No. 7. The color is not very good, nor is the
toning quite even. This last remark applies to No. 7 batch as well
as No. 8.</p>
<pre>
9.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr.
Phosphate of soda.................. 20 gr.
Water.............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>The results of this bath can best be described as purplish in
color. They are decidedly more pleasing than those of 7 or 8, but
are not as good as the best by the sulphocyanide bath.</p>
<pre>
10.——Gold chloride..................... 1 gr.
Hyposulphite of soda.............. ½ oz.
Water............................. 2 oz.
</pre>
<p>The result of this bath is a brilliant brown color, what might
indeed, perhaps, be best described as a red. Two out of the three
prints are much too dark, indicating, perhaps, that this toning
bath did not have any tendency to reduce the intensity of the
image.</p>
<p>The general lesson taught by Clark's experiments is that the
sulphocyanide bath gives better results than any other. A certain
proportion of the ingredients—namely, that of bath No.
3—gives better results than any other proportions tried, and
about as good as any that could be hoped for. Any of the ordinary
alkaline toning baths may be used, but they all give results
inferior to those got by the sulphocyanide bath. The best of the
ordinary baths is, however, the phosphate of soda.</p>
<p>And now a word as to those parts of the prints which have been
treated with bichloride of mercury. The thing that strikes us as
remarkable in connection with them is that in them the image has
scarcely suffered any reduction of intensity at all. In most cases
there has been a disagreeable change of color, but it is almost
entirely confined to the whites and lighter tints, which are turned
to a more or less dirty yellow. Even in the case of the prints
toned by bath No. 10, where the image is quite red, it has suffered
no appreciable reduction of intensity.</p>
<p>This would indicate that an unusually large proportion of the
toned image consists of gold, and this idea is confirmed by the
fact that to tone a sheet of gelatino-chloro-citrate paper requires
several times as much gold as to tone a sheet of albumenized paper.
Indeed, we believe that, with the emulsion paper, it is possible to
replace the whole of the silver of the image with gold, thereby
producing a permanent print. We have already said that the print
may be left for any reasonable length of time in the toning bath
without the destruction of its appearance, and we cannot but
suppose that a very long immersion results in a complete
substitution of gold for silver.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="30"></a></p>
<h2>THE "SENSIM" PREPARING BOX.</h2>
<p>Fig. 1 shows a perspective view of the machine, Fig. 2 a
sectional elevation, and Fig. 3 a plan. In the ordinary screw gill
box, the screws which traverse the gills are uniform in their
pitch, so that a draught is only obtained between the feed rollers
and the first gill, between the last gill of the first set and the
first of the second, and between the last gill of the second set
and the delivery roller. As thus arranged, the gills are really not
active workers after their first draw during the remainder of their
traverse, but simply carriers of the wool to the next set. It is
somewhat remarkable, as may indeed be said of every invention, that
this fact has only been just observed, and suggested an
improvement. There is no reason why each gill should not be
continuously working to the end of the traverse, and only cease
during its return to its first position. The perception of this has
led to several attempts to realize this improvement. The inventor
in the present case seems to have solved the problem in a very
perfect manner by the introduction of gill screws of a gradually
increasing pitch, by which the progress of the gills, B, through
the box is constantly undergoing acceleration to the end, as will
be obvious from the construction of the screws, A and A¹,
until they are passed down in the usual manner, and returned by the
screws, C and C¹, which are, as usual, of uniform pitch. The
two sets of screws are so adjusted as to almost meet in the middle,
so that the gills of the first set finish their forward movement
close to the point where the second commence. The bottom screws, C,
of the first set of gills, B, are actuated by bevel wheels on a
cross shaft engaging with bevel wheels on their outer extremity,
the cross shaft being geared to the main shaft. The screws,
C¹, of the second set of gills from two longitudinal shafts
are connected by bevel gearing to the main shaft. Intermediate
wheels communicate motion from change wheels on the longitudinal
shafts to the wheels on the screw, C¹, traversing the second
set of gills.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/9a_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 1.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL PREPARING BOX.">
</a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL PREPARING BOX.</p>
<p>The feed and delivery rollers, D and E, are operated by gearing
connected to worms on longitudinal shafts. These worms engage with
worm wheels on cross shafts, which are provided at their outer ends
with change wheels engaging with other change wheels on the arbors
of the bottom feed and delivery rollers, D and E.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/9b_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 2.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—SECTIONAL ELEVATION.">
</a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—SECTIONAL
ELEVATION.</p>
<p>The speeds are so adjusted that the fibers are delivered to the
first set of gills at a speed approximately equal to the speed at
which these start their traverse. The gills in the second set begin
their journey at a pace which slightly exceeds that at which those
of the first finish their traverse. These paces are of course
regulated by the class and nature of the fibers under operation.
The delivery rollers, E, take off the fibers at a rate slightly
exceeding that of the gills delivering it to them.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9c.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/9c_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 3.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—PLAN."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—PLAN.</p>
<p>In the ordinary gill box, the feed and delivery rollers are
fluted, in order the better to retain in the first instance their
grip upon the wool passing through, and in the second to enable
them to overcome any resistance that might be offered to drawing
the material. It thus often happens in this class of machines that
a large percentage of the fibers are broken, and thus much waste is
made. The substitution of plain rollers in both these positions
obviates most of this mischief, while in combination with the other
parts of the arrangement it is almost precluded altogether.</p>
<p>It will be obvious from what we have said that the special
features of this machine, which may be summarized as, first, the
use of a screw thread of graduated pitch; second, an increased
length of screw action and an additional number of fallers; and
third, the use of light plain rollers in place of heavy fluted back
and front rollers, enable the inventor to justly claim the
acquisition of a number of advantages, which may be enumerated as
follows:</p>
<p>The transformation of the gills from mere carriers into constant
workers during the whole of their outward traverse, by which the
work is done much more efficiently, more gently, and in greater
quantity than by the old system with uniformly pitched screws. A
great improvement in the quality of the work, resulting from the
breakage of fiber being, if not entirely obviated, nearly. An
increased yield and better quality of top, owing to the absence of
broken fiber, and consequent diminution of noil and waste. The
better working of cotted wools, which can be brought to a proper
condition with far more facility and with diminished risk of
breaking pins than before. A saving in labor, space, and plant also
results from the fact that the wool is as well opened and
straightened for carding with a passage through a pair of improved
boxes as it is in going through four of the ordinary ones, while
the quantity will be as great. Owing to the first feature referred
to, which distributes the strain over all the gills, a greater
weight of wool can be put into them and a higher speed be worked.
The space occupied and the attendance required is only about half
that of boxes required to do the same amount of work on the old
system. Taking the flutes out of the feed and delivery rollers, and
greatly diminishing their weight, it is estimated will reduce by 90
per cent. the wear and tear of the leather aprons, and thus to that
extent diminish a very heavy annual outlay incident to the system
generally in vogue. A considerable saving of power for driving and
of time and cost of repairs from the bending and breakage of pins
also results. Shaw, Harrison & Co., makers,
Bradford.—<i>Textile Manufacturer</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="28"></a></p>
<h2>NOTES ON GARMENT DYEING.</h2>
<p>Black wool dresses for renewing and checked goods, with the
check not covered by the first operation, are operated upon as
follows:</p>
<p><i>Preparation or mordant for eight black dresses for renewing
the color.</i></p>
<pre>
2 oz. Chrome.
2 " Argol or Tartar.
</pre>
<p>Or without argol or tartar, but I think their use is beneficial.
Boil twenty minutes, lift, rinse through two waters.</p>
<p>To prepare dye boiler, put in 2 lb. logwood, boil twenty
minutes. Clear the face same way as before described. Those with
cotton and made-up dresses sewn with cotton same operation as
before mentioned, using half the quantity of stuffs, and working
cold throughout. Since the introduction of aniline black, some
dyers use it in place of logwood both for wool and cotton. It
answers very well for dippers, substituting 2 oz. aniline black for
every pound logwood required. In dyeing light bottoms it is more
expensive than logwood, even though the liquor be kept up, and, in
my opinion, not so clear and black.</p>
<p><i>Silk and wool dresses, poplins, and woolen dresses trimmed
with silk, etc., for black</i>.—Before the dyeing operations,
steep the goods in hand-heat soda water, rinse through two warm
waters. Discharge blues, mauves, etc., with diluted aquafortis
(nitric acid). A skilled dyer can perform this operation without
the least injury to the goods. This liquor is kept in stoneware, or
a vessel made of caoutchouc composition, or a large stone hollowed
out of five slabs of stone, forming the bottom and four sides,
braced together, and luted with caoutchouc, forming a water-tight
vessel. The latter is the most convenient vessel, as it can be
repaired. The others when once rent are past repair. The steam is
introduced by means of a caoutchouc pipe, and when brought to the
boil the pipe is removed. After the colors are discharged, rinse
through three warm waters. They are then ready to receive the
mordant and the dye.</p>
<p><i>Note</i>.—The aquafortis vessel to be outside the
dye-house, or, if inside, to be provided with a funnel to carry
away the nitrous fumes, as it is dangerous to other colors.</p>
<p><i>Preparation or mordant for eight dresses, silk and wool
mixed, for black.</i></p>
<pre>
4 lb. Copperas.
½ " Bluestone.
½ " Tartar.
</pre>
<p>Bring to the boil, dissolve the copperas, etc., shut off steam,
enter the goods, handle gently (or else they will be faced, i.e.,
look gray on face when dyed) for one hour, lift, air, rinse through
three warm waters.</p>
<p>To prepare dye boiler, bring to boil, put in 8 lb. logwood
(previously boiled), 1 lb. black or brown oil soap, shut off steam,
enter goods, gently handle for half an hour, add another pound of
soap (have the soap dissolved ready), and keep moving for another
half hour, lift, finish in hand-heat soap. If very heavy, run
through lukewarm water slightly acidulated with vitriol, rinse,
hydro-extract, and hang in stove. Another method to clear them:
Make up three lukewarm waters, in first put some bleaching liquor,
in second a little vitriol, handle these two, and rinse through the
third, hydro-extract, and hang in stove.</p>
<p><i>Note</i>.—This is the method employed generally in
small dye-works for all dresses for black; their lots are so small.
This preparation can be kept up, if care is taken that none of the
sediment of the copperas (oxide of iron) is introduced when
charging, as the oxide of iron creates stains. This also happens
when the water used contains iron in quantity or impure copperas.
The remedy is to substitute half a gill of vitriol in place of
tartar.</p>
<p><i>Silk, wool, and cotton mixed dresses, for
black</i>.—Dye the silk and wool as before described, and
also the cotton in the manner previously mentioned.</p>
<p><i>Another method to dye the mixed silk and wool and cotton
dresses black, four dresses</i>.—Bring boiler to the boil,
put in 3 or 4 oz. aniline black, either the deep black or the blue
black or a mixture of the two, add ¼ gill hydrochloric acid
or sulphuric acid, or 3 oz. oxalic acid, shut off steam, enter, and
handle for half an hour, lift, rinse through water, dye the cotton
in the manner previously described.—<i>Dyer</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="7"></a></p>
<h2>FUEL AND SMOKE.<a name="FNanchor4"></a><a href=
"#Footnote_4"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
<h3>By Prof. OLIVER LODGE.</h3>
<h3>LECTURE II.</h3>
<p>The points to which I specially called your attention in the
first lecture, and which it is necessary to recapitulate to-day,
are these: (1) That coal is distilled, or burned partly into gas,
before it can be burned. (2) That the gas, so given off, if mixed
with carbonic acid, cannot be expected to burn properly or
completely. (3) That to burn the gas, a sufficient supply of air
must be introduced at a temperature not low enough to cool the
gases below their igniting point. (4) That in stoking a fire, a
small amount should be added at a time because of the heat required
to warm and distill the fresh coal. (5) That fresh coal should be
put in front of or at the bottom of a fire, so that the gas may be
thoroughly heated by the incandescent mass above and thus, if there
be sufficient air, have a chance of burning. A fire may be
inverted, so that the draught proceeds through it downward. This is
the arrangement in several stoves, and in them, of course, fresh
coal is put at the top.</p>
<p>Two simple principles are at the root of all fire management:
(1) Coal gas must be at a certain temperature before it can burn;
and (2) it must have a sufficient supply of air. Very simple, very
obvious, but also extremely important, and frequently altogether
ignored. In a common open fire they are both ignored. Coal is put
on the top of a glowing mass of charcoal, and the gas distilled off
is for a longtime much too cold for ignition, and when it does
catch fire it is too mixed with carbonic acid to burn completely or
steadily. In order to satisfy the first condition better, and keep
the gases at a higher temperature, Dr. Pridgin Teale arranges a
sloping fire-clay slab above his fire. On this the gases play, and
its temperature helps them to ignite. It also acts as a radiator,
and is said to be very efficient.</p>
<p>In a close stove and in many furnaces the second condition is
violated; there is an insufficient supply of air; fresh coal is put
on, and the feeding doors are shut. Gas is distilled off, but where
is it to get any air from? How on earth can it be expected to burn?
Whether it be expected or not, it certainly does not burn, and such
a stove is nothing else than a gas works, making crude gas, and
wasting it—it is a soot and smoke factory.</p>
<p>Most slow combustion stoves are apt to err in this way; you make
the combustion slow by cutting off air, and you run the risk of
stopping the combustion altogether. When you wish a stove to burn
better, it is customary to open a trap door below the fuel; this
makes the red hot mass glow more vigorously, but the oxygen will
soon become CO<sub>2</sub>, and be unable to burn the gas.</p>
<p>The right way to check the ardor of a stove is not to shut off
the air supply and make it distill its gases unconsumed, but to
admit so much air above the fire that the draught is checked by the
chimney ceasing to draw so fiercely. You at the same time secure
better ventilation; and if the fire becomes visible to the room so
much the better and more cheerful. But if you open up the top of a
stove like this, it becomes, to all intents and purposes, an open
fire. Quite so, and in many respects, therefore, an open fire is an
improvement on a close stove. An open fire has faults, and it
certainly wastes heat up the chimney. A close stove may have more
faults—it wastes less <i>heat</i>, but it is liable to waste
<i>gas</i> up the chimney—not necessarily visible or smoky
gas; it may waste it from coke or anthracite, as CO.</p>
<p>You now easily perceive the principles on which so-called smoke
consumers are based. They are all special arrangements or
appendages to a furnace for permitting complete combustion by
satisfying the two conditions which had been violated in its
original construction. But there is this difficulty about the air
supply to a furnace: the needful amount is variable if the stoking
be intermittent, and if you let in more than the needful amount,
you are unnecessarily wasting heat and cooling the boiler, or
whatever it is, by a draught of cold air.</p>
<p>Every time a fresh shovelful is thrown on, a great production of
gas occurs, and if it is to flame it must have a correspondingly
great supply of air. After a time, when the mass has become red
hot, it can get nearly enough air through the bars. But at first
the evolution of gas actually checks the draught. But remember that
although no smoke is visible from a glowing mass, it by no means
follows that its combustion is perfect. On an open fire it probably
is perfect, but not necessarily in a close stove or furnace. If you
diminish the supply of air much (as by clogging your furnace bars
and keeping the doors shut), you will be merely distilling carbonic
oxide up the chimney—a poisonous gas, of which probably a
considerable quantity is frequently given off from close
stoves.</p>
<p>Now let us look at some smoke consumers. The diagrams show those
of Chubb, Growthorpe, Ireland and Lowndes, and of Gregory. You see
that they all admit air at the "bridge" or back of the fire, and
that this air is warmed either by passing under or round the
furnace, or in one case through hollow fire bars. The regulation of
the air supply is effected by hand, and it is clear that some of
these arrangements are liable to admit an unnecessary supply of
air, while others scarcely admit enough, especially when fresh coal
is put on. This is the difficulty with all these arrangements when
used with ordinary hand—i.e., intermittent—stoking. Two
plans are open to us to overcome the difficulty. Either the stoking
and the air supply must both be regular and continuous, or the air
supply be made intermittent to suit the stoking. The first method
is carried out in any of the many forms of mechanical stoker, of
which this of Sinclair's is an admirable specimen. Fresh fuel is
perpetually being pushed on in front, and by alternate movement of
the fire bars the fire is kept in perpetual motion till the ashes
drop out at the back. To such an arrangement as this a steady air
supply can be adjusted, and if the boiler demand is constant there
is no need for smoke, and an inferior fuel may be used. The other
plan is to vary the air supply to suit the stoking. This is
effected by Prideaux automatic furnace doors, which have louvers to
remain open for a certain time after the doors are shut, and so to
admit extra air immediately after coal has been put on, the supply
gradually decreasing as distillation ceases. The worst of air
admitted through chinks in the doors, or through partly open doors,
is that it is admitted cold, and scarcely gets thoroughly warm
before it is among the stuff it has to burn. Still this is not a
fatal objection, though a hot blast would be better. Nothing can be
worse than shoveling on a quantity of coal and shutting it up
completely. Every condition of combustion is thus violated, and the
intended furnace is a mere gas retort.</p>
<p><i>Gas Producers</i>.—Suppose the conditions of combustion
are purposely violated; we at once have a gas producer. That is all
gas producers are, extra bad stoves or furnaces, not always much
worse than things which pretend to serve for combustion. Consider
how ordinary gas is made. There is a red-hot retort or cylinder
plunged in a furnace. Into this tube you shovel a quantity of coal,
which flames vigorously as long as the door is open, but when it is
full you shut the door, thus cutting off the supply of air and
extinguishing the flame. Gas is now simply distilled, and passes
along pipes to be purified and stored. You perceive at once that
the difference between a gas retort and an ordinary furnace with
closed doors and half choked fire bars is not very great.
Consumption of smoke! It is not smoke consumers you really want, it
is fuel consumers. You distill your fuel instead of burning it, in
fully one-half, might I not say nine-tenths, of existing furnaces
and close stoves. But in an ordinary gas retort the heat required
to distill the gas is furnished by an outside fire; this is only
necessary when you require lighting gas, with no admixture of
carbonic acid and as little carbonic oxide as possible. If you wish
for heating gas, you need no outside fire; a small fire at the
bottom of a mass of coal will serve to distill it, and you will
have most of the carbon also converted into gas. Here, for
instance, is Siemens' gas producer. The mass of coal is burning at
the bottom, with a very limited supply of air. The carbonic acid
formed rises over the glowing coke, and takes up another atom of
carbon to form the combustible gas carbonic oxide. This and the hot
nitrogen passing over and through the coal above distill away its
volatile constituents, and the whole mass of gas leaves by the exit
pipe. Some art is needed in adjusting the path of the gases
distilled from the fresh coal with reference to the hot mass below.
If they pass too readily, and at too low a temperature, to the exit
pipe, this is apt to get choked with tar and dense hydrocarbons. If
it is carried down near or through the hot fuel below, the
hydrocarbons are decomposed over much, and the quality of the gas
becomes poor. Moreover, it is not possible to make the gases pass
freely through a mass of hot coke; it is apt to get clogged. The
best plan is to make the hydrocarbon gas pass over and near a
red-hot surface, so as to have its heaviest hydrocarbons
decomposed, but so as to leave all those which are able to pass
away as gas uninjured, for it is to the presence of these that the
gas will owe its richness as a combustible material, especially
when radiant heat is made use of.</p>
<p>The only inert and useless gas in an arrangement like this is
the nitrogen of the air, which being in large quantities does act
as a serious diluent. To diminish the proportion of nitrogen, steam
is often injected as well as air. The glowing coke can decompose
the steam, forming carbonic oxide and hydrogen, both combustible.
But of course no extra energy can be gained by the use of steam in
this way; all the energy must come from the coke, the steam being
already a perfectly burned product; the use of steam is merely to
serve as a vehicle for converting the carbon into a convenient
gaseous equivalent. Moreover, steam injected into coke cannot keep
up the combustion; it would soon put the fire out unless air is
introduced too. Some air is necessary to keep up the combustion,
and therefore some nitrogen is unavoidable. But some steam is
advisable in every gas producer, unless pure oxygen could be used
instead of air; or unless some substance like quicklime, which
holds its oxygen with less vigor than carbon does, were mixed with
the coke and used to maintain the heat necessary for distillation.
A well known gas producer for small scale use is Dowson's. Steam is
superheated in a coil of pipe, and blown through glowing anthracite
along with air. The gas which comes off consists of 20 per cent.
hydrogen, 30 per cent. carbonic oxide, 3 per cent. carbonic acid,
and 47 per cent. nitrogen. It is a weak gas, but it serves for gas
engines, and is used, I believe, by Thompson, of Leeds, for firing
glass and pottery in a gas kiln. It is said to cost 4d. per 1,000
ft., and to be half as good as coal gas.</p>
<p>For furnace work, where gas is needed in large quantities, it
must be made on the spot. And what I want to insist upon is this,
that all well-regulated furnaces are gas retorts and combustion
chambers combined. You may talk of burning coal, but you can't do
it; you must distill it first, and you may either waste the gas so
formed or you may burn it properly. The thing is to let in not too
much air, but just air enough. Look, for instance, at Minton's oven
for firing pottery. Round the central chamber are the coal hoppers,
and from each of these gas is distilled, passes into the central
chamber, where the ware is stacked, and meeting with an adjusted
supply of air as it rises, it burns in a large flame, which extends
through the whole space and swathes the material to be heated. It
makes its exit by a central hole in the floor, and thence rises by
flues to a common opening above. When these ovens are in thorough
action, nothing visible escapes. The smoke from ordinary potters'
ovens is in Staffordshire a familiar nuisance. In the Siemens gas
producer and furnace, of which Mr. Frederick Siemens has been good
enough to lend me this diagram, the gas is not made so closely on
the spot, the gas retort and furnace being separated by a hundred
yards or so in order to give the required propelling force. But the
principle is the same; the coal is first distilled, then burnt. But
to get high temperature, the air supply to the furnace must be
heated, and there must be no excess. If this is carried on by means
of otherwise waste heat we have the regenerative principle, so
admirably applied by the Brothers Siemens, where the waste heat of
the products of combustion is used to heat the incoming air and gas
supply. The reversing arrangement by which the temperature of such
a furnace can be gradually worked up from ordinary flame
temperature to something near the dissociation point of gases, far
above the melting point of steel, is well known, and has already
been described in this place. Mr. Siemens has lent me this
beautiful model of the most recent form of his furnace, showing its
application to steel making and to glass working.</p>
<p>The most remarkable and, at first sight, astounding thing about
this furnace is, however, that it works solely by radiation. The
flames do not touch the material to be heated; they burn above it,
and radiate their heat down to it. This I regard as one of the most
important discoveries in the whole subject, viz., that to get the
highest temperature and greatest economy out of the combustion of
coal, one must work directly by radiant heat only, all other heat
being utilized indirectly to warm the air and gas supply, and thus
to raise the flame to an intensely high temperature.</p>
<p>It is easy to show the effect of supplying a common gas flame
with warm air by holding it over a cylinder packed with wire gauze
which has been made red hot. A common burner held over such a hot
air shaft burns far more brightly and whitely. There is no question
but that this is the plan to get good illumination out of gas
combustion; and many regenerative burners are now in the market,
all depending on this principle, and utilizing the waste heat to
make a high temperature flame. But although it is evidently the
right way to get light, it was by no means evidently the right way
to get heat. Yet so it turns out, not by warming solid objects or
by dull warm surfaces, but by the brilliant radiation of the
hottest flame that can be procured, will rooms be warmed in the
future. And if one wants to boil a kettle, it will be done, not by
putting it into a non-luminous flame, and so interfering with the
combustion, but by holding it near to a freely burning regenerated
flame, and using the radiation only. Making toast is the symbol of
all the heating of the future, provided we regard Mr. Siemens' view
as well established.</p>
<p>The ideas are founded on something like the following
considerations: Flame cannot touch a cold surface, i.e., one below
the temperature of combustion, because by the contact it would be
put out. Hence, between a flame and the surface to be heated by it
there always intervenes a comparatively cool space, across which
heat must pass by radiation. It is by radiation ultimately,
therefore, that all bodies get heated. This being so, it is well to
increase the radiating power of flame as much as possible. Now,
radiating power depends on two things: the presence of solid matter
in the flame in a fine state of subdivision, and the temperature to
which it is heated. Solid matter is most easily provided by burning
a gas rich in dense hydrocarbons, not a poor and non-luminous gas.
To mix the gas with air so as to destroy and burn up these
hydrocarbons seems therefore to be a retrograde step, useful
undoubtedly in certain cases, as in the Bunsen flame of the
laboratory, but not the ideal method of combustion. The ideal
method looks to the use of a very rich gas, and the burning of it
with a maximum of luminosity. The hot products of combustion must
give up their heat by contact. It is for them that cross tubes in
boilers are useful. They have no combustion to be interfered with
by cold contacts. The <i>flame</i> only should be free.</p>
<p>The second condition of radiation was high temperature. What
limits the temperature of a flame? Dissociation or splitting up of
a compound by heat. So soon as the temperature reaches the
dissociation point at which the compound can no longer exist,
combustion ceases. Anything short of this may theoretically be
obtained.</p>
<p>But Mr. Siemens believes, and adduces some evidence to prove,
that the dissociation point is not a constant and definite
temperature for a given compound; it depends entirely upon whether
solid or foreign surfaces are present or not. These it is which
appear to be an efficient cause of dissociation, and which,
therefore, limit the temperature of flame. In the absence of all
solid contact, Mr. Siemens believes that dissociation, if it occur
at all, occurs at an enormously higher temperature, and that the
temperature of free flame can be raised to almost any extent.
Whether this be so or not, his radiating flames are most
successful, and the fact that large quantities of steel are now
melted by mere flame radiation speaks well for the correctness of
the theory upon which his practice has been based.</p>
<p><i>Use of Small Coal</i>.—Meanwhile, we may just consider
how we ought to deal with solid fuel, whether for the purpose of
making gas from it or for burning it <i>in situ</i>. The question
arises, In what form ought solid fuel to be—ought it to be in
lumps or in powder? Universal practice says lumps, but some
theoretical considerations would have suggested powder. Remember,
combustion is a chemical action, and when a chemist wishes to act
on a solid easily, he always pulverizes it as a first step.</p>
<p>Is it not possible that compacting small coal into lumps is a
wrong operation, and that we ought rather to think of breaking big
coal down into slack? The idea was suggested to me by Sir W.
Thomson in a chance conversation, and it struck me at once as a
brilliant one. The amount of coal wasted by being in the form of
slack is very great. Thousands of tons are never raised from the
pits because the price is too low to pay for the raising—in
some places it is only 1s. 6d. a ton. Mr. McMillan calculates that
130,000 tons of breeze, or powdered coke, is produced every year by
the Gas Light and Coke Company alone, and its price is 3s. a ton at
the works, or 5s. delivered.</p>
<p>The low price and refuse character of small coal is, of course,
owing to the fact that no ordinary furnace can burn it. But picture
to yourself a blast of hot air into which powdered coal is sifted
from above like ground coffee, or like chaff in a thrashing mill,
and see how rapidly and completely it might burn. Fine dust in a
flour mill is so combustible as to be explosive and dangerous, and
Mr. Galloway has shown that many colliery explosions are due not to
the presence of gas so much as the presence of fine coal-dust
suspended in the air. If only fine enough, then such dust is
eminently combustible, and a blast containing it might become a
veritable sheet of flame. (Blow lycopodium through a flame.) Feed
the coal into a sort of coffee-mill, there let it be ground and
carried forward by a blast to the furnace where it is to be burned.
If the thing would work at all, almost any kind of refuse fuel
could be burned—sawdust, tan, cinder heaps, organic rubbish
of all kinds. The only condition is that it be fine enough.</p>
<p>Attempts in this direction have been made by Mr. T.R. Crampton,
by Messrs. Whelpley and Storer, and by Mr. G.K. Stephenson; but a
difficulty has presented itself which seems at present to be
insuperable, that the slag fluxes the walls of the furnace, and at
that high temperature destroys them. If it be feasible to keep the
flame out of contact with solid surfaces, however, perhaps even
this difficulty can be overcome.</p>
<p>Some success in blast burning of dust fuel has been attained in
the more commonplace method of the blacksmith's forge, and a boiler
furnace is arranged at Messrs. Donkin's works at Bermondsey on this
principle. A pressure of about half an inch of water is produced by
a fan and used to drive air through the bars into a chimney draw of
another half-inch. The fire bars are protected from the high
temperatures by having blades which dip into water, and so keep
fairly cool. A totally different method of burning dust fuel by
smouldering is attained in M. Ferret's low temperature furnace by
exposing the fuel in a series of broad, shallow trays to a gentle
draught of air. The fuel is fed into the top of such a furnace, and
either by raking or by shaking it descends occasionally, stage by
stage, till it arrives at the bottom, where it is utterly inorganic
and mere refuse. A beautiful earthworm economy of the last dregs of
combustible matter in any kind of refuse can thus be attained. Such
methods of combustion as this, though valuable, are plainly of
limited application; but for the great bulk of fuel consumption
some gas-making process must be looked to. No crude combustion of
solid fuel can give ultimate perfection.</p>
<p>Coal tar products, though not so expensive as they were some
time back, are still too valuable entirely to waste, and the
importance of exceedingly cheap and fertilizing manure in the
reclamation of waste lands and the improvement of soil is a
question likely to become of most supreme importance in this
overcrowded island. Indeed, if we are to believe the social
philosophers, the naturally fertile lands of the earth may before
long become insufficient for the needs of the human race; and
posterity may then be largely dependent for their daily bread upon
the fertilizing essences of the stored-up plants of the
carboniferous epoch, just as we are largely dependent on the
stored-up sunlight of that period for our light, our warmth, and
our power. They will not then burn crude coal, therefore. They will
carefully distill it—extract its valuable juices—and
will supply for combustion only its carbureted hydrogen and its
carbon in some gaseous or finely divided form.</p>
<p>Gaseous fuel is more manageable in every way than solid fuel,
and is far more easily and reliably conveyed from place to place.
Dr. Siemens, you remember, expected that coal would not even be
raised, but turned into gas in the pits, to rise by its own
buoyancy to be burnt on the surface wherever wanted. And not only
will the useful products be first removed and saved, its sulphur
will be removed too; not because it is valuable, but because its
product of combustion is a poisonous nuisance. Depend upon it, the
cities of the future will not allow people to turn sulphurous acid
wholesale into the air, there to oxidize and become oil of vitriol.
Even if it entails a slight strain upon the purse they will, I
hope, be wise enough to prefer it to the more serious strain upon
their lungs. We forbid sulphur as much as possible in our lighting
gas, because we find it is deleterious in our rooms. But what is
London but one huge room packed with over four millions of
inhabitants? The air of a city is limited, fearfully limited, and
we allow all this horrible stuff to be belched out of hundreds of
thousands of chimneys all day long.</p>
<p>Get up and see London at four or five in the morning, and
compare it with four or five in the afternoon; the contrast is
painful. A city might be delightful, but you make it loathsome; not
only by smoke, indeed, but still greatly by smoke. When no one is
about, then the air is almost pure; have it well fouled before you
rise to enjoy it. Where no one lives, the breeze of heaven still
blows; where human life is thickest, there it is not fit to live.
Is it not an anomaly, is it not farcical? What term is strong
enough to stigmatize such suicidal folly? But we will not be in
earnest, and our rulers will talk, and our lives will go on and go
out, and next century will be soon upon us, and here is a reform
gigantic, ready to our hands, easy to accomplish, really easy to
accomplish if the right heads and vigorous means were devoted to
it. Surely something will be done.</p>
<p>The following references may be found useful in seeking for more
detailed information: Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee for
1882, by Chandler Roberts and D.K. Clark. "How to Use Gas," by F.T.
Bond; Sanitary Association, Gloucester. "Recovery of Volatile
Constituents of Coal," by T.B. Lightfoot; Journal Society of Arts,
May, 1883. "Manufacture of Gas from Oil," by H.E. Armstrong;
Journal Society of Chemical Industry, September, 1884. "Coking
Coal," by H.E. Armstrong; Iron and Steel Institute, 1885. "Modified
Siemens Producer," by John Head; Iron and Steel Institute, 1885.
"Utilization of Dust Fuel," by W.G. McMillan; Journal Society of
Arts, April. 1886. "Gas Producers," by Rowan; Proc. Inst. C.E.,
January, 1886. "Regenerative Furnaces with Radiation," and "On
Producers," by F. Siemens; Journal Soc. Chem. Industry, July, 1885,
and November, 1885. "Fireplace Construction," by Pridgin Teale; the
<i>Builder</i>, February, 1886. "On Dissociation Temperatures," by
Frederick Siemens; Royal Institution, May 7, 1886.</p>
<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor4">[1]</a>
<div class="note">Second of two lectures delivered at the Royal
Institution, London, on 17th April, 1886. Continued from
SUPPLEMENT, No. 585, p. 9340.</div>
<hr>
<p><a name="15"></a></p>
<p>Near Colorados, in the Argentine Republic, a large bed of
superior coal has been opened, and to the west of the Province of
Buenos Ayres extensive borax deposits have been discovered.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="11"></a></p>
<h2>THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER.</h2>
<p>The accompanying engraving illustrates a remarkable invention.
For ages, screw conveyers for corn and meal have been employed, and
in spite of the power consumed and the rubbing of the material
conveyed, they have remained, with little exception, unimproved and
without a rival. Now we have a new conveyer, which, says <i>The
Engineer</i>, in its simplicity excels anything brought out for
many years, and, until it is seen at work, makes a heavier demand
upon one's credulity than is often made by new mechanical
inventions. As will be seen from the engravings, the new conveyer
consists simply of a spiral of round steel rod mounted upon a
quickly revolving spindle by means of suitable clamps and arms. The
spiral as made for England is of 5/8 in. steel rod, because English
people would not be inclined to try what is really sufficient in
most cases, namely, a mere wire. The working of this spiral as a
conveyer is simply magical. A 6 in. spiral delivers 800 bushels per
hour at 100 revolutions per minute, and more in proportion at
higher speeds. A little 4 in. spiral delivers 200 bushels per hour
at 100 revolutions per minute. It seems to act as a mere persuader.
The spiral moves a small quantity, and sets the whole contents of
the trough in motion. In fact, it embodies the great essentials of
success, namely, simplicity, great capacity for work, and
cheapness. It is the invention of Mr. J. Little, and is made by the
Anti-friction Conveyer Company, of 59 Mark Lane, London.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/11a_th.jpg" alt=
" THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER WITH CASING OR TROUGH—END">
</a></p>
<p class="ctr">THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER WITH CASING OR
TROUGH—END VIEW WITH HANGER.</p>
<p>Since the days of Archimedes, who is credited with being the
inventor of the screw, there has not been any improvement in the
principle of the worm conveyer. There have been several patents
taken out for improved methods of manufacturing the old-fashioned
continuous and paddle-blade worms, but Mr. Little's patent is the
first for an entirely new kind of conveyer.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="29"></a></p>
<h2>STUDIES IN PYROTECHNY.<a name="FNanchor5"></a><a href=
"#Footnote_5"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
<h3>II. METHODS OF ILLUMINATION.</h3>
<p><i>Torches</i> consist of a bundle of loosely twisted threads
which has been immersed in a mixture formed of two parts, by
weight, of beeswax, eight of resin, and one of tallow. In warm, dry
weather, these torches when lighted last for two hours when at
rest, and for an hour and a quarter on a march. A good light is
obtained by spacing them 20 or 30 yards apart.</p>
<p>Another style of torch consists of a cardboard cylinder fitted
with a composition consisting of 100 parts of saltpeter, 60 of
sulphur, 8 of priming powder, and 30 of pulverized glass, the whole
sifted and well mixed. This torch, which burns for a quarter of an
hour, illuminates a space within a radius of 180 or 200 yards very
well.</p>
<p>The <i>tourteau goudronné</i> (lit. "tarred coke") is
merely a ring formed of old lunt or of cords well beaten with a
mallet (Fig. 10). This ring is first impregnated with a composition
formed of 20 parts of black pitch and 1 of tallow, and then with
another one formed of equal parts of black pitch and resin. One of
these torches will burn for an hour in calm weather, and half an
hour in the wind. Rain does not affect the burning of it. These
rings are usually arranged in pairs on brackets with two branches
and an upper circle, the whole of iron, and these brackets are
spaced a hundred yards apart.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/11b_th.jpg" alt=
" FIGS. 9 TO 16.—VARIOUS PYROTECHNIC DEVICES."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIGS. 9 TO 16.—VARIOUS PYROTECHNIC
DEVICES.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11c.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/11c_th.jpg" alt=
" FIGS. 17.—ILLUMINATING ROCKET."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIGS. 17.—ILLUMINATING ROCKET.</p>
<p>A <i>tarred fascine</i> consists of a small fagot of dry wood,
20 inches in length by 4 in diameter, covered with the same
composition as the preceding (Fig. 11). Fascines thus prepared burn
for about half an hour. They are placed upright in supports, and
these latter are located at intervals of twenty yards.</p>
<p>The <i>Lamarre compositions</i> are all formed of a combustible
substance, such as boiled oil,<a name="FNanchor6"></a><a href=
"#Footnote_6"><sup>2</sup></a> of a substance that burns, such as
chlorate of potash, and of various coloring salts.</p>
<p>The <i>white composition</i> used for charging fire balls and
1½ inch flambeaux is formed of 500 parts of powdered
chlorate of potash, 1,500 of nitrate of baryta, 120 of light wood
charcoal, and 250 of boiled oil. Another white composition, used
for charging ¾ inch flambeaux, consists of 1,000 parts of
chlorate of potash, 1,000 of nitrate of baryta, and 175 of boiled
oil.</p>
<p>The <i>red composition</i> used for making red flambeaux and
percussion signals consists of 1,800 parts of chlorate of potash,
300 of oxalate of strontia, 300 of carbonate of strontia, 48 of
whitewood charcoal, 240 of boiled oil, 6 of oil, and 14 of gum
lac.</p>
<p>A red or white <i>Lamarre flambeau</i> consists of a sheet
rubber tube filled with one of the above-named compositions. The
lower extremity of this tube is closed with a cork. When the
charging has been effected, the flambeau is primed by inserting a
quickmatch in the composition. This is simply lighted with a match
or a live coal. The composition of the Lamarre quickmatch will be
given hereafter.</p>
<p>A Lamarre flambeau 1½ inch in diameter and 3 inches in
length will burn for about thirty-five minutes. One of the same
length, and ¾ inch in diameter, lasts but a quarter of an
hour.</p>
<p>A <i>fire ball</i> consists of an open work sack internally
strengthened with a sheet iron shell, and fitted with the Lamarre
white composition. After the charging has been done, the sphere is
wound with string, which is made to adhere by means of tar, and
canvas is then wrapped around the whole. Projectiles of this kind,
which have diameters of 6, 8, 11, and 13 inches, are shot from
mortars.</p>
<p>The <i>illuminating grenade</i> (Fig. 13) consists of a sphere
of vulcanized rubber, two inches in diameter, charged with the
Lamarre white composition. The sphere contains an aperture to allow
of the insertion of a fuse. The priming is effected by means of a
tin tube filled with a composition consisting of three parts of
priming powder, two of sulphur, and one of saltpeter. These
grenades are thrown either by hand or with a sling, and they may
likewise be shot from mortars. Each of these projectiles
illuminates a circle thirty feet in diameter for a space of time
that varies, according to the wind, from sixty to eighty
seconds.</p>
<p>The <i>percussion signal</i> (Fig. 14) consists of a cylinder of
zinc, one inch in diameter and one and a quarter inch in length,
filled with Lamarre red composition. It is provided with a wooden
handle, and the fuse consists of a capsule which is exploded by
striking it against some rough object. This signal burns for nearly
a minute.</p>
<p><i>Belgian illuminating balls and cylinders</i> are canvas bags
filled with certain compositions. The cylinders, five inches in
diameter and seven in length, are charged with a mixture of six
parts of sulphur, two of priming powder, one of antimony, and two
of beeswax cut up into thin slices. They are primed with a
quickmatch. The balls, one and a half inch in diameter, are charged
with a composition consisting of twelve parts of saltpeter, eight
of sulphur, four of priming powder, two of sawdust, two of beeswax,
and two of tallow. They are thrown by hand. They burn for six
minutes.</p>
<p><i>Illuminating kegs</i> (Fig. 15) consist of powder kegs filled
with shavings covered with pitch. An aperture two or three inches
in diameter is made in each head, and then a large number of holes,
half an inch in diameter, and arranged quincuncially, are bored in
the staves and heads. All these apertures are filled with
port-fires.</p>
<p>The <i>illuminating rocket</i> (Fig. 17) consists of a sheet
iron cartridge, <i>a</i>, containing a composition designed to give
it motion, of a cylinder, <i>b</i>, of sheet iron, capped with a
cone of the same material and containing illuminating stars of
Lamarre composition and an explosive for expelling them, and,
finally, of a directing stick, <i>c</i>. Priming is effected by
means of a bunch of quickmatches inclosed in a cardboard tube
placed in contact with the propelling composition. This latter is
the same as that used in signal rockets. As in the case of the
latter, a space is left in the axis of the cartridges. These
rockets are fired from a trough placed at an inclination of fifty
or sixty degrees. Those of three inches illuminate the earth for a
distance of 900 yards. They may be used to advantage in the
operation of signaling.</p>
<p>A <i>parachute fire</i> is a device designed to be ejected from
a pot at the end of the rocket's travel, and to emit a bright light
during its slow descent. It consists of a small cylindrical
cardboard box (Fig. 16) filled with common star paste or Lamarre
stars, and attached to a parachute, <i>e</i>, by means of a small
brass chain, <i>d</i>.</p>
<p>To make this parachute, we cut a circle ten feet in diameter out
of a piece of calico, and divide its circumference into ten or
twelve equal parts. At each point of division we attach a piece of
fine hempen cord about three feet in length, and connect these
cords with each other, as well as with the suspension chain, by
ligatures that are protected against the fire by means of balls of
sized paper.</p>
<p>In rockets designed to receive these parachutes, a small cavity
is reserved at the extremity of the cartridge for the reception of
225 grains of powder. To fill the pot, the chain, <i>d</i>, is
rolled spirally around the box, <i>c</i>, and the latter is covered
with the parachute, <i>e</i>, which has been folded in plaits, and
then folded lengthwise alternately in one direction and the
other.</p>
<p>The <i>parachute port-fire</i> consists of a cardboard tube of
from quarter to half an inch in diameter, and from four to five
inches in length, closed at one extremity and filled with star
paste. This is connected by a brass wire with a cotton parachute
eight inches in diameter. A rocket pot is capable of holding twenty
of these port-fires.</p>
<p>Parachute fires and port-fires are used to advantage in the
operation of signaling.—<i>La Nature</i>.</p>
<a name="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor5">[1]</a>
<div class="note">Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 583, page
9303.</div>
<a name="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor6">[2]</a>
<div class="note">For preparation see page 9304 of
SUPPLEMENT.</div>
<hr>
<p><a name="18"></a></p>
<h2>IMPROVEMENT IN LAYING OUT FRAMES OF VESSELS—THE FRAME
TRACER.</h2>
<h3>By GUSTAVE SONNENBURG.</h3>
<p>To avoid the long and time-consuming laying out of a boat by
ordinates and abscissas, I have constructed a handy apparatus, by
which it is possible without much trouble to obtain the sections of
a vessel graphically and sufficiently accurate. The description of
its construction is given with reference to the accompanying cut. A
is a wooden rod of rectangular section, to which are adapted two
brackets, a<sub>1</sub> a<sub>2</sub>, lined with India rubber or
leather; a<sub>1</sub> is fixed to the wood, a<sub>2</sub> is of
metal, and, like the movable block of a slide gauge, moves along A.
In the same plane is a second rod, perpendicular to A, and attached
thereto, which is perforated by a number of holes. A revolving pin,
C, is adapted to pass through these holes, to which a socket, D, is
pivoted, C acting as its axis. To prevent this pin from falling
out, it is secured by a nut behind the rod. Through the socket, D,
runs a rod, E, which carries the guide point, s<sub>1</sub>, and
pencil, s<sub>2</sub>. Over s<sub>1</sub> a rubber band is
stretched, to prevent injury to the varnish of the boat. Back of
and to A and B a drawing board is attached, over which a sheet of
paper is stretched.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/12b_th.jpg" alt=" THE FRAME TRACER."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">THE FRAME TRACER.</p>
<p>The method of obtaining a section line is as follows: The rod,
A, is placed across the gunwale and perpendicular to the axis of
the boat, and its anterior vertical face is adjusted to each frame
of the boat which it is desired to reproduce. By means of the
brackets, a<sub>1</sub> and a<sub>2</sub>, A is fixed in place. The
bolt, C, is now placed in the perforations already alluded to,
which are recognized as most available for producing the
constructional diagram. At the same time the position of the pencil
point, s<sub>2</sub>, must be chosen for obtaining the best
results.</p>
<p>Next the operator moves along the side of the boat the sharpened
end, s<sub>1</sub>, of the rod, E, and thus for the curve from keel
to gunwale, s<sub>2</sub> describes a construction line. It is at
once evident that a<sub>2</sub>, for example, corresponds to the
point, a<sub>1</sub>. The apparatus is now removed and placed on
the working floor. If, reversing things, the point, s<sub>1</sub>,
is carried around the construction curve, the point, s<sub>2</sub>,
will inscribe the desired section in its natural dimensions. This
operation is best conducted after one has chosen and described all
the construction curves of the boat. Next, the different section
lines are determined, one by one, by the reversed method above
described. The result is a half section of the boat; the other
symmetrical half is easily obtained.</p>
<p>If the whole process is repeated for the other side of the boat,
tracing paper being used instead of drawing paper, the boat may be
tested for symmetry of building, a good control for the value of
the ship. For measuring boats, as for clubs and regattas, for
seamen, and often for the so-called <i>Spranzen</i> (copying) of
English models, my apparatus, I doubt not, will be very
useful.—<i>Neuste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="10"></a></p>
<h2>TAR FOR FIRING RETORTS.</h2>
<p>The attention of gas engineers has been forcibly directed to the
use of tar as a fuel for the firing of retorts, now that this once
high-priced material is suffering, like everything else (but,
perhaps, to a more marked extent), by what is called "depression in
trade." In fact, it has in many places reached so low a commercial
value that it is profitable to burn it as a fuel. Happily, this is
not the case at Nottingham; and our interest in tar as a fuel is
more experimental, in view of what may happen if a further fall in
tar products sets in. I have abandoned the use of steam injection
for our experimental tar fires in favor of another system. The
steam injectors produce excellent heats, but are rather
intermittent in their action, and the steam they require is a
serious item, and not always available.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
<p>Tar being a <i>pseudo</i> liquid fuel, in arranging for its
combustion one has to provide for the 20 to 25 per cent. of solid
carbon which it contains, and which is deposited in the furnace as
a kind of coke or breeze on the distillation of the volatile
portions, which are much more easily consumed than the tar
coke.</p>
<h3>THE TAR FIRE</h3>
<p>I have adopted is one that can be readily adapted to an ordinary
coke furnace, and be as readily removed, leaving the furnace as
before. The diagram conveys some idea of the method adopted. An
iron frame, d, standing on legs on the floor just in front of the
furnace door, carries three fire tiles on iron bearers. The top
one, a, is not moved, and serves to shield the upper face of the
tile, b, from the fierce heat radiated from the furnace, and also
causes the air that rushes into the furnace between the tiles, a
and b, to travel over the upper face of the tile, b, on which the
tar flows, thereby keeping it cool, and preventing the tar from
bursting into flame until it reaches the edge of the tile, b, over
the whole edge of which it is made to run fairly well by a
distributing arrangement. A rapid combustion takes place here, but
some unconsumed tar falls on to the bed below. About one-third of
the grate area is filled up by a fire tile, and on this the tar
coke falls. The tile, c, is moved away from time to time, and the
tar coke that accumulates in front of it is pushed back on to the
fire bars, e, at the back of the furnace, to be there consumed. Air
is thus admitted, by three narrow slot-like openings, to the front
of the furnace between the tiles, a, b, and c, and under c and
through the fire bars, e. The air openings below are about three
times the area of the openings in the front of the furnace; but as
the openings between the fire bars and the tiles are always more or
less covered by tar coke, it is impossible to say what the
effective openings are. This disposition answers admirably, and
requires little attention. Three minutes per hour per fire seems to
be the average, and the labor is of a very light kind, consisting
of clearing the passages between the tiles, and occasionally
pushing back the coke on to the fire bars. These latter are not
interfered with, and will not require cleaning unless any bricks in
the furnace have been melted, when a bed of slag will be found on
them.</p>
<h3>THE AMOUNT OF DRAUGHT</h3>
<p>required for these fires is very small, and less than with coke
firing. I find that 0.08 in. vacuum is sufficient with tar fires,
and 0.25 in. for coke fires. The fires would require less attention
with more draught and larger tar supply, as the apertures do not so
easily close with a sharp draught, and the tar is better carried
forward into the furnace. A regular feed of tar is required, and
considerable difficulty seems to have been experienced in obtaining
this. So long as we employed ordinary forms of taps or valves, so
long (even with filtration) did we experience difficulties with the
flow of viscous tar. But on the construction of valves specially
designed for the regulation of its flow, the difficulty immediately
disappeared, and there is no longer the slightest trouble on this
account. The labor connected with the feeding of furnaces with coke
and cleaning fires from clinker is of a very arduous and heavy
nature. Eight coke fires are normally considered to be work for one
man. A lad could work sixteen of these tar fires.</p>
<h3>COMPOSITION OF FURNACE GASES.</h3>
<p>Considerable attention has been paid to the composition of the
furnace gases from the tar fires. The slightest deficiency in the
air supply, of course, results in the immediate production of
smoke, so that the damper must be set to provide always a
sufficient air supply. Under these circumstances of damper, the
following analyses of combustion gases from tar fires have been
obtained:</p>
<pre>
No Smoke.
CO₂. O. CO.
11.7 5.0 Not determined.
13.3 3.7 "
10.8 5.4 "
14.8 2.5 "
13.5 3.0 "
12.4 5.6 "
12.4 4.6 "
13.1 5.9 "
15.3 1.0 "
10.8 4.0 "
14.0 2.8 "
______ ______
Average 12.9 3.9
(11 analyses) ______ ______
11.5 Not determined.
14.3 "
14.6 "
</pre>
<p>Damper adjusted so that a slight smoke was observable in the
combustion gases.</p>
<pre>
CO₂. O. CO.
17.30 None. Not determined.
16.60 " "
16.50 0.1 "
15.80 0.1 "
16.20 1.8 0.7
_______ _____ _____
Average 16.48 0.4 0.7
</pre>
<p>—<i>Gas Engineer</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="23"></a></p>
<h2>A NEW MERCURY PUMP.</h2>
<p>The mercury pumps now in use, whether those of Geissler,
Alvergniat, Toepler, or Sprengel, although possessed of
considerable advantages, have also serious defects. For instance,
Geissler's pump requires a considerable number of taps, that of
Alvergniat and Toepler is very fragile in consequence of its
complicated system of tubes connected together, and that of
Sprengel is only suitable for certain purposes.</p>
<p>The new mercury pump constructed by Messrs. Greisser and
Friedrichs, at Stutzerbach, is remarkable for simplicity of
construction and for the ease with which it is manipulated, and
also because it enables us to arrive at a perfect vacuum.</p>
<p>The characteristic of this pump is, according to <i>La Lumiere
Electrique</i>, a tap of peculiar construction. It has two tubes
placed obliquely in respect to its axis, which, when we turn this
tap 90 or 180 degrees, are brought opposite one of the three
openings in the body of the tap.</p>
<p>Thus the striæ that are formed between the hollowed-out
parts of the tap do not affect its tightness; and, besides, the
turns of the tap have for their principal positions 90 and 180
degrees, instead of 45 and 90 degrees, as in Geissler's pump.</p>
<p>The working of the apparatus, which only requires the
manipulation of a single tap, is very simple. When the mercury is
raised, the tap is turned in such a manner that the surplus of the
liquid can pass into the enlarged appendage, a, placed above the
tap, and communication is then cut off by turning the tap to 90
degrees.</p>
<p>The mercury reservoir having descended, the bulb empties itself,
and then the tap is turned on again, in order to establish
communication with the exhausting tube. The tap is then closed, the
mercury ascends again, and this action keeps on repeating.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12c.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/12c_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
<hr>
<p><a name="4"></a></p>
<p>NO ELECTRICITY FROM THE CONDENSATION OF VAPOR.—It has been
maintained by Palmieri and others that the condensation of vapor
results in the production of an electrical charge. Herr S.
Kalischer has renewed his investigations upon this point, and
believes that he has proved that no electricity results from such
condensation. Atmospheric vapor was condensed upon a vessel coated
with tin foil, filled with ice, carefully insulated, and connected
with a very sensitive electrometer. No evidence could be obtained
of electricity.—<i>Ann. der Physik und Chemie</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="6"></a></p>
<h2>THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER.</h2>
<p>An interesting contribution was made by M. Mercadier in a recent
number of the <i>Comptes Rendus de l'Academie Francaise</i>. On the
ground of some novel and some already accepted experimental
evidence, M. Mercadier holds that the mechanism by virtue of which
the telephonic diaphragms execute their movements is analogous to,
if not identical with, that by which solid bodies of any form, a
wall for instance, transmit to one of their surfaces all the
vibratory movements of any kind which are produced in the air in
contact with the other surface. It is a phenomenon or resonance.
Movements corresponding to particular sounds may be superposed in
slender diaphragms, but this superposition must necessarily be
disturbing under all but exceptional circumstances. In proof of
this view, it is cited that diaphragms much too rigid, or charged
with irregularly distributed masses over the surface, or pierced
with holes, or otherwise evidently unfitted for the purpose, are
available for transmission. They will likewise serve when feathers,
wool, wood, metals, mica, and other substances to the thickness of
four inches are placed between the diaphragm and the source of
vibratory movement. The magnetic field does not alter these
relations in any way. The real diaphragm may be removed altogether.
It is sufficient to replace it by a few grains of iron filings
thrown on the pole covered with a piece of pasteboard or paper.
Such a telephone works distinctly although feebly; but any slender
flexible disk, metallic or not, spread over across the opening of
the cover of the instrument, with one or two tenths of a gramme
(three grains) of iron filings, will yield results of increased and
even ordinary intensity. This is the iron filing telephone, which
is reversible; for a given magnetic field there is a certain weight
of iron filings for maximum intensity. It appears thus that the
advantage of the iron diaphragm over iron filings reduces itself to
presenting in a certain volume a much more considerable number of
magnetic molecules to the action of the field. The iron diaphragm
increases the telephonic intensity, but it is by no means
indispensable.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="3"></a></p>
<h2>ON ELECTRO-DISSOLUTION, AND ITS USE AS REGARDS ANALYSIS.</h2>
<h3>By H.N. WARREN, Research Analyst.</h3>
<p>On the same principle that electro-dissolution is used for the
estimation of combined carbon in steel, etc., I have lately varied
the experiment by introducing, instead of steel, iron containing a
certain percentage of boron, and, having connected the respective
boride with the positive pole of a powerful battery, and to the
negative a plate of platinum, using as a solvent dilute sulphuric
acid, I observed, after the lapse of about twelve hours, the iron
had entirely passed into solution, and a considerable amount of
brownish precipitate had collected at the bottom of the vessel,
intercepted by flakes of graphite and carbon; the precipitate,
having been collected on a filter paper, washed, and dried, on
examination proved to be amorphous boron, containing graphite and
other impurities, which had become chemically introduced during the
preparation of the boron compound. The boron was next introduced
into a small clay crucible, and intensely heated in a current of
hydrogen gas, for the purpose of rendering it more dense and
destroying its pyrophoric properties, and was lastly introduced
into a combustion tubing, heated to bright redness, and a stream of
dry carbonic anhydride passed over it, in order to separate the
carbon, finally pure boron being obtained.</p>
<p>In like manner silicon-eisen, containing 9 per cent. of silicon,
was treated, but not giving so satisfactory a result. A small
quantity only of silicon separates in the uncombined form, the
greater quantity separating in the form of silica, SiO<sub>2</sub>,
the amorphous silicon so obtained apparently being more prone to
oxidation than the boron so obtained.</p>
<p>Ferrous sulphide was next similarly treated, and gave, after the
lapse of a few hours, a copious blackish precipitation of sulphur,
and possessing properties similar to the sulphur obtained by
dissolving sulphides such as cupric sulphide in dilute nitric acid,
in all other respects resembling common sulphur.</p>
<p>Phosphides of iron, zinc, etc., were next introduced, and gave,
besides carbon and other impurities, a residue containing a large
percentage of phosphorus, which differed from ordinary phosphorus
with respect to its insolubility in carbon disulphide, and which
resembled the reaction in the case with silicon-eisen rather than
that of the boron compound, insomuch that a large quantity of the
phosphorus had passed into solution.</p>
<p>A rod of impure copper, containing arsenic, iron, zinc, and
other impurities, was next substituted, using hydrochloric acid as
a solvent in place of sulphuric acid. In the course of a day the
copper had entirely dissolved and precipitated itself on the
negative electrode, the impurities remaining in solution. The
copper, after having been washed, dried, and weighed, gave
identical results with regard to percentage with a careful
gravimetric estimation. I have lately used this method, and
obtained excellent results with respect to the analysis of
commercial copper, especially in the estimation of small quantities
of arsenic, thus enabling the experimenter to perform his
investigation on a much larger quantity than when precipitation is
resorted to, at the same time avoiding the precipitated copper
carrying down with it the arsenic. I have in this manner detected
arsenic in commercial copper when all other methods have totally
failed. I have also found the above method especially applicable
with respect to the analysis of brass.</p>
<p>With respect to ammoniacal dissolution, which I will briefly
mention, a rod composed of an alloy of copper and silver was
experimented upon, the copper becoming entirely dissolved and
precipitating itself on the platinum electrode, the whole of the
silver remaining suspended to the positive electrode in an
aborescent form. Arsenide of zinc was similarly treated, the
arsenic becoming precipitated in like manner on the platinum
electrode. Various other alloys, being experimented upon, gave
similar results.</p>
<p>I may also, in the last instance, mention that I have found the
above methods of electro-dissolution peculiarly adapted for the
preparation of unstable compounds such as stannic nitrate, potassic
ferrate, ferric acetate, which are decomposed on the application of
heat, and in some instances have succeeded by the following means
of crystallizing the resulting compound obtained.—<i>Chem.
News</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="2"></a></p>
<h2>A NEWLY DISCOVERED SUBSTANCE IN URINE.</h2>
<p>Dr. Leo's researches on sugar in urine are interesting, and tend
to correct the commonly accepted views on the subject. Professor
Scheibler, a chemist well known for his researches on sugar, has
observed that the determination of the quantity of that substance
contained in a liquid gives different results, according as it is
done by Trommer's method or with the polariscope. As sugar nowadays
is exclusively dealt with according to the degree of polarization,
this fact is of enormous value in trade. Scheibler has isolated a
substance that is more powerful in that respect than grape sugar.
Dr. Leo's researches yield analogous results, though in a different
field. He has examined a great quantity of diabetic urine after
three different methods, namely, Trommer's (alkaline solution of
copper); by fermentation; and with the polarization apparatus. In
many cases the results agreed, while in others there was a
considerable difference.</p>
<p>He succeeded in isolating a substance corresponding in its
chemical composition to grape sugar, and also a carbo-hydrate
differing considerably from grape sugar, and turning the plane of
polarization to the left. The power of reduction of this newly
discovered substance is to that of grape sugar as 1:2.48. Dr. Leo
found this substance in three specimens of diabetic urine, but it
was absent in normal urine, although a great amount was examined
for that purpose. From this it may be concluded that the substance
does not originate outside the organism, and that it is a
pathological product. The theory of Dr. Jaques Meyer, of Carlsbad,
that it may be connected with obesity, is negatived by the fact
that of the three persons in whom this substance was found, only
one was corpulent.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="27"></a></p>
<h2>FURNACE FOR DECOMPOSING CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM.</h2>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/13a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/13a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
<p>The problem of decomposing chloride of magnesium is one which
has attracted the attention of technical chemists for many years.
The solution of this problem would be of great importance to the
alkali trade, and, consequently, to nearly every industry. The late
Mr. Weldon made many experiments on this subject, but without any
particular success. Of late a furnace has been patented in Germany,
by A. Vogt, which is worked on a principle similar to that applied
to salt cake furnaces; but with this difference, that in place of
the pot it has a revolving drum, and instead of the roaster a
furnace with a number of shelves. The heating gases are furnished
by a producer, and pass from below upward over the shelves, S, then
through the channel, C, into the drum, D, which contains the
concentrated chloride of magnesium. When the latter has solidified,
but before being to any extent decomposed, it is removed from the
drum and placed on the top shelf of the furnace. It is then
gradually removed one shelf lower as the decomposition increases,
until it arrives at the bottom shelf, where it is completely
decomposed in the state of magnesia, which is emptied through, E.
The drum, D, after being emptied, is again filled with concentrated
solution of chloride of magnesium. The hydrochloric acid leaves
through F and G. If, instead of hydrochloric acid, chlorine is to
be evolved, it is necessary to heat the furnace by means of hot
air, as otherwise the carbonic acid in the gases from the generator
would prevent the formation of bleaching powder. The air is heated
in two regenerating chambers, which are placed below the
furnace.—<i>Industries</i>.</p>
<hr>
<h2>THE FILTRATION AND THE SECRETION THEORY.</h2>
<p>At a recent meeting of the Physiological Society, Dr. J. Munk
reported on experiments instituted by him in the course of the last
two years with a view of arriving at an experimental decision
between the two theories of the secretion of urine—the
filtration theory of Ludwig and the secretion theory of Heidenhain.
According to the first theory, the blood pressure prescribed the
measure for the urine secretion; according to the second theory,
the urine got secreted from the secretory epithelial cells of the
kidneys, and the quantity of the matter secreted was dependent on
the rate of movement of the circulation of the blood. The speaker
had instituted his experiments on excided but living kidneys,
through which he conducted defibrinized blood of the same animals,
under pressures which he was able to vary at pleasure between 80
mm. and 190 mm. Fifty experiments on dogs whose blood and kidneys
were, during the experiment, kept at 40° C., yielded the result
that the blood of starving animals induced no secretion of urine,
which on the other hand showed itself in copious quantities where
normal blood was conducted through the kidney. If to the famished
blood was added one of the substances contained as ultimate
products of digestion in the blood, such, for example, as urea,
then did the secretion ensue.</p>
<p>The fluid dropping from the ureter contained more urea than did
the blood. That fluid was therefore no filtrate, but a secretion.
An enhancement of the pressure of the blood flowing through the
kidney had no influence on the quantity of the secretion passing
away. An increased rate of movement on the part of the blood, on
the other hand, increased in equal degree the quantity of urine. On
a solution of common salt or of mere serum sanguinis being poured
through the kidney, no secretion followed. All these facts,
involving the exclusion of the possibility of a central influence
being exercised from, the heart or from the nervous system on the
kidneys, were deemed by the speaker arguments proving that the
urine was secreted by the renal epithelial cells. A series of
diuretics was next tried, in order to establish whether they
operated in the way of stimulus centrally on the heart or
peripherally on the renal cells. Digitalis was a central diuretic.
Common salt, on the other hand, was a peripheral diuretic. Added in
the portion of 2 per cent. to the blood, it increased the quantity
of urine eight to fifteen fold. Even in much less doses, it was a
powerful diuretic. In a similar manner, if yet not so intensely,
operated saltpeter and coffeine, as also urea and pilocarpine. On
the introduction, however, of the last substance into the blood,
the rate of circulation was accelerated in an equal measure as was
the quantity of urine increased, so that in this case the increase
in the quantity of urine was, perhaps, exclusively conditioned by
the greater speed in the movement of the blood. On the other hand,
the quantity of secreted urine was reduced when morphine or
strychine was administered to the blood. In the case of the
application of strychnine, the rate in the current of the blood was
retarded in a proportion equal to the reduction in the secretion of
the urine.</p>
<p>The speaker had, finally, demonstrated the synthesis of hippuric
acid and sulphate of phenol in the excided kidney as a function of
its cells, by adding to the blood pouring through the kidney, in
the first place, benzoic acid and glycol; in the second place,
phenol and sulphate of soda. In order that these syntheses might
make their appearance in the excided kidney, the presence of the
blood corpuscles was not necessary, though, indeed, the presence of
oxygen in the blood was indispensable.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="25"></a></p>
<h2>VARYING CYLINDRICAL LENS.</h2>
<h3>By TEMPEST ANDERSON, M.D., B. Sc.</h3>
<p>The author has had constructed a cylindrical lens in which the
axis remains constant in direction and amount of refraction, while
the refraction in the meridian at right angles to this varies
continuously.</p>
<p>A cone may be regarded as a succession of cylinders of different
diameters graduating into one another by exceedingly small steps,
so that if a short enough portion be considered, its curvature at
any point may be regarded as cylindrical. A lens with one side
plane and the other ground on a conical tool is therefore a concave
cylindrical lens varying in concavity at different parts according
to the diameter of the cone at the corresponding part. Two such
lenses mounted with axes parallel and with curvatures varying in
opposite directions produce a compound cylindrical lens, whose
refraction in the direction of the axes is zero, and whose
refraction in the meridian at right angles to this is at any point
the sum of the refractions of the two lenses. This sum is nearly
constant for a considerable distance along the axis so long as the
same position of the lenses is maintained. If the lenses be slid
one over the other in the direction of their axes, this sum
changes, and we have a varying cylindrical lens. The lens is
graduated by marking on the frame the relative position of the
lenses when cylindrical lenses of known power are neutralized.</p>
<p>Lenses were exhibited to the Royal Society, London, varying from
to -6 DCy, and from to +6 DCy.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="24"></a></p>
<h2>THE LAWS OF THE ABSORPTION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS.</h2>
<h3>By H. BECQUEREL.</h3>
<p>1. The absorption spectrum observed through a crystal varies
with the direction of the rectilinear luminous vibration which
propagates itself in this crystal. 2. The bands or rays observed
through the same crystal have, in the spectrum, fixed positions,
their intensity alone varying. 3. For a given band or ray there
exist in the crystal three rectangular directions of symmetry,
according to one of which the band generally disappears, so that
for a suitable direction of the luminous vibrations the crystal no
longer absorbs the radiations corresponding to the region of the
spectrum where the band question appeared. These three directions
may be called the principal directions of absorption, relative to
this band. 4. In the orthorhombic crystals, by a necessary
consequence of crystalline symmetry, the principal directions of
absorption of all the bands coincide with the three axes of
symmetry. We may thus observe three principal absorption spectra.
In uniaxial crystals the number of absorption spectra is reduced to
two. 5. In clinorhombic crystals one of the principal directions of
absorption of each crystal coincides with the only axis of
symmetry; the two other principal rectangular directions of each
band may be found variously disposed in the plane normal to this
axis. Most commonly these principal directions are very near to the
principal corresponding directions of optical elasticity. 6. In
various crystals the characters of the absorption phenomena differ
strikingly from those which we might expect to find after an
examination of the optical properties of the crystal. We have just
seen that in clinorhombic crystals the principal absorption
directions of certain bands were completely different from the axis
of optical elasticity of the crystal for the corresponding
radiations. If we examine this anomaly, we perceive that the
crystals manifesting these effects are complex bodies, formed of
various matters, one, or sometimes several, of which absorb light
and give each different absorption bands. Now, M. De Senarmont has
shown that the geometric isomorphism of certain substances does not
necessarily involve identity of optical properties, and in
particular in the directions of the axes of optical elasticity in
relation to the geometric directions of the crystal. In a crystal
containing a mixture of isomorphous substances, each substance
brings its own influence, which may be made to predominate in turn
according to the proportions of the mixture. We may, therefore,
admit that the molecules of each substance enter into the crystal
retaining all the optical properties which they would have if each
crystallized separately. The principal directions of optical
elasticity are given by the resultant of the actions which each of
the component substances exerts on the propagation of light, while
the absorption of a given region of the spectrum is due to a single
one of these substances, and may have for its directions of
symmetry the directions which it would have in the absorbing
molecule supposing it isolated. It may happen that these directions
do not coincide with the axes of optical elasticity of the compound
crystal. If such is the cause of the anomaly of certain principal
directions of absorption, the bands which present these anomalies
must belong to substances different from those which yield bands
having other principal directions of absorption. If so, we are in
possession of a novel method of spectral analysis, which permits us
to distinguish in certain crystals bands belonging to different
matters, isomorphous, but not having the same optical properties.
Two bands appearing in a crystal with common characters, but
presenting in another crystal characters essentially different,
must also be ascribed to two different bodies.</p>
<hr>
<p>[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 585, page 9345.]</p>
<p><a name="16"></a></p>
<h2>HISTORY OF THE WORLD'S POSTAL SERVICE.</h2>
<p>It is commonly believed in Europe that the mail is chiefly
forwarded by the railroads; but this is only partially the case, as
the largest portion of the mails is intrusted now, as formerly, to
foot messengers. How long this will last is of course uncertain, as
the present postal service seems suitable enough for the needs of
the people. The first task of the mail is naturally the collection
of letters. Fig. 17 represents a letter box in a level country.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/14a_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 17.—COUNTRY LETTER BOX."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 17.—COUNTRY LETTER BOX.</p>
<p>By way of example, it is not uninteresting to know that the
inhabitants of Hanover in Germany made great opposition to the
introduction of letter boxes, for the moral reason that they could
be used to carry on forbidden correspondence, and that consequently
all letters should be delivered personally to the post master.</p>
<p>After the letters are collected, the sorting for the place of
destination follows, and Fig. 18 represents the sorting room in the
Berlin Post Office. A feverish sort of life is led here day and
night, as deficient addresses must be completed, and the illegible
ones deciphered.</p>
<p>It may here be mentioned that the delivery of letters to each
floor of apartment houses is limited chiefly to Austria and
Germany. In France and England, the letters are delivered to the
janitor or else thrown into the letter box placed in the hall.</p>
<p>After the letters are arranged, then comes the transportation of
them by means of the railroad, the chaise, or gig, and finally the
dog mail, as seen in Fig. 19. It is hard to believe that this
primitive vehicle is useful for sending mail that is especially
urgent, and yet it is used in the northern part of Canada. Drawn by
three or four dogs, it glides swiftly over the snow.</p>
<p>It is indeed a large jump from free America, the home of the
most unlimited progress, into the Flowery Kingdom, where cues are
worn, but we hope our readers are willing to accompany us, in order
to have the pleasure of seeing how rapidly a Chinese mail carrier
(Fig. 20) trots along his route under his sun umbrella.</p>
<p>Only the largest and most robust pedestrians are chosen for
service, and they are obliged to pass through a severe course of
training before they can lay any claim to the dignified name,
"Thousand Mile Horse."</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/14b_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 18.—SORTING ROOM IN BERLIN POST OFFICE."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 18.—SORTING ROOM IN BERLIN POST
OFFICE.</p>
<p>But even the Chinese carrier may not strike us so curiously as
another associate, given in our next picture, Fig. 21, and yet he
is a European employe from the Landes department of highly
cultivated France. The inhabitants of this country buckle stilts on
to their feet, so as to make their way faster through brambles and
underbrush which surrounds them. The mail carrier copied them in
his equipment, and thus he goes around on stilts, provided with a
large cane to help him keep his balance, and furnishes a correct
example of a post office official suiting the demands of every
district.</p>
<p>While the mail in Europe has but little to do with the
transportation of passengers, it is important in its activity in
this respect in the large Russian empire.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14c.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/14c_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 19.—DOG POST AT LAKE SUPERIOR."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 19.—DOG POST AT LAKE SUPERIOR.</p>
<p>The tarantass (Fig. 22), drawn by three nimble horses, flies
through the endless deserts with wind-like rapidity.</p>
<p>The next illustration (Fig. 23) leads us to a much more remote
and deserted country, "Post office on the Booby Island," occupied
only by birds, and a hut containing a box in which are pens, paper,
ink, and wafers. The mariners put their letters in the box, and
look in to see if there is anything there addressed to them, then
they continue their journey.</p>
<p>Postage stamps are not demanded in this ideal post office, but
provision is made for the shipwrecked, by a notice informing them
where they can find means of nourishment.</p>
<p>Once again we make a leap. The Bosnian mail carrier's equipment
(Fig. 24) is, or rather was, quite singular, for our picture was
taken before the occupation.</p>
<p>This mounted mail carrier with his weapons gives one the
impression of a robber.</p>
<p>The task of conducting the mail through the Alps of Switzerland
(Fig. 25) must be uncomfortable in winter, when the sledges glide
by fearful precipices and over snow-covered passes.</p>
<p>Since the tariff union mail developed from the Prussian mail,
and the world's mail from the tariff union, it seems suitable to
close our series of pictures by representing the old Prussian
postal service (Fig. 26) carried on by soldier postmen in the
eighteenth century during the reign of Frederick the Great.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14d.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/14d_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 20.—CHINESE POSTMAN."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 20.—CHINESE POSTMAN.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14e.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/14e_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 21.—DELIVERING LETTERS IN LANDES DEPARTMENT,"></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 21.—DELIVERING LETTERS IN LANDES
DEPARTMENT, FRANCE.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14f.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/14f_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 22.—RUSSIAN EXTRA POST."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 22.—RUSSIAN EXTRA POST.</p>
<p>The complaint is made that poetry is wanting in our era, and it
has certainly disappeared from the postal service. One remembers
that the postilion was for quite a while the favorite hero of our
poets, the best of whom have sung to his praises, and given space
to his melancholy thoughts of modern times in which he is pushed
aside. It is too true that the post horn, formerly blown by a
postilion, is now silenced, that the horse has not been able to
keep up in the race with the world in its use of the steam horse,
and yet how much poetry there is in that little post office all
alone by itself on the Booby Island, that we have
described—the sublimest poetry, that of love for mankind!</p>
<p>The poet of the modern postal system has not yet appeared; but
he will find plenty of material. He will be able to depict the
dangers a postman passes through in discharging his duty on the
field, he will sing the praises of those who are injured in a
railroad disaster, and yet continue their good work.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15a.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/15a_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 23.—POST OFFICE ON BOOBY ISLAND."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 23.—POST OFFICE ON BOOBY ISLAND.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15b.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/15b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 24.—BOSNIAN POST.">
</a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 24.—BOSNIAN POST.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15c.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/15c_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 25.—SWISS ALPINE POST IN WINTER."></a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 25.—SWISS ALPINE POST IN WINTER.</p>
<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15d.png"><img src=
"./illustrations/15d_th.jpg" alt=
" FIG. 26.—SOLDIER POSTMAN OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.">
</a></p>
<p class="ctr">FIG. 26.—SOLDIER POSTMAN OF THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY.</p>
<p>He can also praise the noble thought of uniting the nations,
which assumed its first tangible form in the world's mail. It will
not be a sentimental song, but one full of power and indicative of
our own time, in spite of those who scorn it.—<i>Translated
for the Scientific American Supplement by Jenny H. Beach, from Neue
Illustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="5"></a></p>
<h2>ON NICKEL PLATING.</h2>
<h3>By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN.</h3>
<p>The compound used principally for the electro-deposition of
nickel is a double sulphate of nickel and ammonia. The silvery
appearance of the deposit depends mainly on the purity of the salt
as well as the anodes. The condition of the bath, as to age,
temperature, and degree of saturation, position of anodes, strength
of current, and other details of manipulation, which require care,
cleanliness, and experience, such as may be met with in any
intelligent workman fairly acquainted with his business, are easily
acquired.</p>
<p>In the present paper I shall deal principally with the chemical
department of this subject, and shall briefly introduce, where
necessary, allusion to the mechanical and electrical details
connected with the process. At a future time I shall be glad to
enlarge upon this part of the subject, with a view of making the
article complete.</p>
<p>A short time ago nickel plating was nearly as expensive as
silver plating. This is explained by the fact that only a few
people, at least in this country, were expert in the mechanical
portions of the process, and only a very few chemists gave
attention to the matter. To this must be added that our text-books
were fearfully deficient in information bearing on this
subject.</p>
<p>The salt used, and also the anodes, were originally introduced
into this country from America, and latterly from Germany. I am not
aware of any English manufacturer who makes a specialty in the way
of anodes. This is a matter on which we can hardly congratulate
ourselves, as a well known London firm some time ago supplied me
with my first experimental anodes, which were in every way very
superior to the German or American productions. Although the price
paid per pound was greater, the plates themselves were cheaper on
account of their lesser thickness.</p>
<p>The texture of the inner portions of these foreign anodes would
lead one to infer that the metallurgy of nickel was very primitive.
A good homogeneous plate can be produced, still the spongy, rotten
plates of foreign manufacture were allowed the free run of our
markets. The German plates are, in my opinion, more compact than
the American. A serious fault with plates of earlier manufacture
was their crumpled condition after a little use. This involved a
difficulty in cleaning them when necessary. The English plates were
not open to this objection; in fact, when the outer surfaces were
planed away, they remained perfectly smooth and compact.</p>
<p>Large plates have been known to disintegrate and fall to pieces
after being used for some time. A large anode surface, compared
with that of the article to be plated, is of paramount importance.
The tank should be sufficiently wide to take the largest article
for plating, and to admit of the anodes being moved nearer to or
further from the article. In this way the necessary electrical
resistance can very conveniently be inserted between the anode and
cathode surfaces. The elimination of hydrogen from the cathode must
be avoided, or at any rate must not accumulate. Moving the article
being plated, while in the bath, taking care not to break the
electrical contacts, is a good security against a streaky or foggy
appearance in the deposit.</p>
<p>At one time a mechanical arrangement was made, by which the
cathodes were kept in motion. The addition of a little borax to the
bath is a great advantage in mitigating the appearance of gas. Its
behavior is electrical rather than chemical. If the anode surface
is too great, a few plates should be transferred to the cathode
bars.</p>
<p>When an article has been nickel plated, it generally presents a
dull appearance, resembling frosted silver. To get over this I
tried, some time ago, the use of bisulphide of carbon in the same
way as used for obtaining a bright silver deposit. Curiously the
deposit was very dark, almost black, which could not be buffed or
polished bright. But by using a very small quantity of the
bisulphide mixture, the plated surfaces were so bright that the use
of polishing mops or buffs could be almost dispensed with. When we
consider the amount of labor required in polishing a nickel plated
article, and the impossibility of finishing off bright an undercut
surface, this becomes an important addendum to the nickel plater's
list of odds and ends.</p>
<p>This mixture is made precisely in the same way as for bright
silvering, but a great deal less is to be added to the bath, about
one pint per 100 gallons. It should be well stirred in, after the
day's work is done, when the bath will be in proper condition for
working next day. The mixture is made by shaking together, in a
glass bottle, one ounce bisulphide and one gallon of the plating
liquid, allow to stand until excess of bisulphide has settled, and
decant the clear liquid for use as required. It is better to add
this by degrees than to run the risk of overdoing. If too much is
added, the bath is not of necessity spoiled, but it takes a great
deal of working to bring it in order again.</p>
<p>About eight ounces of the double sulphate to each gallon of
distilled or rain water is a good proportion to use when making up
a bath. There is a slight excess with this. It is a mistake to add
the salt afterward, when the bath is in good condition. The
chloride and cyanide are said to give good results. I can only say
that the use of either of these salts has not led to promising
results in my hands.</p>
<p>In preparing the double sulphate, English grain nickel is
decidedly the best form of metal to use. In practice, old anodes
are generally used.</p>
<p>The metal is dissolved in a mixture of nitric and dilute
sulphuric acid, with the application of a gentle heat. When
sufficient metal has been dissolved, and the unused nitric acid
expelled, the salt may be precipitated by a strong solution
sulphate of ammonia, or, if much free acid is present, carbonate of
ammonia is better to use.</p>
<p>Tin, lead, and portion of the iron, if present, are removed by
this method. The silica, carbon, and portions of copper are left
behind with the undissolved fragments of metals.</p>
<p>The precipitated salt, after slight washing, is dissolved in
water and strong solution ammonia added. A clean iron plate is
immersed in the solution to remove any trace of copper. This plate
must be cleaned occasionally so as to remove any reduced copper,
which will impede its action. As soon as the liquid is free from
copper, it is left alkaline and well stirred so as to facilitate
peroxidation and removal of iron, which forms a film on the bath.
When this ceases, the liquid is rendered neutral by addition of
sulphuric acid, and filtered or decanted. The solution, when
properly diluted, has sp. gr. about 1.06 at 60° F. It is best
to work the bath with a weak current for a short time until the
liquid yields a fine white deposit. Too strong a current must be
avoided.</p>
<p>If the copper has not been removed, it will deposit on the
anodes when the bath is at rest. It should then be removed by
scouring.</p>
<p>Copper produces a reddish tinge, which is by no means unpleasant
compared with the dazzling whiteness of the nickel deposit. If this
is desired, it is far better to use a separate bath, using anodes
of suitable composition.</p>
<p>The want of adhesion between the deposited coating and the
article need not be feared if cleanliness be attended to and the
article, while in the bath, be not touched by the hands.</p>
<p>The bath should be neutral, or nearly so, slightly acid rather
than alkaline. It is obvious that, as such a liquid has no
detergent action on a soiled surface, scrupulous care must be taken
in scouring and rinsing. Boiling alkaline solutions and a free use
of powdered pumice and the scrubbing brush must on no account be
neglected.</p>
<p>A few words on the construction of the tanks. A stout wood box,
which need not be water-tight, is lined with sheet lead, the joints
being blown, <i>not soldered</i>. An inner casing of wood which
projects a few inches above the lead lining is necessary in order
to avoid any chance of "short circuiting" or damage to the lead
from the accidental falling of anodes or any article which might
cut the lead. It is by no means a necessity that the lining should
be such as to prevent the liquid getting to the lead.</p>
<p>On a future occasion I hope to supplement this paper with the
analysis of the double sulphates used, and an account of the
behavior of electrolytically prepared crucibles and dishes as
compared with those now in the market.—<i>Chem. News</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="14"></a></p>
<h2>CHILLED CAST IRON.</h2>
<p>At a recent meeting of the engineering section of the Bristol
Naturalists' Society a paper on "Chilled Iron" was read by Mr.
Morgans, of which we give an abstract. Among the descriptions of
chilled castings in common use the author instanced the following:
Sheet, corn milling, and sugar rolls; tilt hammer anvils and bits,
plowshares, "brasses" and bushes, cart-wheel boxes, serrated cones
and cups for grinding mills, railway and tramway wheels and
crossings, artillery shot and bolts, stone-breaker jaws, circular
cutters, etc. Mr. Morgans then spoke of the high reputation of
sheet mill rolls and wheel axle boxes made in Bristol. Of the
latter in combination with wrought iron wheels and steeled axles,
the local wagon works company are exporting large numbers. With
respect to the strength and fatigue resistance of chilled castings,
details were given of some impact tests made in July, 1864, at
Pontypool, in the presence of Captain Palliser, upon some of his
chilled bolts, 12¾ in. long by 4 in. diameter, made from
Pontypool cold-blast pig iron. Those made from No. 1 pig
iron—the most graphitic and costly—broke more easily
than those from No. 2, and so on until those made from No. 4 were
tested, when the maximum strength was reached. No. 4 pig iron was
in fracture a pale gray, bordering on mottled. Several points
regarding foundry operations in the production of chilled castings
were raised for discussion. They embraced the depth of chill to be
imparted to chilled rolls and railway wheels, and in the case of
traction wheels, the width of chill in the tread; preparation of
the chills—by coating with various carbonaceous matters,
lime, beer grounds, or, occasionally, some mysterious
compost—and moulds, selection and mixture of pig irons,
methods and plant for melting, suitable heat for pouring,
prevention of honeycombing, ferrostatic pressure of head, etc.
Melting for rolls being mostly conducted in reverberatories, the
variations in the condition of the furnace atmosphere, altering
from reducing to oxidizing, and <i>vice versa</i>, in cases of bad
stoking and different fuels, were referred to as occasionally
affecting results. Siemens' method of melting by radiant heat was
mentioned for discussion. For promoting the success of a chilled
roll in its work, lathing or turning it to perfect circularity in
the necks first, and then turning the body while the necks bear in
steady brasses, are matters of the utmost importance.</p>
<p>The author next referred to the great excellence for chilling
purposes possessed by some American pig irons, and to the fact that
iron of a given carbon content derived from some ores and fluxes
differed much in chilling properties from iron holding a similar
proportion of carbon—free and combined—derived from
other ores and materials. Those irons are best which develop the
hardest possible chill most uniformly to the desired depth without
producing a too abrupt line of division between the hard white skin
and the softer gray body. A medium shading off both ways is wanted
here, as in all things. The impossibility of securing a uniform
quality and chemical composition in any number grade of any brand
of pig iron over a lengthened period was adverted to. Consequent
from this a too resolute faith in any particular make of pig iron
is likely to be at times ill-requited. Occasional physical tests,
accompanied with chemical analysis of irons used for chilling, were
advocated; and the author was of opinion it would be well whenever
a chilled casting had enjoyed a good reputation for standing up to
its work, that when it was retired from work some portions of it
should be chemically analyzed so as to obtain clews to compositions
of excellence. Some of the physical characteristics of chilled
iron, as well as the surprising locomotive properties of carbon
present in heated iron, were noticed.</p>
<p>Attention was called to some German data, published by Dr. Percy
in 1864, concerning an iron which before melting
weighed—approximately—448¼ lb. per cubic foot,
and contained—approximately—4 per cent. of
carbon—3¼ being graphitic and ¾ combined. The
chilled portion of a casting from this had a specific gravity
equivalent to 471 lb. per cubic foot, and contained 5 per cent. of
carbon, all combined. The soft portion of the same casting weighed
447¾ lb. per cubic foot, and contained 34.5 per cent. of
carbon—31.5 being graphitic and 3.5 combined. Mr. Morgans
doubted whether so great an increase in density often arises from
chilling. Tool steel, when hardened by being chilled in cold water,
does not become condensed, but slightly expanded from its bulk when
annealed and soft. Here an increase of hardness is accompanied by a
decrease of density. The gradual development of a network of cracks
over the face of a chilled anvil orbit while being used in tilt
hammers was mentioned. Such minute cleavages became more marked as
the chill is worn down by work and from grinding. Traces of the
same occurrence are observable over the surface of much worn
chilled rolls used in sheet mills. In such cases the sheets get a
faint diaper pattern impressed upon them. The opening of crack
spaces points to lateral shrinkage of the portions of chilled
material they surround, and to some release from a state of
involuntary tension. If this action is accompanied by some actual
densification of the fissured chill, then we have a result that
possibly conflicts with the example of condensation from chilling
cited by Dr. Percy.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="17"></a></p>
<h2>SNOW HALL.</h2>
<p>The recent dedication of Snow Hall, at Lawrence, Kansas, is an
event in the history of the State, both historic and prophetic.
Since the incorporation of the University of Kansas, and before
that event, there has been a steady growth of science in the State,
which has culminated in Snow Hall, a building set apart for the
increase and diffusion of the knowledge of natural science, as long
as its massive walls shall stand. It is named in honor of the man
who has been the inspiration and guiding spirit of the whole
enterprise, and some incidents in his life may be of interest to
the public.</p>
<p>Twenty years ago Professor Frank H. Snow, a recent graduate of
Williams College, came to Kansas, to become a member of the faculty
of the State University. His election to the chair of natural
science was unexpected, as he first taught mathematics in the
university, and expected in due time to become professor of Greek.
As professor of the mellifluous and most plastic of all the ancient
tongues, he would undoubtedly have been proficient, as his college
classics still remain fresh in his warm and retentive memory, and
his literary taste is so severe and chaste as to make some of his
scientific papers read like a psalm. But nature designed him for
another, and some think a better, field, and endowed him with
powers as a naturalist that have won for him recognition among the
highest living authorities of his profession.</p>
<p>Upon being elected to the chair of natural history, Prof. Snow
entered upon his life work with an enthusiasm that charmed his
associates and inspired his pupils. The true naturalist must
possess large and accurate powers of observation and a love for his
chosen profession that carries him over all obstacles and renders
him oblivious to everything else except the specimen upon which he
has set his heart. Years ago the writer was walking in the hall of
the new university building in company with General Fraser and
Professor Snow, when the latter suddenly darted forward up the
stairs and captured an insect in its flight, that had evidently
just dug its way out of the pine of the new building. In a few
moments he returned with such a glow on his countenance and such a
satisfied air at having captured a rare but familiar specimen,
whose name was on his lips, that we both felt "Surely here is a
genuine naturalist."</p>
<p>Some years ago an incident occurred in connection with his
scientific excursions in Colorado that is quite characteristic,
showing his obliviousness to self and everything else save the
object of his scientific pursuit, and a fertility in overcoming
danger when it meets him face to face. He was descending alone from
one of the highest peaks of the Rockies, when he thought he could
leave the path and reach the foot of the mountain by passing
directly down its side over an immense glacier of snow and ice, and
thus save time and a journey of several miles. After a while his
way down the glacier grew steeper and more difficult, until he
reached a point where he could not advance any further, and found,
to his consternation, that he could not return by the way he had
come. There he clung to the side of the immense glacier, ready,
should he miss his hold, to be plunged hundreds of feet into a deep
chasm. The situation flashed over him, and he knew now it was,
indeed, a struggle for dear life. With a precarious foothold, he
clung to the glacier with one hand, while with his pocket knife he
cut a safer foothold with the other. Resting a little, he cut
another foothold lower down in the hard snow, and so worked his way
after a severe struggle of several hours amid constant danger to
the foot of the mountain in safety. "But," continued the professor,
speaking of this incident to some of his friends, "I was richly
repaid for all my trouble and peril, for when I reached the foot of
the mountain I captured a new and very rare species of butterfly."
Multitudes of practical men cannot appreciate such devotion to pure
science, but it is this absorbing passion and pure grit that enable
the devotees of science to enlarge its boundaries year by year.</p>
<p>Once, while on a scientific excursion on the great plains, with
the lamented Prof. Mudge, he nearly lost his life. He had captured
a rattlesnake, and, in trying to introduce it into a jar filled
with alcohol, the snake managed to bite him on the hand. The arm
was immediately bound tightly with a handkerchief, and the wound
enlarged with a pocket knife, and both professors took turns in
sucking it as clean as possible, and ejecting the poison from their
mouths. This and a heavy dose of spirits brought the professor
through in safety, although the poison remaining in the wound
caused considerable swelling and pain in the hand and arm. When
this incident was mentioned in the Kansas Academy of Science that
year, some one said, "Now we know the effect of the bite of the
prairie rattlesnake on the human system. Let some one, in the
interests of pure science, try the effect of the timber rattlesnake
on the human system." But like the mice in the fable, no one was
found who cared to put the bell on the cat.</p>
<p>Professors Mudge and Snow, because scientists were so few in the
State at that early day, divided the field of natural science
between themselves, the former taking geology and the latter living
forms. Professor Mudge built up at the agricultural college a royal
cabinet, easily worth $10,000, and Professor Snow has made a
collection at the State University whose value cannot be readily
estimated until it is catalogued and placed in cases in Snow
Hall.</p>
<p>As a scientist, Professor Snow is an indefatigable worker,
conscientious and painstaking to the last degree, never neglecting
anything that can be discovered by the microscope, and when he
describes and names a new species, he gives the absolute facts,
without regard to theories or philosophies. For accuracy his
descriptions of animal and vegetable life resemble photographs, and
are received by scientists with unquestioned authority. He
possesses another quality, which may be called honesty. Some
scientists, whose reputation has reached other continents, cannot
be trusted alone in the cabinet with the keys, for they are liable
to borrow valuable specimens, and forget afterward to return
them.</p>
<p>It is possible only to glance at the immense amount of work
performed by Professor Snow during the last twenty years.
Neglecting the small fry that can only be taken in nets with very
fine meshes, he ascertained that there are twenty-seven species of
fish in the Kansas River at Lawrence. Work on this paper occupied
the leisure time of two summers, as much time in such
investigations only produces negative results. For several years he
worked on a catalogue of the birds of Kansas, inspiring several
persons in different parts of the State to assist him. Later this
work was turned over to Colonel N.S. Gross, of Topeka, an
enthusiast in ornithology. Colonel Goss has a very fine collection
of mounted birds in the capitol building at Topeka, and he has
recently published a catalogue of the "Birds of Kansas," which
contains 335 species. Professor Snow has worked faithfully on the
plants of Kansas, but as other botanists came into the State, he
turned the work over to their hands. For several years he has given
a large share of his time and strength to entomology. Nearly every
year he has led scientific excursions to different points in
Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, etc., where he might reap the best
results.</p>
<p>Once, during a meeting of the Kansas Academy of Science, at
Lawrence, Professor Snow was advertised to read a paper on some
rare species of butterflies. As the hour approached, the hall in
the university building was thronged, principally by ladies from
the city, when Professor Snow brought out piles of his trays of
butterflies, and without a note gave such an exhibit and
description of his specimens as charmed the whole audience.</p>
<p>In meteorology, Professor Snow is an acknowledged authority,
wherever this science is studied, and he has, probably, all things
considered, the best meteorological record in the State.</p>
<p>Personally, Professor Snow possesses qualities that are worth
more, perhaps, to his pupils, in forming character, than the
knowledge derived from him as an instructor. His life is pure and
ennobling, his presence inspiring, and many young men have gone
from his lecture room to hold good positions in the scientific
world. When one sees him in his own home, surrounded by his family,
with books and specimens and instruments all around, he feels that
the ideal home has not lost everything in the fall.</p>
<p>Snow Hall is the natural resultant of twenty years of earnest
and faithful labor on the part of this eminent scientist. The
regents displayed the rare good sense of committing everything
regarding the plans of the building, and the form and arrangement
of the cases, to Professor Snow, which has resulted in giving to
Kansas the model building of its kind in the West, if not in this
country. Very large collections have accumulated at the State
University, under the labors of Professor Snow and his assistants,
which need to be classified, arranged, and labeled; and when the
legislature appropriates the money to furnish cases to display this
collection in almost every department of natural science, Kansas
will possess a hall of natural science whose influence will be felt
throughout the State, and be an attraction to scientists
everywhere.—<i>Chaplain J.D. Parker, in Kansas City
Journal</i>.</p>
<hr>
<p><a name="26"></a></p>
<h2>ELIMINATION OF POISONS.</h2>
<p>A study of the means by which nature rids the economy of what is
harmful has been made by Sanquirico, of Siena, and his experiments
and conclusions are as follows:</p>
<p>He finds that the vessels of the body, without undergoing
extensive structural alteration, can by exosmosis rid themselves of
fluid to an amount of eight per cent. of the body weight of the
subject of the experiment.</p>
<p>Through the injection of neutral fluids a great increase in the
vascular tension is effected, which is relieved by elimination
through the kidneys.</p>
<p>With reference to this fact, the author, in 1885, made
experiments with alcohol and strychnine, and continued his
researches in the use of chloral and aconitine with results
favorable to the method employed, which is as follows:</p>
<p>The minimal fatal dose of a given poison was selected, and found
to be in a certain relation to the body weight.</p>
<p>Immediately upon the injection of the poison a solution of
sodium chloride, 0.75 per cent. in strength, was injected into the
subcutaneous tissues of the neck, in quantities being eight per
cent. of the body weight of the animal.</p>
<p>In the case of those poisons whose effect is not instantaneous,
the injection of saline solution was made on the first appearance
of toxic symptoms. In other poisons the injection was made at
once.</p>
<p>The result of the use of salines was a diuresis varying in the
promptness of its appearance and in its amount.</p>
<p>Those animals in which diuresis was limited at first and then
increased generally recovered, while those in which diuresis was
not established perished. The poison used was found in the urine of
those which died and also those which recovered.</p>
<p>The author succeeded in rescuing animals poisoned by alcohol,
strychnine, chloral, and aconitine. With morphine, curare, and
hypnone, the method of elimination failed, although ten per cent.
in quantity of the body weight of the animal was used in the saline
injection. With aconitine, diuresis was not always established, and
when it failed the animal died in
convulsions.—<i>Centralblatt fur die Medicinischen
Wissenschaften, December</i> 18, 1886.</p>
<hr>
<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important
scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be
had gratis at this office.</p>
<hr>
<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2>
<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3>
<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3>
<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
foreign country.</p>
<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement,
January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied.
Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p>
<p>COMBINED RATES—One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one
copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid,
$7.00.</p>
<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and
canvassers.</p>
<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p>
<p><b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p>
<hr>
<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN
& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had
42 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the
world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of
all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and
residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given,
public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and
sales or introduction often easily effected.</p>
<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can
ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be
obtained, by writing to MUNN & Co.</p>
<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p>
<p><b>MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
<p>Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C.</p>
<pre>
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