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diff --git a/11736.txt b/11736.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eb0b8ab --- /dev/null +++ b/11736.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4449 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 586, +March 26, 1887, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 586, March 26, 1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 28, 2004 [EBook #11736] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 586 *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 586 + + + + +NEW YORK, MARCH 26, 1887 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIII, No. 586. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. BIOGRAPHY.--George W. Whistler, C.E.--By Professor G.L. + VOSE.--Full biography of the eminent railroad engineer. + + +II. CHEMISTRY.--A Newly Discovered Substance in Urine.--A substance + possessing greater reducing power than grape sugar found + in diabetic urine. + + On Electro Dissolution and its Use as Regards Analysis.--By H. + N. WARREN, research analyst.--Interesting decomposition of cast + iron with production of boron and silicon; experiments with other + metals. + +III. ELECTRICITY.--No Electricity from the Condensation of Vapor.--Note + on Herr S. Kalischer's conclusions. + + On Nickel Plating.--By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN.--Notes + on this industry, and suggested improvement for procuring a + bright coat. + + The Electro-Magnetic Telephone Transmitter.--New theory of + the telephone's action. + +IV. ENGINEERING.--Fuel and Smoke.--By Prof. OLIVER LODGE.--The + second and concluding one of these important lectures. + + Gas Engine for Use on Railroads.--The application of six horse + power Koerting gas engine to a dummy locomotive.--1 illustration. + + New Gas Holder at Erdberg.--The largest gas holder out of + England.--3 illustrations. + + Tar for Firing Retorts.--Simple arrangement adapted for use in + ordinary gas retort benches; results attained.--1 illustration. + + The Anti-Friction Conveyer.--An improvement on the screw of + Archimedes; an apparatus of wonderful simplicity and efficacy in + the moving of grain.--2 illustrations. + + The Retiro Viaduct.--Combined iron and stone viaduct over the + river Retiro, Brazil.--5 illustrations. + + Western North Carolina Location over the Blue Ridge.--Interesting + instance of railroad topography.--1 illustration. + + +V. METALLURGY.--Chilled Cast Iron.--The various uses of this + product; adaptability of American iron for its application. + + +VI. MISCELLANEOUS.--Coal in the Argentine Republic.--Note. + + History of the World's Postal Service.--Conclusion of this + interesting article.--The service in Germany, China. Russia, and + elsewhere.--10 illustrations. + + Snow Hall--The new science and natural history building of the + University of Kansas. + + +VII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Improvement in Laying Out Frames + of Vessels.--The Frame Placer.--By GUSTAVE SONNENBURG.--Ingenious + apparatus for use in ship yards.--1 illustration. + + Sea-going Torpedo Boats.--The inutility of small torpedo boats + at sea.--The construction of larger ones discussed. + + +VIII. ORDNANCE.--Firing Trial of the 1101/2 Ton B.L. Elswick Gun. + Full dimensions of this piece and it projectiles.--Results of proof + firing.--9 illustrations. + + +IX. PHOTOGRAPHY.--Experiments in Toning Gelatino-Chloride + Paper.--Trials of ten different gold toning baths, formulas, + and results. + + Printing Lantern Pictures by Artificial Light on Bromide Plates + from Various Sizes.--By A. PUMPHREY.--The processor producing + smaller or larger transparencies from negatives.--1 illustration. + + +X. PHYSICS.--A New Mercury Pump.--Simple air pump for high + vacua.--1 illustration. + + The Laws of the Absorption of Light in Crystals.--By H. + BECQUEREL. + + Varying Cylindrical Lens.--By TEMPEST ANDERSON, M.D., + B. Sc.--Combination of two conoidal lenses.--Range of power obtained. + +XI. PHYSIOLOGY.--Elimination of Poisons.--Treatment of poison + cases by establishment of a strong diuresis. + The Filtration and the Secretion Theories.--Experiments on the + action of and secretions of the kidneys. + +XII. TECHNOLOGY.--Furnace for Decomposing Chloride of Magnesium.--Furnace + with rotating chamber for use by alkali manufacturers.--1 + illustration. + + Notes on Garment Dyeing.--The production of blacks on silk and + wool.--Formulas for mordants. + + Studies in Pyrotechny.--II. Methods of Illumination.--Continuation + of this valuable treatise.--9 illustrations. + + The "Sensim" Preparing Box.--New machine for treatment of + fiber.--An improvement on the ordinary gill box.--3 illustrations. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RETIRO VIADUCT. + + +We give engravings of the viaduct over the river Retiro, Brazil, our +illustrations being reproduced by permission from the Proceedings of the +Institution of Civil Engineers. In a "selected paper" contributed to the +volume of these proceedings just published, Mr. Jorge Rademaker Grunewald, +Memb. Inst. C.E., describes the work as follows: + +[Illustration: VIADUCT OVER THE RETIRO, BRAZIL.] + +This viaduct was constructed in the year 1875, according to designs +furnished by the author, for the purpose of passing the Dom Pedro Segundo +State Railway over the valley which forms the bed of the river Retiro, a +small confluent on the left bank of the river Parahybuna. It is 265 +kilometers (165 miles) from Rio de Janeiro, and about 10 kilometers (6.4 +miles) from the city of Juiz de Fora, in the province of Minas Geraes, +Brazil. It has a curve of 382 meters (1,253 ft.) radius, and a gradient of +1 in 83.3. Its total length is 109 meters (357 ft. 7 in.); width between +handrails, 4 meters (13 ft.); and greatest height above the bed of the +river, 20 meters (65 ft. 7 in.). + +The viaduct is composed of seven semicircular arches, each end arch being +built of ashlar masonry, and of 6 meters (19 ft. 8 in.) diameter; five +intermediate arches, 15 meters (49 ft. 2 in.) in diameter, are of iron. The +four central piers are of iron erected on pillars of ashlar masonry. The +metallic part of this viaduct is 80 meters (262 ft. 6 in.) long, and is +constructed in the following manner: The arches, and the longitudinal +girders which they support, are made of two Barlow rails riveted together, +with an iron plate 1/2 inch thick placed between them. The spandrels are +formed of uprights and diagonals, the former being made of four +angle-irons, and the latter of one angle-iron. Each pair of arches, +longitudinal girders and uprights, is transversely 3 meters (9 ft. 10 in.) +from center to center, and is connected by cross and diagonal bracing. On +the top of the longitudinal girders are fixed cross pieces of single Barlow +rails, upon which again are fastened two longitudinals of wood 12 in. +square in section, and which in their turn carry the rails of the permanent +way. + +The gauge of the Dom Pedro Segundo Railway is 1.60 meters, or 5 ft. 3 in. +nearly, between the rails. At each end of the transverse Barlow rails is +fixed the customary simple iron handrail, carried by light cast-iron +standards. The iron piers are each formed of four columns, and the columns +consist of two Barlow rails, with a slotted iron plate 1/2 inch thick let in +between the rails, and the whole being riveted together connects each pair +of side columns. + +The details show the system of cross and diagonal bracing. The columns are +each supported by four buttresses formed of plates and angle-irons. These +buttresses, fastened with bolts 8 ft. 3 in. long, let into the masonry +pillars, secure the stability of the viaduct against lateral strains, due +mostly to the centrifugal force caused by the passage of the trains. + +The Barlow rails, which constitute the peculiarity of the structure, are +from those taken up from the permanent way when the Vignoles pattern of +rail was adopted on this railway. The whole of the foundations were built +without difficulty. The principal parts of the iron work were calculated to +resist the strains resulting from a weight of 4 tons 8 cwt. per lineal +meter traveling over the viaduct at a velocity of 60 kilometers, or about +37 miles, per hour. + +In spite of its fragile appearance this viaduct has, up to the present +time, served in a most satisfactory manner the purpose for which it was +built.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEA-GOING TORPEDO BOATS. + + +All investigations of the sea-going qualities of torpedo boats show that +while the basin experiments are highly satisfactory, those made at sea +prove with equal force the unreliability of these craft when they leave the +coast. At the beginning of the Milford Haven operations, the boisterous +weather necessitated the postponing of operations, on account of the +unfitness of the torpedo boat crews to continue work after the twelve hours +of serious fatigue they had already undergone. In the French evolutions, +the difficulties of the passage from Bastia to Ajaccio, although not +remarkably severe, so unfitted fifteen of the twenty boats that they could +take no part in the final attack. In two nights we find recorded collisions +which disable boats Nos. 52, 61, 63, and 72, and required their return to +port for repairs. + +Of the twenty-two torpedo boats leaving Toulon a few days before, but six +arrived near the enemy, although their commanders displayed admirable +energy. One had run aground, and was full of water; another had been sunk +by collision; another's engine was seriously injured; and as for the rest, +they could not follow. + +Of the boats under the command of Admiral Brown de Colstoun, but five +remained for service, for the sixth received an accident to her machinery +which prevented her taking part in the attack. + +During the operations off the Balearic Isles, only one of six boats +attacked, and none was able to follow the armorclads, all meeting with +circumstances quite unexpected and embarrassing. + +With the weather as it existed May 13, the armorclads had the torpedo fleet +completely at their mercy, for even if they had not been destroyed by the +excellent practice of the Hotchkiss gunners, they would have been of no +use, as they could not with safety discharge their torpedoes. In fact, the +search lights discovered distinctly that one of the boats, which burned her +Coston's signal to announce victory, did not have her torpedo tube open, on +account of the heavy sea. + +Furthermore, their positions were frequently easily discovered by the +immense volume of smoke and flame ejected while going at great speed. This +applies as well by night as by day. It was also reported that after the +four days' running the speed of the boats was reduced to twelve knots. + +With such evidence before us, the seaworthiness of boats of the Nos. 63 and +64 type may be seriously questioned. Weyl emphasizes the facts that +"practice has shown that boats of No. 61 type cannot make headway in a +heavy sea, and that it is then often impossible to open their torpedo +tubes. On this account they are greatly inferior to ships of moderate +tonnage, which can certainly make some progress, fire their torpedoes, and +use their artillery in weather when a torpedo boat will be utterly +helpless. The torpedo boat abandoned to itself has a very limited field of +action." + +Du Pin de Saint Andre admits the success of the torpedo boat for harbor and +coast work, but wisely concludes that this can prove nothing as to what +they may or may not be able to do at sea. + +In an article which appeared in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ in June last, +he presented able reasons why the torpedo boats of to-day's type, being +destitute of most, if not all, of the requisites of sea-going craft, cannot +go to sea, take care of themselves, and remain there prepared to attack an +enemy wherever he may be found. Invisibility to an enemy may facilitate +attack, but it has to be dearly paid for in diminished safety. Further, the +life that must be led in such vessels in time of war would very quickly +unfit men for their hazardous duties. + +He points out that the effect of such a life upon the bodies and minds of +the officers and crew would be most disastrous. The want of exercise alone +would be sufficient to unfit them for the demands that service would make +upon them. He has intelligently depicted the consequences of such a life, +and his reasoning has been indorsed by the reports of French officers who +have had experience in the boats in question. + +No weapon, no matter how ingenious, is of utility in warfare unless it can +be relied upon, and no vessel that is not tenantable can be expected to +render any service at sea. + +From the evidence before us, we must conclude that the type of torpedo boat +under discussion is capable of making sea passages, provided it can +communicate frequently with its supply stations and secure the bodily rest +so necessary to its crew. But even in a moderate sea it is useless for +attack, and in the majority of cases will not be able even to open its +impulse tubes. Should it succeed in doing this, the rolling and yawing will +render its aim very uncertain. + +An experiment conducted against the Richelieu in October last, at Toulon, +before Admiral O'Neil, the director-general of the torpedo service, has +added its testimony to the uncertainty of the Whitehead torpedo. The +Richelieu had been fitted with Bullivant nets, and the trial was made to +learn what protection they would afford. + +The weather was fair, the sea moderate, and the conditions generally +favorable to the torpedo; but the Whitehead missed its mark, although the +Richelieu's speed was only three knots. Running at full speed, the torpedo +boat, even in this moderate sea, deemed it prudent to keep the launching +tube closed, and selected a range of 250 yards for opening it and firing. +Just at the moment of discharge a little sea came on board, the boat yawed, +the torpedo aim was changed more than 30 deg., and it passed astern without +touching its object. + +While the Milford Haven operations have taught some valuable lessons, they +were conducted under but few of the conditions that are most likely to +occur in actual warfare; and had the defense been carried on with an +organization and command equal to that of the attack, the Navy's triumph +would, perhaps, not have been so easily secured, and the results might have +been very different. + +May not the apparent deficiencies of the defense have been due to the fact +that soldiers instead of sailors are given the control of the harbor and +coast defense? Is this right? Ought they not to be organized on a naval +basis? This is no new suggestion, but its importance needs emphasis. + +These operations, however, convinced at least one deeply interested +spectator, Lord Brassey, to the extent of calling attention "to the urgent +necessity for the construction of a class of torpedo vessels capable of +keeping the sea in company with an armored fleet." + +There is no one in Great Britain who takes a greater interest in the +progress of the British Navy than Lord Brassey, and we take pleasure in +quoting from his letter of August 23 last to the _Times_, in which he +expressed the following opinion: "The torpedo boats ordered last year from +Messrs. Thornycroft and Yarrow are excellent in their class. But their +dimensions are not sufficient for sea-going vessels. We must accept a +tonnage of not less than 300 tons in order to secure thorough seaworthiness +and sufficient coal endurance. + +"A beginning has been made in the construction of vessels of the type +required. To multiply them with no stinting hand is the paramount question +of the day in the department of construction. The boats attached to the +Channel fleet at Milford Haven will be most valuable for harbor defense, +and for that purpose they are greatly needed. Torpedo boat catchers are not +less essential to the efficiency of a fleet. The gunboats attached to the +Channel fleet were built for service in the rivers of China. They should be +reserved for the work for which they were designed. + +"We require for the fleet more fast gunboats of the Curlew and Landrail +type. I trust that the next estimates for the Navy will contain an ample +provision for building gun vessels of high speed." + +As torpedoes must be carried, the next point to which we would call the +attention of our readers is the very rapid progress that has been made in +the boats designed to carry automatic torpedoes. + +A very few years ago the names of Thornycroft and Yarrow were almost alone +as builders of a special type of vessel to carry them. To-day, in addition, +we have Schichau, White, Herreshoff, Creusot, Thomson, and others, forming +a competitive body of high speed torpedo-boat builders who are daily making +new and rapid development--almost too rapid, in fact, for the military +student to follow. + +As new types are designed, additional speed gained, or increased +seaworthiness attained, public descriptions quickly follow, and we have +ourselves recorded the various advances made so fully that it will be +unnecessary to enter into details here. + +As late as October, 1885, an able writer said: "The two most celebrated +builders of torpedo boats in the world are Thornycroft and Yarrow, in +England. Each is capable of producing a first class torpedo boat, from 100 +ft. to 130 ft. long, and with 10 ft. to 14 ft. beam, that will steam at the +rate of from 18 knots to 22 knots per hour for 370 knots, or at the rate of +10 knots per hour for 3000 miles. A second class torpedo boat is from 40 +ft. to 60 ft. long, and with 6 ft. or 8 ft. beam. + +The use of these boats is gradually being abandoned in Europe except for +use from sea-going ships; but in Europe the harbors are very small, and it +has been found that practically every torpedo boat for coast defense must +be able to go to sea. The tendency is, therefore, to confinement to the +first class boats." + +In a paper on "Naval Torpedo Warfare," prepared in January, 1886, for a +special committee of the American Senate, by Lieutenant Jaques of the +American Navy, we find the following reference to the progress in torpedo +boat construction: "The development in torpedo boats has been phenomenal, +the last year alone showing an advance from a length of 120 ft. and a speed +of 19 knots, which were considered remarkable qualities in a first class +boat, to a length of 140 ft. and a speed of 23 knots loaded (carrying 15 +tons), and 25 knots light, together with the introduction of novel features +of importance. + +"Although Messrs. Yarrow and Thornycroft have brought the second class +boats to a very high standard in Europe, I believe they will soon be +abandoned there even for sea-going ships (very few are now laid down), and +that the great development will be in overcoming the disadvantages of +delicacy and weakness by increasing their size, giving them greater +maneuvering power and safety by the introduction of two engines and twin +screws, and steel plate and coal protection against rapid firing +ammunition. Yarrow and Co. have already laid down some boats of this +character that give promise of developing a speed of from 23 to 25 knots." + +In the Russian boat recently built at Glasgow, progress in this direction +is also seen in the 148 ft. length, 17 ft. beam, the maneuvering powers and +safety element of the twin screws. But while the boat is fitted for the 19 +ft. torpedo, a weapon of increased range and heavier explosive charge, it +suffers from the impossibility of broadside fire and the disadvantages that +Gallwey has named: "The great length of this torpedo, however, makes it a +very unhandy weapon for a boat, besides which its extra weight limits the +number which can be carried." + +While perhaps Messrs. Thomson have been the first to show the performance +of a twin screw torpedo boat in England, the one completed in June last by +Yarrow for the Japanese government recalls the intelligence that Japan has +exercised in the selection of types. + +Commencing as far back as nine years ago, the Japanese were probably the +first to introduce sea-going boats, and they have been the first power to +initiate the armor type, one of which was shipped last summer to be put +together in Japan. As before stated, it was built by Messrs. Yarrow and +Co., was 166 ft. long, 19 ft. beam, with twin screws, 1 in. steel armor, +double engines, with bow and broadside torpedo guns, the latter so arranged +as to greatly increase their efficiency. + +While the advances are not restricted to the English builders, a glance at +the points to which Thornycroft and Yarrow have brought their improvements +up to the present time will indicate that their achievements are not only +equal to but greater than those of any other builders. + +The former has boats under construction 148 ft. long, 15 ft. beam, to make +420 revolutions with 130 lb. of steam, the guaranteed speed being 23 knots +on a continuous run of two hours' duration, with a load of 15 tons. They +will have triple-expansion or compound direct-acting surface-condensing +engines and twin screws, Thornycroft's patent tubular boilers, double +rudders, electric search lights, three masts and sails. + +While the armaments of the various boats differ, Thornycroft is prepared to +fit the launching tubes with either air or powder impulse, to mount the +tubes forward or on deck, and also the fittings for machine and rapid +firing guns. + +Yarrow and Co. have contracted for boats varying in length from 117 ft. to +166 ft., with fittings and armament as may be required. They have obtained +excellent results in their last English boat of the Admiralty type. They +are, in fact, prepared to guarantee a speed of 23 knots in a length of 125 +ft. and 25 knots in a length of 140 ft., carrying in both causes a mean +load corresponding to fuel and armament of 10 tons. + +And so the progress goes on, but it will not stop here; it has already +incited a marked development in ship construction, and the endeavors to +withstand torpedo attack have improved the defense against gun fire also. + +In quoting a German opinion on the development of the Russian torpedo +fleet, Charmes refers to the type which will, no doubt, be most successful +upon the sea, namely, the torpedo cruisers, and it is to this type, more +than for any other, that we may expect torpedo boats to be adapted. +Already, writers have dropped the phrase "torpedo boats" for "torpedo +vessels."--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIRING TRIAL OF THE 1101/2 TON B.L. ELSWICK GUN. + + +The firing trial of the first new 1101/2 ton breech loading gun approved for +H.M.'s ships Benbow, Renown, and Sanspareil was commenced recently at the +Woolwich proof butts, under the direction of Colonel Maitland, the +superintendent of the Royal Gun Factories. We give herewith a section +showing the construction of this gun (_vide_ Fig. 8). It very nearly +corresponds to the section given of it when designed in 1884, in a paper +read by Colonel Maitland at the United Service Institution, of which we +gave a long account in the _Engineer_ of June 27, 1884. + +The following figures are authoritative: Length over all, 524 in.; length +of bore, 487.5 in. (30 calibers). The breech engages in the breech piece, +leaving the A tube with its full strength for tangential strain (_vide_ +Fig.). The A tube is in a single piece instead of two lengths, as in the +case of the Italia guns. It is supplied to Elswick from Whitworth's works, +one of the few in England where such a tube could be made. There are four +layers of metal hoops over the breech. Copper and bronze are used to give +longitudinal strength. The obturation is a modification of the De Bange +system, proposed by Vavasseur. + +[Illustration: THE NEW 1101/2 TON ELSWICK GUNS FOR H.M.S. BENBOW.] + +The maximum firing charge is 900 lb. of cocoa powder. The projectile weighs +1,800 lb. The estimated muzzle velocity is 2,216 ft. per second. The +capacity of the chamber is 28,610 cubic inches, and that of the bore +112,595 cubic inches. The estimated total energy is 61,200 ft. tons. It +will be a few days probably before the full powers of the gun are tested, +but the above are confidently expected to be attained, judging from the +results with the 100 ton guns supplied to Italy. On January 7 last we gave +those of the new Krupp 119 ton gun. It had fired a projectile with a +velocity of almost 1,900 ft. with a charge of less than 864.67 lb., with +moderate pressure. The estimated maximum for this gun was a velocity of +2,017 ft. with a projectile weighing 1,632 lb., giving a total energy of +46,061 ft. tons, or 13,000 ft. tons less than the Elswick gun, comparing +the estimated results. + +The proof of the Elswick gun is mounted on a carriage turned out by the +Royal Carriage Department, under Colonel Close. This carriage is made on +bogies so as to run on rails passing easily round curves of 50 ft. radius. +The gun is fired on an inclined length of rails, the recoil presses of the +carriage first receiving the shock and reducing the recoil. The carriage is +made to lift into the government barge, so as to go easily to Shoeburyness +or elsewhere. It can be altered so as to provide for turning, and it allows +the piece to be fired at angles of elevation up to 24 deg. The cheeks of +the carriage are made to open and close, so as to take the 12 in. gun and +larger pieces. The steel castings for it are supplied from the Stanners +Close Steel Works. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +The first round was fired at about noon. The charge was only 598 lb., +consisting of four charges of 112 lb. and one of 130 lb. of Waltham Abbey +brown prism No. 1 powder. The proof shot weighs, like the service +projectile, 1,800 lb. Thus fired, the gun recoiled nearly 4 ft. on the +press, and the carriage ran back on the rails about 50 ft. The projectile +had a velocity of 1,685 ft. per second, and entered about 52 ft. into the +butt. We cannot yet give the pressure, but unquestionably it was a low one. +The charges as the firing continues will be increased in successive rounds +up to the full 900 lb. charge. + +Figs. 1 and 2 show the mounting of the 1101/2 ton gun in the barbette towers +of the Benbow. The gun is held down on the bed by steel bands and recoils +in its bed on the slide (vide Fig. 2). The latter is hinged or pivoted in +front and is elevated by elevating ram, shown in Fig. 2. When the slide is +fully down, the gun is in the loading position. The ammunition lift brings +up the projectile and charge, which latter is subdivided, like those +employed in the German guns, in succession to the breech, the hydraulic +rammer forcing them home. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +The simplicity of the arrangement is apparent. The recoil always acts +parallel to the slide. This is much better than allowing its direction to +be affected by elevation, and the distributed hold of the steel bands is +preferable to the single attachment at trunnions. Theoretically, the recoil +is not so perfectly met as in some of the earlier Elswick designs, in which +the presses were brought opposite to the trunnions, so that they acted +symmetrically on each side of the center of resistance. The barbette tower +is covered by a steel plate, shown in Fig. 1, fitting close to the gun +slide, so that the only opening is that behind the breech when the gun is +in the forward position, and this is closed as it recoils. + +The only man of the detachment even partly exposed is the number one, while +laying the gun, and in that position he is nearly covered by the gun and +fittings. Common shell, shrapnel shell, and steel armor-piercing +projectiles, have been approved for the 1101/2 ton gun. The common shell is +shown in Fig. 3. Like the common shell for all the larger natures of new +type guns, it is made of steel. It has been found necessary to support the +core used in casting these projectiles at both ends. Consequently, there is +a screw plug at the base as well as at the apex. The hole at the base is +used as a filling hole for the insertion of the bursting charge, which +consists of 179 lb. of powder, the total weight of the filled shell being +1,800 lb. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +The apex has a screw plug of larger diameter than that of the fuse. This is +shown in Fig. 4. The fuse is a direct action one. The needle, B, is held in +the center of a copper disk, C C, and is safe against explosion until it is +actually brought into contact with an object, when it is forced down, +igniting a patch of cap composition and the magazine at A, and so firing +the bursting charge of the shell below. E E E are each priming charges of +seven grains of pistol powder, made up in shalloon bags to insure the +ignition of the bursting charge, which is in a bag of serge and shalloon +beneath. + +The use of this fuse involves the curious question of the physical +conditions now existing in the discharge of our projectiles by slow burning +powder. The forward movement of the shell is now so gradual that the +inertia of a pellet is only sufficient to shear a wire of one-tenth the +strength of that which might formerly have been sheared by a similar pellet +in an old type gun with quick burning powder. Consequently, in many cases, +it is found better not to depend on a suspending wire thus sheared, but to +adopt direct action. The fuse in question would, we believe, act even on +graze, at any angle over 10 deg.. Probably at less angles than 10 deg. it would not +explode against water, which would be an advantage in firing at ships. + +Shells so gently put in motion, and having no windage, might be made, it +might naturally be supposed, singularly thin, and the adoption of steel in +place of iron calls for some explanation. The reason is that it has been +found that common shells break up against masonry, instead of penetrating +it, when fired from these large high velocity guns. + +The shrapnel shell is shown at Fig. 5. Like the common shell, it is made of +steel, and is of the general form of the pattern of General Boxer, with +wooden head, central tube, and bursting charge in the base. It contains +2,300 four ounce sand shots and an 8 lb. bursting charge. It weighs 1,800 +lb. The fuse is time and percussion. It is shown in Figs. 6 and 6A. It +closely resembles the original Armstrong time and percussion pattern. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6A.] + +The action is as follows: The ignition pellet, A, which is ordinarily held +by a safety pin, is, after the withdrawal of the latter, only held by a +fine, suspending wire, which is sheared by the inertia of the pellet on +discharge, a needle lighting a percussion patch of composition and the +composition ring, B B, which burns round at a given rate until it reaches +the communication passage, C, when it flashes through the percussion +pellet, E, and ignites the magazine, D, and so ignites the primer shown in +Fig. 6, flashes down the central tube of the shell, and explodes the +bursting charge in the base, Fig. 5. The length of time during which the +fuse burns depends on how far the composition ring is turned round, and +what length it consequently has to burn before it reaches the communication +passage, C. If the fuse should be set too long, or from any other cause +the shell strikes before the fuse fires the charge, the percussion action +fires the shell on graze by the following arrangement: The heavy metal +piece containing the magazine, D, constitutes a striker, which is held in +place by a plain ball, G, near the axis of the fuse and by a safety pellet, +H. On first movement in the gun, this latter by inertia shears a suspending +wire and leaves the ball free to escape above it, which it does by +centrifugal force, leaving the magazine striker, D, free to fire itself by +momentum on the needle shown above it, on impact. There is a second safety +arrangement, not shown in the figure, consisting of a cross pin, held by a +weak spiral spring, which is compressed by centrifugal force during flight, +leaving the magazine pellet free to act, as above described, on impact. + +The armor-piercing projectile is shown in Fig. 7. It is to be made of +forged steel, and supplied by Elswick. In appearance it very closely +resembles those fired from the 100 ton gun at Spezia, but if it is made on +the Firmini system, it will differ from it in the composition of its metal, +inasmuch as it will contain a large proportion of chromium, probably from 1 +to 2 per cent., whereas an analysis of Krupp's shell gives none. In fact, +as Krupp's agent at Spezia predicted, the analysis is less instructive than +we could wish.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS. + + +The industrial world has reason to feel considerable interest in any +economical method of traction on railways, owing to the influence which +cost of transportation has upon the price of produce. We give a description +of the gas engine invented by Mr. Emmanuel Stevens. Many experiments have +been made both at Berlin and Liege during the past few years. They all +failed, owing to the impossibility the builders encountered in securing +sufficient speed. + +The Stevens engine does not present this defect, as will be seen. It has +the appearance of an ordinary street car entirely inclosed, showing none of +the machinery from without. On the interior is a Koerting gas motor of six +horse power, which is a sufficiently well known type not to require a +description. In the experiment which we saw, the motor was supplied with a +mixture of gas and air, obtained by the evaporation of naphtha. On the +shaft of the motor are fixed two pulleys of different sizes, which give the +engine two rates of speed, one of three miles and the other of 81/2 miles an +hour. Between these two pulleys is a friction socket, by which either rate +of speed may be secured. + +The power is transmitted from one of the pulleys by a rubber belt to an +intermediate shaft, which carries a toothed wheel that transmits the power +to the axle by means of an endless chain. On this axle are three conical +gear wheels, two of which are furnished with hooked teeth, and the third +with wooden projections and fixed permanently in place. This arrangement +enables the engine to be moved forward or backward according as it is +thrown in right or left gear. When the conical pinions are thrown out of +gear, the motive force is no longer applied to the axle, and by the aid of +the brakes the engine may be instantly stopped. The movement of the pinions +is effected by two sets of wheels on each of the platforms of the engine, +and near the door for the conductor. By turning one of the wheels to the +right or left on either platform, the conductor imparts either the less or +the greater speed to the engine. In case he has caused the engine to move +forward by turning the second wheel, he will not have to touch it again +until the end of the trip. The brake, which is also operated from the two +platforms, is applied to all four wheels at the same time. From this +arrangement it is seen that the movement is continuous. Nevertheless, the +conductor has access to the regulator by a small chain connected with the +outside by a wheel near at hand, but the action is sufficiently regular not +to require much attention to this feature. + +[Illustration: GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS.] + +The gas is produced by the Wilford apparatus, which regularly furnishes the +requisite quantity necessary for an explosion, which is produced by a +particular kind of light placed near the piston. The vapor is produced by +passing hot water from the envelope of the cylinder of the motor through +the Wilford apparatus. The water is cooled again in a reservoir (system +Koerting) placed in direct communication with the cylinder. Any permanent +heating is therefore impossible. + +The noise of the explosions is prevented by a device invented by Mr. +Stevens himself. It consists of a drum covered with asbestos or any other +material which absorbs noise. + +According to the inventor, the saving over the use of horses for traction +is considerable. This system is soon to be tried practically at Antwerp in +Belgium, and then it will be possible to arrive at the actual cost of +traction.--_Industrie Moderne, Brussels_. + + * * * * * + + + + +WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE. + + +[Illustration: LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE.--WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA +RAILROAD.] + +The interesting piece of railroad location illustrated in this issue is on +the mountain section of the Western North Carolina Railroad. This section +crosses the Blue Ridge Mountains 18 miles east of Asheville, at a point +known as Swannanoa Gap, 2,660 feet above tide water. The part of the road +shown on the accompanying cut is 10 miles in length and has an elevation of +1,190 feet; to overcome the actual distance by the old State pike was +somewhat over 3 miles. The maximum curvature as first located was 10 deg., but +for economy of time as well as money this was exceeded in a few instances +as the work progressed, but is now being by degrees reduced. The maximum +grades on tangents are 116 feet per mile; on curves the grade is equated +one-tenth to a degree. The masonry is of the most substantial kind, granite +viaducts and arch culverts. The numbers and lengths of tunnels as indicated +by letters on cut are as follows: + + Ft. in all of these. + +A. Point Tunnel. 216 ft. long.[1] +B. Jarrett's " 125 " " +C. Lick Log " 562 " " +D. McElroy " 89 " " +E. High Ridge " 415 " " +F. Burgin " 202 " " +G. Swannanoa " 1,800 " " + +[Footnote 1: For the sake of economy of space, our cut omits the Point and +Swannanoa tunnels (the latter is the summit tunnel), but covers all of the +location which is of interest to engineers, the remainder at the Swannanoa +end being almost "on tangent" to and through the summit.] + +The work was done by the State of North Carolina with convict labor, under +the direction of Mr. Jas. A. Wilson, as president and chief engineer, but +was sold by the State to the Richmond & Danville system.--_Railroad +Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GASHOLDER AT ERDBERG. + + +The new gasholder which has been erected by Messrs. C. and W. Walker for +the Imperial Continental Gas Company at Erdberg, near Vienna, has been +graphically described by Herr E.R. Leonhardt in a paper which he read +before the Austrian Society of Engineers. The enormous dimensions and +elegant construction of the holder--being the largest out of England--as +well as the work of putting up the new gasholder, are of special interest +to English engineers, as Erdberg contains the largest and best appointed +works in Austria. The dimensions of the holder are--inner lift, 195 feet +diameter, 40 feet deep; middle lift, 1971/2 feet diameter, 40 feet deep; +outer lift, 200 feet diameter, 40 feet deep. The diameter over all is about +230 feet. The impression produced upon the members of the Austrian Society +by their visit to Erdberg was altogether most favorable; and not only did +the inspection of the large gasholder justify every expectation, but the +visitors were convinced that all the buildings were in excellent condition +and well adapted for their purpose, that the machinery was of the latest +and most approved type, and that the management was in experienced hands. + + +THE NEW GASHOLDER + +is contained in a building consisting of a circular wall covered with a +wrought iron roof. The holder itself is telescopic, and is capable of +holding 31/2 million cubic feet of gas. The accompanying illustrations (Figs. +1 and 3) are a sectional elevation of the holder and its house and a +sectional plan of the roof and holder crown. Having a capacity of close +upon 3,200,000 Austrian cubic feet, this gasholder is the largest of its +kind on the Continent, and is surpassed in size by only a few in England +and America. By way of comparison, Hamburg possesses a holder of 50,000 +cubic meters (1,765,000 cubic feet) capacity; and there is one in Berlin +which is expected to hold 75,000 cubic meters (2,647,500 cubic feet) of +gas. + + +GASHOLDER HOUSE. + +The gasholder house at Erdberg is perfectly circular, and has an internal +diameter of 63.410 meters. It is constructed, in three stories, with forty +piers projecting on the outside, and with four rows of windows between the +piers--one in each of the top and bottom stories, and two rows in the +middle. These windows have a height of 1.40 meters in the lowest circle, +where the wall is 1.40 meters thick, and of 2.90 meters in the two top +stories, where it is respectively 1.11 meters and 0.90 meter thick. The top +edge of the wall is 35.35 meters above the base of the building, and 44.39 +meters from the bottom of the tank; the piers rising 1.60 meters beyond the +top of the wall. The highest point of the lantern on the roof will thus be +48.95 meters above the ground. + + +GASHOLDER TANK. + +The tank in which the gasholder floats has an internal diameter of 61.57 +meters, and therefore a superficial area of 3,000 square meters; and since +the coping is 12.31 meters above the floor, it follows that the tank is +capable of holding 35,500 cubic meters (7,800,000 gallons) of water. The +bottom consists of brickwork 1.10 meters thick, rendered with Portland +cement, and resting on a layer of concrete 1 meter thick. The walls are +likewise of brick and cement, of a thickness of 3.30 meters up to the +ground level, and 2.40 meters thick to the height of 3.44 meters above the +surface. Altogether, 2,988,680 kilos. of cement and 5,570,000 bricks were +used in its construction. In fact, from the bottom of tank to top of roof, +it reaches as high as the monument at London Bridge. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF GASHOLDER AND HOUSE.] + +The construction of the tank offered many and serious difficulties. The +bottom of the tank is fully 3 meters below the level of the Danube Canal, +which passes close by, and it was not until twelve large pulsometer pumps +were set up, and worked continually night and day, that it was possible to +reach the necessary depth to allow of the commencement of the foundations +of the boundary wall. + + +ROOF OF HOUSE. + +The wrought iron cupola-shaped roof of the gasholder house was designed by +Herr W. Brenner, and consists of 40 radiating rafters, each weighing about +25 cwt., and joined together by 8 polygonal circles of angle iron (90x90x10 +mm.). The highest middle circle is uncovered, and carries a round lantern +(Fig. 1). These radiating rafters consist of flat iron bars 7 mm. thick, +and of a height which diminishes gradually, from one interval to another on +the inside, from 252 to 188 mm. At the outside ends (varying from 80x80x9 +mm. in the lowest to 60x60x7 mm. in the last polygon but one) these rafters +are strengthened, at least as far as the five lowest ones are concerned, by +flat irons tightly riveted on. At their respective places of support, the +ends of all the spars are screwed on by means of a washer 250 mm. high and +31 mm. thick, and surmounted by a gutter supported by angle irons. From +every junction between the radial rafters and the polygonal circle, +diagonal bars are made to run to the center of the corresponding interval, +where they meet, and are there firmly held together by means of a tongue +ring. The roof is 64.520 meters wide and 14.628 meters high; and its total +weight is 103.300 kilos. for the ironwork--representing a weight of 31.6 +kilos. per square meter of surface. It is proposed to employ for its +covering wooden purlins and tin plates. The whole construction has a light, +pleasing, and yet thoroughly solid appearance. + + +RAISING THE ROOF. + +Herr Brenner, the engineer of the Erdberg Works, gives a description of how +the roof of a house, 54.6 meters wide, for a gasholder in Berlin, was +raised to a height of 22 meters. In that instance the iron structure was +put together at the bottom of the tank, leaving the rafter ends and the +mural ring. The hoisting itself was effected by means of levers--one to +each rafter--connected with the ironwork below by means of iron chains. At +the top there were apertures at distances of about 26 mm. from each other, +and through these the hoisting was proceeded with. With every lift, the +iron structure was raised a distance of 26 mm. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Herr Brenner had considerable hesitation in raising in the same way the +structure at Erdberg, which was much larger and heavier than that in +Berlin. The simultaneous elevation to 48 meters above the level, proposed +to be effected at forty different points, did not appear to him to offer +sufficient security. He therefore proposed to put the roof together on the +ground, and to raise it simultaneously with the building of the wall; +stating that this mode would be perfectly safe, and would not involve any +additional cost. The suggestion was adopted, and it was found to possess, +in addition, the important advantage that the structure could be made to +rest on the masonry at any moment; whereas this had been impossible in the +case at the Berlin Gasworks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + +HOISTING. + +At a given signal from the foreman, two operatives, stationed at each of +the forty lifting points, with crowbars inserted in the holes provided for +the purpose, give the screws a simultaneous turn in the same direction. The +bars are then inserted in another hole higher up. The hoisting screws are +connected with the structure of the roof, and rise therewith. All that is +requisite for the hoisting from the next cross beam is to give a forward +turn to the screws. When the workmen had become accustomed to their task, +the hoisting to a distance of 1 meter occupied only about half to +three-quarters of an hour. At the outset, and merely by way of a trial, the +roof was lifted to a height of fully 2 meters, and left for some time +suspended in the air. The eighty men engaged in the operation carry on the +work with great regularity and steadiness, obeying the signal of the +foreman as soon as it was given. + + +THE GASHOLDER. + +The holder, which was supplied by the well-known firm of Messrs. C. and W. +Walker, of Finsbury Circus, London, and Donnington, Salop, was in an outer +courtyard. It is a three-lift telescopic one; the lowest lift being 200 +feet, the middle lift 197 ft. 6 in., and the top lift 195 ft. in diameter. +The height of each lift is 40 feet. The several lifts are raised in the +usual way; and they all work in a circle of 24 vertical U-shaped channel +irons, fixed in the wall of the house by means of 13 supports placed at +equal distances from the base to the summit (as shown in Fig. 2). When the +gasholder is perfectly empty, the three lifts are inclosed, one in the +other, and rest with their lower edges upon the bottom of the tank. In this +case the roof of the top lift rests upon a wooden framework. Fixed in the +floor of the tank are 144 posts, 9 inches thick at the bottom and 6 inches +thick at the top, to support the crown of the holder in such a way that the +tops are fixed in a kind of socket, each of them being provided with four +horizontal bars, which decrease in thickness from 305 by 100 mm. to 150 by +50 mm., and represent 16 parallel polygons, which in their turn are +fastened diagonally by means of iron rails 63 by 100 mm. thick, arranged +crosswise. The top of this framework is perfectly contiguous with the +inside of the crown of the gasholder. The crown itself is made up of iron +plates, the outer rows having a thickness of 11 mm., decreasing to 5 mm. +toward the middle, and to 3 mm. at the top. The plates used for the side +sheets of the holder are: For the top and bottom rows, 6.4 mm.; and for the +other plates, 2.6 mm. + + * * * * * + +A new bleaching compound has been discovered, consisting of three parts by +measure of mustard-seed oil, four of melted paraffin, three of caustic soda +20 deg. Baume, well mixed to form a soapy compound. Of this one part of weight +and two of pure tallow soap are mixed, and of this mixture one ounce for +each gallon of water is used for the bleaching bath, and one ounce caustic +soda 20 deg. Baume for each gallon is added, when the bath is heated in a close +vessel, the goods entered, and boiled till sufficiently bleached. + + * * * * * + + + + +GEORGE W. WHISTLER, C.E. + +[Footnote: A paper by Prof. G.L. Vose, Member of the Boston Society of +Civil Engineers. Read September 15, 1886.] + +By Prof. G.L. VOSE. + + +Few persons, even among those best acquainted with our modern railroad +system, are aware of the early struggles of the men to whose foresight, +energy, and skill the new mode of transportation owes its introduction into +this country. The railroad problem in the United States was quite a +different one from that in Europe. Had we simply copied the railways of +England, we should have ruined the system at the outset, for this country. +In England, where the railroad had its origin, money was plenty, the land +was densely populated, and the demand for rapid and cheap transportation +already existed. A great many short lines connecting the great centers of +industry were required, and for the construction of such in the most +substantial manner the money was easily obtained. In America, on the +contrary, a land of enormous extent, almost entirely undeveloped, but of +great possibilities, lines of hundreds and even thousands of miles in +extent were to be made, to connect cities as yet unborn, and accommodate a +future traffic of which no one could possibly foresee the amount. Money was +scarce, and in many districts the natural obstacles to be overcome were +infinitely greater than any which had presented themselves to European +engineers. + +By the sound practical sense and the unconquerable will of George +Stephenson, the numerous inventions which together make up the locomotive +engine had been collected into a machine which, in combination with the +improved roadway, was to revolutionize the transportation of the world. The +railroad, as a machine, was invented. It remained to apply the new +invention in such a manner as to make it a success, and not a failure. To +do this in a new country like America required infinite skill, unbounded +energy, the most careful study of local conditions, and the exercise of +well matured, sound business judgment. To see how well the great invention +has been applied in the United States, we have only to look at the network +of iron roads which now reaches from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, +and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. + +With all the experience we have had, it is not an easy problem, even at the +present time, to determine how much money we are authorized to spend upon +the construction of a given railroad. To secure the utmost benefit at the +least outlay, regarding both the first cost of building the road and the +perpetual cost of operating it, is the railroad problem which is perhaps +less understood at the present day than any other. It was an equally +important problem fifty years ago, and certainly not less difficult at that +time. It was the fathers of the railroad system in the United States who +first perceived the importance of this problem, and who, adapting +themselves to the new conditions presented in this country, undertook to +solve it. Among the pioneers in this branch of engineering no one has done +more to establish correct methods, nor has left behind a more enviable or +more enduring fame, than Major George W. Whistler. + +The Whistler family is of English origin, and is found toward the end of +the 15th century in Oxfordshire, at Goring and Whitchurch, on the Thames. +One branch of the family settled in Sussex, at Hastings and Battle, being +connected by marriage with the Websters of Battle Abbey, in which +neighborhood some of the family still live. Another branch lived in Essex, +from which came Dr. Daniel Whistler, President of the College of Physicians +in London in the time of Charles the Second. From the Oxfordshire branch +came Ralph, son of Hugh Whistler, of Goring, who went to Ireland, and there +founded the Irish branch of the family, being the original tenant of a +large tract of country in Ulster, under one of the guilds or public +companies of the city of London. From this branch of the family came Major +John Whistler, father of the distinguished engineer, and the first +representative of the family in America. It is stated that in some youthful +freak he ran away and enlisted in the British Army. It is certain that he +came to this country during the Revolutionary War, under General Burgoyne, +and remained with his command until its surrender at Saratoga, when he was +taken prisoner of war. Upon his return to England he was honorably +discharged, and, soon after, forming an attachment for a daughter of Sir +Edward Bishop, a friend of his father, he eloped with her, and came to this +country, settling at Hagerstown, in Maryland. He soon after entered the +army of the United States, and served in the ranks, being severely wounded +in the disastrous campaign against the Indians under Major-General St. +Clair in the year 1791. He was afterward commissioned as lieutenant, rose +to the rank of captain, and later had the brevet of major. At the reduction +of the army in 1815, having already two sons in the service, he was not +retained; but in recognition of his honorable record, he was appointed +Military Storekeeper at Newport, Kentucky, from which post he was afterward +transferred to Jefferson Barracks, where he lived to a good old age. + +Major John Whistler had a large family of sons and daughters, among whom we +may note particularly William, who became a colonel in the United States +Army, and who died at Newport, Ky., in 1863; John, a lieutenant in the +army, who died of wounds received in the battle of Maguago, near Detroit, +in 1812; and George Washington, the subject of our sketch. Major John +Whistler was not only a good soldier, and highly esteemed for his military +services, but was also a man of refined tastes and well educated, being an +uncommonly good linguist and especially noted as a fine musician. In his +family he is stated to have united firmness with tenderness, and to have +impressed upon his children the importance of a faithful and thorough +performance of duty in whatever position they should be placed. + +George Washington Whistler, the youngest son of Major John Whistler, was +born on the 19th of May, in the year 1800, at Fort Wayne, in the present +State of Indiana, but then part of the Northwest Territory, his father +being at the time in command of that post. Of the boyhood of Whistler we +have no record, except that he followed his parents from one military +station to another, receiving his early education for the most part at +Newport, Ky., from which place, on July 31, 1814, he was appointed a cadet +to the United States Military Academy, being then fourteen years of age. +The course of the student at West Point was a very satisfactory one. Owing +to a change in the arrangement of classes after his entrance, he had the +advantage of a longer term than had been given to those who preceded him, +remaining five years under instruction. His record during his student life +was good throughout. In a class of thirty members he stood No. 1 in +drawing, No. 4 in descriptive geometry, No. 5 in drill, No. 11 in +philosophy and in engineering, No. 12 in mathematics, and No. 10 in general +merit. He was remarkable, says one who knew him at this time, for his frank +and open manner and for his pleasant and cheerful disposition. A good story +is told of the young cadet which shows his ability, even at this time, to +make the best of circumstances apparently untoward, and to turn to his +advantage his surroundings, whatever they might be. Having been for some +slight breach of discipline required to bestride a gun in the campus for a +short time, he saw, to his dismay, coming down the walk the beautiful +daughter of Dr. Foster Swift, a young lady who, visiting West Point, had +taken the hearts of the cadets by storm, and who, little as he may at the +time have dreamed it, was destined to become his future wife. Pulling out +his handkerchief, he bent over his gun, and appeared absorbed in cleaning +the most inaccessible parts of it with such vigor as to be entirely unaware +that any one was passing; nor did the young lady dream that a case of +discipline had been before her until in after years, when, on a visit to +West Point, an explanation was made to her by her husband. + +It was at this time of his life that the refinement and taste for which +Major Whistler was ever after noted began to show itself. An accomplished +scientific musician and performer, he gained a reputation in this direction +beyond that of a mere amateur, and scarcely below that of the professionals +of the day. His _sobriquet_ of "Pipes," which his skill upon the flute at +this time gave him, adhered to him through life among his intimates in the +army. His skill with the pencil, too, was something phenomenal, and would, +had not more serious duties prevented, have made him as noted an artist as +he was an engineer. Fortunately for the world this talent descended to one +of his sons, and in his hands has had full development. These tastes in +Major Whistler appeared to be less the results of study than the +spontaneous outgrowth of a refined and delicate organization, and so far +constitutional with him that they seemed to tinge his entire character. +They continued to be developed till past the meridian of life, and amid all +the pressure of graver duties furnished a most delightful relaxation. + +Upon completing his course at the Military Academy he was graduated, July +1, 1819, and appointed second lieutenant in the corps of artillery. From +this date until 1821 he served part of the time on topographical duty, and +part of the time he was in garrison at Fort Columbus. From November 2, +1821, to April 30, 1822, he was assistant professor at the Military +Academy, a position for which his attainments in descriptive geometry and +his skill in drawing especially fitted him. This employment, however, was +not altogether to his taste. He was too much of an artist to wish to +confine himself to the mechanical methods needed in the training of +engineering students. In 1822, although belonging to the artillery, he was +detailed on topographical duty under Major (afterward Colonel) Abert, and +was connected with the commission employed in tracing the international +boundary between Lake Superior and the Lake of the Woods. This work +continued four years, from 1822 to 1826, and subsequent duties in the +cabinet of the commission employed nearly two years more. + +The field service of this engagement was anything but light work, much of +it being performed in the depth of winter with a temperature fifty degrees +below zero. The principal food of the party was tallow and some other +substance, which was warmed over a fire on stopping at night. The snow was +then removed to a sufficient depth for a bed, and the party wrapped one +another up in their buffalo robes, until the last man's turn came, when he +had to wrap himself up the best he could. In the morning, after warming +their food and eating, the remainder was allowed to harden in the pan, +after which it was carried on the backs of men to the next stopping place. +The work was all done upon snow-shoes, and occasionally a man became so +blinded by the glare of the sun upon the snow that he had to be led by a +rope. + +Upon the 1st of June, 1821, Whistler was made second lieutenant in the +First Artillery, in the reorganized army; on the 16th of August, 1821, he +was transferred to the Second Artillery, and on the 16th of August, 1829, +he was made first lieutenant. Although belonging to the artillery, he was +assigned to topographical duty almost continually until December 31, 1833, +when he resigned his position in the army. A large part of his time during +this period was spent in making surveys, plans, and estimates for public +works, not merely those needed by the national government, but others which +were undertaken by chartered companies in different parts of the United +States. There were at that time very few educated engineers in the country, +besides the graduates of the Military Academy; and the army engineers were +thus frequently applied for, and for several years government granted their +services. + +Prominent among the early works of internal improvement was the Baltimore & +Ohio Railroad, and the managers of this undertaking had been successful in +obtaining the services of several officers who were then eminent, or who +afterward became so. The names of Dr. Howard, who, though not a military +man, was attached to the Corps of Engineers, of Lieut.-Col. Long, and of +Capt. William Gibbs McNeill appear in the proceedings of the company as +"Chiefs of Brigade," and those of Fessenden, Gwynne, and Trimble among the +assistants. + +In October, 1828, this company made a special request for the services of +Lieutenant Whistler. The directors had resolved on sending a deputation to +England to examine the railroads of that country, and Jonathan Knight, +William Gibbs McNeill, and George W. Whistler were selected for this duty. +They were also accompanied by Ross Winans, whose fame and fortune, together +with those of his sons, became so widely known afterward in connection with +the great Russian railway. Lieutenant Whistler, says one who knew him well, +was chosen for this service on account of his remarkable thoroughness in +all the details of his profession, as well as for his superior +qualifications in other respects. The party left this country in November, +1828, and returned in May, 1829. + +In the course of the following year the organization of the Baltimore and +Ohio Railroad, a part of which had already been constructed under the +immediate personal supervision of Lieutenant Whistler, assumed a more +permanent form, and allowed the military engineers to be transferred to +other undertakings of a similar character. Accordingly, in June, 1830, +Captain McNeill and Lieutenant Whistler were sent to the Baltimore and +Susquehanna Railroad, for which they made the preliminary surveys and a +definite location, and upon which they remained until about twenty miles +were completed, when a lack of funds caused a temporary suspension of the +work. In the latter part of 1831 Whistler went to New Jersey to aid in the +construction of the Paterson and Hudson River Railroad (now a part of the +Erie Railway). Upon this work he remained until 1833, at which time he +moved to Connecticut to take charge of the location of the railroad from +Providence to Stonington, a line which had been proposed as an extension of +that already in process of construction from Boston to Providence. + +In this year, December 31, 1833, Lieut. Whistler resigned his commission in +the army, and this not so much from choice as from a sense of duty. +Hitherto his work as an engineer appears to have been more an employment +than a vocation. He carried on his undertakings diligently, as it was his +nature to do, but without much anxiety or enthusiasm; and he was satisfied +in meeting difficulties as they came up, with a sufficient solution. +Henceforward he handled his profession from a love of it. He labored that +his resources against the difficulties of matter and space should be +overabundant, and if he had before been content with the sure-footed facts +of observation, he now added the luminous aid of study. How luminous and +how sure these combined became, his later works show best. + +In 1834 Mr. Whistler accepted the position of engineer to the proprietors +of locks and canals at Lowell. This position gave him among other things +the direction of the machine shops, which had been made principally for the +construction of locomotive engines. The Boston and Lowell Railroad, which +at this time was in process of construction, had imported a locomotive from +the works of George and Robert Stephenson, at Newcastle, and this engine +was to be reproduced, not only for the use of the Lowell road, but for +other railways as well, and to this work Major Whistler gave a large part +of his time from 1834 to 1837. The making of these engines illustrated +those features in his character which then and ever after were of the +utmost value to those he served. It showed the self-denial with which he +excluded any novelties of his own, the caution with which he admitted those +of others, and the judgment which he exercised in selecting and combining +the most meritorious of existing arrangements. The preference which he +showed for what was simple and had been tried did not arise from a want of +originality, as he had abundant occasion to show during the whole of his +engineering life. He was, indeed, uncommonly fertile in expedients, as all +who knew him testify, and the greater the demand upon his originality, the +higher did he rise to meet the occasion. The time spent in Lowell was not +only to the great advantage of the company, but it increased also his own +stores of mechanical knowledge, and in a direction, too, which in later +years was of especial value to him. + +In 1837 the condition of the Stonington Railroad became such as to demand +the continual presence and attention of the engineer. Mr. Whistler +therefore moved to Stonington, a place to which he became much attached, +and to which he seems during all of his wanderings to have looked with a +view of making it finally his home. While engaged upon the above road he +was consulted in regard to many other undertakings in different parts of +the country, and prominent among these was the Western Railroad of +Massachusetts. + +This great work, remarkable for the boldness of its engineering, was to run +from Worcester through Springfield and Pittsfield to Albany. To surmount +the high lands dividing the waters of the Connecticut from those of the +Hudson called for engineering cautious and skillful as well as heroic. The +line from Worcester to Springfield, though apparently much less formidable, +and to one who now rides over the road showing no very marked features, +demanded hardly less study, as many as twelve several routes having been +examined between Worcester and Brookfield. To undertake the solution of a +problem of so much importance required the best of engineering talent, and +we find associated on this work the names of three men who in the early +railroad enterprises of this country stood deservedly in the front rank: +George W. Whistler, William Gibbs McNeill, and William H. Swift. McNeill +had graduated from the Military Academy in 1817, and rose to the rank of +major in the Topographical Engineers. Like Whistler, he had been detailed +to take charge of the design and construction of many works of internal +improvement not under the direction of the general government. These two +engineers exercised an influence throughout the country for many years much +greater than that of any others. Indeed, there were very few works of +importance undertaken at that time in connection with which their names do +not appear. This alliance was further cemented by the marriage between +Whistler and McNeill's sister. Capt. William H. Swift had also graduated +from the Military Academy, and had already shown marked ability as an +engineer. Such were the men who undertook the location and construction of +the railroad which was to surmount the high lands between the Connecticut +and the Hudson, and to connect Boston with the Great West. + +The early reports of these engineers to the directors of the Western +Railroad show an exceedingly thorough appreciation of the complex problem +presented to them, and a much better understanding of the principles +involved in establishing the route than seems to have been shown in many +far more recent works. In these early reports made in 1836 and 1837, we +find elaborate discussions as to the power of the locomotive engine, and a +recognition of the fact that in comparing different lines we must regard +the _plan_ as well as the _profile_, "as the resistance from curves on a +level road may even exceed that produced by gravity on an incline;" and in +one place we find the ascents "_equated_ at 18 feet, the slope which +requires double the power needed on a level road," resulting in a "_virtual +increase_." We find also a very clear expression of the fact that an +increased expenditure in the power needed to operate the completed road may +overbalance a considerable saving in first cost. To bear this principle in +mind, and at the same time to work in accordance with the directors' ideas +of economy, in a country where the railroad was regarded very largely as an +experiment, was by no means an easy task. The temptation to make the first +cost low at the expense of the quality of the road in running up the valley +of Westfield River was very great, and the directors were at one time very +strongly urged to make an exceedingly narrow and crooked road west of +Springfield; but Major Whistler so convinced the President, Thomas B. +Wales, of the folly of such a course, that the latter declared, with a most +emphatic prefix, that he would have nothing to do with such a two-penny +cow-path, and thus prevented its adoption. + +Mr. Whistler had many investigations to make concerning the plans and +policy of railroad companies at a time when almost everything connected +with them was comparatively new and untried. When he commenced, there was +no passenger railroad in the country, and but very few miles of quarry and +mining track. If at that time an ascent of more than 1 in 200 was required, +it was thought necessary to have inclined planes and stationary power. It +was supposed that by frequent relays it would be possible to obtain for +passenger cars a speed of eight or nine miles an hour. Almost nothing was +known of the best form for rails, of the construction of the track, or of +the details for cars or engines. In all of these things Major Whistler's +highly gifted and well balanced mind enabled him to judge wisely for his +employers, and to practice for them the truest economy. + +Major Whistler's employment upon the Western Railroad began while he was +still engaged upon the Stonington line. In connection with his friend +McNeill he acted as consulting engineer for the Western road from 1836 to +1840. From 1840 to 1842 he was its chief engineer, with his headquarters at +Springfield. The steep grades west of the Connecticut presented not only a +difficult problem in location and construction, but in locomotive +engineering as well. At the present day we can order any equipment which +may best meet the requirement upon any railroad, and the order will be +promptly met by any one of our great manufactories. But in the early days +of the Western Railroad it was far otherwise, and the locomotive which +should successfully and economically operate the hitherto unheard of grade +of over 80 feet to the mile was yet to be seen. The Messrs. Winans, of +Baltimore, had built some nondescript machines, which had received the name +of "crabs," and had tried to make them work upon the Western road. But +after many attempts they were given up as unfit for such service. + +These "crabs" were eight wheeled engines, weighing about 20 tons, with a +vertical boiler. The wheels were 31/2 feet in diameter, but the engine worked +on to an intermediate shaft, which was connected with the driving axle in +such a way as to get the effect of a five foot wheel. These engines did not +impress Major Whistler at all favorably. And it is related that one Sunday +the watchman in charge of the building in which some of them were kept, +hearing some one among the engines, went in quietly and overheard Major +Whistler, apparently conversing with the "crab," and saying: "No; you +miserable, top-heavy, lop-sided abortion of a grasshopper, you'll never do +to haul the trains over this road." His experience in Lowell was here of +great value to him, and he had become convinced that the engine of George +Stephenson was in the main the coming machine, and needed but to be +properly proportioned and of sufficient size to meet every demand. + +With Major Whistler's work upon the Western Railroad his engineering +service in this country concluded, and that by an occurrence which marked +him as the foremost railroad engineer of his time. Patient, indefatigable, +cautious, remarkable for exhaustless resource, admirable judgment, and the +highest engineering skill, he had begun with the beginning of the railroad +system, and had risen to the chief control of one of the greatest works in +the world, the Western Railroad of Massachusetts. Not only had he shown the +most far-sighted wisdom in fixing the general features of this undertaking, +but no man surpassed him, if, indeed, any one equaled him, in an exact and +thorough knowledge of technical details. To combine the various elements in +such a manner as to produce the greatest commercial success, and to make +the railroad in the widest sense of the word a public improvement, never +forgetting the amount of money at his disposal, was the problem he had +undertaken to solve. He had proved himself a great master in his +profession, and had shown how well fitted he was to grapple with every +difficulty. He was equally a man of science and a man of business. And to +all this he added the most delicate sense of honor and the most spotless +integrity. He was in the prime of manhood, and was prepared to enter upon +the great work of his life. + +It was not long after the introduction of the railroad that intelligent +persons saw very plainly that the new mode of transportation was not to be +confined to the working of an already established traffic, in densely +populated regions, but that it would be of equal service in awakening the +energies of undeveloped countries, in bringing the vast interior regions of +the continents into communication with the seaboard, in opening markets to +lands which before were beyond the reach of commerce. And it was seen, too, +that in event of war, a new and invaluable element had been introduced, +viz., the power of transportation to an extent never before imagined. + +Especially were these advantages foreseen in the vast empire of Russia, and +an attempt was very early made to induce private capitalists to undertake +the construction of the lines contemplated in that country. The Emperor, +besides guaranteeing to the shareholders a minimum profit of four per +cent., proposed to give them, gratuitously, all the lands of the state +through which the lines should pass, and to place at their disposal, also +gratuitously, the timber and raw materials necessary for the way and works +which might be found upon the ground. It was further proposed, to permit +the importation of rails and of the rolling stock free of duty. Russian +proprietors also came forward, and not only agreed to grant such portions +of their land as the railroads might pass through, gratuitously, but +further to dispossess themselves temporarily of their serfs, and surrender +them to the use of the companies, on the sole condition that they should +be properly supported while thus employed. + +With regard to the great line, however, which was to unite the two +capitals, St. Petersburg and Moscow, it was decreed that this should be +made exclusively at the expense of the state, in order to retain in the +hands of the government and in the general interest of the people a line of +communication so important to the industry and the internal commerce of the +country. The local proprietors agreed to surrender to the government, +gratuitously, the lands necessary for this line. + +It was very early understood that the railroad problem in Russia was much +more analogous to that in the United States than to that in England. The +Emperor, therefore, in 1839, sent the Chevalier De Gerstner to the United +States to obtain information concerning the railroads of this country. It +was this person who obtained from the Emperor the concession for the short +railway from St. Petersburg to Zarskoe Selo, which had been opened in 1837, +and who had also made a careful reconnoissance in 1835 for a line from St. +Petersburg to Moscow, and had very strongly urged its construction on the +American plan. The more De Gerstner examined our roads, the more impressed +he was with the fitness of what he termed the American system of building +and operating railroads to the needs of the empire of Russia. In one of his +letters in explaining the causes of the cheap construction of American +railroads, after noting the fact that labor as well as material is much +dearer in America than in Europe, he refers to the use of steep grades (93 +feet to the mile) and sharp curves (600 feet radius), upon which the +American equipment works easily, to the use of labor saving machinery, +particularly to a steam excavating machine upon the railroad between +Worcester and Springfield, and to the American system of wooden bridge +building, and says: "The superstructure of the railroads in America is made +conformable to the expected traffic, and costs therefore more or less +accordingly;" and he concludes, "considering the whole, it appears that the +cheapness of the American railroads has its foundation in the practical +sense which predominates in their construction." Again, under the causes of +the cheap management of the American roads, he notes the less expensive +administration service, the low rate of speed, the use of the eight wheeled +cars and the four-wheeled truck under the engines, and concludes: "In my +opinion it would be of great advantage for every railroad company in Europe +to procure at least one such train" (as those used in America). "Those +companies, however, whose works are yet under construction I can advise +with the fullest conviction to procure all their locomotive engines and +tenders from America, and to construct their cars after the American +model." + +Notwithstanding this report, the suggestions of De Gerstner were not at +once accepted. The magnitude of the enterprise would not admit of taking a +false step. Further evidence was needed, and accordingly it was decided to +send a committee of engineer officers to various countries in Europe, and +to the United States, to select such a system for the road and its +equipment as would be best adapted to Russia. These officers, Colonels +Melnikoff and Krofft, not only reported in the most decided manner in favor +of the American methods, but also stated that of all persons with whom they +had communicated, no one had given them such full and satisfactory +information upon all points, or had so impressed them as possessing +extraordinary ability, as Major George W. Whistler. This led to his +receiving an invitation from the Emperor to go to Russia and become +consulting engineer for the great road which was to connect the imperial +city upon the Baltic with the ancient capital of the Czars. + +When we consider the magnitude of the engineering works with which the +older countries abound, we can but regard with a feeling of pride the fact +that an American should have been selected for so high a trust by a +European government possessing every opportunity and means for securing the +highest professional talent which the world could offer. Nor should it be +forgotten that the selection of our countryman did not arise from any +necessity which the Russian Government felt for obtaining professional aid +from abroad, growing out of a lack of the requisite material at home. On +the contrary, the engineers of the Russian service are perhaps the most +accomplished body of men to be found in any country. Selected in their +youth, irrespective of any artificial advantages of birth or position, but +for having a genius for such work, and trained to a degree of excellence in +all of the sciences unsurpassed in any country, they stand deservedly in +the front rank. Such was the body of men with whom Major Whistler was +called to co-operate, and whose professional duties, if not directed +specially by him, were to be controlled by his judgment. + +Accepting the position offered to him in so flattering a manner, he sailed +for St. Petersburg about mid-summer in 1842, being accompanied on his +voyage by Major Bouttattz, of the Russian Engineer Corps, who had been sent +to this country by the Emperor as an escort. Arriving in St. Petersburg, +and having learned the general character of the proposed work, he traveled +partly by horse and partly on foot over the entire route, and made his +preliminary report, which was at once accepted. + +The plan contemplated the construction of a double track railroad 420 miles +long, perfect in all its parts, and equipped to its utmost necessity. The +estimates amounted to nearly forty millions of dollars, and the time for +its construction was reckoned at seven years. The line selected for the +road had no reference to intermediate points, and was the shortest +attainable, due regard being paid to the cost of construction. It is nearly +straight, and passes over so level a country as to encounter no obstacle +requiring a grade exceeding 20 feet to the mile, and for most of the +distance it is level. The right of way taken was 400 feet in width +throughout the entire length. The roadbed was raised from six to ten feet +above the ordinary level of the country, and was 30 feet wide on top. + +One of the most important questions to settle at the outset in regard to +this great work was the width of the gauge. At that time the opinion in +England as well as in the United States among engineers was setting very +strongly in favor of a gauge wider than 4 feet 81/2 inches, and the Russian +engineers were decidedly in favor of such increased width. Major Whistler, +however, in an elaborate report to the Count Kleinmichel argued very +strongly in favor of the ordinary gauge. To this a commission of the most +distinguished engineers in Russia replied, urging in the most forcible +manner the adoption of a gauge of six feet. Major Whistler rejoined in a +report which is one of the finest models of an engineering argument ever +written, and in which we have perhaps the best view of the quality of his +mind. In this document no point is omitted, each part of the question is +handled with the most consummate skill, the bearing of the several parts +upon the whole is shown in the clearest possible manner, and in a style +which could only come from one who from his own knowledge was thoroughly +familiar with all the details, not only of the railroad, but of the +locomotive as well. + +In this report the history of the ordinary gauge is given, with the origin +of the standard of 4 feet 81/2 inches; the questions of strength, stability, +and capacity of cars, of the dimensions, proportions, and power of engines, +the speed of trains, resistances to motion, weight and strength of rails, +the cost of the roadway, and the removal of snow are carefully considered. +The various claims of the advocates for a wider gauge are fairly and +critically examined, and while the errors of his opponents are laid bare in +the most unsparing manner, the whole is done in a spirit so entirely +unprejudiced, and with so evident a desire for the simple truth, as to +carry conviction to any fair minded person. The dry way, too, in which he +suggests that conclusions based upon actual results from existing railways +are of more value than deductions from supposed conditions upon imaginary +roads, is exceedingly entertaining. The result was the adoption of the +gauge recommended by him, namely, five feet. Those who remember the "Battle +of the Gauges," and who know how much expense and trouble the wide gauge +has since caused, will appreciate the stand taken thus early by Major +Whistler; and this was but one among many cases which might be mentioned to +show how comprehensive and far-reaching was his mind. + +The roadbed of the St. Petersburg and Moscow Railway was made 30 feet wide +on top, for a double track of 5 foot gauge, with a gravel ballasting two +feet deep. The bridges were of wood, of the Howe pattern, no spans being +over 200 feet in length. The stations at each end, and the station and +engine houses along the line, were on a plan uniform throughout, and of the +most ample accommodation. Fuel and water stations were placed at suitable +points, and engine houses were provided 50 miles apart, built of the most +substantial masonry, circular in form, 180 feet in diameter, surmounted by +a dome, and having stalls for 22 engines each. Repair shops were attached +to every engine house, furnished with every tool or implement that the +wants of the road could suggest. + +The equipment of rolling stock and fixed machinery for the shops was +furnished by the American firm of Winans, Harrison & Eastwick, who from +previous acquaintance were known by Major Whistler to be skillful, +energetic, and reliable. Much diplomacy was needed to procure the large +money advances for this part of the work, the whole Winans contract +amounting to nearly five millions of dollars; but the assurance of Major +Whistler was a sufficient guarantee against disappointment or failure. + +In 1843 the plans for the work were all complete, and in 1844 the various +operations along the line were well under way, and proceeding according to +the well arranged programme. In 1845 the work had progressed so far that +the construction of the rolling stock was commenced. The locomotives were +of two classes, freight and passenger. The engines of each class were made +throughout from the same patterns, so that any part of one engine would fit +the same position on any other. The passenger engines had two pairs of +driving wheels, coupled, 6 feet in diameter, and a four wheeled truck +similar to the modern American locomotive. The general dimensions were: +Waist of boiler, 47 inches, 186 two inch tubes 101/2 feet long; cylinders, 16 +x 22 inches. The freight engines had the same capacity of boiler and the +same number and length of tubes, three pairs of driving wheels, coupled, 41/2 +feet in diameter, a truck and cylinders 18 x 22 inches, and all uniform +throughout in workmanship and finish. The passenger cars were 56 feet long +and 91/2 feet wide, the first class carrying 33 passengers, the second class +54, and the third class 80. They all had eight truck wheels under each, and +elliptic steel springs. The freight cars were all 30 feet long and 91/2 feet +wide, made in a uniform manner, with eight truck wheels under each. The +imperial saloon carriages were 80 feet long and 91/2 feet wide, having double +trucks, or sixteen wheels under each. They were divided into five +compartments and fitted with every convenience. + +Early in 1847 the Emperor Nicholas visited the mechanical works at +Alexandroffsky, where the rolling stock was being made by the Messrs. +Winans, in the shops prepared by them and supplied by Russian labor. +Everything here was on the grandest scale, and the work was conducted under +the most perfect system. Upon this occasion the Emperor was so much +gratified at what had already been accomplished that he conferred upon +Major Whistler the decoration of the Order of St. Anne. He had previously +been pressed to wear the Russian uniform, which he promptly declined to do; +but there was no escape from the decoration without giving offense. He is +said, however, to have generally contrived to hide it beneath his coat in +such a manner that few ever saw it. + +Technically, Major Whistler was consulting engineer, Colonel Melnikoff +being constructing engineer for the northern half of the road, and Colonel +Krofft for the southern half; but as a matter of fact, by far the larger +part of planning the construction in detail of both railway and equipment +fell upon Major Whistler. There was also a permanent commission having +general charge of the construction of the road, of which the president was +General Destrem, one of the four French engineers whom Napoleon, at the +request of the Emperor Alexander, sent to Russia for the service of that +country. + +The year 1848 was a very trying one to Major Whistler. He had already on +several occasions overtasked his strength, and had been obliged to rest. +This year the Asiatic cholera made its appearance. He sent his family +abroad, but remained himself alone in his house. He would on no account at +this time leave his post, nor omit his periodical inspections along the +line of the road, where the epidemic was raging. In November he had an +attack of cholera, and while he recovered from it, he was left very weak. +Still, he remained upon the work through the winter, though suffering much +from a complication of diseases. As spring advanced he became much worse, +and upon the 7th of April, 1849, he passed quietly away, the immediate +cause of his death being a trouble with the heart. + +Funeral services were held in the Anglican (Episcopal) Church in St. +Petersburg. His body was soon afterward carried to Boston and deposited +beneath St. Paul's Church; but the final interment took place at +Stonington. The kindness and attention of the Emperor and of all with whom +Major Whistler had been associated knew no bounds. Everything was done to +comfort and aid his wife, and when she left St. Petersburg the Emperor sent +her in his private barge to the mouth of the Baltic. "It was not only," +says one who knew him weil, "through his skill, ability, and experience as +an engineer that Major Whistler was particularly qualified for and +eminently successful in the important task he performed so well in Russia. +His military training and bearing, his polished manner, good humor, sense +of honor, knowledge of a language (French) in which he could converse with +officers of the government, his resolution in adhering to what he thought +was right, and in meeting difficulties only to surmount them, with other +admirable personal qualities, made him soon, and during his whole residence +in Russia, much liked and trusted by all persons by whom he was known, from +the Emperor down to the peasant. Such is the reputation he left behind him, +and which is given to him in Russia to this day." + +In 1849 the firm of Winans, Harrison and Eastwick had already furnished the +road with 162 locomotives, 72 passenger and 2,580 freight cars. They had +also arranged to instruct a suitable number of Russian mechanics to take +charge of the machinery when completed. The road was finished its entire +length in 1850, being opened for passenger and freight traffic on the 25th +of September of that year, in two divisions, experimentally, and finally +opened for through business on November 1, 1851. In all of its construction +and equipment it was essentially American of the best kind, everything +being made under a carefully devised system, by which the greatest economy +in maintenance and in management should be possible. The use of standard +patterns, uniformity in design and duplication of parts was applied, not +only to the rolling stock, but to the railroad as well, wherever it was +possible. Indeed, the whole undertaking in all its parts bore the impress +of one master mind. + +On the death of Major Whistler the government with jealous care prevented +any changes whatever being made in his plans, including those which had not +been carried out as well as those already in process of execution. An +American engineer, Major T.S. Brown, was invited to Russia to succeed Major +Whistler as consulting engineer. The services of the Messrs. Winans also +were so satisfactory to the government that a new contract was afterward +made, upon the completion of the road, for the maintenance and the future +construction of rolling stock. + +While the great railroad was the principal work of Major Whistler in +Russia, he was also consulted in regard to all the important engineering +works of the period. The fortifications at Cronstadt, the Naval Arsenal and +docks at the same place, the plans for improving the Dwina at Archangel, +the great iron roof of the Riding House at St. Petersburg, and the iron +bridge over the Neva all received his attention. The government was +accustomed to rely upon his judgment in all cases requiring the exercise of +the highest combination of science and practical skill; and here, with a +happy tact peculiarly his own, he secured the warm friendship of men whose +professional acts he found himself called upon in the exercise of his high +trust in many cases to condemn. The Russians are proverbially jealous of +strangers, and no higher evidence of their appreciation of the sterling +honesty of Major Whistler, and of his sound, discriminating judgment, could +be afforded than the fact that all his recommendations on the great +questions of internal improvement, opposed as many of them were to the +principles which had previously obtained, and which were sanctioned by +usage, were yet carried out by the government to the smallest details. + +While in Russia Major Whistler was sometimes placed in positions most +trying to him. It is said that some of the corps of native engineers, many +of whom were nobles, while compelled to look up to him officially, were +inclined to look down upon him socially, and exercised their supposed +privileges in this respect so as to annoy him exceedingly, for he had not +known in his own country what it was to be the social inferior of any one. +The Emperor, hearing of this annoyance, determined to stop it; so, taking +advantage of a day when he knew the engineer corps would visit a celebrated +gallery of art, he entered it while they were there, and without at first +noticing any one else, looked around for Major Whistler, and seeing him, +went directly toward him, took his arm, and walked slowly with him entirely +around the gallery. After this the conduct of the nobles was all that could +be desired. + +Major Whistler's salary while in Russia was $12,000 a year; a sum no more +than necessary for living in a style befitting his position. He had +abundant opportunity for making money, but this his nice sense of honor +forbade. It is even stated that he would never allow any invention to be +used on the road that could by any possibility be of any profit to himself +or to any of his friends. He was continually besieged by American +inventors, but in vain. The honor of the profession he regarded as a sacred +trust. He served the Emperor with the fidelity that characterized all his +actions. His unswerving devotion to his duty was fully appreciated, and it +is said that no American in Russia, except John Quincy Adams, was ever held +in so high estimation. + +Major Whistler married for his first wife Mary, daughter of Dr. Foster +Swift of the U.S. Army, and Deborah, daughter of Capt. Thomas Delano of +Nantucket. By her he had three children: Deborah, his only daughter, who +married Seymour Haden of London, a surgeon, but later and better known for +his skill in etching; George William, who became an engineer and railway +manager, and who went to Russia, and finally died at Brighton, in England, +Dec. 24, 1869; Joseph Swift, born at New London, Aug. 12, 1825, and who +died at Stonington, Jan. 1, 1840. His first wife died Dec. 9, 1827, at the +early age of 23 years, and is buried in Greenwood Cemetery, in the shade of +the monument erected to the memory of her husband by the loving hands of +his professional brethren. For his second wife he married Anna Matilda, +daughter of Dr. Charles Donald McNeill of Wilmington, N.C., and sister of +his friend and associate, William Gibbs McNeill. By her he had five sons: +James Abbot McNeill, the noted artist, and William Gibbs McNeill, a well +known physician, both now living in London; Kirk Boott, born in Stonington, +July 16, 1838, and who died at Springfield, July 10, 1842; Charles Donald, +born in Springfield, Aug. 27, 1841, and who died in Russia, Sept. 24, 1843; +and John Bouttattz, who was born and who died at St. Petersburg, having +lived but little more than a year. His second wife, who outlived him, +returned to America, and remained here during the education of her +children, after which she moved to England. She died Jan. 31, 1881, at the +age of 76 years, and was buried at Hastings. + +At a meeting held in the office of the Panama Railroad Company in New York, +August 27, 1849, for the purpose of suggesting measures expressive of their +respect for the memory of Major Whistler, Wm. H. Sidell being chairman and +A.W. Craven secretary, it was resolved that a monument in Greenwood +Cemetery would be a suitable mode of expressing the feelings of the +profession in this respect, and that an association be formed to collect +funds and take all necessary steps to carry out the work. At this meeting +Capt. William H. Swift was appointed president, Major T.S. Brown +treasurer, and A.W. Craven secretary, and Messrs. Horatio Allen, W.C. +Young, J.W. Adams, and A.W. Craven were appointed a committee to procure +designs and estimates, and to select a suitable piece of ground. The design +was made by Mr. Adams, and the ground was given by Mr. Kirkwood. The +monument is a beautiful structure of red standstone, about 15 feet high, +and stands in "Twilight Dell." Upon the several faces are the following +inscriptions: + + +_Upon the Front_. + +IN MEMORY OF +GEORGE WASHINGTON WHISTLER, +CIVIL ENGINEER, +BORN AT FORT WAYNE, INDIANA, MAY, 1800, +DIED AT ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA, APRIL, 1849. + + +_Upon the Right Side_. + +EDUCATED AT THE U.S. MILITARY ACADEMY. HE +RETIRED FROM THE ARMY IN 1833 AND BECAME +ASSOCIATED WITH WILLIAM GIBBS M'NEILL. +THEY WERE IN THEIR TIME ACKNOWLEDGED TO +BE AT THE HEAD OF THEIR PROFESSION IN THIS +COUNTRY. + + +_Upon the Back_. + +HE WAS DISTINGUISHED FOR THEORETICAL AND +PRACTICAL ABILITY, COUPLED WITH SOUND +JUDGMENT AND GREAT INTEGRITY. IN 1842 HE +WAS INVITED TO RUSSIA BY THE EMPEROR +NICHOLAS, AND DIED THERE WHILE CONSTRUCTING +THE ST. PETERSBURG & MOSCOW RAILROAD. + + +_Upon the Left Side_. + +THIS CENOTAPH IS A MONUMENT OF THE ESTEEM +AND AFFECTION OF HIS FRIENDS AND COMPANIONS. + +While the monument thus raised to the memory of the great engineer stands +in that most delightful of the cities of the dead, his worn-out body rests +in the quaint old town of Stonington. It was here that his several children +had been buried, and he had frequently expressed a desire that when he +should die he might be placed by their side. A deputation of engineers who +had been in their early years associated with him attended the simple +service which was held over his grave, and all felt as they turned away +that they had bid farewell to such a man as the world has not often seen. + +In person Major Whistler was of medium size and well made. His face showed +the finest type of manly beauty, combined with a delicacy almost feminine. +In private life he was greatly prized for his natural qualities of heart +and mind, his regard for the feelings of others, and his unvarying +kindness, especially toward his inferiors and his young assistants. His +duties and his travels in this and in other countries brought him in +contact with men of every rank; and it is safe to say that the more +competent those who knew him were to judge, the more highly was he valued +by them. A close observer, with a keen sense of humor and unfailing tact, +fond of personal anecdote, and with a mind stored with recollections from +association with every grade of society, he was a most engaging companion. +The charm of his manner was not conventional, nor due to intercourse with +refined society, but came from a sense of delicacy and a refinement of +feeling which was innate, and which showed itself in him under all +circumstances. He was in the widest and best sense of the word a gentleman; +and he was a gentleman outwardly because he was a gentleman at heart. + +As an engineer, Whistler's works speak for him. He was eminently a +practical man, remarkable for steadiness of judgment and for sound business +sense. Whatever he did was so well done that he was naturally followed as a +model by those who were seeking a high standard. Others may have excelled +in extraordinary boldness or in some remarkable specialty, but in all that +rounds out the perfect engineer, whether natural characteristics, +professional training, or the well digested results of long and valuable +experience, we look in vain for his superior, and those who knew him best +will hesitate to acknowledge his equal.--_Journal of the Association of +Engineering Societies_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PRINTING LANTERN PICTURES BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT ON BROMIDE PLATES FROM +VARIOUS SIZES. + +By A. PUMPHREY. + +[Footnote: Read before the Birmingham Photographic Society. Reported in the +_Photo. News_.] + + +There can be no question that there is no plan that is so simple for +producing transparencies as contact printing, but in this, as in other +photographic matters, one method of work will not answer all needs. +Reproduction in the camera, using daylight to illuminate the negative, +enables the operator to reduce or enlarge in every direction, but the +lantern is a winter instrument, and comes in for demand and use during the +short days. When even the professional photographer has not enough light to +get through his orders, how can the amateur get the needed daylight if +photography be only the pursuit in spare time? Besides, there are days in +our large towns when what daylight there is is so yellow from smoke or fog +as to have little actinic power. These considerations and needs have led me +to experiment and test what can be done with artificial light, and I think +I have made the way clear for actual work without further experiment. I +have not been able by any arrangement of reflected light to get power +enough to print negatives of the ordinary density, and have only succeeded +by causing the light to be equally dispersed over the negative by a lens as +used in the optical lantern, but the arrangements required are somewhat +different to that of the enlarging lantern. + +The following is the plan by which I have succeeded best in the production +of transparencies: + +[Illustration] + +B is a lamp with a circular wick, which burns petroleum and gives a good +body of light. + +C is a frame for holding the negative, on the opposite side of which is a +double convex lens facing the light. + +D is the camera and lens. + +All these must be placed in a line, so that the best part of the light, the +center of the condenser, and the lens are of equal height. + +The method of working is as follows: The lamp, B, is placed at such a +distance from the condenser that the rays come to a focus and enter the +lens; the negative is then placed in the frame, the focus obtained, and the +size of reduction adjusted by moving the camera nearer to or further from +the condenser and negative. In doing this no attention need be paid to the +light properly covering the field, as that cannot be adjusted while the +negative is in its place. When the size and focus are obtained, remove the +negative, and carefully move the lamp till it illuminates the ground glass +equally all over, by a disk of light free from color. + +The negative can then be replaced, and no further adjustment will be needed +for any further reproduction of the same size. + +There is one point that requires attention: The lens used in the camera +should be a doublet of about 6 inch focus (in reproducing 81/2 x 61/2 or +smaller sizes), and the stop used must not be a very small one, not less +than 1/2 inch diameter. If a smaller stop is used, an even disk of light is +not obtained, but ample definition is obtainable with the size stop +mentioned. + +In the arrangement described, a single lens is used for the condenser, not +because it is better than a double one, as is general for such purposes, +but because it is quite sufficient for the purpose. Of course, a large +condenser is both expensive and cumbersome. There is, therefore, no +advantage in using a combination if a single lens will answer. + +In reproducing lantern pictures from half-plate negatives, the time +required on my lantern plates is from two to four minutes, using 6 inch +condenser. For whole plate negatives, from two to six minutes with a 9 inch +condenser. In working in this way it is easy to be developing one picture +while exposing another. + +The condenser must be of such a size that it will cover the plate from +corner to corner. The best part of an 81/2 x 61/2 negative will be covered by a +9 inch condenser, and a 61/2 x 43/4 by a 6 inch condenser. + +With this arrangement it will be easy to reproduce from half or whole plate +negatives or any intermediate sizes quite independently of daylight. + + * * * * * + + + + +EXPERIMENTS IN TONING GELATINO-CHLORIDE PAPER. + + +From the _Photographic News_ we take the following: The use of paper coated +with a gelatino-citro-chloride emulsion in place of albumenized paper +appears to be becoming daily more common. Successful toning has generally +been the difficulty with such paper, the alkaline baths commonly in use +with albumenized having proved unsuitable for toning this paper. On the +whole, the bath that has given the best results is one containing, in +addition to gold, a small quantity of hypo and a considerable quantity of +sulphocyanide of ammonium. Such a bath tones very rapidly, and gives most +pleasing colors. It appears, moreover, to be impossible to overtone the +citro-chloro emulsion paper with it in the sense that it is possible to +overtone prints on albumenized paper with the ordinary alkaline bath. That +is to say, it is impossible to produce a slaty gray image. The result of +prolonged toning is merely an image of an engraving black color. Of this, +however, we shall say more hereafter. We wish first of all to refer to an +elaborate series of experiments by Lionel Clark on the effects of various +toning baths used with the gelatino-citro-chloride paper. + +The results of these experiments we have before us at the time of writing, +and we may at once say that, from the manner in which the experiments have +been carried out and in which the results have been tabulated, Lionel +Clark's work forms a very useful contribution to our photographic +knowledge, and a contribution that will become more and more useful, the +longer the results of the experiments are kept. A number of small prints +have been prepared. Of these several--in most cases, three--have been toned +by a certain bath, and each print has been torn in two. One-half has been +treated with bichloride of mercury, so as to bleach such portion of the +image as is of silver, and finally the prints--the two halves of each being +brought close together--have been mounted in groups, each group containing +all the prints toned by a certain formula, with full information tabulated. + +The only improvement we could suggest in the arrangement is that all the +prints should have been from the same negative, or from only three +negatives, so that we should have prints from the same negatives in every +group, and should the better be able to compare the results of the toning +baths. Probably, however, the indifferent light of the present season of +the year made it difficult to get a sufficiency of prints from one +negative. + +The following is a description of the toning baths used and of the +appearance of the prints. We refer, in the mean time, only to those halves +that have not been treated with bichloride of mercury. + +1.--Gold chloride (AuCl_{3})........... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 10 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... 1/2 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +The prints are of a brilliant purple or violet color. + +2.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 10 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... 1/2 gr. + Water.............................. 4 oz. + +There is only one print, which is of a brown color, and in every way +inferior to those toned with the first bath. + +3.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 12 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... 1/2 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +The prints toned by this bath are, in our opinion, the finest of the whole. +The tone is a purple of the most brilliant and pleasing shade. + +4.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 20 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... 5 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +There is only one print, but it is from the same negative as one of the No. +3 group. It is very inferior to that in No. 3, the color less pleasant, and +the appearance generally as if the details of the lights had been bleached +by the large quantity either of hypo or of sulphocyanide of potassium. + +5.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 50 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... 1/2 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +Opposite to this description of formula there are no prints, but the +following is written: "These prints were completely destroyed, the +sulphocyanide of potassium (probably) dissolving off the gelatine." + +6.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 20 gr. + Hypo............................... 5 gr. + Carbonate of soda.................. 10 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +This it will be seen is the same as 4, but that the solution is rendered +alkaline with carbonate of soda. The result of the alkalinity certainly +appears to be good, the color is more pleasing than that produced by No. 4, +and there is less appearance of bleaching. It must be borne in mind in this +connection that the paper itself is strongly acid, and that, unless special +means be taken to prevent it, the toning bath is sure to be more or less +acid. + +7.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Acetate of soda.................... 30 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +The color of the prints toned by this bath is not exceedingly pleasing. It +is a brown tending to purple, but is not very pure or bright. The results +show, however, the possibility of toning the gelatino-chloro-citrate paper +with the ordinary acetate bath if it be only made concentrated enough. + +8.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Carbonate of soda.................. 3 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +Very much the same may be said of the prints toned by this bath as of those +toned by No. 7. The color is not very good, nor is the toning quite even. +This last remark applies to No. 7 batch as well as No. 8. + +9.--Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Phosphate of soda.................. 20 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. + +The results of this bath can best be described as purplish in color. They +are decidedly more pleasing than those of 7 or 8, but are not as good as +the best by the sulphocyanide bath. + +10.--Gold chloride..................... 1 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda.............. 1/2 oz. + Water............................. 2 oz. + +The result of this bath is a brilliant brown color, what might indeed, +perhaps, be best described as a red. Two out of the three prints are much +too dark, indicating, perhaps, that this toning bath did not have any +tendency to reduce the intensity of the image. + +The general lesson taught by Clark's experiments is that the sulphocyanide +bath gives better results than any other. A certain proportion of the +ingredients--namely, that of bath No. 3--gives better results than any +other proportions tried, and about as good as any that could be hoped for. +Any of the ordinary alkaline toning baths may be used, but they all give +results inferior to those got by the sulphocyanide bath. The best of the +ordinary baths is, however, the phosphate of soda. + +And now a word as to those parts of the prints which have been treated with +bichloride of mercury. The thing that strikes us as remarkable in +connection with them is that in them the image has scarcely suffered any +reduction of intensity at all. In most cases there has been a disagreeable +change of color, but it is almost entirely confined to the whites and +lighter tints, which are turned to a more or less dirty yellow. Even in the +case of the prints toned by bath No. 10, where the image is quite red, it +has suffered no appreciable reduction of intensity. + +This would indicate that an unusually large proportion of the toned image +consists of gold, and this idea is confirmed by the fact that to tone a +sheet of gelatino-chloro-citrate paper requires several times as much gold +as to tone a sheet of albumenized paper. Indeed, we believe that, with the +emulsion paper, it is possible to replace the whole of the silver of the +image with gold, thereby producing a permanent print. We have already said +that the print may be left for any reasonable length of time in the toning +bath without the destruction of its appearance, and we cannot but suppose +that a very long immersion results in a complete substitution of gold for +silver. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "SENSIM" PREPARING BOX. + + +Fig. 1 shows a perspective view of the machine, Fig. 2 a sectional +elevation, and Fig. 3 a plan. In the ordinary screw gill box, the screws +which traverse the gills are uniform in their pitch, so that a draught is +only obtained between the feed rollers and the first gill, between the last +gill of the first set and the first of the second, and between the last +gill of the second set and the delivery roller. As thus arranged, the gills +are really not active workers after their first draw during the remainder +of their traverse, but simply carriers of the wool to the next set. It is +somewhat remarkable, as may indeed be said of every invention, that this +fact has only been just observed, and suggested an improvement. There is no +reason why each gill should not be continuously working to the end of the +traverse, and only cease during its return to its first position. The +perception of this has led to several attempts to realize this +improvement. The inventor in the present case seems to have solved the +problem in a very perfect manner by the introduction of gill screws of a +gradually increasing pitch, by which the progress of the gills, B, through +the box is constantly undergoing acceleration to the end, as will be +obvious from the construction of the screws, A and A, until they are +passed down in the usual manner, and returned by the screws, C and C, +which are, as usual, of uniform pitch. The two sets of screws are so +adjusted as to almost meet in the middle, so that the gills of the first +set finish their forward movement close to the point where the second +commence. The bottom screws, C, of the first set of gills, B, are actuated +by bevel wheels on a cross shaft engaging with bevel wheels on their outer +extremity, the cross shaft being geared to the main shaft. The screws, C, +of the second set of gills from two longitudinal shafts are connected by +bevel gearing to the main shaft. Intermediate wheels communicate motion +from change wheels on the longitudinal shafts to the wheels on the screw, +C, traversing the second set of gills. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--"SENSIM" SCREW GILL PREPARING BOX.] + +The feed and delivery rollers, D and E, are operated by gearing connected +to worms on longitudinal shafts. These worms engage with worm wheels on +cross shafts, which are provided at their outer ends with change wheels +engaging with other change wheels on the arbors of the bottom feed and +delivery rollers, D and E. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--"SENSIM" SCREW GILL--SECTIONAL ELEVATION.] + +The speeds are so adjusted that the fibers are delivered to the first set +of gills at a speed approximately equal to the speed at which these start +their traverse. The gills in the second set begin their journey at a pace +which slightly exceeds that at which those of the first finish their +traverse. These paces are of course regulated by the class and nature of +the fibers under operation. The delivery rollers, E, take off the fibers at +a rate slightly exceeding that of the gills delivering it to them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--"SENSIM" SCREW GILL--PLAN.] + +In the ordinary gill box, the feed and delivery rollers are fluted, in +order the better to retain in the first instance their grip upon the wool +passing through, and in the second to enable them to overcome any +resistance that might be offered to drawing the material. It thus often +happens in this class of machines that a large percentage of the fibers are +broken, and thus much waste is made. The substitution of plain rollers in +both these positions obviates most of this mischief, while in combination +with the other parts of the arrangement it is almost precluded altogether. + +It will be obvious from what we have said that the special features of this +machine, which may be summarized as, first, the use of a screw thread of +graduated pitch; second, an increased length of screw action and an +additional number of fallers; and third, the use of light plain rollers in +place of heavy fluted back and front rollers, enable the inventor to justly +claim the acquisition of a number of advantages, which may be enumerated as +follows: + +The transformation of the gills from mere carriers into constant workers +during the whole of their outward traverse, by which the work is done much +more efficiently, more gently, and in greater quantity than by the old +system with uniformly pitched screws. A great improvement in the quality of +the work, resulting from the breakage of fiber being, if not entirely +obviated, nearly. An increased yield and better quality of top, owing to +the absence of broken fiber, and consequent diminution of noil and waste. +The better working of cotted wools, which can be brought to a proper +condition with far more facility and with diminished risk of breaking pins +than before. A saving in labor, space, and plant also results from the fact +that the wool is as well opened and straightened for carding with a passage +through a pair of improved boxes as it is in going through four of the +ordinary ones, while the quantity will be as great. Owing to the first +feature referred to, which distributes the strain over all the gills, a +greater weight of wool can be put into them and a higher speed be worked. +The space occupied and the attendance required is only about half that of +boxes required to do the same amount of work on the old system. Taking the +flutes out of the feed and delivery rollers, and greatly diminishing their +weight, it is estimated will reduce by 90 per cent. the wear and tear of +the leather aprons, and thus to that extent diminish a very heavy annual +outlay incident to the system generally in vogue. A considerable saving of +power for driving and of time and cost of repairs from the bending and +breakage of pins also results. Shaw, Harrison & Co., makers, +Bradford.--_Textile Manufacturer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTES ON GARMENT DYEING. + + +Black wool dresses for renewing and checked goods, with the check not +covered by the first operation, are operated upon as follows: + +_Preparation or mordant for eight black dresses for renewing the color._ + +2 oz. Chrome. +2 " Argol or Tartar. + +Or without argol or tartar, but I think their use is beneficial. Boil +twenty minutes, lift, rinse through two waters. + +To prepare dye boiler, put in 2 lb. logwood, boil twenty minutes. Clear the +face same way as before described. Those with cotton and made-up dresses +sewn with cotton same operation as before mentioned, using half the +quantity of stuffs, and working cold throughout. Since the introduction of +aniline black, some dyers use it in place of logwood both for wool and +cotton. It answers very well for dippers, substituting 2 oz. aniline black +for every pound logwood required. In dyeing light bottoms it is more +expensive than logwood, even though the liquor be kept up, and, in my +opinion, not so clear and black. + +_Silk and wool dresses, poplins, and woolen dresses trimmed with silk, +etc., for black_.--Before the dyeing operations, steep the goods in +hand-heat soda water, rinse through two warm waters. Discharge blues, +mauves, etc., with diluted aquafortis (nitric acid). A skilled dyer can +perform this operation without the least injury to the goods. This liquor +is kept in stoneware, or a vessel made of caoutchouc composition, or a +large stone hollowed out of five slabs of stone, forming the bottom and +four sides, braced together, and luted with caoutchouc, forming a +water-tight vessel. The latter is the most convenient vessel, as it can be +repaired. The others when once rent are past repair. The steam is +introduced by means of a caoutchouc pipe, and when brought to the boil the +pipe is removed. After the colors are discharged, rinse through three warm +waters. They are then ready to receive the mordant and the dye. + +_Note_.--The aquafortis vessel to be outside the dye-house, or, if inside, +to be provided with a funnel to carry away the nitrous fumes, as it is +dangerous to other colors. + +_Preparation or mordant for eight dresses, silk and wool mixed, for black._ + +4 lb. Copperas. +1/2 " Bluestone. +1/2 " Tartar. + +Bring to the boil, dissolve the copperas, etc., shut off steam, enter the +goods, handle gently (or else they will be faced, i.e., look gray on face +when dyed) for one hour, lift, air, rinse through three warm waters. + +To prepare dye boiler, bring to boil, put in 8 lb. logwood (previously +boiled), 1 lb. black or brown oil soap, shut off steam, enter goods, gently +handle for half an hour, add another pound of soap (have the soap dissolved +ready), and keep moving for another half hour, lift, finish in hand-heat +soap. If very heavy, run through lukewarm water slightly acidulated with +vitriol, rinse, hydro-extract, and hang in stove. Another method to clear +them: Make up three lukewarm waters, in first put some bleaching liquor, in +second a little vitriol, handle these two, and rinse through the third, +hydro-extract, and hang in stove. + +_Note_.--This is the method employed generally in small dye-works for all +dresses for black; their lots are so small. This preparation can be kept +up, if care is taken that none of the sediment of the copperas (oxide of +iron) is introduced when charging, as the oxide of iron creates stains. +This also happens when the water used contains iron in quantity or impure +copperas. The remedy is to substitute half a gill of vitriol in place of +tartar. + +_Silk, wool, and cotton mixed dresses, for black_.--Dye the silk and wool +as before described, and also the cotton in the manner previously +mentioned. + +_Another method to dye the mixed silk and wool and cotton dresses black, +four dresses_.--Bring boiler to the boil, put in 3 or 4 oz. aniline black, +either the deep black or the blue black or a mixture of the two, add 1/4 gill +hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid, or 3 oz. oxalic acid, shut off steam, +enter, and handle for half an hour, lift, rinse through water, dye the +cotton in the manner previously described.--_Dyer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FUEL AND SMOKE. + +[Footnote: Second of two lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, +London, on 17th April, 1886. Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 585, p. 9340.] + +By Prof. OLIVER LODGE. + +LECTURE II. + + +The points to which I specially called your attention in the first lecture, +and which it is necessary to recapitulate to-day, are these: (1) That coal +is distilled, or burned partly into gas, before it can be burned. (2) That +the gas, so given off, if mixed with carbonic acid, cannot be expected to +burn properly or completely. (3) That to burn the gas, a sufficient supply +of air must be introduced at a temperature not low enough to cool the gases +below their igniting point. (4) That in stoking a fire, a small amount +should be added at a time because of the heat required to warm and distill +the fresh coal. (5) That fresh coal should be put in front of or at the +bottom of a fire, so that the gas may be thoroughly heated by the +incandescent mass above and thus, if there be sufficient air, have a chance +of burning. A fire may be inverted, so that the draught proceeds through it +downward. This is the arrangement in several stoves, and in them, of +course, fresh coal is put at the top. + +Two simple principles are at the root of all fire management: (1) Coal gas +must be at a certain temperature before it can burn; and (2) it must have a +sufficient supply of air. Very simple, very obvious, but also extremely +important, and frequently altogether ignored. In a common open fire they +are both ignored. Coal is put on the top of a glowing mass of charcoal, and +the gas distilled off is for a longtime much too cold for ignition, and +when it does catch fire it is too mixed with carbonic acid to burn +completely or steadily. In order to satisfy the first condition better, and +keep the gases at a higher temperature, Dr. Pridgin Teale arranges a +sloping fire-clay slab above his fire. On this the gases play, and its +temperature helps them to ignite. It also acts as a radiator, and is said +to be very efficient. + +In a close stove and in many furnaces the second condition is violated; +there is an insufficient supply of air; fresh coal is put on, and the +feeding doors are shut. Gas is distilled off, but where is it to get any +air from? How on earth can it be expected to burn? Whether it be expected +or not, it certainly does not burn, and such a stove is nothing else than a +gas works, making crude gas, and wasting it--it is a soot and smoke +factory. + +Most slow combustion stoves are apt to err in this way; you make the +combustion slow by cutting off air, and you run the risk of stopping the +combustion altogether. When you wish a stove to burn better, it is +customary to open a trap door below the fuel; this makes the red hot mass +glow more vigorously, but the oxygen will soon become CO_{2}, and be unable +to burn the gas. + +The right way to check the ardor of a stove is not to shut off the air +supply and make it distill its gases unconsumed, but to admit so much air +above the fire that the draught is checked by the chimney ceasing to draw +so fiercely. You at the same time secure better ventilation; and if the +fire becomes visible to the room so much the better and more cheerful. But +if you open up the top of a stove like this, it becomes, to all intents and +purposes, an open fire. Quite so, and in many respects, therefore, an open +fire is an improvement on a close stove. An open fire has faults, and it +certainly wastes heat up the chimney. A close stove may have more +faults--it wastes less _heat_, but it is liable to waste _gas_ up the +chimney--not necessarily visible or smoky gas; it may waste it from coke or +anthracite, as CO. + +You now easily perceive the principles on which so-called smoke consumers +are based. They are all special arrangements or appendages to a furnace for +permitting complete combustion by satisfying the two conditions which had +been violated in its original construction. But there is this difficulty +about the air supply to a furnace: the needful amount is variable if the +stoking be intermittent, and if you let in more than the needful amount, +you are unnecessarily wasting heat and cooling the boiler, or whatever it +is, by a draught of cold air. + +Every time a fresh shovelful is thrown on, a great production of gas +occurs, and if it is to flame it must have a correspondingly great supply +of air. After a time, when the mass has become red hot, it can get nearly +enough air through the bars. But at first the evolution of gas actually +checks the draught. But remember that although no smoke is visible from a +glowing mass, it by no means follows that its combustion is perfect. On an +open fire it probably is perfect, but not necessarily in a close stove or +furnace. If you diminish the supply of air much (as by clogging your +furnace bars and keeping the doors shut), you will be merely distilling +carbonic oxide up the chimney--a poisonous gas, of which probably a +considerable quantity is frequently given off from close stoves. + +Now let us look at some smoke consumers. The diagrams show those of Chubb, +Growthorpe, Ireland and Lowndes, and of Gregory. You see that they all +admit air at the "bridge" or back of the fire, and that this air is warmed +either by passing under or round the furnace, or in one case through hollow +fire bars. The regulation of the air supply is effected by hand, and it is +clear that some of these arrangements are liable to admit an unnecessary +supply of air, while others scarcely admit enough, especially when fresh +coal is put on. This is the difficulty with all these arrangements when +used with ordinary hand--i.e., intermittent--stoking. Two plans are open to +us to overcome the difficulty. Either the stoking and the air supply must +both be regular and continuous, or the air supply be made intermittent to +suit the stoking. The first method is carried out in any of the many forms +of mechanical stoker, of which this of Sinclair's is an admirable specimen. +Fresh fuel is perpetually being pushed on in front, and by alternate +movement of the fire bars the fire is kept in perpetual motion till the +ashes drop out at the back. To such an arrangement as this a steady air +supply can be adjusted, and if the boiler demand is constant there is no +need for smoke, and an inferior fuel may be used. The other plan is to vary +the air supply to suit the stoking. This is effected by Prideaux automatic +furnace doors, which have louvers to remain open for a certain time after +the doors are shut, and so to admit extra air immediately after coal has +been put on, the supply gradually decreasing as distillation ceases. The +worst of air admitted through chinks in the doors, or through partly open +doors, is that it is admitted cold, and scarcely gets thoroughly warm +before it is among the stuff it has to burn. Still this is not a fatal +objection, though a hot blast would be better. Nothing can be worse than +shoveling on a quantity of coal and shutting it up completely. Every +condition of combustion is thus violated, and the intended furnace is a +mere gas retort. + +_Gas Producers_.--Suppose the conditions of combustion are purposely +violated; we at once have a gas producer. That is all gas producers are, +extra bad stoves or furnaces, not always much worse than things which +pretend to serve for combustion. Consider how ordinary gas is made. There +is a red-hot retort or cylinder plunged in a furnace. Into this tube you +shovel a quantity of coal, which flames vigorously as long as the door is +open, but when it is full you shut the door, thus cutting off the supply of +air and extinguishing the flame. Gas is now simply distilled, and passes +along pipes to be purified and stored. You perceive at once that the +difference between a gas retort and an ordinary furnace with closed doors +and half choked fire bars is not very great. Consumption of smoke! It is +not smoke consumers you really want, it is fuel consumers. You distill your +fuel instead of burning it, in fully one-half, might I not say nine-tenths, +of existing furnaces and close stoves. But in an ordinary gas retort the +heat required to distill the gas is furnished by an outside fire; this is +only necessary when you require lighting gas, with no admixture of carbonic +acid and as little carbonic oxide as possible. If you wish for heating gas, +you need no outside fire; a small fire at the bottom of a mass of coal will +serve to distill it, and you will have most of the carbon also converted +into gas. Here, for instance, is Siemens' gas producer. The mass of coal is +burning at the bottom, with a very limited supply of air. The carbonic acid +formed rises over the glowing coke, and takes up another atom of carbon to +form the combustible gas carbonic oxide. This and the hot nitrogen passing +over and through the coal above distill away its volatile constituents, and +the whole mass of gas leaves by the exit pipe. Some art is needed in +adjusting the path of the gases distilled from the fresh coal with +reference to the hot mass below. If they pass too readily, and at too low a +temperature, to the exit pipe, this is apt to get choked with tar and dense +hydrocarbons. If it is carried down near or through the hot fuel below, the +hydrocarbons are decomposed over much, and the quality of the gas becomes +poor. Moreover, it is not possible to make the gases pass freely through a +mass of hot coke; it is apt to get clogged. The best plan is to make the +hydrocarbon gas pass over and near a red-hot surface, so as to have its +heaviest hydrocarbons decomposed, but so as to leave all those which are +able to pass away as gas uninjured, for it is to the presence of these that +the gas will owe its richness as a combustible material, especially when +radiant heat is made use of. + +The only inert and useless gas in an arrangement like this is the nitrogen +of the air, which being in large quantities does act as a serious diluent. +To diminish the proportion of nitrogen, steam is often injected as well as +air. The glowing coke can decompose the steam, forming carbonic oxide and +hydrogen, both combustible. But of course no extra energy can be gained by +the use of steam in this way; all the energy must come from the coke, the +steam being already a perfectly burned product; the use of steam is merely +to serve as a vehicle for converting the carbon into a convenient gaseous +equivalent. Moreover, steam injected into coke cannot keep up the +combustion; it would soon put the fire out unless air is introduced too. +Some air is necessary to keep up the combustion, and therefore some +nitrogen is unavoidable. But some steam is advisable in every gas producer, +unless pure oxygen could be used instead of air; or unless some substance +like quicklime, which holds its oxygen with less vigor than carbon does, +were mixed with the coke and used to maintain the heat necessary for +distillation. A well known gas producer for small scale use is Dowson's. +Steam is superheated in a coil of pipe, and blown through glowing +anthracite along with air. The gas which comes off consists of 20 per cent. +hydrogen, 30 per cent. carbonic oxide, 3 per cent. carbonic acid, and 47 +per cent. nitrogen. It is a weak gas, but it serves for gas engines, and is +used, I believe, by Thompson, of Leeds, for firing glass and pottery in a +gas kiln. It is said to cost 4d. per 1,000 ft., and to be half as good as +coal gas. + +For furnace work, where gas is needed in large quantities, it must be made +on the spot. And what I want to insist upon is this, that all +well-regulated furnaces are gas retorts and combustion chambers combined. +You may talk of burning coal, but you can't do it; you must distill it +first, and you may either waste the gas so formed or you may burn it +properly. The thing is to let in not too much air, but just air enough. +Look, for instance, at Minton's oven for firing pottery. Round the central +chamber are the coal hoppers, and from each of these gas is distilled, +passes into the central chamber, where the ware is stacked, and meeting +with an adjusted supply of air as it rises, it burns in a large flame, +which extends through the whole space and swathes the material to be +heated. It makes its exit by a central hole in the floor, and thence rises +by flues to a common opening above. When these ovens are in thorough +action, nothing visible escapes. The smoke from ordinary potters' ovens is +in Staffordshire a familiar nuisance. In the Siemens gas producer and +furnace, of which Mr. Frederick Siemens has been good enough to lend me +this diagram, the gas is not made so closely on the spot, the gas retort +and furnace being separated by a hundred yards or so in order to give the +required propelling force. But the principle is the same; the coal is first +distilled, then burnt. But to get high temperature, the air supply to the +furnace must be heated, and there must be no excess. If this is carried on +by means of otherwise waste heat we have the regenerative principle, so +admirably applied by the Brothers Siemens, where the waste heat of the +products of combustion is used to heat the incoming air and gas supply. The +reversing arrangement by which the temperature of such a furnace can be +gradually worked up from ordinary flame temperature to something near the +dissociation point of gases, far above the melting point of steel, is well +known, and has already been described in this place. Mr. Siemens has lent +me this beautiful model of the most recent form of his furnace, showing its +application to steel making and to glass working. + +The most remarkable and, at first sight, astounding thing about this +furnace is, however, that it works solely by radiation. The flames do not +touch the material to be heated; they burn above it, and radiate their heat +down to it. This I regard as one of the most important discoveries in the +whole subject, viz., that to get the highest temperature and greatest +economy out of the combustion of coal, one must work directly by radiant +heat only, all other heat being utilized indirectly to warm the air and gas +supply, and thus to raise the flame to an intensely high temperature. + +It is easy to show the effect of supplying a common gas flame with warm air +by holding it over a cylinder packed with wire gauze which has been made +red hot. A common burner held over such a hot air shaft burns far more +brightly and whitely. There is no question but that this is the plan to get +good illumination out of gas combustion; and many regenerative burners are +now in the market, all depending on this principle, and utilizing the waste +heat to make a high temperature flame. But although it is evidently the +right way to get light, it was by no means evidently the right way to get +heat. Yet so it turns out, not by warming solid objects or by dull warm +surfaces, but by the brilliant radiation of the hottest flame that can be +procured, will rooms be warmed in the future. And if one wants to boil a +kettle, it will be done, not by putting it into a non-luminous flame, and +so interfering with the combustion, but by holding it near to a freely +burning regenerated flame, and using the radiation only. Making toast is +the symbol of all the heating of the future, provided we regard Mr. +Siemens' view as well established. + +The ideas are founded on something like the following considerations: Flame +cannot touch a cold surface, i.e., one below the temperature of combustion, +because by the contact it would be put out. Hence, between a flame and the +surface to be heated by it there always intervenes a comparatively cool +space, across which heat must pass by radiation. It is by radiation +ultimately, therefore, that all bodies get heated. This being so, it is +well to increase the radiating power of flame as much as possible. Now, +radiating power depends on two things: the presence of solid matter in the +flame in a fine state of subdivision, and the temperature to which it is +heated. Solid matter is most easily provided by burning a gas rich in dense +hydrocarbons, not a poor and non-luminous gas. To mix the gas with air so +as to destroy and burn up these hydrocarbons seems therefore to be a +retrograde step, useful undoubtedly in certain cases, as in the Bunsen +flame of the laboratory, but not the ideal method of combustion. The ideal +method looks to the use of a very rich gas, and the burning of it with a +maximum of luminosity. The hot products of combustion must give up their +heat by contact. It is for them that cross tubes in boilers are useful. +They have no combustion to be interfered with by cold contacts. The _flame_ +only should be free. + +The second condition of radiation was high temperature. What limits the +temperature of a flame? Dissociation or splitting up of a compound by heat. +So soon as the temperature reaches the dissociation point at which the +compound can no longer exist, combustion ceases. Anything short of this may +theoretically be obtained. + +But Mr. Siemens believes, and adduces some evidence to prove, that the +dissociation point is not a constant and definite temperature for a given +compound; it depends entirely upon whether solid or foreign surfaces are +present or not. These it is which appear to be an efficient cause of +dissociation, and which, therefore, limit the temperature of flame. In the +absence of all solid contact, Mr. Siemens believes that dissociation, if it +occur at all, occurs at an enormously higher temperature, and that the +temperature of free flame can be raised to almost any extent. Whether this +be so or not, his radiating flames are most successful, and the fact that +large quantities of steel are now melted by mere flame radiation speaks +well for the correctness of the theory upon which his practice has been +based. + +_Use of Small Coal_.--Meanwhile, we may just consider how we ought to deal +with solid fuel, whether for the purpose of making gas from it or for +burning it _in situ_. The question arises, In what form ought solid fuel to +be--ought it to be in lumps or in powder? Universal practice says lumps, +but some theoretical considerations would have suggested powder. Remember, +combustion is a chemical action, and when a chemist wishes to act on a +solid easily, he always pulverizes it as a first step. + +Is it not possible that compacting small coal into lumps is a wrong +operation, and that we ought rather to think of breaking big coal down into +slack? The idea was suggested to me by Sir W. Thomson in a chance +conversation, and it struck me at once as a brilliant one. The amount of +coal wasted by being in the form of slack is very great. Thousands of tons +are never raised from the pits because the price is too low to pay for the +raising--in some places it is only 1s. 6d. a ton. Mr. McMillan calculates +that 130,000 tons of breeze, or powdered coke, is produced every year by +the Gas Light and Coke Company alone, and its price is 3s. a ton at the +works, or 5s. delivered. + +The low price and refuse character of small coal is, of course, owing to +the fact that no ordinary furnace can burn it. But picture to yourself a +blast of hot air into which powdered coal is sifted from above like ground +coffee, or like chaff in a thrashing mill, and see how rapidly and +completely it might burn. Fine dust in a flour mill is so combustible as to +be explosive and dangerous, and Mr. Galloway has shown that many colliery +explosions are due not to the presence of gas so much as the presence of +fine coal-dust suspended in the air. If only fine enough, then such dust is +eminently combustible, and a blast containing it might become a veritable +sheet of flame. (Blow lycopodium through a flame.) Feed the coal into a +sort of coffee-mill, there let it be ground and carried forward by a blast +to the furnace where it is to be burned. If the thing would work at all, +almost any kind of refuse fuel could be burned--sawdust, tan, cinder heaps, +organic rubbish of all kinds. The only condition is that it be fine enough. + +Attempts in this direction have been made by Mr. T.R. Crampton, by Messrs. +Whelpley and Storer, and by Mr. G.K. Stephenson; but a difficulty has +presented itself which seems at present to be insuperable, that the slag +fluxes the walls of the furnace, and at that high temperature destroys +them. If it be feasible to keep the flame out of contact with solid +surfaces, however, perhaps even this difficulty can be overcome. + +Some success in blast burning of dust fuel has been attained in the more +commonplace method of the blacksmith's forge, and a boiler furnace is +arranged at Messrs. Donkin's works at Bermondsey on this principle. A +pressure of about half an inch of water is produced by a fan and used to +drive air through the bars into a chimney draw of another half-inch. The +fire bars are protected from the high temperatures by having blades which +dip into water, and so keep fairly cool. A totally different method of +burning dust fuel by smouldering is attained in M. Ferret's low temperature +furnace by exposing the fuel in a series of broad, shallow trays to a +gentle draught of air. The fuel is fed into the top of such a furnace, and +either by raking or by shaking it descends occasionally, stage by stage, +till it arrives at the bottom, where it is utterly inorganic and mere +refuse. A beautiful earthworm economy of the last dregs of combustible +matter in any kind of refuse can thus be attained. Such methods of +combustion as this, though valuable, are plainly of limited application; +but for the great bulk of fuel consumption some gas-making process must be +looked to. No crude combustion of solid fuel can give ultimate perfection. + +Coal tar products, though not so expensive as they were some time back, are +still too valuable entirely to waste, and the importance of exceedingly +cheap and fertilizing manure in the reclamation of waste lands and the +improvement of soil is a question likely to become of most supreme +importance in this overcrowded island. Indeed, if we are to believe the +social philosophers, the naturally fertile lands of the earth may before +long become insufficient for the needs of the human race; and posterity may +then be largely dependent for their daily bread upon the fertilizing +essences of the stored-up plants of the carboniferous epoch, just as we are +largely dependent on the stored-up sunlight of that period for our light, +our warmth, and our power. They will not then burn crude coal, therefore. +They will carefully distill it--extract its valuable juices--and will +supply for combustion only its carbureted hydrogen and its carbon in some +gaseous or finely divided form. + +Gaseous fuel is more manageable in every way than solid fuel, and is far +more easily and reliably conveyed from place to place. Dr. Siemens, you +remember, expected that coal would not even be raised, but turned into gas +in the pits, to rise by its own buoyancy to be burnt on the surface +wherever wanted. And not only will the useful products be first removed and +saved, its sulphur will be removed too; not because it is valuable, but +because its product of combustion is a poisonous nuisance. Depend upon it, +the cities of the future will not allow people to turn sulphurous acid +wholesale into the air, there to oxidize and become oil of vitriol. Even if +it entails a slight strain upon the purse they will, I hope, be wise enough +to prefer it to the more serious strain upon their lungs. We forbid sulphur +as much as possible in our lighting gas, because we find it is deleterious +in our rooms. But what is London but one huge room packed with over four +millions of inhabitants? The air of a city is limited, fearfully limited, +and we allow all this horrible stuff to be belched out of hundreds of +thousands of chimneys all day long. + +Get up and see London at four or five in the morning, and compare it with +four or five in the afternoon; the contrast is painful. A city might be +delightful, but you make it loathsome; not only by smoke, indeed, but still +greatly by smoke. When no one is about, then the air is almost pure; have +it well fouled before you rise to enjoy it. Where no one lives, the breeze +of heaven still blows; where human life is thickest, there it is not fit to +live. Is it not an anomaly, is it not farcical? What term is strong enough +to stigmatize such suicidal folly? But we will not be in earnest, and our +rulers will talk, and our lives will go on and go out, and next century +will be soon upon us, and here is a reform gigantic, ready to our hands, +easy to accomplish, really easy to accomplish if the right heads and +vigorous means were devoted to it. Surely something will be done. + +The following references may be found useful in seeking for more detailed +information: Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee for 1882, by Chandler +Roberts and D.K. Clark. "How to Use Gas," by F.T. Bond; Sanitary +Association, Gloucester. "Recovery of Volatile Constituents of Coal," by +T.B. Lightfoot; Journal Society of Arts, May, 1883. "Manufacture of Gas +from Oil," by H.E. Armstrong; Journal Society of Chemical Industry, +September, 1884. "Coking Coal," by H.E. Armstrong; Iron and Steel +Institute, 1885. "Modified Siemens Producer," by John Head; Iron and Steel +Institute, 1885. "Utilization of Dust Fuel," by W.G. McMillan; Journal +Society of Arts, April. 1886. "Gas Producers," by Rowan; Proc. Inst. C.E., +January, 1886. "Regenerative Furnaces with Radiation," and "On Producers," +by F. Siemens; Journal Soc. Chem. Industry, July, 1885, and November, 1885. +"Fireplace Construction," by Pridgin Teale; the _Builder_, February, 1886. +"On Dissociation Temperatures," by Frederick Siemens; Royal Institution, +May 7, 1886. + + * * * * * + +Near Colorados, in the Argentine Republic, a large bed of superior coal has +been opened, and to the west of the Province of Buenos Ayres extensive +borax deposits have been discovered. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER. + + +The accompanying engraving illustrates a remarkable invention. For ages, +screw conveyers for corn and meal have been employed, and in spite of the +power consumed and the rubbing of the material conveyed, they have +remained, with little exception, unimproved and without a rival. Now we +have a new conveyer, which, says _The Engineer_, in its simplicity excels +anything brought out for many years, and, until it is seen at work, makes a +heavier demand upon one's credulity than is often made by new mechanical +inventions. As will be seen from the engravings, the new conveyer consists +simply of a spiral of round steel rod mounted upon a quickly revolving +spindle by means of suitable clamps and arms. The spiral as made for +England is of 5/8 in. steel rod, because English people would not be +inclined to try what is really sufficient in most cases, namely, a mere +wire. The working of this spiral as a conveyer is simply magical. A 6 in. +spiral delivers 800 bushels per hour at 100 revolutions per minute, and +more in proportion at higher speeds. A little 4 in. spiral delivers 200 +bushels per hour at 100 revolutions per minute. It seems to act as a mere +persuader. The spiral moves a small quantity, and sets the whole contents +of the trough in motion. In fact, it embodies the great essentials of +success, namely, simplicity, great capacity for work, and cheapness. It is +the invention of Mr. J. Little, and is made by the Anti-friction Conveyer +Company, of 59 Mark Lane, London. + +[Illustration: THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER WITH CASING OR TROUGH--END +VIEW WITH HANGER.] + +Since the days of Archimedes, who is credited with being the inventor of +the screw, there has not been any improvement in the principle of the worm +conveyer. There have been several patents taken out for improved methods of +manufacturing the old-fashioned continuous and paddle-blade worms, but Mr. +Little's patent is the first for an entirely new kind of conveyer. + + * * * * * + + + + +STUDIES IN PYROTECHNY. + +[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 583, page 9303.] + +II. METHODS OF ILLUMINATION. + + +_Torches_ consist of a bundle of loosely twisted threads which has been +immersed in a mixture formed of two parts, by weight, of beeswax, eight of +resin, and one of tallow. In warm, dry weather, these torches when lighted +last for two hours when at rest, and for an hour and a quarter on a march. +A good light is obtained by spacing them 20 or 30 yards apart. + +Another style of torch consists of a cardboard cylinder fitted with a +composition consisting of 100 parts of saltpeter, 60 of sulphur, 8 of +priming powder, and 30 of pulverized glass, the whole sifted and well +mixed. This torch, which burns for a quarter of an hour, illuminates a +space within a radius of 180 or 200 yards very well. + +The _tourteau goudronne_ (lit. "tarred coke") is merely a ring formed of +old lunt or of cords well beaten with a mallet (Fig. 10). This ring is +first impregnated with a composition formed of 20 parts of black pitch +and 1 of tallow, and then with another one formed of equal parts of +black pitch and resin. One of these torches will burn for an hour in +calm weather, and half an hour in the wind. Rain does not affect the +burning of it. These rings are usually arranged in pairs on brackets +with two branches and an upper circle, the whole of iron, and these +brackets are spaced a hundred yards apart. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 9 TO 16.--VARIOUS PYROTECHNIC DEVICES.] + +[Illustration: FIGS. 17.--ILLUMINATING ROCKET.] + +A _tarred fascine_ consists of a small fagot of dry wood, 20 inches in +length by 4 in diameter, covered with the same composition as the preceding +(Fig. 11). Fascines thus prepared burn for about half an hour. They are +placed upright in supports, and these latter are located at intervals of +twenty yards. + +The _Lamarre compositions_ are all formed of a combustible substance, such +as boiled oil,[1] of a substance that burns, such as chlorate of potash, +and of various coloring salts. + +[Footnote 1: For preparation see page 9304 of SUPPLEMENT.] + +The _white composition_ used for charging fire balls and 11/2 inch flambeaux +is formed of 500 parts of powdered chlorate of potash, 1,500 of nitrate of +baryta, 120 of light wood charcoal, and 250 of boiled oil. Another white +composition, used for charging 3/4 inch flambeaux, consists of 1,000 parts of +chlorate of potash, 1,000 of nitrate of baryta, and 175 of boiled oil. + +The _red composition_ used for making red flambeaux and percussion signals +consists of 1,800 parts of chlorate of potash, 300 of oxalate of strontia, +300 of carbonate of strontia, 48 of whitewood charcoal, 240 of boiled oil, +6 of oil, and 14 of gum lac. + +A red or white _Lamarre flambeau_ consists of a sheet rubber tube filled +with one of the above-named compositions. The lower extremity of this tube +is closed with a cork. When the charging has been effected, the flambeau is +primed by inserting a quickmatch in the composition. This is simply lighted +with a match or a live coal. The composition of the Lamarre quickmatch will +be given hereafter. + +A Lamarre flambeau 11/2 inch in diameter and 3 inches in length will burn for +about thirty-five minutes. One of the same length, and 3/4 inch in diameter, +lasts but a quarter of an hour. + +A _fire ball_ consists of an open work sack internally strengthened with a +sheet iron shell, and fitted with the Lamarre white composition. After the +charging has been done, the sphere is wound with string, which is made to +adhere by means of tar, and canvas is then wrapped around the whole. +Projectiles of this kind, which have diameters of 6, 8, 11, and 13 inches, +are shot from mortars. + +The _illuminating grenade_ (Fig. 13) consists of a sphere of vulcanized +rubber, two inches in diameter, charged with the Lamarre white composition. +The sphere contains an aperture to allow of the insertion of a fuse. The +priming is effected by means of a tin tube filled with a composition +consisting of three parts of priming powder, two of sulphur, and one of +saltpeter. These grenades are thrown either by hand or with a sling, and +they may likewise be shot from mortars. Each of these projectiles +illuminates a circle thirty feet in diameter for a space of time that +varies, according to the wind, from sixty to eighty seconds. + +The _percussion signal_ (Fig. 14) consists of a cylinder of zinc, one inch +in diameter and one and a quarter inch in length, filled with Lamarre red +composition. It is provided with a wooden handle, and the fuse consists of +a capsule which is exploded by striking it against some rough object. This +signal burns for nearly a minute. + +_Belgian illuminating balls and cylinders_ are canvas bags filled with +certain compositions. The cylinders, five inches in diameter and seven in +length, are charged with a mixture of six parts of sulphur, two of priming +powder, one of antimony, and two of beeswax cut up into thin slices. They +are primed with a quickmatch. The balls, one and a half inch in diameter, +are charged with a composition consisting of twelve parts of saltpeter, +eight of sulphur, four of priming powder, two of sawdust, two of beeswax, +and two of tallow. They are thrown by hand. They burn for six minutes. + +_Illuminating kegs_ (Fig. 15) consist of powder kegs filled with shavings +covered with pitch. An aperture two or three inches in diameter is made in +each head, and then a large number of holes, half an inch in diameter, and +arranged quincuncially, are bored in the staves and heads. All these +apertures are filled with port-fires. + +The _illuminating rocket_ (Fig. 17) consists of a sheet iron cartridge, +_a_, containing a composition designed to give it motion, of a cylinder, +_b_, of sheet iron, capped with a cone of the same material and containing +illuminating stars of Lamarre composition and an explosive for expelling +them, and, finally, of a directing stick, _c_. Priming is effected by means +of a bunch of quickmatches inclosed in a cardboard tube placed in contact +with the propelling composition. This latter is the same as that used in +signal rockets. As in the case of the latter, a space is left in the axis +of the cartridges. These rockets are fired from a trough placed at an +inclination of fifty or sixty degrees. Those of three inches illuminate the +earth for a distance of 900 yards. They may be used to advantage in the +operation of signaling. + +A _parachute fire_ is a device designed to be ejected from a pot at the end +of the rocket's travel, and to emit a bright light during its slow descent. +It consists of a small cylindrical cardboard box (Fig. 16) filled with +common star paste or Lamarre stars, and attached to a parachute, _e_, by +means of a small brass chain, _d_. + +To make this parachute, we cut a circle ten feet in diameter out of a piece +of calico, and divide its circumference into ten or twelve equal parts. At +each point of division we attach a piece of fine hempen cord about three +feet in length, and connect these cords with each other, as well as with +the suspension chain, by ligatures that are protected against the fire by +means of balls of sized paper. + +In rockets designed to receive these parachutes, a small cavity is reserved +at the extremity of the cartridge for the reception of 225 grains of +powder. To fill the pot, the chain, _d_, is rolled spirally around the box, +_c_, and the latter is covered with the parachute, _e_, which has been +folded in plaits, and then folded lengthwise alternately in one direction +and the other. + +The _parachute port-fire_ consists of a cardboard tube of from quarter to +half an inch in diameter, and from four to five inches in length, closed at +one extremity and filled with star paste. This is connected by a brass wire +with a cotton parachute eight inches in diameter. A rocket pot is capable +of holding twenty of these port-fires. + +Parachute fires and port-fires are used to advantage in the operation of +signaling.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN LAYING OUT FRAMES OF VESSELS--THE FRAME TRACER. + +By GUSTAVE SONNENBURG. + + +To avoid the long and time-consuming laying out of a boat by ordinates and +abscissas, I have constructed a handy apparatus, by which it is possible +without much trouble to obtain the sections of a vessel graphically and +sufficiently accurate. The description of its construction is given with +reference to the accompanying cut. A is a wooden rod of rectangular +section, to which are adapted two brackets, a_{1} a_{2}, lined with India +rubber or leather; a_{1} is fixed to the wood, a_{2} is of metal, and, like +the movable block of a slide gauge, moves along A. In the same plane is a +second rod, perpendicular to A, and attached thereto, which is perforated +by a number of holes. A revolving pin, C, is adapted to pass through these +holes, to which a socket, D, is pivoted, C acting as its axis. To prevent +this pin from falling out, it is secured by a nut behind the rod. Through +the socket, D, runs a rod, E, which carries the guide point, s_{1}, and +pencil, s_{2}. Over s_{1} a rubber band is stretched, to prevent injury to +the varnish of the boat. Back of and to A and B a drawing board is +attached, over which a sheet of paper is stretched. + +[Illustration: THE FRAME TRACER.] + +The method of obtaining a section line is as follows: The rod, A, is placed +across the gunwale and perpendicular to the axis of the boat, and its +anterior vertical face is adjusted to each frame of the boat which it is +desired to reproduce. By means of the brackets, a_{1} and a_{2}, A is fixed +in place. The bolt, C, is now placed in the perforations already alluded +to, which are recognized as most available for producing the constructional +diagram. At the same time the position of the pencil point, s_{2}, must be +chosen for obtaining the best results. + +Next the operator moves along the side of the boat the sharpened end, +s_{1}, of the rod, E, and thus for the curve from keel to gunwale, s_{2} +describes a construction line. It is at once evident that a_{2}, for +example, corresponds to the point, a_{1}. The apparatus is now removed and +placed on the working floor. If, reversing things, the point, s_{1}, is +carried around the construction curve, the point, s_{2}, will inscribe the +desired section in its natural dimensions. This operation is best conducted +after one has chosen and described all the construction curves of the +boat. Next, the different section lines are determined, one by one, by the +reversed method above described. The result is a half section of the boat; +the other symmetrical half is easily obtained. + +If the whole process is repeated for the other side of the boat, tracing +paper being used instead of drawing paper, the boat may be tested for +symmetry of building, a good control for the value of the ship. For +measuring boats, as for clubs and regattas, for seamen, and often for the +so-called _Spranzen_ (copying) of English models, my apparatus, I doubt +not, will be very useful.--_Neuste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen_. + + * * * * * + + + + +TAR FOR FIRING RETORTS. + + +The attention of gas engineers has been forcibly directed to the use of tar +as a fuel for the firing of retorts, now that this once high-priced +material is suffering, like everything else (but, perhaps, to a more marked +extent), by what is called "depression in trade." In fact, it has in many +places reached so low a commercial value that it is profitable to burn it +as a fuel. Happily, this is not the case at Nottingham; and our interest in +tar as a fuel is more experimental, in view of what may happen if a further +fall in tar products sets in. I have abandoned the use of steam injection +for our experimental tar fires in favor of another system. The steam +injectors produce excellent heats, but are rather intermittent in their +action, and the steam they require is a serious item, and not always +available. + +[Illustration] + +Tar being a _pseudo_ liquid fuel, in arranging for its combustion one has +to provide for the 20 to 25 per cent. of solid carbon which it contains, +and which is deposited in the furnace as a kind of coke or breeze on the +distillation of the volatile portions, which are much more easily consumed +than the tar coke. + + +THE TAR FIRE + +I have adopted is one that can be readily adapted to an ordinary coke +furnace, and be as readily removed, leaving the furnace as before. The +diagram conveys some idea of the method adopted. An iron frame, d, standing +on legs on the floor just in front of the furnace door, carries three fire +tiles on iron bearers. The top one, a, is not moved, and serves to shield +the upper face of the tile, b, from the fierce heat radiated from the +furnace, and also causes the air that rushes into the furnace between the +tiles, a and b, to travel over the upper face of the tile, b, on which the +tar flows, thereby keeping it cool, and preventing the tar from bursting +into flame until it reaches the edge of the tile, b, over the whole edge of +which it is made to run fairly well by a distributing arrangement. A rapid +combustion takes place here, but some unconsumed tar falls on to the bed +below. About one-third of the grate area is filled up by a fire tile, and +on this the tar coke falls. The tile, c, is moved away from time to time, +and the tar coke that accumulates in front of it is pushed back on to the +fire bars, e, at the back of the furnace, to be there consumed. Air is thus +admitted, by three narrow slot-like openings, to the front of the furnace +between the tiles, a, b, and c, and under c and through the fire bars, e. +The air openings below are about three times the area of the openings in +the front of the furnace; but as the openings between the fire bars and the +tiles are always more or less covered by tar coke, it is impossible to say +what the effective openings are. This disposition answers admirably, and +requires little attention. Three minutes per hour per fire seems to be the +average, and the labor is of a very light kind, consisting of clearing the +passages between the tiles, and occasionally pushing back the coke on to +the fire bars. These latter are not interfered with, and will not require +cleaning unless any bricks in the furnace have been melted, when a bed of +slag will be found on them. + + +THE AMOUNT OF DRAUGHT + +required for these fires is very small, and less than with coke firing. I +find that 0.08 in. vacuum is sufficient with tar fires, and 0.25 in. for +coke fires. The fires would require less attention with more draught and +larger tar supply, as the apertures do not so easily close with a sharp +draught, and the tar is better carried forward into the furnace. A regular +feed of tar is required, and considerable difficulty seems to have been +experienced in obtaining this. So long as we employed ordinary forms of +taps or valves, so long (even with filtration) did we experience +difficulties with the flow of viscous tar. But on the construction of +valves specially designed for the regulation of its flow, the difficulty +immediately disappeared, and there is no longer the slightest trouble on +this account. The labor connected with the feeding of furnaces with coke +and cleaning fires from clinker is of a very arduous and heavy nature. +Eight coke fires are normally considered to be work for one man. A lad +could work sixteen of these tar fires. + + +COMPOSITION OF FURNACE GASES. + +Considerable attention has been paid to the composition of the furnace +gases from the tar fires. The slightest deficiency in the air supply, of +course, results in the immediate production of smoke, so that the damper +must be set to provide always a sufficient air supply. Under these +circumstances of damper, the following analyses of combustion gases from +tar fires have been obtained: + + No Smoke. + CO_{2}. O. CO. + 11.7 5.0 Not determined. + 13.3 3.7 " + 10.8 5.4 " + 14.8 2.5 " + 13.5 3.0 " + 12.4 5.6 " + 12.4 4.6 " + 13.1 5.9 " + 15.3 1.0 " + 10.8 4.0 " + 14.0 2.8 " + ______ ______ + Average 12.9 3.9 +(11 analyses) ______ ______ + 11.5 Not determined. + 14.3 " + 14.6 " + +Damper adjusted so that a slight smoke was observable in the combustion +gases. + + CO_{2}. O. CO. + 17.30 None. Not determined. + 16.60 " " + 16.50 0.1 " + 15.80 0.1 " + 16.20 1.8 0.7 + _______ _____ _____ +Average 16.48 0.4 0.7 + +--_Gas Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW MERCURY PUMP. + + +The mercury pumps now in use, whether those of Geissler, Alvergniat, +Toepler, or Sprengel, although possessed of considerable advantages, have +also serious defects. For instance, Geissler's pump requires a considerable +number of taps, that of Alvergniat and Toepler is very fragile in +consequence of its complicated system of tubes connected together, and that +of Sprengel is only suitable for certain purposes. + +The new mercury pump constructed by Messrs. Greisser and Friedrichs, at +Stutzerbach, is remarkable for simplicity of construction and for the ease +with which it is manipulated, and also because it enables us to arrive at a +perfect vacuum. + +The characteristic of this pump is, according to _La Lumiere Electrique_, a +tap of peculiar construction. It has two tubes placed obliquely in respect +to its axis, which, when we turn this tap 90 or 180 degrees, are brought +opposite one of the three openings in the body of the tap. + +Thus the striae that are formed between the hollowed-out parts of the tap do +not affect its tightness; and, besides, the turns of the tap have for their +principal positions 90 and 180 degrees, instead of 45 and 90 degrees, as in +Geissler's pump. + +The working of the apparatus, which only requires the manipulation of a +single tap, is very simple. When the mercury is raised, the tap is turned +in such a manner that the surplus of the liquid can pass into the enlarged +appendage, a, placed above the tap, and communication is then cut off by +turning the tap to 90 degrees. + +The mercury reservoir having descended, the bulb empties itself, and then +the tap is turned on again, in order to establish communication with the +exhausting tube. The tap is then closed, the mercury ascends again, and +this action keeps on repeating. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + +NO ELECTRICITY FROM THE CONDENSATION OF VAPOR.--It has been maintained by +Palmieri and others that the condensation of vapor results in the +production of an electrical charge. Herr S. Kalischer has renewed his +investigations upon this point, and believes that he has proved that no +electricity results from such condensation. Atmospheric vapor was condensed +upon a vessel coated with tin foil, filled with ice, carefully insulated, +and connected with a very sensitive electrometer. No evidence could be +obtained of electricity.--_Ann. der Physik und Chemie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER. + + +An interesting contribution was made by M. Mercadier in a recent number of +the _Comptes Rendus de l'Academie Francaise_. On the ground of some novel +and some already accepted experimental evidence, M. Mercadier holds that +the mechanism by virtue of which the telephonic diaphragms execute their +movements is analogous to, if not identical with, that by which solid +bodies of any form, a wall for instance, transmit to one of their surfaces +all the vibratory movements of any kind which are produced in the air in +contact with the other surface. It is a phenomenon or resonance. Movements +corresponding to particular sounds may be superposed in slender diaphragms, +but this superposition must necessarily be disturbing under all but +exceptional circumstances. In proof of this view, it is cited that +diaphragms much too rigid, or charged with irregularly distributed masses +over the surface, or pierced with holes, or otherwise evidently unfitted +for the purpose, are available for transmission. They will likewise serve +when feathers, wool, wood, metals, mica, and other substances to the +thickness of four inches are placed between the diaphragm and the source of +vibratory movement. The magnetic field does not alter these relations in +any way. The real diaphragm may be removed altogether. It is sufficient to +replace it by a few grains of iron filings thrown on the pole covered with +a piece of pasteboard or paper. Such a telephone works distinctly although +feebly; but any slender flexible disk, metallic or not, spread over across +the opening of the cover of the instrument, with one or two tenths of a +gramme (three grains) of iron filings, will yield results of increased and +even ordinary intensity. This is the iron filing telephone, which is +reversible; for a given magnetic field there is a certain weight of iron +filings for maximum intensity. It appears thus that the advantage of the +iron diaphragm over iron filings reduces itself to presenting in a certain +volume a much more considerable number of magnetic molecules to the action +of the field. The iron diaphragm increases the telephonic intensity, but it +is by no means indispensable. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON ELECTRO-DISSOLUTION, AND ITS USE AS REGARDS ANALYSIS. + +By H.N. WARREN, Research Analyst. + + +On the same principle that electro-dissolution is used for the estimation +of combined carbon in steel, etc., I have lately varied the experiment by +introducing, instead of steel, iron containing a certain percentage of +boron, and, having connected the respective boride with the positive pole +of a powerful battery, and to the negative a plate of platinum, using as a +solvent dilute sulphuric acid, I observed, after the lapse of about twelve +hours, the iron had entirely passed into solution, and a considerable +amount of brownish precipitate had collected at the bottom of the vessel, +intercepted by flakes of graphite and carbon; the precipitate, having been +collected on a filter paper, washed, and dried, on examination proved to be +amorphous boron, containing graphite and other impurities, which had become +chemically introduced during the preparation of the boron compound. The +boron was next introduced into a small clay crucible, and intensely heated +in a current of hydrogen gas, for the purpose of rendering it more dense +and destroying its pyrophoric properties, and was lastly introduced into a +combustion tubing, heated to bright redness, and a stream of dry carbonic +anhydride passed over it, in order to separate the carbon, finally pure +boron being obtained. + +In like manner silicon-eisen, containing 9 per cent. of silicon, was +treated, but not giving so satisfactory a result. A small quantity only of +silicon separates in the uncombined form, the greater quantity separating +in the form of silica, SiO_{2}, the amorphous silicon so obtained +apparently being more prone to oxidation than the boron so obtained. + +Ferrous sulphide was next similarly treated, and gave, after the lapse of a +few hours, a copious blackish precipitation of sulphur, and possessing +properties similar to the sulphur obtained by dissolving sulphides such as +cupric sulphide in dilute nitric acid, in all other respects resembling +common sulphur. + +Phosphides of iron, zinc, etc., were next introduced, and gave, besides +carbon and other impurities, a residue containing a large percentage of +phosphorus, which differed from ordinary phosphorus with respect to its +insolubility in carbon disulphide, and which resembled the reaction in the +case with silicon-eisen rather than that of the boron compound, insomuch +that a large quantity of the phosphorus had passed into solution. + +A rod of impure copper, containing arsenic, iron, zinc, and other +impurities, was next substituted, using hydrochloric acid as a solvent in +place of sulphuric acid. In the course of a day the copper had entirely +dissolved and precipitated itself on the negative electrode, the impurities +remaining in solution. The copper, after having been washed, dried, and +weighed, gave identical results with regard to percentage with a careful +gravimetric estimation. I have lately used this method, and obtained +excellent results with respect to the analysis of commercial copper, +especially in the estimation of small quantities of arsenic, thus enabling +the experimenter to perform his investigation on a much larger quantity +than when precipitation is resorted to, at the same time avoiding the +precipitated copper carrying down with it the arsenic. I have in this +manner detected arsenic in commercial copper when all other methods have +totally failed. I have also found the above method especially applicable +with respect to the analysis of brass. + +With respect to ammoniacal dissolution, which I will briefly mention, a rod +composed of an alloy of copper and silver was experimented upon, the copper +becoming entirely dissolved and precipitating itself on the platinum +electrode, the whole of the silver remaining suspended to the positive +electrode in an aborescent form. Arsenide of zinc was similarly treated, +the arsenic becoming precipitated in like manner on the platinum electrode. +Various other alloys, being experimented upon, gave similar results. + +I may also, in the last instance, mention that I have found the above +methods of electro-dissolution peculiarly adapted for the preparation of +unstable compounds such as stannic nitrate, potassic ferrate, ferric +acetate, which are decomposed on the application of heat, and in some +instances have succeeded by the following means of crystallizing the +resulting compound obtained.--_Chem. News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEWLY DISCOVERED SUBSTANCE IN URINE. + + +Dr. Leo's researches on sugar in urine are interesting, and tend to correct +the commonly accepted views on the subject. Professor Scheibler, a chemist +well known for his researches on sugar, has observed that the determination +of the quantity of that substance contained in a liquid gives different +results, according as it is done by Trommer's method or with the +polariscope. As sugar nowadays is exclusively dealt with according to the +degree of polarization, this fact is of enormous value in trade. Scheibler +has isolated a substance that is more powerful in that respect than grape +sugar. Dr. Leo's researches yield analogous results, though in a different +field. He has examined a great quantity of diabetic urine after three +different methods, namely, Trommer's (alkaline solution of copper); by +fermentation; and with the polarization apparatus. In many cases the +results agreed, while in others there was a considerable difference. + +He succeeded in isolating a substance corresponding in its chemical +composition to grape sugar, and also a carbo-hydrate differing considerably +from grape sugar, and turning the plane of polarization to the left. The +power of reduction of this newly discovered substance is to that of grape +sugar as 1:2.48. Dr. Leo found this substance in three specimens of +diabetic urine, but it was absent in normal urine, although a great amount +was examined for that purpose. From this it may be concluded that the +substance does not originate outside the organism, and that it is a +pathological product. The theory of Dr. Jaques Meyer, of Carlsbad, that it +may be connected with obesity, is negatived by the fact that of the three +persons in whom this substance was found, only one was corpulent. + + * * * * * + + + + +FURNACE FOR DECOMPOSING CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM. + + +[Illustration] + +The problem of decomposing chloride of magnesium is one which has attracted +the attention of technical chemists for many years. The solution of this +problem would be of great importance to the alkali trade, and, +consequently, to nearly every industry. The late Mr. Weldon made many +experiments on this subject, but without any particular success. Of late a +furnace has been patented in Germany, by A. Vogt, which is worked on a +principle similar to that applied to salt cake furnaces; but with this +difference, that in place of the pot it has a revolving drum, and instead +of the roaster a furnace with a number of shelves. The heating gases are +furnished by a producer, and pass from below upward over the shelves, S, +then through the channel, C, into the drum, D, which contains the +concentrated chloride of magnesium. When the latter has solidified, but +before being to any extent decomposed, it is removed from the drum and +placed on the top shelf of the furnace. It is then gradually removed one +shelf lower as the decomposition increases, until it arrives at the bottom +shelf, where it is completely decomposed in the state of magnesia, which is +emptied through, E. The drum, D, after being emptied, is again filled with +concentrated solution of chloride of magnesium. The hydrochloric acid +leaves through F and G. If, instead of hydrochloric acid, chlorine is to be +evolved, it is necessary to heat the furnace by means of hot air, as +otherwise the carbonic acid in the gases from the generator would prevent +the formation of bleaching powder. The air is heated in two regenerating +chambers, which are placed below the furnace.--_Industries_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FILTRATION AND THE SECRETION THEORY. + + +At a recent meeting of the Physiological Society, Dr. J. Munk reported on +experiments instituted by him in the course of the last two years with a +view of arriving at an experimental decision between the two theories of +the secretion of urine--the filtration theory of Ludwig and the secretion +theory of Heidenhain. According to the first theory, the blood pressure +prescribed the measure for the urine secretion; according to the second +theory, the urine got secreted from the secretory epithelial cells of the +kidneys, and the quantity of the matter secreted was dependent on the rate +of movement of the circulation of the blood. The speaker had instituted his +experiments on excided but living kidneys, through which he conducted +defibrinized blood of the same animals, under pressures which he was able +to vary at pleasure between 80 mm. and 190 mm. Fifty experiments on dogs +whose blood and kidneys were, during the experiment, kept at 40 deg. C., +yielded the result that the blood of starving animals induced no secretion +of urine, which on the other hand showed itself in copious quantities where +normal blood was conducted through the kidney. If to the famished blood was +added one of the substances contained as ultimate products of digestion in +the blood, such, for example, as urea, then did the secretion ensue. + +The fluid dropping from the ureter contained more urea than did the blood. +That fluid was therefore no filtrate, but a secretion. An enhancement of +the pressure of the blood flowing through the kidney had no influence on +the quantity of the secretion passing away. An increased rate of movement +on the part of the blood, on the other hand, increased in equal degree the +quantity of urine. On a solution of common salt or of mere serum sanguinis +being poured through the kidney, no secretion followed. All these facts, +involving the exclusion of the possibility of a central influence being +exercised from, the heart or from the nervous system on the kidneys, were +deemed by the speaker arguments proving that the urine was secreted by the +renal epithelial cells. A series of diuretics was next tried, in order to +establish whether they operated in the way of stimulus centrally on the +heart or peripherally on the renal cells. Digitalis was a central diuretic. +Common salt, on the other hand, was a peripheral diuretic. Added in the +portion of 2 per cent. to the blood, it increased the quantity of urine +eight to fifteen fold. Even in much less doses, it was a powerful diuretic. +In a similar manner, if yet not so intensely, operated saltpeter and +coffeine, as also urea and pilocarpine. On the introduction, however, of +the last substance into the blood, the rate of circulation was accelerated +in an equal measure as was the quantity of urine increased, so that in this +case the increase in the quantity of urine was, perhaps, exclusively +conditioned by the greater speed in the movement of the blood. On the other +hand, the quantity of secreted urine was reduced when morphine or strychine +was administered to the blood. In the case of the application of +strychnine, the rate in the current of the blood was retarded in a +proportion equal to the reduction in the secretion of the urine. + +The speaker had, finally, demonstrated the synthesis of hippuric acid and +sulphate of phenol in the excided kidney as a function of its cells, by +adding to the blood pouring through the kidney, in the first place, benzoic +acid and glycol; in the second place, phenol and sulphate of soda. In order +that these syntheses might make their appearance in the excided kidney, the +presence of the blood corpuscles was not necessary, though, indeed, the +presence of oxygen in the blood was indispensable. + + * * * * * + + + + +VARYING CYLINDRICAL LENS. + +By TEMPEST ANDERSON, M.D., B. Sc. + + +The author has had constructed a cylindrical lens in which the axis remains +constant in direction and amount of refraction, while the refraction in the +meridian at right angles to this varies continuously. + +A cone may be regarded as a succession of cylinders of different diameters +graduating into one another by exceedingly small steps, so that if a short +enough portion be considered, its curvature at any point may be regarded as +cylindrical. A lens with one side plane and the other ground on a conical +tool is therefore a concave cylindrical lens varying in concavity at +different parts according to the diameter of the cone at the corresponding +part. Two such lenses mounted with axes parallel and with curvatures +varying in opposite directions produce a compound cylindrical lens, whose +refraction in the direction of the axes is zero, and whose refraction in +the meridian at right angles to this is at any point the sum of the +refractions of the two lenses. This sum is nearly constant for a +considerable distance along the axis so long as the same position of the +lenses is maintained. If the lenses be slid one over the other in the +direction of their axes, this sum changes, and we have a varying +cylindrical lens. The lens is graduated by marking on the frame the +relative position of the lenses when cylindrical lenses of known power are +neutralized. + +Lenses were exhibited to the Royal Society, London, varying from to -6 DCy, +and from to +6 DCy. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LAWS OF THE ABSORPTION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS. + +By H. BECQUEREL. + + +1. The absorption spectrum observed through a crystal varies with the +direction of the rectilinear luminous vibration which propagates itself in +this crystal. 2. The bands or rays observed through the same crystal have, +in the spectrum, fixed positions, their intensity alone varying. 3. For a +given band or ray there exist in the crystal three rectangular directions +of symmetry, according to one of which the band generally disappears, so +that for a suitable direction of the luminous vibrations the crystal no +longer absorbs the radiations corresponding to the region of the spectrum +where the band question appeared. These three directions may be called the +principal directions of absorption, relative to this band. 4. In the +orthorhombic crystals, by a necessary consequence of crystalline symmetry, +the principal directions of absorption of all the bands coincide with the +three axes of symmetry. We may thus observe three principal absorption +spectra. In uniaxial crystals the number of absorption spectra is reduced +to two. 5. In clinorhombic crystals one of the principal directions of +absorption of each crystal coincides with the only axis of symmetry; the +two other principal rectangular directions of each band may be found +variously disposed in the plane normal to this axis. Most commonly these +principal directions are very near to the principal corresponding +directions of optical elasticity. 6. In various crystals the characters of +the absorption phenomena differ strikingly from those which we might expect +to find after an examination of the optical properties of the crystal. We +have just seen that in clinorhombic crystals the principal absorption +directions of certain bands were completely different from the axis of +optical elasticity of the crystal for the corresponding radiations. If we +examine this anomaly, we perceive that the crystals manifesting these +effects are complex bodies, formed of various matters, one, or sometimes +several, of which absorb light and give each different absorption bands. +Now, M. De Senarmont has shown that the geometric isomorphism of certain +substances does not necessarily involve identity of optical properties, and +in particular in the directions of the axes of optical elasticity in +relation to the geometric directions of the crystal. In a crystal +containing a mixture of isomorphous substances, each substance brings its +own influence, which may be made to predominate in turn according to the +proportions of the mixture. We may, therefore, admit that the molecules of +each substance enter into the crystal retaining all the optical properties +which they would have if each crystallized separately. The principal +directions of optical elasticity are given by the resultant of the actions +which each of the component substances exerts on the propagation of light, +while the absorption of a given region of the spectrum is due to a single +one of these substances, and may have for its directions of symmetry the +directions which it would have in the absorbing molecule supposing it +isolated. It may happen that these directions do not coincide with the axes +of optical elasticity of the compound crystal. If such is the cause of the +anomaly of certain principal directions of absorption, the bands which +present these anomalies must belong to substances different from those +which yield bands having other principal directions of absorption. If so, +we are in possession of a novel method of spectral analysis, which permits +us to distinguish in certain crystals bands belonging to different matters, +isomorphous, but not having the same optical properties. Two bands +appearing in a crystal with common characters, but presenting in another +crystal characters essentially different, must also be ascribed to two +different bodies. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 585, page 9345.] + + + + +HISTORY OF THE WORLD'S POSTAL SERVICE. + + +It is commonly believed in Europe that the mail is chiefly forwarded by the +railroads; but this is only partially the case, as the largest portion of +the mails is intrusted now, as formerly, to foot messengers. How long this +will last is of course uncertain, as the present postal service seems +suitable enough for the needs of the people. The first task of the mail is +naturally the collection of letters. Fig. 17 represents a letter box in a +level country. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--COUNTRY LETTER BOX.] + +By way of example, it is not uninteresting to know that the inhabitants of +Hanover in Germany made great opposition to the introduction of letter +boxes, for the moral reason that they could be used to carry on forbidden +correspondence, and that consequently all letters should be delivered +personally to the post master. + +After the letters are collected, the sorting for the place of destination +follows, and Fig. 18 represents the sorting room in the Berlin Post Office. +A feverish sort of life is led here day and night, as deficient addresses +must be completed, and the illegible ones deciphered. + +It may here be mentioned that the delivery of letters to each floor of +apartment houses is limited chiefly to Austria and Germany. In France and +England, the letters are delivered to the janitor or else thrown into the +letter box placed in the hall. + +After the letters are arranged, then comes the transportation of them by +means of the railroad, the chaise, or gig, and finally the dog mail, as +seen in Fig. 19. It is hard to believe that this primitive vehicle is +useful for sending mail that is especially urgent, and yet it is used in +the northern part of Canada. Drawn by three or four dogs, it glides swiftly +over the snow. + +It is indeed a large jump from free America, the home of the most unlimited +progress, into the Flowery Kingdom, where cues are worn, but we hope our +readers are willing to accompany us, in order to have the pleasure of +seeing how rapidly a Chinese mail carrier (Fig. 20) trots along his route +under his sun umbrella. + +Only the largest and most robust pedestrians are chosen for service, and +they are obliged to pass through a severe course of training before they +can lay any claim to the dignified name, "Thousand Mile Horse." + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--SORTING ROOM IN BERLIN POST OFFICE.] + +But even the Chinese carrier may not strike us so curiously as another +associate, given in our next picture, Fig. 21, and yet he is a European +employe from the Landes department of highly cultivated France. The +inhabitants of this country buckle stilts on to their feet, so as to make +their way faster through brambles and underbrush which surrounds them. The +mail carrier copied them in his equipment, and thus he goes around on +stilts, provided with a large cane to help him keep his balance, and +furnishes a correct example of a post office official suiting the demands +of every district. + +While the mail in Europe has but little to do with the transportation of +passengers, it is important in its activity in this respect in the large +Russian empire. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--DOG POST AT LAKE SUPERIOR.] + +The tarantass (Fig. 22), drawn by three nimble horses, flies through the +endless deserts with wind-like rapidity. + +The next illustration (Fig. 23) leads us to a much more remote and deserted +country, "Post office on the Booby Island," occupied only by birds, and a +hut containing a box in which are pens, paper, ink, and wafers. The +mariners put their letters in the box, and look in to see if there is +anything there addressed to them, then they continue their journey. + +Postage stamps are not demanded in this ideal post office, but provision is +made for the shipwrecked, by a notice informing them where they can find +means of nourishment. + +Once again we make a leap. The Bosnian mail carrier's equipment (Fig. 24) +is, or rather was, quite singular, for our picture was taken before the +occupation. + +This mounted mail carrier with his weapons gives one the impression of a +robber. + +The task of conducting the mail through the Alps of Switzerland (Fig. 25) +must be uncomfortable in winter, when the sledges glide by fearful +precipices and over snow-covered passes. + +Since the tariff union mail developed from the Prussian mail, and the +world's mail from the tariff union, it seems suitable to close our series +of pictures by representing the old Prussian postal service (Fig. 26) +carried on by soldier postmen in the eighteenth century during the reign of +Frederick the Great. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--CHINESE POSTMAN.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--DELIVERING LETTERS IN LANDES DEPARTMENT, +FRANCE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--RUSSIAN EXTRA POST.] + +The complaint is made that poetry is wanting in our era, and it has +certainly disappeared from the postal service. One remembers that the +postilion was for quite a while the favorite hero of our poets, the best of +whom have sung to his praises, and given space to his melancholy thoughts +of modern times in which he is pushed aside. It is too true that the post +horn, formerly blown by a postilion, is now silenced, that the horse has +not been able to keep up in the race with the world in its use of the +steam horse, and yet how much poetry there is in that little post office +all alone by itself on the Booby Island, that we have described--the +sublimest poetry, that of love for mankind! + +The poet of the modern postal system has not yet appeared; but he will find +plenty of material. He will be able to depict the dangers a postman passes +through in discharging his duty on the field, he will sing the praises of +those who are injured in a railroad disaster, and yet continue their good +work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--POST OFFICE ON BOOBY ISLAND.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--BOSNIAN POST.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--SWISS ALPINE POST IN WINTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--SOLDIER POSTMAN OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.] + +He can also praise the noble thought of uniting the nations, which assumed +its first tangible form in the world's mail. It will not be a sentimental +song, but one full of power and indicative of our own time, in spite of +those who scorn it.--_Translated for the Scientific American Supplement by +Jenny H. Beach, from Neue Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON NICKEL PLATING. + +By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN. + + +The compound used principally for the electro-deposition of nickel is a +double sulphate of nickel and ammonia. The silvery appearance of the +deposit depends mainly on the purity of the salt as well as the anodes. The +condition of the bath, as to age, temperature, and degree of saturation, +position of anodes, strength of current, and other details of manipulation, +which require care, cleanliness, and experience, such as may be met with in +any intelligent workman fairly acquainted with his business, are easily +acquired. + +In the present paper I shall deal principally with the chemical department +of this subject, and shall briefly introduce, where necessary, allusion to +the mechanical and electrical details connected with the process. At a +future time I shall be glad to enlarge upon this part of the subject, with +a view of making the article complete. + +A short time ago nickel plating was nearly as expensive as silver plating. +This is explained by the fact that only a few people, at least in this +country, were expert in the mechanical portions of the process, and only a +very few chemists gave attention to the matter. To this must be added that +our text-books were fearfully deficient in information bearing on this +subject. + +The salt used, and also the anodes, were originally introduced into this +country from America, and latterly from Germany. I am not aware of any +English manufacturer who makes a specialty in the way of anodes. This is a +matter on which we can hardly congratulate ourselves, as a well known +London firm some time ago supplied me with my first experimental anodes, +which were in every way very superior to the German or American +productions. Although the price paid per pound was greater, the plates +themselves were cheaper on account of their lesser thickness. + +The texture of the inner portions of these foreign anodes would lead one to +infer that the metallurgy of nickel was very primitive. A good homogeneous +plate can be produced, still the spongy, rotten plates of foreign +manufacture were allowed the free run of our markets. The German plates +are, in my opinion, more compact than the American. A serious fault with +plates of earlier manufacture was their crumpled condition after a little +use. This involved a difficulty in cleaning them when necessary. The +English plates were not open to this objection; in fact, when the outer +surfaces were planed away, they remained perfectly smooth and compact. + +Large plates have been known to disintegrate and fall to pieces after being +used for some time. A large anode surface, compared with that of the +article to be plated, is of paramount importance. The tank should be +sufficiently wide to take the largest article for plating, and to admit of +the anodes being moved nearer to or further from the article. In this way +the necessary electrical resistance can very conveniently be inserted +between the anode and cathode surfaces. The elimination of hydrogen from +the cathode must be avoided, or at any rate must not accumulate. Moving the +article being plated, while in the bath, taking care not to break the +electrical contacts, is a good security against a streaky or foggy +appearance in the deposit. + +At one time a mechanical arrangement was made, by which the cathodes were +kept in motion. The addition of a little borax to the bath is a great +advantage in mitigating the appearance of gas. Its behavior is electrical +rather than chemical. If the anode surface is too great, a few plates +should be transferred to the cathode bars. + +When an article has been nickel plated, it generally presents a dull +appearance, resembling frosted silver. To get over this I tried, some time +ago, the use of bisulphide of carbon in the same way as used for obtaining +a bright silver deposit. Curiously the deposit was very dark, almost black, +which could not be buffed or polished bright. But by using a very small +quantity of the bisulphide mixture, the plated surfaces were so bright that +the use of polishing mops or buffs could be almost dispensed with. When we +consider the amount of labor required in polishing a nickel plated article, +and the impossibility of finishing off bright an undercut surface, this +becomes an important addendum to the nickel plater's list of odds and ends. + +This mixture is made precisely in the same way as for bright silvering, but +a great deal less is to be added to the bath, about one pint per 100 +gallons. It should be well stirred in, after the day's work is done, when +the bath will be in proper condition for working next day. The mixture is +made by shaking together, in a glass bottle, one ounce bisulphide and one +gallon of the plating liquid, allow to stand until excess of bisulphide has +settled, and decant the clear liquid for use as required. It is better to +add this by degrees than to run the risk of overdoing. If too much is +added, the bath is not of necessity spoiled, but it takes a great deal of +working to bring it in order again. + +About eight ounces of the double sulphate to each gallon of distilled or +rain water is a good proportion to use when making up a bath. There is a +slight excess with this. It is a mistake to add the salt afterward, when +the bath is in good condition. The chloride and cyanide are said to give +good results. I can only say that the use of either of these salts has not +led to promising results in my hands. + +In preparing the double sulphate, English grain nickel is decidedly the +best form of metal to use. In practice, old anodes are generally used. + +The metal is dissolved in a mixture of nitric and dilute sulphuric acid, +with the application of a gentle heat. When sufficient metal has been +dissolved, and the unused nitric acid expelled, the salt may be +precipitated by a strong solution sulphate of ammonia, or, if much free +acid is present, carbonate of ammonia is better to use. + +Tin, lead, and portion of the iron, if present, are removed by this method. +The silica, carbon, and portions of copper are left behind with the +undissolved fragments of metals. + +The precipitated salt, after slight washing, is dissolved in water and +strong solution ammonia added. A clean iron plate is immersed in the +solution to remove any trace of copper. This plate must be cleaned +occasionally so as to remove any reduced copper, which will impede its +action. As soon as the liquid is free from copper, it is left alkaline and +well stirred so as to facilitate peroxidation and removal of iron, which +forms a film on the bath. When this ceases, the liquid is rendered neutral +by addition of sulphuric acid, and filtered or decanted. The solution, when +properly diluted, has sp. gr. about 1.06 at 60 deg. F. It is best to work the +bath with a weak current for a short time until the liquid yields a fine +white deposit. Too strong a current must be avoided. + +If the copper has not been removed, it will deposit on the anodes when the +bath is at rest. It should then be removed by scouring. + +Copper produces a reddish tinge, which is by no means unpleasant compared +with the dazzling whiteness of the nickel deposit. If this is desired, it +is far better to use a separate bath, using anodes of suitable composition. + +The want of adhesion between the deposited coating and the article need not +be feared if cleanliness be attended to and the article, while in the bath, +be not touched by the hands. + +The bath should be neutral, or nearly so, slightly acid rather than +alkaline. It is obvious that, as such a liquid has no detergent action on a +soiled surface, scrupulous care must be taken in scouring and rinsing. +Boiling alkaline solutions and a free use of powdered pumice and the +scrubbing brush must on no account be neglected. + +A few words on the construction of the tanks. A stout wood box, which need +not be water-tight, is lined with sheet lead, the joints being blown, _not +soldered_. An inner casing of wood which projects a few inches above the +lead lining is necessary in order to avoid any chance of "short circuiting" +or damage to the lead from the accidental falling of anodes or any article +which might cut the lead. It is by no means a necessity that the lining +should be such as to prevent the liquid getting to the lead. + +On a future occasion I hope to supplement this paper with the analysis of +the double sulphates used, and an account of the behavior of +electrolytically prepared crucibles and dishes as compared with those now +in the market.--_Chem. News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHILLED CAST IRON. + + +At a recent meeting of the engineering section of the Bristol Naturalists' +Society a paper on "Chilled Iron" was read by Mr. Morgans, of which we give +an abstract. Among the descriptions of chilled castings in common use the +author instanced the following: Sheet, corn milling, and sugar rolls; tilt +hammer anvils and bits, plowshares, "brasses" and bushes, cart-wheel boxes, +serrated cones and cups for grinding mills, railway and tramway wheels and +crossings, artillery shot and bolts, stone-breaker jaws, circular cutters, +etc. Mr. Morgans then spoke of the high reputation of sheet mill rolls and +wheel axle boxes made in Bristol. Of the latter in combination with wrought +iron wheels and steeled axles, the local wagon works company are exporting +large numbers. With respect to the strength and fatigue resistance of +chilled castings, details were given of some impact tests made in July, +1864, at Pontypool, in the presence of Captain Palliser, upon some of his +chilled bolts, 123/4 in. long by 4 in. diameter, made from Pontypool +cold-blast pig iron. Those made from No. 1 pig iron--the most graphitic and +costly--broke more easily than those from No. 2, and so on until those made +from No. 4 were tested, when the maximum strength was reached. No. 4 pig +iron was in fracture a pale gray, bordering on mottled. Several points +regarding foundry operations in the production of chilled castings were +raised for discussion. They embraced the depth of chill to be imparted to +chilled rolls and railway wheels, and in the case of traction wheels, the +width of chill in the tread; preparation of the chills--by coating with +various carbonaceous matters, lime, beer grounds, or, occasionally, some +mysterious compost--and moulds, selection and mixture of pig irons, methods +and plant for melting, suitable heat for pouring, prevention of +honeycombing, ferrostatic pressure of head, etc. Melting for rolls being +mostly conducted in reverberatories, the variations in the condition of the +furnace atmosphere, altering from reducing to oxidizing, and _vice versa_, +in cases of bad stoking and different fuels, were referred to as +occasionally affecting results. Siemens' method of melting by radiant heat +was mentioned for discussion. For promoting the success of a chilled roll +in its work, lathing or turning it to perfect circularity in the necks +first, and then turning the body while the necks bear in steady brasses, +are matters of the utmost importance. + +The author next referred to the great excellence for chilling purposes +possessed by some American pig irons, and to the fact that iron of a given +carbon content derived from some ores and fluxes differed much in chilling +properties from iron holding a similar proportion of carbon--free and +combined--derived from other ores and materials. Those irons are best which +develop the hardest possible chill most uniformly to the desired depth +without producing a too abrupt line of division between the hard white skin +and the softer gray body. A medium shading off both ways is wanted here, as +in all things. The impossibility of securing a uniform quality and chemical +composition in any number grade of any brand of pig iron over a lengthened +period was adverted to. Consequent from this a too resolute faith in any +particular make of pig iron is likely to be at times ill-requited. +Occasional physical tests, accompanied with chemical analysis of irons used +for chilling, were advocated; and the author was of opinion it would be +well whenever a chilled casting had enjoyed a good reputation for standing +up to its work, that when it was retired from work some portions of it +should be chemically analyzed so as to obtain clews to compositions of +excellence. Some of the physical characteristics of chilled iron, as well +as the surprising locomotive properties of carbon present in heated iron, +were noticed. + +Attention was called to some German data, published by Dr. Percy in 1864, +concerning an iron which before melting weighed--approximately--4481/4 lb. +per cubic foot, and contained--approximately--4 per cent. of carbon--31/4 +being graphitic and 3/4 combined. The chilled portion of a casting from this +had a specific gravity equivalent to 471 lb. per cubic foot, and contained +5 per cent. of carbon, all combined. The soft portion of the same casting +weighed 4473/4 lb. per cubic foot, and contained 34.5 per cent. of +carbon--31.5 being graphitic and 3.5 combined. Mr. Morgans doubted whether +so great an increase in density often arises from chilling. Tool steel, +when hardened by being chilled in cold water, does not become condensed, +but slightly expanded from its bulk when annealed and soft. Here an +increase of hardness is accompanied by a decrease of density. The gradual +development of a network of cracks over the face of a chilled anvil orbit +while being used in tilt hammers was mentioned. Such minute cleavages +became more marked as the chill is worn down by work and from grinding. +Traces of the same occurrence are observable over the surface of much worn +chilled rolls used in sheet mills. In such cases the sheets get a faint +diaper pattern impressed upon them. The opening of crack spaces points to +lateral shrinkage of the portions of chilled material they surround, and to +some release from a state of involuntary tension. If this action is +accompanied by some actual densification of the fissured chill, then we +have a result that possibly conflicts with the example of condensation from +chilling cited by Dr. Percy. + + * * * * * + + + + +SNOW HALL. + + +The recent dedication of Snow Hall, at Lawrence, Kansas, is an event in the +history of the State, both historic and prophetic. Since the incorporation +of the University of Kansas, and before that event, there has been a steady +growth of science in the State, which has culminated in Snow Hall, a +building set apart for the increase and diffusion of the knowledge of +natural science, as long as its massive walls shall stand. It is named in +honor of the man who has been the inspiration and guiding spirit of the +whole enterprise, and some incidents in his life may be of interest to the +public. + +Twenty years ago Professor Frank H. Snow, a recent graduate of Williams +College, came to Kansas, to become a member of the faculty of the State +University. His election to the chair of natural science was unexpected, as +he first taught mathematics in the university, and expected in due time to +become professor of Greek. As professor of the mellifluous and most plastic +of all the ancient tongues, he would undoubtedly have been proficient, as +his college classics still remain fresh in his warm and retentive memory, +and his literary taste is so severe and chaste as to make some of his +scientific papers read like a psalm. But nature designed him for another, +and some think a better, field, and endowed him with powers as a naturalist +that have won for him recognition among the highest living authorities of +his profession. + +Upon being elected to the chair of natural history, Prof. Snow entered upon +his life work with an enthusiasm that charmed his associates and inspired +his pupils. The true naturalist must possess large and accurate powers of +observation and a love for his chosen profession that carries him over all +obstacles and renders him oblivious to everything else except the specimen +upon which he has set his heart. Years ago the writer was walking in the +hall of the new university building in company with General Fraser and +Professor Snow, when the latter suddenly darted forward up the stairs and +captured an insect in its flight, that had evidently just dug its way out +of the pine of the new building. In a few moments he returned with such a +glow on his countenance and such a satisfied air at having captured a rare +but familiar specimen, whose name was on his lips, that we both felt +"Surely here is a genuine naturalist." + +Some years ago an incident occurred in connection with his scientific +excursions in Colorado that is quite characteristic, showing his +obliviousness to self and everything else save the object of his scientific +pursuit, and a fertility in overcoming danger when it meets him face to +face. He was descending alone from one of the highest peaks of the Rockies, +when he thought he could leave the path and reach the foot of the mountain +by passing directly down its side over an immense glacier of snow and ice, +and thus save time and a journey of several miles. After a while his way +down the glacier grew steeper and more difficult, until he reached a point +where he could not advance any further, and found, to his consternation, +that he could not return by the way he had come. There he clung to the side +of the immense glacier, ready, should he miss his hold, to be plunged +hundreds of feet into a deep chasm. The situation flashed over him, and he +knew now it was, indeed, a struggle for dear life. With a precarious +foothold, he clung to the glacier with one hand, while with his pocket +knife he cut a safer foothold with the other. Resting a little, he cut +another foothold lower down in the hard snow, and so worked his way after a +severe struggle of several hours amid constant danger to the foot of the +mountain in safety. "But," continued the professor, speaking of this +incident to some of his friends, "I was richly repaid for all my trouble +and peril, for when I reached the foot of the mountain I captured a new and +very rare species of butterfly." Multitudes of practical men cannot +appreciate such devotion to pure science, but it is this absorbing passion +and pure grit that enable the devotees of science to enlarge its boundaries +year by year. + +Once, while on a scientific excursion on the great plains, with the +lamented Prof. Mudge, he nearly lost his life. He had captured a +rattlesnake, and, in trying to introduce it into a jar filled with alcohol, +the snake managed to bite him on the hand. The arm was immediately bound +tightly with a handkerchief, and the wound enlarged with a pocket knife, +and both professors took turns in sucking it as clean as possible, and +ejecting the poison from their mouths. This and a heavy dose of spirits +brought the professor through in safety, although the poison remaining in +the wound caused considerable swelling and pain in the hand and arm. When +this incident was mentioned in the Kansas Academy of Science that year, +some one said, "Now we know the effect of the bite of the prairie +rattlesnake on the human system. Let some one, in the interests of pure +science, try the effect of the timber rattlesnake on the human system." But +like the mice in the fable, no one was found who cared to put the bell on +the cat. + +Professors Mudge and Snow, because scientists were so few in the State at +that early day, divided the field of natural science between themselves, +the former taking geology and the latter living forms. Professor Mudge +built up at the agricultural college a royal cabinet, easily worth $10,000, +and Professor Snow has made a collection at the State University whose +value cannot be readily estimated until it is catalogued and placed in +cases in Snow Hall. + +As a scientist, Professor Snow is an indefatigable worker, conscientious +and painstaking to the last degree, never neglecting anything that can be +discovered by the microscope, and when he describes and names a new +species, he gives the absolute facts, without regard to theories or +philosophies. For accuracy his descriptions of animal and vegetable life +resemble photographs, and are received by scientists with unquestioned +authority. He possesses another quality, which may be called honesty. Some +scientists, whose reputation has reached other continents, cannot be +trusted alone in the cabinet with the keys, for they are liable to borrow +valuable specimens, and forget afterward to return them. + +It is possible only to glance at the immense amount of work performed by +Professor Snow during the last twenty years. Neglecting the small fry that +can only be taken in nets with very fine meshes, he ascertained that there +are twenty-seven species of fish in the Kansas River at Lawrence. Work on +this paper occupied the leisure time of two summers, as much time in such +investigations only produces negative results. For several years he worked +on a catalogue of the birds of Kansas, inspiring several persons in +different parts of the State to assist him. Later this work was turned over +to Colonel N.S. Gross, of Topeka, an enthusiast in ornithology. Colonel +Goss has a very fine collection of mounted birds in the capitol building at +Topeka, and he has recently published a catalogue of the "Birds of Kansas," +which contains 335 species. Professor Snow has worked faithfully on the +plants of Kansas, but as other botanists came into the State, he turned the +work over to their hands. For several years he has given a large share of +his time and strength to entomology. Nearly every year he has led +scientific excursions to different points in Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, +etc., where he might reap the best results. + +Once, during a meeting of the Kansas Academy of Science, at Lawrence, +Professor Snow was advertised to read a paper on some rare species of +butterflies. As the hour approached, the hall in the university building +was thronged, principally by ladies from the city, when Professor Snow +brought out piles of his trays of butterflies, and without a note gave such +an exhibit and description of his specimens as charmed the whole audience. + +In meteorology, Professor Snow is an acknowledged authority, wherever this +science is studied, and he has, probably, all things considered, the best +meteorological record in the State. + +Personally, Professor Snow possesses qualities that are worth more, +perhaps, to his pupils, in forming character, than the knowledge derived +from him as an instructor. His life is pure and ennobling, his presence +inspiring, and many young men have gone from his lecture room to hold good +positions in the scientific world. When one sees him in his own home, +surrounded by his family, with books and specimens and instruments all +around, he feels that the ideal home has not lost everything in the fall. + +Snow Hall is the natural resultant of twenty years of earnest and faithful +labor on the part of this eminent scientist. The regents displayed the rare +good sense of committing everything regarding the plans of the building, +and the form and arrangement of the cases, to Professor Snow, which has +resulted in giving to Kansas the model building of its kind in the West, if +not in this country. Very large collections have accumulated at the State +University, under the labors of Professor Snow and his assistants, which +need to be classified, arranged, and labeled; and when the legislature +appropriates the money to furnish cases to display this collection in +almost every department of natural science, Kansas will possess a hall of +natural science whose influence will be felt throughout the State, and be +an attraction to scientists everywhere.--_Chaplain J.D. Parker, in Kansas +City Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELIMINATION OF POISONS. + + +A study of the means by which nature rids the economy of what is harmful +has been made by Sanquirico, of Siena, and his experiments and conclusions +are as follows: + +He finds that the vessels of the body, without undergoing extensive +structural alteration, can by exosmosis rid themselves of fluid to an +amount of eight per cent. of the body weight of the subject of the +experiment. + +Through the injection of neutral fluids a great increase in the vascular +tension is effected, which is relieved by elimination through the kidneys. + +With reference to this fact, the author, in 1885, made experiments with +alcohol and strychnine, and continued his researches in the use of chloral +and aconitine with results favorable to the method employed, which is as +follows: + +The minimal fatal dose of a given poison was selected, and found to be in a +certain relation to the body weight. + +Immediately upon the injection of the poison a solution of sodium chloride, +0.75 per cent. in strength, was injected into the subcutaneous tissues of +the neck, in quantities being eight per cent. of the body weight of the +animal. + +In the case of those poisons whose effect is not instantaneous, the +injection of saline solution was made on the first appearance of toxic +symptoms. In other poisons the injection was made at once. + +The result of the use of salines was a diuresis varying in the promptness +of its appearance and in its amount. + +Those animals in which diuresis was limited at first and then increased +generally recovered, while those in which diuresis was not established +perished. The poison used was found in the urine of those which died and +also those which recovered. + +The author succeeded in rescuing animals poisoned by alcohol, strychnine, +chloral, and aconitine. With morphine, curare, and hypnone, the method of +elimination failed, although ten per cent. in quantity of the body weight +of the animal was used in the saline injection. With aconitine, diuresis +was not always established, and when it failed the animal died in +convulsions.--_Centralblatt fur die Medicinischen Wissenschaften, December_ +18, 1886. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific papers +heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January 1, +1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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