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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:37:43 -0700 |
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diff --git a/11736-h/11736-h.htm b/11736-h/11736-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..052ccf5 --- /dev/null +++ b/11736-h/11736-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5135 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, MARCH 26, 1887</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} /* footnote */ +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 586, +March 26, 1887, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 586, March 26, 1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 28, 2004 [EBook #11736] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 586 *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 586</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, MARCH 26, 1887</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIII, No. 586.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">BIOGRAPHY.—George W. Whistler, C.E.—By +Professor G.L. VOSE.—Full biography of the eminent railroad +engineer.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#2">CHEMISTRY.—A Newly Discovered Substance in +Urine.—A substance possessing greater reducing power than +grape sugar found in diabetic urine.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">On Electro Dissolution and its Use as Regards +Analysis.—By H. N. WARREN, research +analyst.—Interesting decomposition of cast iron with +production of boron and silicon; experiments with other metals.</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#4">ELECTRICITY.—No Electricity from the +Condensation of Vapor.—Note on Herr S. Kalischer's +conclusions.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">On Nickel Plating.—By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE +WARREN.—Notes on this industry, and suggested improvement for +procuring a bright coat.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">The Electro-Magnetic Telephone +Transmitter.—New theory of the telephone's action.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#7">ENGINEERING.—Fuel and Smoke.—By Prof. +OLIVER LODGE.—The second and concluding one of these +important lectures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Gas Engine for Use on Railroads.—The +application of six horse power Koerting gas engine to a dummy +locomotive.—1 illustration.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">New Gas Holder at Erdberg.—The largest gas +holder out of England.—3 illustrations.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Tar for Firing Retorts.—Simple arrangement +adapted for use in ordinary gas retort benches; results +attained.—1 illustration.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">The Anti-Friction Conveyer.—An improvement +on the screw of Archimedes; an apparatus of wonderful simplicity +and efficacy in the moving of grain.—2 illustrations.</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">The Retiro Viaduct.—Combined iron and stone +viaduct over the river Retiro, Brazil.—5 illustrations.</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">Western North Carolina Location over the Blue +Ridge.—Interesting instance of railroad topography.—1 +illustration.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#14">METALLURGY.—Chilled Cast Iron.—The +various uses of this product; adaptability of American iron for its +application.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#15">MISCELLANEOUS.—Coal in the Argentine +Republic.—Note.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">History of the World's Postal +Service.—Conclusion of this interesting article.—The +service in Germany, China. Russia, and elsewhere.—10 +illustrations.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">Snow Hall—The new science and natural +history building of the University of Kansas.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#18">NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Improvement in Laying +Out Frames of Vessels.—The Frame Placer.—By GUSTAVE +SONNENBURG.—Ingenious apparatus for use in ship +yards.—1 illustration.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">Sea-going Torpedo Boats.—The inutility of +small torpedo boats at sea.—The construction of larger ones +discussed.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#20">ORDNANCE.—Firing Trial of the 110½ +Ton B.L. Elswick Gun. Full dimensions of this piece and it +projectiles.—Results of proof firing.—9 +illustrations.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#21">PHOTOGRAPHY.—Experiments in Toning +Gelatino-Chloride Paper.—Trials of ten different gold toning +baths, formulas, and results.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#22">Printing Lantern Pictures by Artificial Light on +Bromide Plates from Various Sizes.—By A. PUMPHREY.—The +processor producing smaller or larger transparencies from +negatives.—1 illustration.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">X.</td> +<td><a href="#23">PHYSICS.—A New Mercury Pump.—Simple +air pump for high vacua.—1 illustration.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#24">The Laws of the Absorption of Light in +Crystals.—By H. BECQUEREL.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#25">Varying Cylindrical Lens.—By TEMPEST +ANDERSON, M.D., B. Sc.—Combination of two conoidal +lenses.—Range of power obtained.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">XI.</td> +<td><a href="#26">PHYSIOLOGY.—Elimination of +Poisons.—Treatment of poison cases by establishment of a +strong diuresis. The Filtration and the Secretion +Theories.—Experiments on the action of and secretions of the +kidneys.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">XII.</td> +<td><a href="#27">TECHNOLOGY.—Furnace for Decomposing +Chloride of Magnesium.—Furnace with rotating chamber for use +by alkali manufacturers.—1 illustration.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">Notes on Garment Dyeing.—The production of +blacks on silk and wool.—Formulas for mordants.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#29">Studies in Pyrotechny.—II. Methods of +Illumination.—Continuation of this valuable treatise.—9 +illustrations.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#30">The "Sensim" Preparing Box.—New machine for +treatment of fiber.—An improvement on the ordinary gill +box.—3 illustrations.</a> </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>THE RETIRO VIADUCT.</h2> + +<p>We give engravings of the viaduct over the river Retiro, Brazil, +our illustrations being reproduced by permission from the +Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. In a "selected +paper" contributed to the volume of these proceedings just +published, Mr. Jorge Rademaker Grunewald, Memb. Inst. C.E., +describes the work as follows:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt= +" VIADUCT OVER THE RETIRO, BRAZIL."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">VIADUCT OVER THE RETIRO, BRAZIL.</p> + +<p>This viaduct was constructed in the year 1875, according to +designs furnished by the author, for the purpose of passing the Dom +Pedro Segundo State Railway over the valley which forms the bed of +the river Retiro, a small confluent on the left bank of the river +Parahybuna. It is 265 kilometers (165 miles) from Rio de Janeiro, +and about 10 kilometers (6.4 miles) from the city of Juiz de Fora, +in the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil. It has a curve of 382 +meters (1,253 ft.) radius, and a gradient of 1 in 83.3. Its total +length is 109 meters (357 ft. 7 in.); width between handrails, 4 +meters (13 ft.); and greatest height above the bed of the river, 20 +meters (65 ft. 7 in.).</p> + +<p>The viaduct is composed of seven semicircular arches, each end +arch being built of ashlar masonry, and of 6 meters (19 ft. 8 in.) +diameter; five intermediate arches, 15 meters (49 ft. 2 in.) in +diameter, are of iron. The four central piers are of iron erected +on pillars of ashlar masonry. The metallic part of this viaduct is +80 meters (262 ft. 6 in.) long, and is constructed in the following +manner: The arches, and the longitudinal girders which they +support, are made of two Barlow rails riveted together, with an +iron plate ½ inch thick placed between them. The spandrels +are formed of uprights and diagonals, the former being made of four +angle-irons, and the latter of one angle-iron. Each pair of arches, +longitudinal girders and uprights, is transversely 3 meters (9 ft. +10 in.) from center to center, and is connected by cross and +diagonal bracing. On the top of the longitudinal girders are fixed +cross pieces of single Barlow rails, upon which again are fastened +two longitudinals of wood 12 in. square in section, and which in +their turn carry the rails of the permanent way.</p> + +<p>The gauge of the Dom Pedro Segundo Railway is 1.60 meters, or 5 +ft. 3 in. nearly, between the rails. At each end of the transverse +Barlow rails is fixed the customary simple iron handrail, carried +by light cast-iron standards. The iron piers are each formed of +four columns, and the columns consist of two Barlow rails, with a +slotted iron plate ½ inch thick let in between the rails, +and the whole being riveted together connects each pair of side +columns.</p> + +<p>The details show the system of cross and diagonal bracing. The +columns are each supported by four buttresses formed of plates and +angle-irons. These buttresses, fastened with bolts 8 ft. 3 in. +long, let into the masonry pillars, secure the stability of the +viaduct against lateral strains, due mostly to the centrifugal +force caused by the passage of the trains.</p> + +<p>The Barlow rails, which constitute the peculiarity of the +structure, are from those taken up from the permanent way when the +Vignoles pattern of rail was adopted on this railway. The whole of +the foundations were built without difficulty. The principal parts +of the iron work were calculated to resist the strains resulting +from a weight of 4 tons 8 cwt. per lineal meter traveling over the +viaduct at a velocity of 60 kilometers, or about 37 miles, per +hour.</p> + +<p>In spite of its fragile appearance this viaduct has, up to the +present time, served in a most satisfactory manner the purpose for +which it was built.—<i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>SEA-GOING TORPEDO BOATS.</h2> + +<p>All investigations of the sea-going qualities of torpedo boats +show that while the basin experiments are highly satisfactory, +those made at sea prove with equal force the unreliability of these +craft when they leave the coast. At the beginning of the Milford +Haven operations, the boisterous weather necessitated the +postponing of operations, on account of the unfitness of the +torpedo boat crews to continue work after the twelve hours of +serious fatigue they had already undergone. In the French +evolutions, the difficulties of the passage from Bastia to Ajaccio, +although not remarkably severe, so unfitted fifteen of the twenty +boats that they could take no part in the final attack. In two +nights we find recorded collisions which disable boats Nos. 52, 61, +63, and 72, and required their return to port for repairs.</p> + +<p>Of the twenty-two torpedo boats leaving Toulon a few days +before, but six arrived near the enemy, although their commanders +displayed admirable energy. One had run aground, and was full of +water; another had been sunk by collision; another's engine was +seriously injured; and as for the rest, they could not follow.</p> + +<p>Of the boats under the command of Admiral Brown de Colstoun, but +five remained for service, for the sixth received an accident to +her machinery which prevented her taking part in the attack.</p> + +<p>During the operations off the Balearic Isles, only one of six +boats attacked, and none was able to follow the armorclads, all +meeting with circumstances quite unexpected and embarrassing.</p> + +<p>With the weather as it existed May 13, the armorclads had the +torpedo fleet completely at their mercy, for even if they had not +been destroyed by the excellent practice of the Hotchkiss gunners, +they would have been of no use, as they could not with safety +discharge their torpedoes. In fact, the search lights discovered +distinctly that one of the boats, which burned her Coston's signal +to announce victory, did not have her torpedo tube open, on account +of the heavy sea.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, their positions were frequently easily discovered +by the immense volume of smoke and flame ejected while going at +great speed. This applies as well by night as by day. It was also +reported that after the four days' running the speed of the boats +was reduced to twelve knots.</p> + +<p>With such evidence before us, the seaworthiness of boats of the +Nos. 63 and 64 type may be seriously questioned. Weyl emphasizes +the facts that "practice has shown that boats of No. 61 type cannot +make headway in a heavy sea, and that it is then often impossible +to open their torpedo tubes. On this account they are greatly +inferior to ships of moderate tonnage, which can certainly make +some progress, fire their torpedoes, and use their artillery in +weather when a torpedo boat will be utterly helpless. The torpedo +boat abandoned to itself has a very limited field of action."</p> + +<p>Du Pin de Saint Andre admits the success of the torpedo boat for +harbor and coast work, but wisely concludes that this can prove +nothing as to what they may or may not be able to do at sea.</p> + +<p>In an article which appeared in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i> +in June last, he presented able reasons why the torpedo boats of +to-day's type, being destitute of most, if not all, of the +requisites of sea-going craft, cannot go to sea, take care of +themselves, and remain there prepared to attack an enemy wherever +he may be found. Invisibility to an enemy may facilitate attack, +but it has to be dearly paid for in diminished safety. Further, the +life that must be led in such vessels in time of war would very +quickly unfit men for their hazardous duties.</p> + +<p>He points out that the effect of such a life upon the bodies and +minds of the officers and crew would be most disastrous. The want +of exercise alone would be sufficient to unfit them for the demands +that service would make upon them. He has intelligently depicted +the consequences of such a life, and his reasoning has been +indorsed by the reports of French officers who have had experience +in the boats in question.</p> + +<p>No weapon, no matter how ingenious, is of utility in warfare +unless it can be relied upon, and no vessel that is not tenantable +can be expected to render any service at sea.</p> + +<p>From the evidence before us, we must conclude that the type of +torpedo boat under discussion is capable of making sea passages, +provided it can communicate frequently with its supply stations and +secure the bodily rest so necessary to its crew. But even in a +moderate sea it is useless for attack, and in the majority of cases +will not be able even to open its impulse tubes. Should it succeed +in doing this, the rolling and yawing will render its aim very +uncertain.</p> + +<p>An experiment conducted against the Richelieu in October last, +at Toulon, before Admiral O'Neil, the director-general of the +torpedo service, has added its testimony to the uncertainty of the +Whitehead torpedo. The Richelieu had been fitted with Bullivant +nets, and the trial was made to learn what protection they would +afford.</p> + +<p>The weather was fair, the sea moderate, and the conditions +generally favorable to the torpedo; but the Whitehead missed its +mark, although the Richelieu's speed was only three knots. Running +at full speed, the torpedo boat, even in this moderate sea, deemed +it prudent to keep the launching tube closed, and selected a range +of 250 yards for opening it and firing. Just at the moment of +discharge a little sea came on board, the boat yawed, the torpedo +aim was changed more than 30 deg., and it passed astern without +touching its object.</p> + +<p>While the Milford Haven operations have taught some valuable +lessons, they were conducted under but few of the conditions that +are most likely to occur in actual warfare; and had the defense +been carried on with an organization and command equal to that of +the attack, the Navy's triumph would, perhaps, not have been so +easily secured, and the results might have been very different.</p> + +<p>May not the apparent deficiencies of the defense have been due +to the fact that soldiers instead of sailors are given the control +of the harbor and coast defense? Is this right? Ought they not to +be organized on a naval basis? This is no new suggestion, but its +importance needs emphasis.</p> + +<p>These operations, however, convinced at least one deeply +interested spectator, Lord Brassey, to the extent of calling +attention "to the urgent necessity for the construction of a class +of torpedo vessels capable of keeping the sea in company with an +armored fleet."</p> + +<p>There is no one in Great Britain who takes a greater interest in +the progress of the British Navy than Lord Brassey, and we take +pleasure in quoting from his letter of August 23 last to the +<i>Times</i>, in which he expressed the following opinion: "The +torpedo boats ordered last year from Messrs. Thornycroft and Yarrow +are excellent in their class. But their dimensions are not +sufficient for sea-going vessels. We must accept a tonnage of not +less than 300 tons in order to secure thorough seaworthiness and +sufficient coal endurance.</p> + +<p>"A beginning has been made in the construction of vessels of the +type required. To multiply them with no stinting hand is the +paramount question of the day in the department of construction. +The boats attached to the Channel fleet at Milford Haven will be +most valuable for harbor defense, and for that purpose they are +greatly needed. Torpedo boat catchers are not less essential to the +efficiency of a fleet. The gunboats attached to the Channel fleet +were built for service in the rivers of China. They should be +reserved for the work for which they were designed.</p> + +<p>"We require for the fleet more fast gunboats of the Curlew and +Landrail type. I trust that the next estimates for the Navy will +contain an ample provision for building gun vessels of high +speed."</p> + +<p>As torpedoes must be carried, the next point to which we would +call the attention of our readers is the very rapid progress that +has been made in the boats designed to carry automatic +torpedoes.</p> + +<p>A very few years ago the names of Thornycroft and Yarrow were +almost alone as builders of a special type of vessel to carry them. +To-day, in addition, we have Schichau, White, Herreshoff, Creusot, +Thomson, and others, forming a competitive body of high speed +torpedo-boat builders who are daily making new and rapid +development—almost too rapid, in fact, for the military +student to follow.</p> + +<p>As new types are designed, additional speed gained, or increased +seaworthiness attained, public descriptions quickly follow, and we +have ourselves recorded the various advances made so fully that it +will be unnecessary to enter into details here.</p> + +<p>As late as October, 1885, an able writer said: "The two most +celebrated builders of torpedo boats in the world are Thornycroft +and Yarrow, in England. Each is capable of producing a first class +torpedo boat, from 100 ft. to 130 ft. long, and with 10 ft. to 14 +ft. beam, that will steam at the rate of from 18 knots to 22 knots +per hour for 370 knots, or at the rate of 10 knots per hour for +3000 miles. A second class torpedo boat is from 40 ft. to 60 ft. +long, and with 6 ft. or 8 ft. beam.</p> + +<p>The use of these boats is gradually being abandoned in Europe +except for use from sea-going ships; but in Europe the harbors are +very small, and it has been found that practically every torpedo +boat for coast defense must be able to go to sea. The tendency is, +therefore, to confinement to the first class boats."</p> + +<p>In a paper on "Naval Torpedo Warfare," prepared in January, +1886, for a special committee of the American Senate, by Lieutenant +Jaques of the American Navy, we find the following reference to the +progress in torpedo boat construction: "The development in torpedo +boats has been phenomenal, the last year alone showing an advance +from a length of 120 ft. and a speed of 19 knots, which were +considered remarkable qualities in a first class boat, to a length +of 140 ft. and a speed of 23 knots loaded (carrying 15 tons), and +25 knots light, together with the introduction of novel features of +importance.</p> + +<p>"Although Messrs. Yarrow and Thornycroft have brought the second +class boats to a very high standard in Europe, I believe they will +soon be abandoned there even for sea-going ships (very few are now +laid down), and that the great development will be in overcoming +the disadvantages of delicacy and weakness by increasing their +size, giving them greater maneuvering power and safety by the +introduction of two engines and twin screws, and steel plate and +coal protection against rapid firing ammunition. Yarrow and Co. +have already laid down some boats of this character that give +promise of developing a speed of from 23 to 25 knots."</p> + +<p>In the Russian boat recently built at Glasgow, progress in this +direction is also seen in the 148 ft. length, 17 ft. beam, the +maneuvering powers and safety element of the twin screws. But while +the boat is fitted for the 19 ft. torpedo, a weapon of increased +range and heavier explosive charge, it suffers from the +impossibility of broadside fire and the disadvantages that Gallwey +has named: "The great length of this torpedo, however, makes it a +very unhandy weapon for a boat, besides which its extra weight +limits the number which can be carried."</p> + +<p>While perhaps Messrs. Thomson have been the first to show the +performance of a twin screw torpedo boat in England, the one +completed in June last by Yarrow for the Japanese government +recalls the intelligence that Japan has exercised in the selection +of types.</p> + +<p>Commencing as far back as nine years ago, the Japanese were +probably the first to introduce sea-going boats, and they have been +the first power to initiate the armor type, one of which was +shipped last summer to be put together in Japan. As before stated, +it was built by Messrs. Yarrow and Co., was 166 ft. long, 19 ft. +beam, with twin screws, 1 in. steel armor, double engines, with bow +and broadside torpedo guns, the latter so arranged as to greatly +increase their efficiency.</p> + +<p>While the advances are not restricted to the English builders, a +glance at the points to which Thornycroft and Yarrow have brought +their improvements up to the present time will indicate that their +achievements are not only equal to but greater than those of any +other builders.</p> + +<p>The former has boats under construction 148 ft. long, 15 ft. +beam, to make 420 revolutions with 130 lb. of steam, the guaranteed +speed being 23 knots on a continuous run of two hours' duration, +with a load of 15 tons. They will have triple-expansion or compound +direct-acting surface-condensing engines and twin screws, +Thornycroft's patent tubular boilers, double rudders, electric +search lights, three masts and sails.</p> + +<p>While the armaments of the various boats differ, Thornycroft is +prepared to fit the launching tubes with either air or powder +impulse, to mount the tubes forward or on deck, and also the +fittings for machine and rapid firing guns.</p> + +<p>Yarrow and Co. have contracted for boats varying in length from +117 ft. to 166 ft., with fittings and armament as may be required. +They have obtained excellent results in their last English boat of +the Admiralty type. They are, in fact, prepared to guarantee a +speed of 23 knots in a length of 125 ft. and 25 knots in a length +of 140 ft., carrying in both causes a mean load corresponding to +fuel and armament of 10 tons.</p> + +<p>And so the progress goes on, but it will not stop here; it has +already incited a marked development in ship construction, and the +endeavors to withstand torpedo attack have improved the defense +against gun fire also.</p> + +<p>In quoting a German opinion on the development of the Russian +torpedo fleet, Charmes refers to the type which will, no doubt, be +most successful upon the sea, namely, the torpedo cruisers, and it +is to this type, more than for any other, that we may expect +torpedo boats to be adapted. Already, writers have dropped the +phrase "torpedo boats" for "torpedo +vessels."—<i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>FIRING TRIAL OF THE 110½ TON B.L. ELSWICK GUN.</h2> + +<p>The firing trial of the first new 110½ ton breech loading +gun approved for H.M.'s ships Benbow, Renown, and Sanspareil was +commenced recently at the Woolwich proof butts, under the direction +of Colonel Maitland, the superintendent of the Royal Gun Factories. +We give herewith a section showing the construction of this gun +(<i>vide</i> Fig. 8). It very nearly corresponds to the section +given of it when designed in 1884, in a paper read by Colonel +Maitland at the United Service Institution, of which we gave a long +account in the <i>Engineer</i> of June 27, 1884.</p> + +<p>The following figures are authoritative: Length over all, 524 +in.; length of bore, 487.5 in. (30 calibers). The breech engages in +the breech piece, leaving the A tube with its full strength for +tangential strain (<i>vide</i> Fig.). The A tube is in a single +piece instead of two lengths, as in the case of the Italia guns. It +is supplied to Elswick from Whitworth's works, one of the few in +England where such a tube could be made. There are four layers of +metal hoops over the breech. Copper and bronze are used to give +longitudinal strength. The obturation is a modification of the De +Bange system, proposed by Vavasseur.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt= +" THE NEW 110½ TON ELSWICK GUNS FOR H.M.S. BENBOW."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE NEW 110½ TON ELSWICK GUNS FOR H.M.S. +BENBOW.</p> + +<p>The maximum firing charge is 900 lb. of cocoa powder. The +projectile weighs 1,800 lb. The estimated muzzle velocity is 2,216 +ft. per second. The capacity of the chamber is 28,610 cubic inches, +and that of the bore 112,595 cubic inches. The estimated total +energy is 61,200 ft. tons. It will be a few days probably before +the full powers of the gun are tested, but the above are +confidently expected to be attained, judging from the results with +the 100 ton guns supplied to Italy. On January 7 last we gave those +of the new Krupp 119 ton gun. It had fired a projectile with a +velocity of almost 1,900 ft. with a charge of less than 864.67 lb., +with moderate pressure. The estimated maximum for this gun was a +velocity of 2,017 ft. with a projectile weighing 1,632 lb., giving +a total energy of 46,061 ft. tons, or 13,000 ft. tons less than the +Elswick gun, comparing the estimated results.</p> + +<p>The proof of the Elswick gun is mounted on a carriage turned out +by the Royal Carriage Department, under Colonel Close. This +carriage is made on bogies so as to run on rails passing easily +round curves of 50 ft. radius. The gun is fired on an inclined +length of rails, the recoil presses of the carriage first receiving +the shock and reducing the recoil. The carriage is made to lift +into the government barge, so as to go easily to Shoeburyness or +elsewhere. It can be altered so as to provide for turning, and it +allows the piece to be fired at angles of elevation up to 24 deg. +The cheeks of the carriage are made to open and close, so as to +take the 12 in. gun and larger pieces. The steel castings for it +are supplied from the Stanners Close Steel Works.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 4."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.</p> + +<p>The first round was fired at about noon. The charge was only 598 +lb., consisting of four charges of 112 lb. and one of 130 lb. of +Waltham Abbey brown prism No. 1 powder. The proof shot weighs, like +the service projectile, 1,800 lb. Thus fired, the gun recoiled +nearly 4 ft. on the press, and the carriage ran back on the rails +about 50 ft. The projectile had a velocity of 1,685 ft. per second, +and entered about 52 ft. into the butt. We cannot yet give the +pressure, but unquestionably it was a low one. The charges as the +firing continues will be increased in successive rounds up to the +full 900 lb. charge.</p> + +<p>Figs. 1 and 2 show the mounting of the 110½ ton gun in +the barbette towers of the Benbow. The gun is held down on the bed +by steel bands and recoils in its bed on the slide (vide Fig. 2). +The latter is hinged or pivoted in front and is elevated by +elevating ram, shown in Fig. 2. When the slide is fully down, the +gun is in the loading position. The ammunition lift brings up the +projectile and charge, which latter is subdivided, like those +employed in the German guns, in succession to the breech, the +hydraulic rammer forcing them home.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 5."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.</p> + +<p>The simplicity of the arrangement is apparent. The recoil always +acts parallel to the slide. This is much better than allowing its +direction to be affected by elevation, and the distributed hold of +the steel bands is preferable to the single attachment at +trunnions. Theoretically, the recoil is not so perfectly met as in +some of the earlier Elswick designs, in which the presses were +brought opposite to the trunnions, so that they acted symmetrically +on each side of the center of resistance. The barbette tower is +covered by a steel plate, shown in Fig. 1, fitting close to the gun +slide, so that the only opening is that behind the breech when the +gun is in the forward position, and this is closed as it +recoils.</p> + +<p>The only man of the detachment even partly exposed is the number +one, while laying the gun, and in that position he is nearly +covered by the gun and fittings. Common shell, shrapnel shell, and +steel armor-piercing projectiles, have been approved for the +110½ ton gun. The common shell is shown in Fig. 3. Like the +common shell for all the larger natures of new type guns, it is +made of steel. It has been found necessary to support the core used +in casting these projectiles at both ends. Consequently, there is a +screw plug at the base as well as at the apex. The hole at the base +is used as a filling hole for the insertion of the bursting charge, +which consists of 179 lb. of powder, the total weight of the filled +shell being 1,800 lb.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3e.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.</p> + +<p>The apex has a screw plug of larger diameter than that of the +fuse. This is shown in Fig. 4. The fuse is a direct action one. The +needle, B, is held in the center of a copper disk, C C, and is safe +against explosion until it is actually brought into contact with an +object, when it is forced down, igniting a patch of cap composition +and the magazine at A, and so firing the bursting charge of the +shell below. E E E are each priming charges of seven grains of +pistol powder, made up in shalloon bags to insure the ignition of +the bursting charge, which is in a bag of serge and shalloon +beneath.</p> + +<p>The use of this fuse involves the curious question of the +physical conditions now existing in the discharge of our +projectiles by slow burning powder. The forward movement of the +shell is now so gradual that the inertia of a pellet is only +sufficient to shear a wire of one-tenth the strength of that which +might formerly have been sheared by a similar pellet in an old type +gun with quick burning powder. Consequently, in many cases, it is +found better not to depend on a suspending wire thus sheared, but +to adopt direct action. The fuse in question would, we believe, act +even on graze, at any angle over 10°. Probably at less angles +than 10° it would not explode against water, which would be an +advantage in firing at ships.</p> + +<p>Shells so gently put in motion, and having no windage, might be +made, it might naturally be supposed, singularly thin, and the +adoption of steel in place of iron calls for some explanation. The +reason is that it has been found that common shells break up +against masonry, instead of penetrating it, when fired from these +large high velocity guns.</p> + +<p>The shrapnel shell is shown at Fig. 5. Like the common shell, it +is made of steel, and is of the general form of the pattern of +General Boxer, with wooden head, central tube, and bursting charge +in the base. It contains 2,300 four ounce sand shots and an 8 lb. +bursting charge. It weighs 1,800 lb. The fuse is time and +percussion. It is shown in Figs. 6 and 6A. It closely resembles the +original Armstrong time and percussion pattern.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3g.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3g_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6A."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 6A.</p> + +<p>The action is as follows: The ignition pellet, A, which is +ordinarily held by a safety pin, is, after the withdrawal of the +latter, only held by a fine, suspending wire, which is sheared by +the inertia of the pellet on discharge, a needle lighting a +percussion patch of composition and the composition ring, B B, +which burns round at a given rate until it reaches the +communication passage, C, when it flashes through the percussion +pellet, E, and ignites the magazine, D, and so ignites the primer +shown in Fig. 6, flashes down the central tube of the shell, and +explodes the bursting charge in the base, Fig. 5. The length of +time during which the fuse burns depends on how far the composition +ring is turned round, and what length it consequently has to burn +before it reaches the communication passage, C. If the fuse should +be set too long, or from any other cause the shell strikes before +the fuse fires the charge, the percussion action fires the shell on +graze by the following arrangement: The heavy metal piece +containing the magazine, D, constitutes a striker, which is held in +place by a plain ball, G, near the axis of the fuse and by a safety +pellet, H. On first movement in the gun, this latter by inertia +shears a suspending wire and leaves the ball free to escape above +it, which it does by centrifugal force, leaving the magazine +striker, D, free to fire itself by momentum on the needle shown +above it, on impact. There is a second safety arrangement, not +shown in the figure, consisting of a cross pin, held by a weak +spiral spring, which is compressed by centrifugal force during +flight, leaving the magazine pellet free to act, as above +described, on impact.</p> + +<p>The armor-piercing projectile is shown in Fig. 7. It is to be +made of forged steel, and supplied by Elswick. In appearance it +very closely resembles those fired from the 100 ton gun at Spezia, +but if it is made on the Firmini system, it will differ from it in +the composition of its metal, inasmuch as it will contain a large +proportion of chromium, probably from 1 to 2 per cent., whereas an +analysis of Krupp's shell gives none. In fact, as Krupp's agent at +Spezia predicted, the analysis is less instructive than we could +wish.—<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS.</h2> + +<p>The industrial world has reason to feel considerable interest in +any economical method of traction on railways, owing to the +influence which cost of transportation has upon the price of +produce. We give a description of the gas engine invented by Mr. +Emmanuel Stevens. Many experiments have been made both at Berlin +and Liege during the past few years. They all failed, owing to the +impossibility the builders encountered in securing sufficient +speed.</p> + +<p>The Stevens engine does not present this defect, as will be +seen. It has the appearance of an ordinary street car entirely +inclosed, showing none of the machinery from without. On the +interior is a Koerting gas motor of six horse power, which is a +sufficiently well known type not to require a description. In the +experiment which we saw, the motor was supplied with a mixture of +gas and air, obtained by the evaporation of naphtha. On the shaft +of the motor are fixed two pulleys of different sizes, which give +the engine two rates of speed, one of three miles and the other of +8½ miles an hour. Between these two pulleys is a friction +socket, by which either rate of speed may be secured.</p> + +<p>The power is transmitted from one of the pulleys by a rubber +belt to an intermediate shaft, which carries a toothed wheel that +transmits the power to the axle by means of an endless chain. On +this axle are three conical gear wheels, two of which are furnished +with hooked teeth, and the third with wooden projections and fixed +permanently in place. This arrangement enables the engine to be +moved forward or backward according as it is thrown in right or +left gear. When the conical pinions are thrown out of gear, the +motive force is no longer applied to the axle, and by the aid of +the brakes the engine may be instantly stopped. The movement of the +pinions is effected by two sets of wheels on each of the platforms +of the engine, and near the door for the conductor. By turning one +of the wheels to the right or left on either platform, the +conductor imparts either the less or the greater speed to the +engine. In case he has caused the engine to move forward by turning +the second wheel, he will not have to touch it again until the end +of the trip. The brake, which is also operated from the two +platforms, is applied to all four wheels at the same time. From +this arrangement it is seen that the movement is continuous. +Nevertheless, the conductor has access to the regulator by a small +chain connected with the outside by a wheel near at hand, but the +action is sufficiently regular not to require much attention to +this feature.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4a_th.jpg" alt= +" GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GAS ENGINE FOR USE ON RAILROADS.</p> + +<p>The gas is produced by the Wilford apparatus, which regularly +furnishes the requisite quantity necessary for an explosion, which +is produced by a particular kind of light placed near the piston. +The vapor is produced by passing hot water from the envelope of the +cylinder of the motor through the Wilford apparatus. The water is +cooled again in a reservoir (system Koerting) placed in direct +communication with the cylinder. Any permanent heating is therefore +impossible.</p> + +<p>The noise of the explosions is prevented by a device invented by +Mr. Stevens himself. It consists of a drum covered with asbestos or +any other material which absorbs noise.</p> + +<p>According to the inventor, the saving over the use of horses for +traction is considerable. This system is soon to be tried +practically at Antwerp in Belgium, and then it will be possible to +arrive at the actual cost of traction.—<i>Industrie Moderne, +Brussels</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4b_th.jpg" alt= +" LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE.—WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA RAILROAD."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">LOCATION OVER THE BLUE RIDGE.—WESTERN NORTH +CAROLINA RAILROAD.</p> + +<p>The interesting piece of railroad location illustrated in this +issue is on the mountain section of the Western North Carolina +Railroad. This section crosses the Blue Ridge Mountains 18 miles +east of Asheville, at a point known as Swannanoa Gap, 2,660 feet +above tide water. The part of the road shown on the accompanying +cut is 10 miles in length and has an elevation of 1,190 feet; to +overcome the actual distance by the old State pike was somewhat +over 3 miles. The maximum curvature as first located was 10°, +but for economy of time as well as money this was exceeded in a few +instances as the work progressed, but is now being by degrees +reduced. The maximum grades on tangents are 116 feet per mile; on +curves the grade is equated one-tenth to a degree. The masonry is +of the most substantial kind, granite viaducts and arch culverts. +The numbers and lengths of tunnels as indicated by letters on cut +are as follows:</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" +summary="Numbers and lengths of tunnels"> +<tr> +<td colspan="4"></td> +<td colspan="2" align="left">Ft. in all of these.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">A.</td> +<td align="left">Point Tunnel.</td> +<td align="right">216</td> +<td></td> +<td align="left">ft.</td> +<td align="left">long.<a name="FNanchor1"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">B.</td> +<td align="left">Jarrett's Tunnel.</td> +<td align="right">125</td> +<td></td> +<td align="left">"</td> +<td align="left">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">C.</td> +<td align="left">Lick Log Tunnel.</td> +<td align="right">562</td> +<td></td> +<td align="left">"</td> +<td align="left">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">D.</td> +<td align="left">McElroy Tunnel.</td> +<td align="right">89</td> +<td></td> +<td align="left">"</td> +<td align="left">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">E.</td> +<td align="left">High Ridge Tunnel.</td> +<td align="right">415</td> +<td></td> +<td align="left">"</td> +<td align="left">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">F.</td> +<td align="left">Burgin Tunnel.</td> +<td align="right">202</td> +<td></td> +<td align="left">"</td> +<td align="left">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">G.</td> +<td align="left">Swannanoa Tunnel.</td> +<td align="right">1,800</td> +<td></td> +<td align="left">"</td> +<td align="left">"</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The work was done by the State of North Carolina with convict +labor, under the direction of Mr. Jas. A. Wilson, as president and +chief engineer, but was sold by the State to the Richmond & +Danville system.—<i>Railroad Gazette</i>.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">For the sake of economy of space, our cut omits +the Point and Swannanoa tunnels (the latter is the summit tunnel), +but covers all of the location which is of interest to engineers, +the remainder at the Swannanoa end being almost "on tangent" to and +through the summit.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>NEW GASHOLDER AT ERDBERG.</h2> + +<p>The new gasholder which has been erected by Messrs. C. and W. +Walker for the Imperial Continental Gas Company at Erdberg, near +Vienna, has been graphically described by Herr E.R. Leonhardt in a +paper which he read before the Austrian Society of Engineers. The +enormous dimensions and elegant construction of the +holder—being the largest out of England—as well as the +work of putting up the new gasholder, are of special interest to +English engineers, as Erdberg contains the largest and best +appointed works in Austria. The dimensions of the holder +are—inner lift, 195 feet diameter, 40 feet deep; middle lift, +197½ feet diameter, 40 feet deep; outer lift, 200 feet +diameter, 40 feet deep. The diameter over all is about 230 feet. +The impression produced upon the members of the Austrian Society by +their visit to Erdberg was altogether most favorable; and not only +did the inspection of the large gasholder justify every +expectation, but the visitors were convinced that all the buildings +were in excellent condition and well adapted for their purpose, +that the machinery was of the latest and most approved type, and +that the management was in experienced hands.</p> + +<h3>THE NEW GASHOLDER</h3> + +<p>is contained in a building consisting of a circular wall covered +with a wrought iron roof. The holder itself is telescopic, and is +capable of holding 3½ million cubic feet of gas. The +accompanying illustrations (Figs. 1 and 3) are a sectional +elevation of the holder and its house and a sectional plan of the +roof and holder crown. Having a capacity of close upon 3,200,000 +Austrian cubic feet, this gasholder is the largest of its kind on +the Continent, and is surpassed in size by only a few in England +and America. By way of comparison, Hamburg possesses a holder of +50,000 cubic meters (1,765,000 cubic feet) capacity; and there is +one in Berlin which is expected to hold 75,000 cubic meters +(2,647,500 cubic feet) of gas.</p> + +<h3>GASHOLDER HOUSE.</h3> + +<p>The gasholder house at Erdberg is perfectly circular, and has an +internal diameter of 63.410 meters. It is constructed, in three +stories, with forty piers projecting on the outside, and with four +rows of windows between the piers—one in each of the top and +bottom stories, and two rows in the middle. These windows have a +height of 1.40 meters in the lowest circle, where the wall is 1.40 +meters thick, and of 2.90 meters in the two top stories, where it +is respectively 1.11 meters and 0.90 meter thick. The top edge of +the wall is 35.35 meters above the base of the building, and 44.39 +meters from the bottom of the tank; the piers rising 1.60 meters +beyond the top of the wall. The highest point of the lantern on the +roof will thus be 48.95 meters above the ground.</p> + +<h3>GASHOLDER TANK.</h3> + +<p>The tank in which the gasholder floats has an internal diameter +of 61.57 meters, and therefore a superficial area of 3,000 square +meters; and since the coping is 12.31 meters above the floor, it +follows that the tank is capable of holding 35,500 cubic meters +(7,800,000 gallons) of water. The bottom consists of brickwork 1.10 +meters thick, rendered with Portland cement, and resting on a layer +of concrete 1 meter thick. The walls are likewise of brick and +cement, of a thickness of 3.30 meters up to the ground level, and +2.40 meters thick to the height of 3.44 meters above the surface. +Altogether, 2,988,680 kilos. of cement and 5,570,000 bricks were +used in its construction. In fact, from the bottom of tank to top +of roof, it reaches as high as the monument at London Bridge.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 1.—SECTION OF GASHOLDER AND HOUSE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—SECTION OF GASHOLDER AND HOUSE.</p> + +<p>The construction of the tank offered many and serious +difficulties. The bottom of the tank is fully 3 meters below the +level of the Danube Canal, which passes close by, and it was not +until twelve large pulsometer pumps were set up, and worked +continually night and day, that it was possible to reach the +necessary depth to allow of the commencement of the foundations of +the boundary wall.</p> + +<h3>ROOF OF HOUSE.</h3> + +<p>The wrought iron cupola-shaped roof of the gasholder house was +designed by Herr W. Brenner, and consists of 40 radiating rafters, +each weighing about 25 cwt., and joined together by 8 polygonal +circles of angle iron (90×90×10 mm.). The highest +middle circle is uncovered, and carries a round lantern (Fig. 1). +These radiating rafters consist of flat iron bars 7 mm. thick, and +of a height which diminishes gradually, from one interval to +another on the inside, from 252 to 188 mm. At the outside ends +(varying from 80×80×9 mm. in the lowest to +60×60×7 mm. in the last polygon but one) these rafters +are strengthened, at least as far as the five lowest ones are +concerned, by flat irons tightly riveted on. At their respective +places of support, the ends of all the spars are screwed on by +means of a washer 250 mm. high and 31 mm. thick, and surmounted by +a gutter supported by angle irons. From every junction between the +radial rafters and the polygonal circle, diagonal bars are made to +run to the center of the corresponding interval, where they meet, +and are there firmly held together by means of a tongue ring. The +roof is 64.520 meters wide and 14.628 meters high; and its total +weight is 103.300 kilos. for the ironwork—representing a +weight of 31.6 kilos. per square meter of surface. It is proposed +to employ for its covering wooden purlins and tin plates. The whole +construction has a light, pleasing, and yet thoroughly solid +appearance.</p> + +<h3>RAISING THE ROOF.</h3> + +<p>Herr Brenner, the engineer of the Erdberg Works, gives a +description of how the roof of a house, 54.6 meters wide, for a +gasholder in Berlin, was raised to a height of 22 meters. In that +instance the iron structure was put together at the bottom of the +tank, leaving the rafter ends and the mural ring. The hoisting +itself was effected by means of levers—one to each +rafter—connected with the ironwork below by means of iron +chains. At the top there were apertures at distances of about 26 +mm. from each other, and through these the hoisting was proceeded +with. With every lift, the iron structure was raised a distance of +26 mm.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>Herr Brenner had considerable hesitation in raising in the same +way the structure at Erdberg, which was much larger and heavier +than that in Berlin. The simultaneous elevation to 48 meters above +the level, proposed to be effected at forty different points, did +not appear to him to offer sufficient security. He therefore +proposed to put the roof together on the ground, and to raise it +simultaneously with the building of the wall; stating that this +mode would be perfectly safe, and would not involve any additional +cost. The suggestion was adopted, and it was found to possess, in +addition, the important advantage that the structure could be made +to rest on the masonry at any moment; whereas this had been +impossible in the case at the Berlin Gasworks.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<h3>HOISTING.</h3> + +<p>At a given signal from the foreman, two operatives, stationed at +each of the forty lifting points, with crowbars inserted in the +holes provided for the purpose, give the screws a simultaneous turn +in the same direction. The bars are then inserted in another hole +higher up. The hoisting screws are connected with the structure of +the roof, and rise therewith. All that is requisite for the +hoisting from the next cross beam is to give a forward turn to the +screws. When the workmen had become accustomed to their task, the +hoisting to a distance of 1 meter occupied only about half to +three-quarters of an hour. At the outset, and merely by way of a +trial, the roof was lifted to a height of fully 2 meters, and left +for some time suspended in the air. The eighty men engaged in the +operation carry on the work with great regularity and steadiness, +obeying the signal of the foreman as soon as it was given.</p> + +<h3>THE GASHOLDER.</h3> + +<p>The holder, which was supplied by the well-known firm of Messrs. +C. and W. Walker, of Finsbury Circus, London, and Donnington, +Salop, was in an outer courtyard. It is a three-lift telescopic +one; the lowest lift being 200 feet, the middle lift 197 ft. 6 in., +and the top lift 195 ft. in diameter. The height of each lift is 40 +feet. The several lifts are raised in the usual way; and they all +work in a circle of 24 vertical U-shaped channel irons, fixed in +the wall of the house by means of 13 supports placed at equal +distances from the base to the summit (as shown in Fig. 2). When +the gasholder is perfectly empty, the three lifts are inclosed, one +in the other, and rest with their lower edges upon the bottom of +the tank. In this case the roof of the top lift rests upon a wooden +framework. Fixed in the floor of the tank are 144 posts, 9 inches +thick at the bottom and 6 inches thick at the top, to support the +crown of the holder in such a way that the tops are fixed in a kind +of socket, each of them being provided with four horizontal bars, +which decrease in thickness from 305 by 100 mm. to 150 by 50 mm., +and represent 16 parallel polygons, which in their turn are +fastened diagonally by means of iron rails 63 by 100 mm. thick, +arranged crosswise. The top of this framework is perfectly +contiguous with the inside of the crown of the gasholder. The crown +itself is made up of iron plates, the outer rows having a thickness +of 11 mm., decreasing to 5 mm. toward the middle, and to 3 mm. at +the top. The plates used for the side sheets of the holder are: For +the top and bottom rows, 6.4 mm.; and for the other plates, 2.6 +mm.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A new bleaching compound has been discovered, consisting of +three parts by measure of mustard-seed oil, four of melted +paraffin, three of caustic soda 20° Baume, well mixed to form a +soapy compound. Of this one part of weight and two of pure tallow +soap are mixed, and of this mixture one ounce for each gallon of +water is used for the bleaching bath, and one ounce caustic soda +20° Baume for each gallon is added, when the bath is heated in +a close vessel, the goods entered, and boiled till sufficiently +bleached.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>GEORGE W. WHISTLER, C.E.<a name="FNanchor2"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Prof. G.L. VOSE.</h3> + +<p>Few persons, even among those best acquainted with our modern +railroad system, are aware of the early struggles of the men to +whose foresight, energy, and skill the new mode of transportation +owes its introduction into this country. The railroad problem in +the United States was quite a different one from that in Europe. +Had we simply copied the railways of England, we should have ruined +the system at the outset, for this country. In England, where the +railroad had its origin, money was plenty, the land was densely +populated, and the demand for rapid and cheap transportation +already existed. A great many short lines connecting the great +centers of industry were required, and for the construction of such +in the most substantial manner the money was easily obtained. In +America, on the contrary, a land of enormous extent, almost +entirely undeveloped, but of great possibilities, lines of hundreds +and even thousands of miles in extent were to be made, to connect +cities as yet unborn, and accommodate a future traffic of which no +one could possibly foresee the amount. Money was scarce, and in +many districts the natural obstacles to be overcome were infinitely +greater than any which had presented themselves to European +engineers.</p> + +<p>By the sound practical sense and the unconquerable will of +George Stephenson, the numerous inventions which together make up +the locomotive engine had been collected into a machine which, in +combination with the improved roadway, was to revolutionize the +transportation of the world. The railroad, as a machine, was +invented. It remained to apply the new invention in such a manner +as to make it a success, and not a failure. To do this in a new +country like America required infinite skill, unbounded energy, the +most careful study of local conditions, and the exercise of well +matured, sound business judgment. To see how well the great +invention has been applied in the United States, we have only to +look at the network of iron roads which now reaches from the Great +Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the +Pacific.</p> + +<p>With all the experience we have had, it is not an easy problem, +even at the present time, to determine how much money we are +authorized to spend upon the construction of a given railroad. To +secure the utmost benefit at the least outlay, regarding both the +first cost of building the road and the perpetual cost of operating +it, is the railroad problem which is perhaps less understood at the +present day than any other. It was an equally important problem +fifty years ago, and certainly not less difficult at that time. It +was the fathers of the railroad system in the United States who +first perceived the importance of this problem, and who, adapting +themselves to the new conditions presented in this country, +undertook to solve it. Among the pioneers in this branch of +engineering no one has done more to establish correct methods, nor +has left behind a more enviable or more enduring fame, than Major +George W. Whistler.</p> + +<p>The Whistler family is of English origin, and is found toward +the end of the 15th century in Oxfordshire, at Goring and +Whitchurch, on the Thames. One branch of the family settled in +Sussex, at Hastings and Battle, being connected by marriage with +the Websters of Battle Abbey, in which neighborhood some of the +family still live. Another branch lived in Essex, from which came +Dr. Daniel Whistler, President of the College of Physicians in +London in the time of Charles the Second. From the Oxfordshire +branch came Ralph, son of Hugh Whistler, of Goring, who went to +Ireland, and there founded the Irish branch of the family, being +the original tenant of a large tract of country in Ulster, under +one of the guilds or public companies of the city of London. From +this branch of the family came Major John Whistler, father of the +distinguished engineer, and the first representative of the family +in America. It is stated that in some youthful freak he ran away +and enlisted in the British Army. It is certain that he came to +this country during the Revolutionary War, under General Burgoyne, +and remained with his command until its surrender at Saratoga, when +he was taken prisoner of war. Upon his return to England he was +honorably discharged, and, soon after, forming an attachment for a +daughter of Sir Edward Bishop, a friend of his father, he eloped +with her, and came to this country, settling at Hagerstown, in +Maryland. He soon after entered the army of the United States, and +served in the ranks, being severely wounded in the disastrous +campaign against the Indians under Major-General St. Clair in the +year 1791. He was afterward commissioned as lieutenant, rose to the +rank of captain, and later had the brevet of major. At the +reduction of the army in 1815, having already two sons in the +service, he was not retained; but in recognition of his honorable +record, he was appointed Military Storekeeper at Newport, Kentucky, +from which post he was afterward transferred to Jefferson Barracks, +where he lived to a good old age.</p> + +<p>Major John Whistler had a large family of sons and daughters, +among whom we may note particularly William, who became a colonel +in the United States Army, and who died at Newport, Ky., in 1863; +John, a lieutenant in the army, who died of wounds received in the +battle of Maguago, near Detroit, in 1812; and George Washington, +the subject of our sketch. Major John Whistler was not only a good +soldier, and highly esteemed for his military services, but was +also a man of refined tastes and well educated, being an uncommonly +good linguist and especially noted as a fine musician. In his +family he is stated to have united firmness with tenderness, and to +have impressed upon his children the importance of a faithful and +thorough performance of duty in whatever position they should be +placed.</p> + +<p>George Washington Whistler, the youngest son of Major John +Whistler, was born on the 19th of May, in the year 1800, at Fort +Wayne, in the present State of Indiana, but then part of the +Northwest Territory, his father being at the time in command of +that post. Of the boyhood of Whistler we have no record, except +that he followed his parents from one military station to another, +receiving his early education for the most part at Newport, Ky., +from which place, on July 31, 1814, he was appointed a cadet to the +United States Military Academy, being then fourteen years of age. +The course of the student at West Point was a very satisfactory +one. Owing to a change in the arrangement of classes after his +entrance, he had the advantage of a longer term than had been given +to those who preceded him, remaining five years under instruction. +His record during his student life was good throughout. In a class +of thirty members he stood No. 1 in drawing, No. 4 in descriptive +geometry, No. 5 in drill, No. 11 in philosophy and in engineering, +No. 12 in mathematics, and No. 10 in general merit. He was +remarkable, says one who knew him at this time, for his frank and +open manner and for his pleasant and cheerful disposition. A good +story is told of the young cadet which shows his ability, even at +this time, to make the best of circumstances apparently untoward, +and to turn to his advantage his surroundings, whatever they might +be. Having been for some slight breach of discipline required to +bestride a gun in the campus for a short time, he saw, to his +dismay, coming down the walk the beautiful daughter of Dr. Foster +Swift, a young lady who, visiting West Point, had taken the hearts +of the cadets by storm, and who, little as he may at the time have +dreamed it, was destined to become his future wife. Pulling out his +handkerchief, he bent over his gun, and appeared absorbed in +cleaning the most inaccessible parts of it with such vigor as to be +entirely unaware that any one was passing; nor did the young lady +dream that a case of discipline had been before her until in after +years, when, on a visit to West Point, an explanation was made to +her by her husband.</p> + +<p>It was at this time of his life that the refinement and taste +for which Major Whistler was ever after noted began to show itself. +An accomplished scientific musician and performer, he gained a +reputation in this direction beyond that of a mere amateur, and +scarcely below that of the professionals of the day. His +<i>sobriquet</i> of "Pipes," which his skill upon the flute at this +time gave him, adhered to him through life among his intimates in +the army. His skill with the pencil, too, was something phenomenal, +and would, had not more serious duties prevented, have made him as +noted an artist as he was an engineer. Fortunately for the world +this talent descended to one of his sons, and in his hands has had +full development. These tastes in Major Whistler appeared to be +less the results of study than the spontaneous outgrowth of a +refined and delicate organization, and so far constitutional with +him that they seemed to tinge his entire character. They continued +to be developed till past the meridian of life, and amid all the +pressure of graver duties furnished a most delightful +relaxation.</p> + +<p>Upon completing his course at the Military Academy he was +graduated, July 1, 1819, and appointed second lieutenant in the +corps of artillery. From this date until 1821 he served part of the +time on topographical duty, and part of the time he was in garrison +at Fort Columbus. From November 2, 1821, to April 30, 1822, he was +assistant professor at the Military Academy, a position for which +his attainments in descriptive geometry and his skill in drawing +especially fitted him. This employment, however, was not altogether +to his taste. He was too much of an artist to wish to confine +himself to the mechanical methods needed in the training of +engineering students. In 1822, although belonging to the artillery, +he was detailed on topographical duty under Major (afterward +Colonel) Abert, and was connected with the commission employed in +tracing the international boundary between Lake Superior and the +Lake of the Woods. This work continued four years, from 1822 to +1826, and subsequent duties in the cabinet of the commission +employed nearly two years more.</p> + +<p>The field service of this engagement was anything but light +work, much of it being performed in the depth of winter with a +temperature fifty degrees below zero. The principal food of the +party was tallow and some other substance, which was warmed over a +fire on stopping at night. The snow was then removed to a +sufficient depth for a bed, and the party wrapped one another up in +their buffalo robes, until the last man's turn came, when he had to +wrap himself up the best he could. In the morning, after warming +their food and eating, the remainder was allowed to harden in the +pan, after which it was carried on the backs of men to the next +stopping place. The work was all done upon snow-shoes, and +occasionally a man became so blinded by the glare of the sun upon +the snow that he had to be led by a rope.</p> + +<p>Upon the 1st of June, 1821, Whistler was made second lieutenant +in the First Artillery, in the reorganized army; on the 16th of +August, 1821, he was transferred to the Second Artillery, and on +the 16th of August, 1829, he was made first lieutenant. Although +belonging to the artillery, he was assigned to topographical duty +almost continually until December 31, 1833, when he resigned his +position in the army. A large part of his time during this period +was spent in making surveys, plans, and estimates for public works, +not merely those needed by the national government, but others +which were undertaken by chartered companies in different parts of +the United States. There were at that time very few educated +engineers in the country, besides the graduates of the Military +Academy; and the army engineers were thus frequently applied for, +and for several years government granted their services.</p> + +<p>Prominent among the early works of internal improvement was the +Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, and the managers of this undertaking +had been successful in obtaining the services of several officers +who were then eminent, or who afterward became so. The names of Dr. +Howard, who, though not a military man, was attached to the Corps +of Engineers, of Lieut.-Col. Long, and of Capt. William Gibbs +McNeill appear in the proceedings of the company as "Chiefs of +Brigade," and those of Fessenden, Gwynne, and Trimble among the +assistants.</p> + +<p>In October, 1828, this company made a special request for the +services of Lieutenant Whistler. The directors had resolved on +sending a deputation to England to examine the railroads of that +country, and Jonathan Knight, William Gibbs McNeill, and George W. +Whistler were selected for this duty. They were also accompanied by +Ross Winans, whose fame and fortune, together with those of his +sons, became so widely known afterward in connection with the great +Russian railway. Lieutenant Whistler, says one who knew him well, +was chosen for this service on account of his remarkable +thoroughness in all the details of his profession, as well as for +his superior qualifications in other respects. The party left this +country in November, 1828, and returned in May, 1829.</p> + +<p>In the course of the following year the organization of the +Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, a part of which had already been +constructed under the immediate personal supervision of Lieutenant +Whistler, assumed a more permanent form, and allowed the military +engineers to be transferred to other undertakings of a similar +character. Accordingly, in June, 1830, Captain McNeill and +Lieutenant Whistler were sent to the Baltimore and Susquehanna +Railroad, for which they made the preliminary surveys and a +definite location, and upon which they remained until about twenty +miles were completed, when a lack of funds caused a temporary +suspension of the work. In the latter part of 1831 Whistler went to +New Jersey to aid in the construction of the Paterson and Hudson +River Railroad (now a part of the Erie Railway). Upon this work he +remained until 1833, at which time he moved to Connecticut to take +charge of the location of the railroad from Providence to +Stonington, a line which had been proposed as an extension of that +already in process of construction from Boston to Providence.</p> + +<p>In this year, December 31, 1833, Lieut. Whistler resigned his +commission in the army, and this not so much from choice as from a +sense of duty. Hitherto his work as an engineer appears to have +been more an employment than a vocation. He carried on his +undertakings diligently, as it was his nature to do, but without +much anxiety or enthusiasm; and he was satisfied in meeting +difficulties as they came up, with a sufficient solution. +Henceforward he handled his profession from a love of it. He +labored that his resources against the difficulties of matter and +space should be overabundant, and if he had before been content +with the sure-footed facts of observation, he now added the +luminous aid of study. How luminous and how sure these combined +became, his later works show best.</p> + +<p>In 1834 Mr. Whistler accepted the position of engineer to the +proprietors of locks and canals at Lowell. This position gave him +among other things the direction of the machine shops, which had +been made principally for the construction of locomotive engines. +The Boston and Lowell Railroad, which at this time was in process +of construction, had imported a locomotive from the works of George +and Robert Stephenson, at Newcastle, and this engine was to be +reproduced, not only for the use of the Lowell road, but for other +railways as well, and to this work Major Whistler gave a large part +of his time from 1834 to 1837. The making of these engines +illustrated those features in his character which then and ever +after were of the utmost value to those he served. It showed the +self-denial with which he excluded any novelties of his own, the +caution with which he admitted those of others, and the judgment +which he exercised in selecting and combining the most meritorious +of existing arrangements. The preference which he showed for what +was simple and had been tried did not arise from a want of +originality, as he had abundant occasion to show during the whole +of his engineering life. He was, indeed, uncommonly fertile in +expedients, as all who knew him testify, and the greater the demand +upon his originality, the higher did he rise to meet the occasion. +The time spent in Lowell was not only to the great advantage of the +company, but it increased also his own stores of mechanical +knowledge, and in a direction, too, which in later years was of +especial value to him.</p> + +<p>In 1837 the condition of the Stonington Railroad became such as +to demand the continual presence and attention of the engineer. Mr. +Whistler therefore moved to Stonington, a place to which he became +much attached, and to which he seems during all of his wanderings +to have looked with a view of making it finally his home. While +engaged upon the above road he was consulted in regard to many +other undertakings in different parts of the country, and prominent +among these was the Western Railroad of Massachusetts.</p> + +<p>This great work, remarkable for the boldness of its engineering, +was to run from Worcester through Springfield and Pittsfield to +Albany. To surmount the high lands dividing the waters of the +Connecticut from those of the Hudson called for engineering +cautious and skillful as well as heroic. The line from Worcester to +Springfield, though apparently much less formidable, and to one who +now rides over the road showing no very marked features, demanded +hardly less study, as many as twelve several routes having been +examined between Worcester and Brookfield. To undertake the +solution of a problem of so much importance required the best of +engineering talent, and we find associated on this work the names +of three men who in the early railroad enterprises of this country +stood deservedly in the front rank: George W. Whistler, William +Gibbs McNeill, and William H. Swift. McNeill had graduated from the +Military Academy in 1817, and rose to the rank of major in the +Topographical Engineers. Like Whistler, he had been detailed to +take charge of the design and construction of many works of +internal improvement not under the direction of the general +government. These two engineers exercised an influence throughout +the country for many years much greater than that of any others. +Indeed, there were very few works of importance undertaken at that +time in connection with which their names do not appear. This +alliance was further cemented by the marriage between Whistler and +McNeill's sister. Capt. William H. Swift had also graduated from +the Military Academy, and had already shown marked ability as an +engineer. Such were the men who undertook the location and +construction of the railroad which was to surmount the high lands +between the Connecticut and the Hudson, and to connect Boston with +the Great West.</p> + +<p>The early reports of these engineers to the directors of the +Western Railroad show an exceedingly thorough appreciation of the +complex problem presented to them, and a much better understanding +of the principles involved in establishing the route than seems to +have been shown in many far more recent works. In these early +reports made in 1836 and 1837, we find elaborate discussions as to +the power of the locomotive engine, and a recognition of the fact +that in comparing different lines we must regard the <i>plan</i> as +well as the <i>profile</i>, "as the resistance from curves on a +level road may even exceed that produced by gravity on an incline;" +and in one place we find the ascents "<i>equated</i> at 18 feet, +the slope which requires double the power needed on a level road," +resulting in a "<i>virtual increase</i>." We find also a very clear +expression of the fact that an increased expenditure in the power +needed to operate the completed road may overbalance a considerable +saving in first cost. To bear this principle in mind, and at the +same time to work in accordance with the directors' ideas of +economy, in a country where the railroad was regarded very largely +as an experiment, was by no means an easy task. The temptation to +make the first cost low at the expense of the quality of the road +in running up the valley of Westfield River was very great, and the +directors were at one time very strongly urged to make an +exceedingly narrow and crooked road west of Springfield; but Major +Whistler so convinced the President, Thomas B. Wales, of the folly +of such a course, that the latter declared, with a most emphatic +prefix, that he would have nothing to do with such a two-penny +cow-path, and thus prevented its adoption.</p> + +<p>Mr. Whistler had many investigations to make concerning the +plans and policy of railroad companies at a time when almost +everything connected with them was comparatively new and untried. +When he commenced, there was no passenger railroad in the country, +and but very few miles of quarry and mining track. If at that time +an ascent of more than 1 in 200 was required, it was thought +necessary to have inclined planes and stationary power. It was +supposed that by frequent relays it would be possible to obtain for +passenger cars a speed of eight or nine miles an hour. Almost +nothing was known of the best form for rails, of the construction +of the track, or of the details for cars or engines. In all of +these things Major Whistler's highly gifted and well balanced mind +enabled him to judge wisely for his employers, and to practice for +them the truest economy.</p> + +<p>Major Whistler's employment upon the Western Railroad began +while he was still engaged upon the Stonington line. In connection +with his friend McNeill he acted as consulting engineer for the +Western road from 1836 to 1840. From 1840 to 1842 he was its chief +engineer, with his headquarters at Springfield. The steep grades +west of the Connecticut presented not only a difficult problem in +location and construction, but in locomotive engineering as well. +At the present day we can order any equipment which may best meet +the requirement upon any railroad, and the order will be promptly +met by any one of our great manufactories. But in the early days of +the Western Railroad it was far otherwise, and the locomotive which +should successfully and economically operate the hitherto unheard +of grade of over 80 feet to the mile was yet to be seen. The +Messrs. Winans, of Baltimore, had built some nondescript machines, +which had received the name of "crabs," and had tried to make them +work upon the Western road. But after many attempts they were given +up as unfit for such service.</p> + +<p>These "crabs" were eight wheeled engines, weighing about 20 +tons, with a vertical boiler. The wheels were 3½ feet in +diameter, but the engine worked on to an intermediate shaft, which +was connected with the driving axle in such a way as to get the +effect of a five foot wheel. These engines did not impress Major +Whistler at all favorably. And it is related that one Sunday the +watchman in charge of the building in which some of them were kept, +hearing some one among the engines, went in quietly and overheard +Major Whistler, apparently conversing with the "crab," and saying: +"No; you miserable, top-heavy, lop-sided abortion of a grasshopper, +you'll never do to haul the trains over this road." His experience +in Lowell was here of great value to him, and he had become +convinced that the engine of George Stephenson was in the main the +coming machine, and needed but to be properly proportioned and of +sufficient size to meet every demand.</p> + +<p>With Major Whistler's work upon the Western Railroad his +engineering service in this country concluded, and that by an +occurrence which marked him as the foremost railroad engineer of +his time. Patient, indefatigable, cautious, remarkable for +exhaustless resource, admirable judgment, and the highest +engineering skill, he had begun with the beginning of the railroad +system, and had risen to the chief control of one of the greatest +works in the world, the Western Railroad of Massachusetts. Not only +had he shown the most far-sighted wisdom in fixing the general +features of this undertaking, but no man surpassed him, if, indeed, +any one equaled him, in an exact and thorough knowledge of +technical details. To combine the various elements in such a manner +as to produce the greatest commercial success, and to make the +railroad in the widest sense of the word a public improvement, +never forgetting the amount of money at his disposal, was the +problem he had undertaken to solve. He had proved himself a great +master in his profession, and had shown how well fitted he was to +grapple with every difficulty. He was equally a man of science and +a man of business. And to all this he added the most delicate sense +of honor and the most spotless integrity. He was in the prime of +manhood, and was prepared to enter upon the great work of his +life.</p> + +<p>It was not long after the introduction of the railroad that +intelligent persons saw very plainly that the new mode of +transportation was not to be confined to the working of an already +established traffic, in densely populated regions, but that it +would be of equal service in awakening the energies of undeveloped +countries, in bringing the vast interior regions of the continents +into communication with the seaboard, in opening markets to lands +which before were beyond the reach of commerce. And it was seen, +too, that in event of war, a new and invaluable element had been +introduced, viz., the power of transportation to an extent never +before imagined.</p> + +<p>Especially were these advantages foreseen in the vast empire of +Russia, and an attempt was very early made to induce private +capitalists to undertake the construction of the lines contemplated +in that country. The Emperor, besides guaranteeing to the +shareholders a minimum profit of four per cent., proposed to give +them, gratuitously, all the lands of the state through which the +lines should pass, and to place at their disposal, also +gratuitously, the timber and raw materials necessary for the way +and works which might be found upon the ground. It was further +proposed, to permit the importation of rails and of the rolling +stock free of duty. Russian proprietors also came forward, and not +only agreed to grant such portions of their land as the railroads +might pass through, gratuitously, but further to dispossess +themselves temporarily of their serfs, and surrender them to the +use of the companies, on the sole condition that they should be +properly supported while thus employed.</p> + +<p>With regard to the great line, however, which was to unite the +two capitals, St. Petersburg and Moscow, it was decreed that this +should be made exclusively at the expense of the state, in order to +retain in the hands of the government and in the general interest +of the people a line of communication so important to the industry +and the internal commerce of the country. The local proprietors +agreed to surrender to the government, gratuitously, the lands +necessary for this line.</p> + +<p>It was very early understood that the railroad problem in Russia +was much more analogous to that in the United States than to that +in England. The Emperor, therefore, in 1839, sent the Chevalier De +Gerstner to the United States to obtain information concerning the +railroads of this country. It was this person who obtained from the +Emperor the concession for the short railway from St. Petersburg to +Zarskoe Selo, which had been opened in 1837, and who had also made +a careful reconnoissance in 1835 for a line from St. Petersburg to +Moscow, and had very strongly urged its construction on the +American plan. The more De Gerstner examined our roads, the more +impressed he was with the fitness of what he termed the American +system of building and operating railroads to the needs of the +empire of Russia. In one of his letters in explaining the causes of +the cheap construction of American railroads, after noting the fact +that labor as well as material is much dearer in America than in +Europe, he refers to the use of steep grades (93 feet to the mile) +and sharp curves (600 feet radius), upon which the American +equipment works easily, to the use of labor saving machinery, +particularly to a steam excavating machine upon the railroad +between Worcester and Springfield, and to the American system of +wooden bridge building, and says: "The superstructure of the +railroads in America is made conformable to the expected traffic, +and costs therefore more or less accordingly;" and he concludes, +"considering the whole, it appears that the cheapness of the +American railroads has its foundation in the practical sense which +predominates in their construction." Again, under the causes of the +cheap management of the American roads, he notes the less expensive +administration service, the low rate of speed, the use of the eight +wheeled cars and the four-wheeled truck under the engines, and +concludes: "In my opinion it would be of great advantage for every +railroad company in Europe to procure at least one such train" (as +those used in America). "Those companies, however, whose works are +yet under construction I can advise with the fullest conviction to +procure all their locomotive engines and tenders from America, and +to construct their cars after the American model."</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this report, the suggestions of De Gerstner were +not at once accepted. The magnitude of the enterprise would not +admit of taking a false step. Further evidence was needed, and +accordingly it was decided to send a committee of engineer officers +to various countries in Europe, and to the United States, to select +such a system for the road and its equipment as would be best +adapted to Russia. These officers, Colonels Melnikoff and Krofft, +not only reported in the most decided manner in favor of the +American methods, but also stated that of all persons with whom +they had communicated, no one had given them such full and +satisfactory information upon all points, or had so impressed them +as possessing extraordinary ability, as Major George W. Whistler. +This led to his receiving an invitation from the Emperor to go to +Russia and become consulting engineer for the great road which was +to connect the imperial city upon the Baltic with the ancient +capital of the Czars.</p> + +<p>When we consider the magnitude of the engineering works with +which the older countries abound, we can but regard with a feeling +of pride the fact that an American should have been selected for so +high a trust by a European government possessing every opportunity +and means for securing the highest professional talent which the +world could offer. Nor should it be forgotten that the selection of +our countryman did not arise from any necessity which the Russian +Government felt for obtaining professional aid from abroad, growing +out of a lack of the requisite material at home. On the contrary, +the engineers of the Russian service are perhaps the most +accomplished body of men to be found in any country. Selected in +their youth, irrespective of any artificial advantages of birth or +position, but for having a genius for such work, and trained to a +degree of excellence in all of the sciences unsurpassed in any +country, they stand deservedly in the front rank. Such was the body +of men with whom Major Whistler was called to co-operate, and whose +professional duties, if not directed specially by him, were to be +controlled by his judgment.</p> + +<p>Accepting the position offered to him in so flattering a manner, +he sailed for St. Petersburg about mid-summer in 1842, being +accompanied on his voyage by Major Bouttattz, of the Russian +Engineer Corps, who had been sent to this country by the Emperor as +an escort. Arriving in St. Petersburg, and having learned the +general character of the proposed work, he traveled partly by horse +and partly on foot over the entire route, and made his preliminary +report, which was at once accepted.</p> + +<p>The plan contemplated the construction of a double track +railroad 420 miles long, perfect in all its parts, and equipped to +its utmost necessity. The estimates amounted to nearly forty +millions of dollars, and the time for its construction was reckoned +at seven years. The line selected for the road had no reference to +intermediate points, and was the shortest attainable, due regard +being paid to the cost of construction. It is nearly straight, and +passes over so level a country as to encounter no obstacle +requiring a grade exceeding 20 feet to the mile, and for most of +the distance it is level. The right of way taken was 400 feet in +width throughout the entire length. The roadbed was raised from six +to ten feet above the ordinary level of the country, and was 30 +feet wide on top.</p> + +<p>One of the most important questions to settle at the outset in +regard to this great work was the width of the gauge. At that time +the opinion in England as well as in the United States among +engineers was setting very strongly in favor of a gauge wider than +4 feet 8½ inches, and the Russian engineers were decidedly +in favor of such increased width. Major Whistler, however, in an +elaborate report to the Count Kleinmichel argued very strongly in +favor of the ordinary gauge. To this a commission of the most +distinguished engineers in Russia replied, urging in the most +forcible manner the adoption of a gauge of six feet. Major Whistler +rejoined in a report which is one of the finest models of an +engineering argument ever written, and in which we have perhaps the +best view of the quality of his mind. In this document no point is +omitted, each part of the question is handled with the most +consummate skill, the bearing of the several parts upon the whole +is shown in the clearest possible manner, and in a style which +could only come from one who from his own knowledge was thoroughly +familiar with all the details, not only of the railroad, but of the +locomotive as well.</p> + +<p>In this report the history of the ordinary gauge is given, with +the origin of the standard of 4 feet 8½ inches; the +questions of strength, stability, and capacity of cars, of the +dimensions, proportions, and power of engines, the speed of trains, +resistances to motion, weight and strength of rails, the cost of +the roadway, and the removal of snow are carefully considered. The +various claims of the advocates for a wider gauge are fairly and +critically examined, and while the errors of his opponents are laid +bare in the most unsparing manner, the whole is done in a spirit so +entirely unprejudiced, and with so evident a desire for the simple +truth, as to carry conviction to any fair minded person. The dry +way, too, in which he suggests that conclusions based upon actual +results from existing railways are of more value than deductions +from supposed conditions upon imaginary roads, is exceedingly +entertaining. The result was the adoption of the gauge recommended +by him, namely, five feet. Those who remember the "Battle of the +Gauges," and who know how much expense and trouble the wide gauge +has since caused, will appreciate the stand taken thus early by +Major Whistler; and this was but one among many cases which might +be mentioned to show how comprehensive and far-reaching was his +mind.</p> + +<p>The roadbed of the St. Petersburg and Moscow Railway was made 30 +feet wide on top, for a double track of 5 foot gauge, with a gravel +ballasting two feet deep. The bridges were of wood, of the Howe +pattern, no spans being over 200 feet in length. The stations at +each end, and the station and engine houses along the line, were on +a plan uniform throughout, and of the most ample accommodation. +Fuel and water stations were placed at suitable points, and engine +houses were provided 50 miles apart, built of the most substantial +masonry, circular in form, 180 feet in diameter, surmounted by a +dome, and having stalls for 22 engines each. Repair shops were +attached to every engine house, furnished with every tool or +implement that the wants of the road could suggest.</p> + +<p>The equipment of rolling stock and fixed machinery for the shops +was furnished by the American firm of Winans, Harrison & +Eastwick, who from previous acquaintance were known by Major +Whistler to be skillful, energetic, and reliable. Much diplomacy +was needed to procure the large money advances for this part of the +work, the whole Winans contract amounting to nearly five millions +of dollars; but the assurance of Major Whistler was a sufficient +guarantee against disappointment or failure.</p> + +<p>In 1843 the plans for the work were all complete, and in 1844 +the various operations along the line were well under way, and +proceeding according to the well arranged programme. In 1845 the +work had progressed so far that the construction of the rolling +stock was commenced. The locomotives were of two classes, freight +and passenger. The engines of each class were made throughout from +the same patterns, so that any part of one engine would fit the +same position on any other. The passenger engines had two pairs of +driving wheels, coupled, 6 feet in diameter, and a four wheeled +truck similar to the modern American locomotive. The general +dimensions were: Waist of boiler, 47 inches, 186 two inch tubes +10½ feet long; cylinders, 16 × 22 inches. The freight +engines had the same capacity of boiler and the same number and +length of tubes, three pairs of driving wheels, coupled, 4½ +feet in diameter, a truck and cylinders 18 × 22 inches, and +all uniform throughout in workmanship and finish. The passenger +cars were 56 feet long and 9½ feet wide, the first class +carrying 33 passengers, the second class 54, and the third class +80. They all had eight truck wheels under each, and elliptic steel +springs. The freight cars were all 30 feet long and 9½ feet +wide, made in a uniform manner, with eight truck wheels under each. +The imperial saloon carriages were 80 feet long and 9½ feet +wide, having double trucks, or sixteen wheels under each. They were +divided into five compartments and fitted with every +convenience.</p> + +<p>Early in 1847 the Emperor Nicholas visited the mechanical works +at Alexandroffsky, where the rolling stock was being made by the +Messrs. Winans, in the shops prepared by them and supplied by +Russian labor. Everything here was on the grandest scale, and the +work was conducted under the most perfect system. Upon this +occasion the Emperor was so much gratified at what had already been +accomplished that he conferred upon Major Whistler the decoration +of the Order of St. Anne. He had previously been pressed to wear +the Russian uniform, which he promptly declined to do; but there +was no escape from the decoration without giving offense. He is +said, however, to have generally contrived to hide it beneath his +coat in such a manner that few ever saw it.</p> + +<p>Technically, Major Whistler was consulting engineer, Colonel +Melnikoff being constructing engineer for the northern half of the +road, and Colonel Krofft for the southern half; but as a matter of +fact, by far the larger part of planning the construction in detail +of both railway and equipment fell upon Major Whistler. There was +also a permanent commission having general charge of the +construction of the road, of which the president was General +Destrem, one of the four French engineers whom Napoleon, at the +request of the Emperor Alexander, sent to Russia for the service of +that country.</p> + +<p>The year 1848 was a very trying one to Major Whistler. He had +already on several occasions overtasked his strength, and had been +obliged to rest. This year the Asiatic cholera made its appearance. +He sent his family abroad, but remained himself alone in his house. +He would on no account at this time leave his post, nor omit his +periodical inspections along the line of the road, where the +epidemic was raging. In November he had an attack of cholera, and +while he recovered from it, he was left very weak. Still, he +remained upon the work through the winter, though suffering much +from a complication of diseases. As spring advanced he became much +worse, and upon the 7th of April, 1849, he passed quietly away, the +immediate cause of his death being a trouble with the heart.</p> + +<p>Funeral services were held in the Anglican (Episcopal) Church in +St. Petersburg. His body was soon afterward carried to Boston and +deposited beneath St. Paul's Church; but the final interment took +place at Stonington. The kindness and attention of the Emperor and +of all with whom Major Whistler had been associated knew no bounds. +Everything was done to comfort and aid his wife, and when she left +St. Petersburg the Emperor sent her in his private barge to the +mouth of the Baltic. "It was not only," says one who knew him weil, +"through his skill, ability, and experience as an engineer that +Major Whistler was particularly qualified for and eminently +successful in the important task he performed so well in Russia. +His military training and bearing, his polished manner, good humor, +sense of honor, knowledge of a language (French) in which he could +converse with officers of the government, his resolution in +adhering to what he thought was right, and in meeting difficulties +only to surmount them, with other admirable personal qualities, +made him soon, and during his whole residence in Russia, much liked +and trusted by all persons by whom he was known, from the Emperor +down to the peasant. Such is the reputation he left behind him, and +which is given to him in Russia to this day."</p> + +<p>In 1849 the firm of Winans, Harrison and Eastwick had already +furnished the road with 162 locomotives, 72 passenger and 2,580 +freight cars. They had also arranged to instruct a suitable number +of Russian mechanics to take charge of the machinery when +completed. The road was finished its entire length in 1850, being +opened for passenger and freight traffic on the 25th of September +of that year, in two divisions, experimentally, and finally opened +for through business on November 1, 1851. In all of its +construction and equipment it was essentially American of the best +kind, everything being made under a carefully devised system, by +which the greatest economy in maintenance and in management should +be possible. The use of standard patterns, uniformity in design and +duplication of parts was applied, not only to the rolling stock, +but to the railroad as well, wherever it was possible. Indeed, the +whole undertaking in all its parts bore the impress of one master +mind.</p> + +<p>On the death of Major Whistler the government with jealous care +prevented any changes whatever being made in his plans, including +those which had not been carried out as well as those already in +process of execution. An American engineer, Major T.S. Brown, was +invited to Russia to succeed Major Whistler as consulting engineer. +The services of the Messrs. Winans also were so satisfactory to the +government that a new contract was afterward made, upon the +completion of the road, for the maintenance and the future +construction of rolling stock.</p> + +<p>While the great railroad was the principal work of Major +Whistler in Russia, he was also consulted in regard to all the +important engineering works of the period. The fortifications at +Cronstadt, the Naval Arsenal and docks at the same place, the plans +for improving the Dwina at Archangel, the great iron roof of the +Riding House at St. Petersburg, and the iron bridge over the Neva +all received his attention. The government was accustomed to rely +upon his judgment in all cases requiring the exercise of the +highest combination of science and practical skill; and here, with +a happy tact peculiarly his own, he secured the warm friendship of +men whose professional acts he found himself called upon in the +exercise of his high trust in many cases to condemn. The Russians +are proverbially jealous of strangers, and no higher evidence of +their appreciation of the sterling honesty of Major Whistler, and +of his sound, discriminating judgment, could be afforded than the +fact that all his recommendations on the great questions of +internal improvement, opposed as many of them were to the +principles which had previously obtained, and which were sanctioned +by usage, were yet carried out by the government to the smallest +details.</p> + +<p>While in Russia Major Whistler was sometimes placed in positions +most trying to him. It is said that some of the corps of native +engineers, many of whom were nobles, while compelled to look up to +him officially, were inclined to look down upon him socially, and +exercised their supposed privileges in this respect so as to annoy +him exceedingly, for he had not known in his own country what it +was to be the social inferior of any one. The Emperor, hearing of +this annoyance, determined to stop it; so, taking advantage of a +day when he knew the engineer corps would visit a celebrated +gallery of art, he entered it while they were there, and without at +first noticing any one else, looked around for Major Whistler, and +seeing him, went directly toward him, took his arm, and walked +slowly with him entirely around the gallery. After this the conduct +of the nobles was all that could be desired.</p> + +<p>Major Whistler's salary while in Russia was $12,000 a year; a +sum no more than necessary for living in a style befitting his +position. He had abundant opportunity for making money, but this +his nice sense of honor forbade. It is even stated that he would +never allow any invention to be used on the road that could by any +possibility be of any profit to himself or to any of his friends. +He was continually besieged by American inventors, but in vain. The +honor of the profession he regarded as a sacred trust. He served +the Emperor with the fidelity that characterized all his actions. +His unswerving devotion to his duty was fully appreciated, and it +is said that no American in Russia, except John Quincy Adams, was +ever held in so high estimation.</p> + +<p>Major Whistler married for his first wife Mary, daughter of Dr. +Foster Swift of the U.S. Army, and Deborah, daughter of Capt. +Thomas Delano of Nantucket. By her he had three children: Deborah, +his only daughter, who married Seymour Haden of London, a surgeon, +but later and better known for his skill in etching; George +William, who became an engineer and railway manager, and who went +to Russia, and finally died at Brighton, in England, Dec. 24, 1869; +Joseph Swift, born at New London, Aug. 12, 1825, and who died at +Stonington, Jan. 1, 1840. His first wife died Dec. 9, 1827, at the +early age of 23 years, and is buried in Greenwood Cemetery, in the +shade of the monument erected to the memory of her husband by the +loving hands of his professional brethren. For his second wife he +married Anna Matilda, daughter of Dr. Charles Donald McNeill of +Wilmington, N.C., and sister of his friend and associate, William +Gibbs McNeill. By her he had five sons: James Abbot McNeill, the +noted artist, and William Gibbs McNeill, a well known physician, +both now living in London; Kirk Boott, born in Stonington, July 16, +1838, and who died at Springfield, July 10, 1842; Charles Donald, +born in Springfield, Aug. 27, 1841, and who died in Russia, Sept. +24, 1843; and John Bouttattz, who was born and who died at St. +Petersburg, having lived but little more than a year. His second +wife, who outlived him, returned to America, and remained here +during the education of her children, after which she moved to +England. She died Jan. 31, 1881, at the age of 76 years, and was +buried at Hastings.</p> + +<p>At a meeting held in the office of the Panama Railroad Company +in New York, August 27, 1849, for the purpose of suggesting +measures expressive of their respect for the memory of Major +Whistler, Wm. H. Sidell being chairman and A.W. Craven secretary, +it was resolved that a monument in Greenwood Cemetery would be a +suitable mode of expressing the feelings of the profession in this +respect, and that an association be formed to collect funds and +take all necessary steps to carry out the work. At this meeting +Capt. William H. Swift was appointed president, Major T.S. Brown +treasurer, and A.W. Craven secretary, and Messrs. Horatio Allen, +W.C. Young, J.W. Adams, and A.W. Craven were appointed a committee +to procure designs and estimates, and to select a suitable piece of +ground. The design was made by Mr. Adams, and the ground was given +by Mr. Kirkwood. The monument is a beautiful structure of red +standstone, about 15 feet high, and stands in "Twilight Dell." Upon +the several faces are the following inscriptions:</p> + +<center> +<p><i>Upon the Front</i>.</p> + +<p>IN MEMORY OF</p> + +<p>GEORGE WASHINGTON WHISTLER,</p> + +<p>CIVIL ENGINEER,</p> + +<p>BORN AT FORT WAYNE, INDIANA, MAY, 1800,</p> + +<p>DIED AT ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA, APRIL, 1849.</p> + +<p><i>Upon the Right Side</i>.</p> + +<p>EDUCATED AT THE U.S. MILITARY ACADEMY. HE</p> + +<p>RETIRED FROM THE ARMY IN 1833 AND BECAME</p> + +<p>ASSOCIATED WITH WILLIAM GIBBS M'NEILL.</p> + +<p>THEY WERE IN THEIR TIME ACKNOWLEDGED TO</p> + +<p>BE AT THE HEAD OF THEIR PROFESSION IN THIS</p> + +<p>COUNTRY.</p> + +<p><i>Upon the Back</i>.</p> + +<p>HE WAS DISTINGUISHED FOR THEORETICAL AND</p> + +<p>PRACTICAL ABILITY, COUPLED WITH SOUND</p> + +<p>JUDGMENT AND GREAT INTEGRITY. IN 1842 HE</p> + +<p>WAS INVITED TO RUSSIA BY THE EMPEROR</p> + +<p>NICHOLAS, AND DIED THERE WHILE CONSTRUCTING</p> + +<p>THE ST. PETERSBURG & MOSCOW RAILROAD.</p> + +<p><i>Upon the Left Side</i>.</p> + +<p>THIS CENOTAPH IS A MONUMENT OF THE ESTEEM</p> + +<p>AND AFFECTION OF HIS FRIENDS AND COMPANIONS.</p> +</center> + +<p>While the monument thus raised to the memory of the great +engineer stands in that most delightful of the cities of the dead, +his worn-out body rests in the quaint old town of Stonington. It +was here that his several children had been buried, and he had +frequently expressed a desire that when he should die he might be +placed by their side. A deputation of engineers who had been in +their early years associated with him attended the simple service +which was held over his grave, and all felt as they turned away +that they had bid farewell to such a man as the world has not often +seen.</p> + +<p>In person Major Whistler was of medium size and well made. His +face showed the finest type of manly beauty, combined with a +delicacy almost feminine. In private life he was greatly prized for +his natural qualities of heart and mind, his regard for the +feelings of others, and his unvarying kindness, especially toward +his inferiors and his young assistants. His duties and his travels +in this and in other countries brought him in contact with men of +every rank; and it is safe to say that the more competent those who +knew him were to judge, the more highly was he valued by them. A +close observer, with a keen sense of humor and unfailing tact, fond +of personal anecdote, and with a mind stored with recollections +from association with every grade of society, he was a most +engaging companion. The charm of his manner was not conventional, +nor due to intercourse with refined society, but came from a sense +of delicacy and a refinement of feeling which was innate, and which +showed itself in him under all circumstances. He was in the widest +and best sense of the word a gentleman; and he was a gentleman +outwardly because he was a gentleman at heart.</p> + +<p>As an engineer, Whistler's works speak for him. He was eminently +a practical man, remarkable for steadiness of judgment and for +sound business sense. Whatever he did was so well done that he was +naturally followed as a model by those who were seeking a high +standard. Others may have excelled in extraordinary boldness or in +some remarkable specialty, but in all that rounds out the perfect +engineer, whether natural characteristics, professional training, +or the well digested results of long and valuable experience, we +look in vain for his superior, and those who knew him best will +hesitate to acknowledge his equal.—<i>Journal of the +Association of Engineering Societies</i>.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">A paper by Prof. G.L. Vose, Member of the Boston +Society of Civil Engineers. Read September 15, 1886.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>PRINTING LANTERN PICTURES BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT ON BROMIDE PLATES +FROM VARIOUS SIZES.<a name="FNanchor3"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By A. PUMPHREY.</h3> + +<p>There can be no question that there is no plan that is so simple +for producing transparencies as contact printing, but in this, as +in other photographic matters, one method of work will not answer +all needs. Reproduction in the camera, using daylight to illuminate +the negative, enables the operator to reduce or enlarge in every +direction, but the lantern is a winter instrument, and comes in for +demand and use during the short days. When even the professional +photographer has not enough light to get through his orders, how +can the amateur get the needed daylight if photography be only the +pursuit in spare time? Besides, there are days in our large towns +when what daylight there is is so yellow from smoke or fog as to +have little actinic power. These considerations and needs have led +me to experiment and test what can be done with artificial light, +and I think I have made the way clear for actual work without +further experiment. I have not been able by any arrangement of +reflected light to get power enough to print negatives of the +ordinary density, and have only succeeded by causing the light to +be equally dispersed over the negative by a lens as used in the +optical lantern, but the arrangements required are somewhat +different to that of the enlarging lantern.</p> + +<p>The following is the plan by which I have succeeded best in the +production of transparencies:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>B is a lamp with a circular wick, which burns petroleum and +gives a good body of light.</p> + +<p>C is a frame for holding the negative, on the opposite side of +which is a double convex lens facing the light.</p> + +<p>D is the camera and lens.</p> + +<p>All these must be placed in a line, so that the best part of the +light, the center of the condenser, and the lens are of equal +height.</p> + +<p>The method of working is as follows: The lamp, B, is placed at +such a distance from the condenser that the rays come to a focus +and enter the lens; the negative is then placed in the frame, the +focus obtained, and the size of reduction adjusted by moving the +camera nearer to or further from the condenser and negative. In +doing this no attention need be paid to the light properly covering +the field, as that cannot be adjusted while the negative is in its +place. When the size and focus are obtained, remove the negative, +and carefully move the lamp till it illuminates the ground glass +equally all over, by a disk of light free from color.</p> + +<p>The negative can then be replaced, and no further adjustment +will be needed for any further reproduction of the same size.</p> + +<p>There is one point that requires attention: The lens used in the +camera should be a doublet of about 6 inch focus (in reproducing +8½ × 6½ or smaller sizes), and the stop used +must not be a very small one, not less than ½ inch diameter. +If a smaller stop is used, an even disk of light is not obtained, +but ample definition is obtainable with the size stop +mentioned.</p> + +<p>In the arrangement described, a single lens is used for the +condenser, not because it is better than a double one, as is +general for such purposes, but because it is quite sufficient for +the purpose. Of course, a large condenser is both expensive and +cumbersome. There is, therefore, no advantage in using a +combination if a single lens will answer.</p> + +<p>In reproducing lantern pictures from half-plate negatives, the +time required on my lantern plates is from two to four minutes, +using 6 inch condenser. For whole plate negatives, from two to six +minutes with a 9 inch condenser. In working in this way it is easy +to be developing one picture while exposing another.</p> + +<p>The condenser must be of such a size that it will cover the +plate from corner to corner. The best part of an 8½ × +6½ negative will be covered by a 9 inch condenser, and a +6½ × 4¾ by a 6 inch condenser.</p> + +<p>With this arrangement it will be easy to reproduce from half or +whole plate negatives or any intermediate sizes quite independently +of daylight.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor3">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">Read before the Birmingham Photographic Society. +Reported in the <i>Photo. News</i></div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>EXPERIMENTS IN TONING GELATINO-CHLORIDE PAPER.</h2> + +<p>From the <i>Photographic News</i> we take the following: The use +of paper coated with a gelatino-citro-chloride emulsion in place of +albumenized paper appears to be becoming daily more common. +Successful toning has generally been the difficulty with such +paper, the alkaline baths commonly in use with albumenized having +proved unsuitable for toning this paper. On the whole, the bath +that has given the best results is one containing, in addition to +gold, a small quantity of hypo and a considerable quantity of +sulphocyanide of ammonium. Such a bath tones very rapidly, and +gives most pleasing colors. It appears, moreover, to be impossible +to overtone the citro-chloro emulsion paper with it in the sense +that it is possible to overtone prints on albumenized paper with +the ordinary alkaline bath. That is to say, it is impossible to +produce a slaty gray image. The result of prolonged toning is +merely an image of an engraving black color. Of this, however, we +shall say more hereafter. We wish first of all to refer to an +elaborate series of experiments by Lionel Clark on the effects of +various toning baths used with the gelatino-citro-chloride +paper.</p> + +<p>The results of these experiments we have before us at the time +of writing, and we may at once say that, from the manner in which +the experiments have been carried out and in which the results have +been tabulated, Lionel Clark's work forms a very useful +contribution to our photographic knowledge, and a contribution that +will become more and more useful, the longer the results of the +experiments are kept. A number of small prints have been prepared. +Of these several—in most cases, three—have been toned +by a certain bath, and each print has been torn in two. One-half +has been treated with bichloride of mercury, so as to bleach such +portion of the image as is of silver, and finally the +prints—the two halves of each being brought close +together—have been mounted in groups, each group containing +all the prints toned by a certain formula, with full information +tabulated.</p> + +<p>The only improvement we could suggest in the arrangement is that +all the prints should have been from the same negative, or from +only three negatives, so that we should have prints from the same +negatives in every group, and should the better be able to compare +the results of the toning baths. Probably, however, the indifferent +light of the present season of the year made it difficult to get a +sufficiency of prints from one negative.</p> + +<p>The following is a description of the toning baths used and of +the appearance of the prints. We refer, in the mean time, only to +those halves that have not been treated with bichloride of +mercury.</p> + +<pre> +1.——Gold chloride (AuCl₃).............. 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 10 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>The prints are of a brilliant purple or violet color.</p> + +<pre> +2.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 10 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr. + Water.............................. 4 oz. +</pre> + +<p>There is only one print, which is of a brown color, and in every +way inferior to those toned with the first bath.</p> + +<pre> +3.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 12 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>The prints toned by this bath are, in our opinion, the finest of +the whole. The tone is a purple of the most brilliant and pleasing +shade.</p> + +<pre> +4.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 20 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... 5 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>There is only one print, but it is from the same negative as one +of the No. 3 group. It is very inferior to that in No. 3, the color +less pleasant, and the appearance generally as if the details of +the lights had been bleached by the large quantity either of hypo +or of sulphocyanide of potassium.</p> + +<pre> +5.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 50 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda............... ½ gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>Opposite to this description of formula there are no prints, but +the following is written: "These prints were completely destroyed, +the sulphocyanide of potassium (probably) dissolving off the +gelatine."</p> + +<pre> +6.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Sulphocyanide of potassium......... 20 gr. + Hypo............................... 5 gr. + Carbonate of soda.................. 10 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>This it will be seen is the same as 4, but that the solution is +rendered alkaline with carbonate of soda. The result of the +alkalinity certainly appears to be good, the color is more pleasing +than that produced by No. 4, and there is less appearance of +bleaching. It must be borne in mind in this connection that the +paper itself is strongly acid, and that, unless special means be +taken to prevent it, the toning bath is sure to be more or less +acid.</p> + +<pre> +7.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Acetate of soda.................... 30 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>The color of the prints toned by this bath is not exceedingly +pleasing. It is a brown tending to purple, but is not very pure or +bright. The results show, however, the possibility of toning the +gelatino-chloro-citrate paper with the ordinary acetate bath if it +be only made concentrated enough.</p> + +<pre> +8.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Carbonate of soda.................. 3 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>Very much the same may be said of the prints toned by this bath +as of those toned by No. 7. The color is not very good, nor is the +toning quite even. This last remark applies to No. 7 batch as well +as No. 8.</p> + +<pre> +9.——Gold chloride...................... 1 gr. + Phosphate of soda.................. 20 gr. + Water.............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>The results of this bath can best be described as purplish in +color. They are decidedly more pleasing than those of 7 or 8, but +are not as good as the best by the sulphocyanide bath.</p> + +<pre> +10.——Gold chloride..................... 1 gr. + Hyposulphite of soda.............. ½ oz. + Water............................. 2 oz. +</pre> + +<p>The result of this bath is a brilliant brown color, what might +indeed, perhaps, be best described as a red. Two out of the three +prints are much too dark, indicating, perhaps, that this toning +bath did not have any tendency to reduce the intensity of the +image.</p> + +<p>The general lesson taught by Clark's experiments is that the +sulphocyanide bath gives better results than any other. A certain +proportion of the ingredients—namely, that of bath No. +3—gives better results than any other proportions tried, and +about as good as any that could be hoped for. Any of the ordinary +alkaline toning baths may be used, but they all give results +inferior to those got by the sulphocyanide bath. The best of the +ordinary baths is, however, the phosphate of soda.</p> + +<p>And now a word as to those parts of the prints which have been +treated with bichloride of mercury. The thing that strikes us as +remarkable in connection with them is that in them the image has +scarcely suffered any reduction of intensity at all. In most cases +there has been a disagreeable change of color, but it is almost +entirely confined to the whites and lighter tints, which are turned +to a more or less dirty yellow. Even in the case of the prints +toned by bath No. 10, where the image is quite red, it has suffered +no appreciable reduction of intensity.</p> + +<p>This would indicate that an unusually large proportion of the +toned image consists of gold, and this idea is confirmed by the +fact that to tone a sheet of gelatino-chloro-citrate paper requires +several times as much gold as to tone a sheet of albumenized paper. +Indeed, we believe that, with the emulsion paper, it is possible to +replace the whole of the silver of the image with gold, thereby +producing a permanent print. We have already said that the print +may be left for any reasonable length of time in the toning bath +without the destruction of its appearance, and we cannot but +suppose that a very long immersion results in a complete +substitution of gold for silver.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>THE "SENSIM" PREPARING BOX.</h2> + +<p>Fig. 1 shows a perspective view of the machine, Fig. 2 a +sectional elevation, and Fig. 3 a plan. In the ordinary screw gill +box, the screws which traverse the gills are uniform in their +pitch, so that a draught is only obtained between the feed rollers +and the first gill, between the last gill of the first set and the +first of the second, and between the last gill of the second set +and the delivery roller. As thus arranged, the gills are really not +active workers after their first draw during the remainder of their +traverse, but simply carriers of the wool to the next set. It is +somewhat remarkable, as may indeed be said of every invention, that +this fact has only been just observed, and suggested an +improvement. There is no reason why each gill should not be +continuously working to the end of the traverse, and only cease +during its return to its first position. The perception of this has +led to several attempts to realize this improvement. The inventor +in the present case seems to have solved the problem in a very +perfect manner by the introduction of gill screws of a gradually +increasing pitch, by which the progress of the gills, B, through +the box is constantly undergoing acceleration to the end, as will +be obvious from the construction of the screws, A and A¹, +until they are passed down in the usual manner, and returned by the +screws, C and C¹, which are, as usual, of uniform pitch. The +two sets of screws are so adjusted as to almost meet in the middle, +so that the gills of the first set finish their forward movement +close to the point where the second commence. The bottom screws, C, +of the first set of gills, B, are actuated by bevel wheels on a +cross shaft engaging with bevel wheels on their outer extremity, +the cross shaft being geared to the main shaft. The screws, +C¹, of the second set of gills from two longitudinal shafts +are connected by bevel gearing to the main shaft. Intermediate +wheels communicate motion from change wheels on the longitudinal +shafts to the wheels on the screw, C¹, traversing the second +set of gills.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9a_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 1.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL PREPARING BOX."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL PREPARING BOX.</p> + +<p>The feed and delivery rollers, D and E, are operated by gearing +connected to worms on longitudinal shafts. These worms engage with +worm wheels on cross shafts, which are provided at their outer ends +with change wheels engaging with other change wheels on the arbors +of the bottom feed and delivery rollers, D and E.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9b_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 2.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—SECTIONAL ELEVATION."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—SECTIONAL +ELEVATION.</p> + +<p>The speeds are so adjusted that the fibers are delivered to the +first set of gills at a speed approximately equal to the speed at +which these start their traverse. The gills in the second set begin +their journey at a pace which slightly exceeds that at which those +of the first finish their traverse. These paces are of course +regulated by the class and nature of the fibers under operation. +The delivery rollers, E, take off the fibers at a rate slightly +exceeding that of the gills delivering it to them.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9c_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 3.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—PLAN."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.—"SENSIM" SCREW GILL—PLAN.</p> + +<p>In the ordinary gill box, the feed and delivery rollers are +fluted, in order the better to retain in the first instance their +grip upon the wool passing through, and in the second to enable +them to overcome any resistance that might be offered to drawing +the material. It thus often happens in this class of machines that +a large percentage of the fibers are broken, and thus much waste is +made. The substitution of plain rollers in both these positions +obviates most of this mischief, while in combination with the other +parts of the arrangement it is almost precluded altogether.</p> + +<p>It will be obvious from what we have said that the special +features of this machine, which may be summarized as, first, the +use of a screw thread of graduated pitch; second, an increased +length of screw action and an additional number of fallers; and +third, the use of light plain rollers in place of heavy fluted back +and front rollers, enable the inventor to justly claim the +acquisition of a number of advantages, which may be enumerated as +follows:</p> + +<p>The transformation of the gills from mere carriers into constant +workers during the whole of their outward traverse, by which the +work is done much more efficiently, more gently, and in greater +quantity than by the old system with uniformly pitched screws. A +great improvement in the quality of the work, resulting from the +breakage of fiber being, if not entirely obviated, nearly. An +increased yield and better quality of top, owing to the absence of +broken fiber, and consequent diminution of noil and waste. The +better working of cotted wools, which can be brought to a proper +condition with far more facility and with diminished risk of +breaking pins than before. A saving in labor, space, and plant also +results from the fact that the wool is as well opened and +straightened for carding with a passage through a pair of improved +boxes as it is in going through four of the ordinary ones, while +the quantity will be as great. Owing to the first feature referred +to, which distributes the strain over all the gills, a greater +weight of wool can be put into them and a higher speed be worked. +The space occupied and the attendance required is only about half +that of boxes required to do the same amount of work on the old +system. Taking the flutes out of the feed and delivery rollers, and +greatly diminishing their weight, it is estimated will reduce by 90 +per cent. the wear and tear of the leather aprons, and thus to that +extent diminish a very heavy annual outlay incident to the system +generally in vogue. A considerable saving of power for driving and +of time and cost of repairs from the bending and breakage of pins +also results. Shaw, Harrison & Co., makers, +Bradford.—<i>Textile Manufacturer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>NOTES ON GARMENT DYEING.</h2> + +<p>Black wool dresses for renewing and checked goods, with the +check not covered by the first operation, are operated upon as +follows:</p> + +<p><i>Preparation or mordant for eight black dresses for renewing +the color.</i></p> + +<pre> +2 oz. Chrome. +2 " Argol or Tartar. +</pre> + +<p>Or without argol or tartar, but I think their use is beneficial. +Boil twenty minutes, lift, rinse through two waters.</p> + +<p>To prepare dye boiler, put in 2 lb. logwood, boil twenty +minutes. Clear the face same way as before described. Those with +cotton and made-up dresses sewn with cotton same operation as +before mentioned, using half the quantity of stuffs, and working +cold throughout. Since the introduction of aniline black, some +dyers use it in place of logwood both for wool and cotton. It +answers very well for dippers, substituting 2 oz. aniline black for +every pound logwood required. In dyeing light bottoms it is more +expensive than logwood, even though the liquor be kept up, and, in +my opinion, not so clear and black.</p> + +<p><i>Silk and wool dresses, poplins, and woolen dresses trimmed +with silk, etc., for black</i>.—Before the dyeing operations, +steep the goods in hand-heat soda water, rinse through two warm +waters. Discharge blues, mauves, etc., with diluted aquafortis +(nitric acid). A skilled dyer can perform this operation without +the least injury to the goods. This liquor is kept in stoneware, or +a vessel made of caoutchouc composition, or a large stone hollowed +out of five slabs of stone, forming the bottom and four sides, +braced together, and luted with caoutchouc, forming a water-tight +vessel. The latter is the most convenient vessel, as it can be +repaired. The others when once rent are past repair. The steam is +introduced by means of a caoutchouc pipe, and when brought to the +boil the pipe is removed. After the colors are discharged, rinse +through three warm waters. They are then ready to receive the +mordant and the dye.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i>.—The aquafortis vessel to be outside the +dye-house, or, if inside, to be provided with a funnel to carry +away the nitrous fumes, as it is dangerous to other colors.</p> + +<p><i>Preparation or mordant for eight dresses, silk and wool +mixed, for black.</i></p> + +<pre> +4 lb. Copperas. +½ " Bluestone. +½ " Tartar. +</pre> + +<p>Bring to the boil, dissolve the copperas, etc., shut off steam, +enter the goods, handle gently (or else they will be faced, i.e., +look gray on face when dyed) for one hour, lift, air, rinse through +three warm waters.</p> + +<p>To prepare dye boiler, bring to boil, put in 8 lb. logwood +(previously boiled), 1 lb. black or brown oil soap, shut off steam, +enter goods, gently handle for half an hour, add another pound of +soap (have the soap dissolved ready), and keep moving for another +half hour, lift, finish in hand-heat soap. If very heavy, run +through lukewarm water slightly acidulated with vitriol, rinse, +hydro-extract, and hang in stove. Another method to clear them: +Make up three lukewarm waters, in first put some bleaching liquor, +in second a little vitriol, handle these two, and rinse through the +third, hydro-extract, and hang in stove.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i>.—This is the method employed generally in +small dye-works for all dresses for black; their lots are so small. +This preparation can be kept up, if care is taken that none of the +sediment of the copperas (oxide of iron) is introduced when +charging, as the oxide of iron creates stains. This also happens +when the water used contains iron in quantity or impure copperas. +The remedy is to substitute half a gill of vitriol in place of +tartar.</p> + +<p><i>Silk, wool, and cotton mixed dresses, for +black</i>.—Dye the silk and wool as before described, and +also the cotton in the manner previously mentioned.</p> + +<p><i>Another method to dye the mixed silk and wool and cotton +dresses black, four dresses</i>.—Bring boiler to the boil, +put in 3 or 4 oz. aniline black, either the deep black or the blue +black or a mixture of the two, add ¼ gill hydrochloric acid +or sulphuric acid, or 3 oz. oxalic acid, shut off steam, enter, and +handle for half an hour, lift, rinse through water, dye the cotton +in the manner previously described.—<i>Dyer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>FUEL AND SMOKE.<a name="FNanchor4"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_4"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Prof. OLIVER LODGE.</h3> + +<h3>LECTURE II.</h3> + +<p>The points to which I specially called your attention in the +first lecture, and which it is necessary to recapitulate to-day, +are these: (1) That coal is distilled, or burned partly into gas, +before it can be burned. (2) That the gas, so given off, if mixed +with carbonic acid, cannot be expected to burn properly or +completely. (3) That to burn the gas, a sufficient supply of air +must be introduced at a temperature not low enough to cool the +gases below their igniting point. (4) That in stoking a fire, a +small amount should be added at a time because of the heat required +to warm and distill the fresh coal. (5) That fresh coal should be +put in front of or at the bottom of a fire, so that the gas may be +thoroughly heated by the incandescent mass above and thus, if there +be sufficient air, have a chance of burning. A fire may be +inverted, so that the draught proceeds through it downward. This is +the arrangement in several stoves, and in them, of course, fresh +coal is put at the top.</p> + +<p>Two simple principles are at the root of all fire management: +(1) Coal gas must be at a certain temperature before it can burn; +and (2) it must have a sufficient supply of air. Very simple, very +obvious, but also extremely important, and frequently altogether +ignored. In a common open fire they are both ignored. Coal is put +on the top of a glowing mass of charcoal, and the gas distilled off +is for a longtime much too cold for ignition, and when it does +catch fire it is too mixed with carbonic acid to burn completely or +steadily. In order to satisfy the first condition better, and keep +the gases at a higher temperature, Dr. Pridgin Teale arranges a +sloping fire-clay slab above his fire. On this the gases play, and +its temperature helps them to ignite. It also acts as a radiator, +and is said to be very efficient.</p> + +<p>In a close stove and in many furnaces the second condition is +violated; there is an insufficient supply of air; fresh coal is put +on, and the feeding doors are shut. Gas is distilled off, but where +is it to get any air from? How on earth can it be expected to burn? +Whether it be expected or not, it certainly does not burn, and such +a stove is nothing else than a gas works, making crude gas, and +wasting it—it is a soot and smoke factory.</p> + +<p>Most slow combustion stoves are apt to err in this way; you make +the combustion slow by cutting off air, and you run the risk of +stopping the combustion altogether. When you wish a stove to burn +better, it is customary to open a trap door below the fuel; this +makes the red hot mass glow more vigorously, but the oxygen will +soon become CO<sub>2</sub>, and be unable to burn the gas.</p> + +<p>The right way to check the ardor of a stove is not to shut off +the air supply and make it distill its gases unconsumed, but to +admit so much air above the fire that the draught is checked by the +chimney ceasing to draw so fiercely. You at the same time secure +better ventilation; and if the fire becomes visible to the room so +much the better and more cheerful. But if you open up the top of a +stove like this, it becomes, to all intents and purposes, an open +fire. Quite so, and in many respects, therefore, an open fire is an +improvement on a close stove. An open fire has faults, and it +certainly wastes heat up the chimney. A close stove may have more +faults—it wastes less <i>heat</i>, but it is liable to waste +<i>gas</i> up the chimney—not necessarily visible or smoky +gas; it may waste it from coke or anthracite, as CO.</p> + +<p>You now easily perceive the principles on which so-called smoke +consumers are based. They are all special arrangements or +appendages to a furnace for permitting complete combustion by +satisfying the two conditions which had been violated in its +original construction. But there is this difficulty about the air +supply to a furnace: the needful amount is variable if the stoking +be intermittent, and if you let in more than the needful amount, +you are unnecessarily wasting heat and cooling the boiler, or +whatever it is, by a draught of cold air.</p> + +<p>Every time a fresh shovelful is thrown on, a great production of +gas occurs, and if it is to flame it must have a correspondingly +great supply of air. After a time, when the mass has become red +hot, it can get nearly enough air through the bars. But at first +the evolution of gas actually checks the draught. But remember that +although no smoke is visible from a glowing mass, it by no means +follows that its combustion is perfect. On an open fire it probably +is perfect, but not necessarily in a close stove or furnace. If you +diminish the supply of air much (as by clogging your furnace bars +and keeping the doors shut), you will be merely distilling carbonic +oxide up the chimney—a poisonous gas, of which probably a +considerable quantity is frequently given off from close +stoves.</p> + +<p>Now let us look at some smoke consumers. The diagrams show those +of Chubb, Growthorpe, Ireland and Lowndes, and of Gregory. You see +that they all admit air at the "bridge" or back of the fire, and +that this air is warmed either by passing under or round the +furnace, or in one case through hollow fire bars. The regulation of +the air supply is effected by hand, and it is clear that some of +these arrangements are liable to admit an unnecessary supply of +air, while others scarcely admit enough, especially when fresh coal +is put on. This is the difficulty with all these arrangements when +used with ordinary hand—i.e., intermittent—stoking. Two +plans are open to us to overcome the difficulty. Either the stoking +and the air supply must both be regular and continuous, or the air +supply be made intermittent to suit the stoking. The first method +is carried out in any of the many forms of mechanical stoker, of +which this of Sinclair's is an admirable specimen. Fresh fuel is +perpetually being pushed on in front, and by alternate movement of +the fire bars the fire is kept in perpetual motion till the ashes +drop out at the back. To such an arrangement as this a steady air +supply can be adjusted, and if the boiler demand is constant there +is no need for smoke, and an inferior fuel may be used. The other +plan is to vary the air supply to suit the stoking. This is +effected by Prideaux automatic furnace doors, which have louvers to +remain open for a certain time after the doors are shut, and so to +admit extra air immediately after coal has been put on, the supply +gradually decreasing as distillation ceases. The worst of air +admitted through chinks in the doors, or through partly open doors, +is that it is admitted cold, and scarcely gets thoroughly warm +before it is among the stuff it has to burn. Still this is not a +fatal objection, though a hot blast would be better. Nothing can be +worse than shoveling on a quantity of coal and shutting it up +completely. Every condition of combustion is thus violated, and the +intended furnace is a mere gas retort.</p> + +<p><i>Gas Producers</i>.—Suppose the conditions of combustion +are purposely violated; we at once have a gas producer. That is all +gas producers are, extra bad stoves or furnaces, not always much +worse than things which pretend to serve for combustion. Consider +how ordinary gas is made. There is a red-hot retort or cylinder +plunged in a furnace. Into this tube you shovel a quantity of coal, +which flames vigorously as long as the door is open, but when it is +full you shut the door, thus cutting off the supply of air and +extinguishing the flame. Gas is now simply distilled, and passes +along pipes to be purified and stored. You perceive at once that +the difference between a gas retort and an ordinary furnace with +closed doors and half choked fire bars is not very great. +Consumption of smoke! It is not smoke consumers you really want, it +is fuel consumers. You distill your fuel instead of burning it, in +fully one-half, might I not say nine-tenths, of existing furnaces +and close stoves. But in an ordinary gas retort the heat required +to distill the gas is furnished by an outside fire; this is only +necessary when you require lighting gas, with no admixture of +carbonic acid and as little carbonic oxide as possible. If you wish +for heating gas, you need no outside fire; a small fire at the +bottom of a mass of coal will serve to distill it, and you will +have most of the carbon also converted into gas. Here, for +instance, is Siemens' gas producer. The mass of coal is burning at +the bottom, with a very limited supply of air. The carbonic acid +formed rises over the glowing coke, and takes up another atom of +carbon to form the combustible gas carbonic oxide. This and the hot +nitrogen passing over and through the coal above distill away its +volatile constituents, and the whole mass of gas leaves by the exit +pipe. Some art is needed in adjusting the path of the gases +distilled from the fresh coal with reference to the hot mass below. +If they pass too readily, and at too low a temperature, to the exit +pipe, this is apt to get choked with tar and dense hydrocarbons. If +it is carried down near or through the hot fuel below, the +hydrocarbons are decomposed over much, and the quality of the gas +becomes poor. Moreover, it is not possible to make the gases pass +freely through a mass of hot coke; it is apt to get clogged. The +best plan is to make the hydrocarbon gas pass over and near a +red-hot surface, so as to have its heaviest hydrocarbons +decomposed, but so as to leave all those which are able to pass +away as gas uninjured, for it is to the presence of these that the +gas will owe its richness as a combustible material, especially +when radiant heat is made use of.</p> + +<p>The only inert and useless gas in an arrangement like this is +the nitrogen of the air, which being in large quantities does act +as a serious diluent. To diminish the proportion of nitrogen, steam +is often injected as well as air. The glowing coke can decompose +the steam, forming carbonic oxide and hydrogen, both combustible. +But of course no extra energy can be gained by the use of steam in +this way; all the energy must come from the coke, the steam being +already a perfectly burned product; the use of steam is merely to +serve as a vehicle for converting the carbon into a convenient +gaseous equivalent. Moreover, steam injected into coke cannot keep +up the combustion; it would soon put the fire out unless air is +introduced too. Some air is necessary to keep up the combustion, +and therefore some nitrogen is unavoidable. But some steam is +advisable in every gas producer, unless pure oxygen could be used +instead of air; or unless some substance like quicklime, which +holds its oxygen with less vigor than carbon does, were mixed with +the coke and used to maintain the heat necessary for distillation. +A well known gas producer for small scale use is Dowson's. Steam is +superheated in a coil of pipe, and blown through glowing anthracite +along with air. The gas which comes off consists of 20 per cent. +hydrogen, 30 per cent. carbonic oxide, 3 per cent. carbonic acid, +and 47 per cent. nitrogen. It is a weak gas, but it serves for gas +engines, and is used, I believe, by Thompson, of Leeds, for firing +glass and pottery in a gas kiln. It is said to cost 4d. per 1,000 +ft., and to be half as good as coal gas.</p> + +<p>For furnace work, where gas is needed in large quantities, it +must be made on the spot. And what I want to insist upon is this, +that all well-regulated furnaces are gas retorts and combustion +chambers combined. You may talk of burning coal, but you can't do +it; you must distill it first, and you may either waste the gas so +formed or you may burn it properly. The thing is to let in not too +much air, but just air enough. Look, for instance, at Minton's oven +for firing pottery. Round the central chamber are the coal hoppers, +and from each of these gas is distilled, passes into the central +chamber, where the ware is stacked, and meeting with an adjusted +supply of air as it rises, it burns in a large flame, which extends +through the whole space and swathes the material to be heated. It +makes its exit by a central hole in the floor, and thence rises by +flues to a common opening above. When these ovens are in thorough +action, nothing visible escapes. The smoke from ordinary potters' +ovens is in Staffordshire a familiar nuisance. In the Siemens gas +producer and furnace, of which Mr. Frederick Siemens has been good +enough to lend me this diagram, the gas is not made so closely on +the spot, the gas retort and furnace being separated by a hundred +yards or so in order to give the required propelling force. But the +principle is the same; the coal is first distilled, then burnt. But +to get high temperature, the air supply to the furnace must be +heated, and there must be no excess. If this is carried on by means +of otherwise waste heat we have the regenerative principle, so +admirably applied by the Brothers Siemens, where the waste heat of +the products of combustion is used to heat the incoming air and gas +supply. The reversing arrangement by which the temperature of such +a furnace can be gradually worked up from ordinary flame +temperature to something near the dissociation point of gases, far +above the melting point of steel, is well known, and has already +been described in this place. Mr. Siemens has lent me this +beautiful model of the most recent form of his furnace, showing its +application to steel making and to glass working.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable and, at first sight, astounding thing about +this furnace is, however, that it works solely by radiation. The +flames do not touch the material to be heated; they burn above it, +and radiate their heat down to it. This I regard as one of the most +important discoveries in the whole subject, viz., that to get the +highest temperature and greatest economy out of the combustion of +coal, one must work directly by radiant heat only, all other heat +being utilized indirectly to warm the air and gas supply, and thus +to raise the flame to an intensely high temperature.</p> + +<p>It is easy to show the effect of supplying a common gas flame +with warm air by holding it over a cylinder packed with wire gauze +which has been made red hot. A common burner held over such a hot +air shaft burns far more brightly and whitely. There is no question +but that this is the plan to get good illumination out of gas +combustion; and many regenerative burners are now in the market, +all depending on this principle, and utilizing the waste heat to +make a high temperature flame. But although it is evidently the +right way to get light, it was by no means evidently the right way +to get heat. Yet so it turns out, not by warming solid objects or +by dull warm surfaces, but by the brilliant radiation of the +hottest flame that can be procured, will rooms be warmed in the +future. And if one wants to boil a kettle, it will be done, not by +putting it into a non-luminous flame, and so interfering with the +combustion, but by holding it near to a freely burning regenerated +flame, and using the radiation only. Making toast is the symbol of +all the heating of the future, provided we regard Mr. Siemens' view +as well established.</p> + +<p>The ideas are founded on something like the following +considerations: Flame cannot touch a cold surface, i.e., one below +the temperature of combustion, because by the contact it would be +put out. Hence, between a flame and the surface to be heated by it +there always intervenes a comparatively cool space, across which +heat must pass by radiation. It is by radiation ultimately, +therefore, that all bodies get heated. This being so, it is well to +increase the radiating power of flame as much as possible. Now, +radiating power depends on two things: the presence of solid matter +in the flame in a fine state of subdivision, and the temperature to +which it is heated. Solid matter is most easily provided by burning +a gas rich in dense hydrocarbons, not a poor and non-luminous gas. +To mix the gas with air so as to destroy and burn up these +hydrocarbons seems therefore to be a retrograde step, useful +undoubtedly in certain cases, as in the Bunsen flame of the +laboratory, but not the ideal method of combustion. The ideal +method looks to the use of a very rich gas, and the burning of it +with a maximum of luminosity. The hot products of combustion must +give up their heat by contact. It is for them that cross tubes in +boilers are useful. They have no combustion to be interfered with +by cold contacts. The <i>flame</i> only should be free.</p> + +<p>The second condition of radiation was high temperature. What +limits the temperature of a flame? Dissociation or splitting up of +a compound by heat. So soon as the temperature reaches the +dissociation point at which the compound can no longer exist, +combustion ceases. Anything short of this may theoretically be +obtained.</p> + +<p>But Mr. Siemens believes, and adduces some evidence to prove, +that the dissociation point is not a constant and definite +temperature for a given compound; it depends entirely upon whether +solid or foreign surfaces are present or not. These it is which +appear to be an efficient cause of dissociation, and which, +therefore, limit the temperature of flame. In the absence of all +solid contact, Mr. Siemens believes that dissociation, if it occur +at all, occurs at an enormously higher temperature, and that the +temperature of free flame can be raised to almost any extent. +Whether this be so or not, his radiating flames are most +successful, and the fact that large quantities of steel are now +melted by mere flame radiation speaks well for the correctness of +the theory upon which his practice has been based.</p> + +<p><i>Use of Small Coal</i>.—Meanwhile, we may just consider +how we ought to deal with solid fuel, whether for the purpose of +making gas from it or for burning it <i>in situ</i>. The question +arises, In what form ought solid fuel to be—ought it to be in +lumps or in powder? Universal practice says lumps, but some +theoretical considerations would have suggested powder. Remember, +combustion is a chemical action, and when a chemist wishes to act +on a solid easily, he always pulverizes it as a first step.</p> + +<p>Is it not possible that compacting small coal into lumps is a +wrong operation, and that we ought rather to think of breaking big +coal down into slack? The idea was suggested to me by Sir W. +Thomson in a chance conversation, and it struck me at once as a +brilliant one. The amount of coal wasted by being in the form of +slack is very great. Thousands of tons are never raised from the +pits because the price is too low to pay for the raising—in +some places it is only 1s. 6d. a ton. Mr. McMillan calculates that +130,000 tons of breeze, or powdered coke, is produced every year by +the Gas Light and Coke Company alone, and its price is 3s. a ton at +the works, or 5s. delivered.</p> + +<p>The low price and refuse character of small coal is, of course, +owing to the fact that no ordinary furnace can burn it. But picture +to yourself a blast of hot air into which powdered coal is sifted +from above like ground coffee, or like chaff in a thrashing mill, +and see how rapidly and completely it might burn. Fine dust in a +flour mill is so combustible as to be explosive and dangerous, and +Mr. Galloway has shown that many colliery explosions are due not to +the presence of gas so much as the presence of fine coal-dust +suspended in the air. If only fine enough, then such dust is +eminently combustible, and a blast containing it might become a +veritable sheet of flame. (Blow lycopodium through a flame.) Feed +the coal into a sort of coffee-mill, there let it be ground and +carried forward by a blast to the furnace where it is to be burned. +If the thing would work at all, almost any kind of refuse fuel +could be burned—sawdust, tan, cinder heaps, organic rubbish +of all kinds. The only condition is that it be fine enough.</p> + +<p>Attempts in this direction have been made by Mr. T.R. Crampton, +by Messrs. Whelpley and Storer, and by Mr. G.K. Stephenson; but a +difficulty has presented itself which seems at present to be +insuperable, that the slag fluxes the walls of the furnace, and at +that high temperature destroys them. If it be feasible to keep the +flame out of contact with solid surfaces, however, perhaps even +this difficulty can be overcome.</p> + +<p>Some success in blast burning of dust fuel has been attained in +the more commonplace method of the blacksmith's forge, and a boiler +furnace is arranged at Messrs. Donkin's works at Bermondsey on this +principle. A pressure of about half an inch of water is produced by +a fan and used to drive air through the bars into a chimney draw of +another half-inch. The fire bars are protected from the high +temperatures by having blades which dip into water, and so keep +fairly cool. A totally different method of burning dust fuel by +smouldering is attained in M. Ferret's low temperature furnace by +exposing the fuel in a series of broad, shallow trays to a gentle +draught of air. The fuel is fed into the top of such a furnace, and +either by raking or by shaking it descends occasionally, stage by +stage, till it arrives at the bottom, where it is utterly inorganic +and mere refuse. A beautiful earthworm economy of the last dregs of +combustible matter in any kind of refuse can thus be attained. Such +methods of combustion as this, though valuable, are plainly of +limited application; but for the great bulk of fuel consumption +some gas-making process must be looked to. No crude combustion of +solid fuel can give ultimate perfection.</p> + +<p>Coal tar products, though not so expensive as they were some +time back, are still too valuable entirely to waste, and the +importance of exceedingly cheap and fertilizing manure in the +reclamation of waste lands and the improvement of soil is a +question likely to become of most supreme importance in this +overcrowded island. Indeed, if we are to believe the social +philosophers, the naturally fertile lands of the earth may before +long become insufficient for the needs of the human race; and +posterity may then be largely dependent for their daily bread upon +the fertilizing essences of the stored-up plants of the +carboniferous epoch, just as we are largely dependent on the +stored-up sunlight of that period for our light, our warmth, and +our power. They will not then burn crude coal, therefore. They will +carefully distill it—extract its valuable juices—and +will supply for combustion only its carbureted hydrogen and its +carbon in some gaseous or finely divided form.</p> + +<p>Gaseous fuel is more manageable in every way than solid fuel, +and is far more easily and reliably conveyed from place to place. +Dr. Siemens, you remember, expected that coal would not even be +raised, but turned into gas in the pits, to rise by its own +buoyancy to be burnt on the surface wherever wanted. And not only +will the useful products be first removed and saved, its sulphur +will be removed too; not because it is valuable, but because its +product of combustion is a poisonous nuisance. Depend upon it, the +cities of the future will not allow people to turn sulphurous acid +wholesale into the air, there to oxidize and become oil of vitriol. +Even if it entails a slight strain upon the purse they will, I +hope, be wise enough to prefer it to the more serious strain upon +their lungs. We forbid sulphur as much as possible in our lighting +gas, because we find it is deleterious in our rooms. But what is +London but one huge room packed with over four millions of +inhabitants? The air of a city is limited, fearfully limited, and +we allow all this horrible stuff to be belched out of hundreds of +thousands of chimneys all day long.</p> + +<p>Get up and see London at four or five in the morning, and +compare it with four or five in the afternoon; the contrast is +painful. A city might be delightful, but you make it loathsome; not +only by smoke, indeed, but still greatly by smoke. When no one is +about, then the air is almost pure; have it well fouled before you +rise to enjoy it. Where no one lives, the breeze of heaven still +blows; where human life is thickest, there it is not fit to live. +Is it not an anomaly, is it not farcical? What term is strong +enough to stigmatize such suicidal folly? But we will not be in +earnest, and our rulers will talk, and our lives will go on and go +out, and next century will be soon upon us, and here is a reform +gigantic, ready to our hands, easy to accomplish, really easy to +accomplish if the right heads and vigorous means were devoted to +it. Surely something will be done.</p> + +<p>The following references may be found useful in seeking for more +detailed information: Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee for +1882, by Chandler Roberts and D.K. Clark. "How to Use Gas," by F.T. +Bond; Sanitary Association, Gloucester. "Recovery of Volatile +Constituents of Coal," by T.B. Lightfoot; Journal Society of Arts, +May, 1883. "Manufacture of Gas from Oil," by H.E. Armstrong; +Journal Society of Chemical Industry, September, 1884. "Coking +Coal," by H.E. Armstrong; Iron and Steel Institute, 1885. "Modified +Siemens Producer," by John Head; Iron and Steel Institute, 1885. +"Utilization of Dust Fuel," by W.G. McMillan; Journal Society of +Arts, April. 1886. "Gas Producers," by Rowan; Proc. Inst. C.E., +January, 1886. "Regenerative Furnaces with Radiation," and "On +Producers," by F. Siemens; Journal Soc. Chem. Industry, July, 1885, +and November, 1885. "Fireplace Construction," by Pridgin Teale; the +<i>Builder</i>, February, 1886. "On Dissociation Temperatures," by +Frederick Siemens; Royal Institution, May 7, 1886.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor4">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">Second of two lectures delivered at the Royal +Institution, London, on 17th April, 1886. Continued from +SUPPLEMENT, No. 585, p. 9340.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<p>Near Colorados, in the Argentine Republic, a large bed of +superior coal has been opened, and to the west of the Province of +Buenos Ayres extensive borax deposits have been discovered.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER.</h2> + +<p>The accompanying engraving illustrates a remarkable invention. +For ages, screw conveyers for corn and meal have been employed, and +in spite of the power consumed and the rubbing of the material +conveyed, they have remained, with little exception, unimproved and +without a rival. Now we have a new conveyer, which, says <i>The +Engineer</i>, in its simplicity excels anything brought out for +many years, and, until it is seen at work, makes a heavier demand +upon one's credulity than is often made by new mechanical +inventions. As will be seen from the engravings, the new conveyer +consists simply of a spiral of round steel rod mounted upon a +quickly revolving spindle by means of suitable clamps and arms. The +spiral as made for England is of 5/8 in. steel rod, because English +people would not be inclined to try what is really sufficient in +most cases, namely, a mere wire. The working of this spiral as a +conveyer is simply magical. A 6 in. spiral delivers 800 bushels per +hour at 100 revolutions per minute, and more in proportion at +higher speeds. A little 4 in. spiral delivers 200 bushels per hour +at 100 revolutions per minute. It seems to act as a mere persuader. +The spiral moves a small quantity, and sets the whole contents of +the trough in motion. In fact, it embodies the great essentials of +success, namely, simplicity, great capacity for work, and +cheapness. It is the invention of Mr. J. Little, and is made by the +Anti-friction Conveyer Company, of 59 Mark Lane, London.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11a_th.jpg" alt= +" THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER WITH CASING OR TROUGH—END"> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE ANTI-FRICTION CONVEYER WITH CASING OR +TROUGH—END VIEW WITH HANGER.</p> + +<p>Since the days of Archimedes, who is credited with being the +inventor of the screw, there has not been any improvement in the +principle of the worm conveyer. There have been several patents +taken out for improved methods of manufacturing the old-fashioned +continuous and paddle-blade worms, but Mr. Little's patent is the +first for an entirely new kind of conveyer.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>STUDIES IN PYROTECHNY.<a name="FNanchor5"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_5"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>II. METHODS OF ILLUMINATION.</h3> + +<p><i>Torches</i> consist of a bundle of loosely twisted threads +which has been immersed in a mixture formed of two parts, by +weight, of beeswax, eight of resin, and one of tallow. In warm, dry +weather, these torches when lighted last for two hours when at +rest, and for an hour and a quarter on a march. A good light is +obtained by spacing them 20 or 30 yards apart.</p> + +<p>Another style of torch consists of a cardboard cylinder fitted +with a composition consisting of 100 parts of saltpeter, 60 of +sulphur, 8 of priming powder, and 30 of pulverized glass, the whole +sifted and well mixed. This torch, which burns for a quarter of an +hour, illuminates a space within a radius of 180 or 200 yards very +well.</p> + +<p>The <i>tourteau goudronné</i> (lit. "tarred coke") is +merely a ring formed of old lunt or of cords well beaten with a +mallet (Fig. 10). This ring is first impregnated with a composition +formed of 20 parts of black pitch and 1 of tallow, and then with +another one formed of equal parts of black pitch and resin. One of +these torches will burn for an hour in calm weather, and half an +hour in the wind. Rain does not affect the burning of it. These +rings are usually arranged in pairs on brackets with two branches +and an upper circle, the whole of iron, and these brackets are +spaced a hundred yards apart.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11b_th.jpg" alt= +" FIGS. 9 TO 16.—VARIOUS PYROTECHNIC DEVICES."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIGS. 9 TO 16.—VARIOUS PYROTECHNIC +DEVICES.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11c_th.jpg" alt= +" FIGS. 17.—ILLUMINATING ROCKET."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIGS. 17.—ILLUMINATING ROCKET.</p> + +<p>A <i>tarred fascine</i> consists of a small fagot of dry wood, +20 inches in length by 4 in diameter, covered with the same +composition as the preceding (Fig. 11). Fascines thus prepared burn +for about half an hour. They are placed upright in supports, and +these latter are located at intervals of twenty yards.</p> + +<p>The <i>Lamarre compositions</i> are all formed of a combustible +substance, such as boiled oil,<a name="FNanchor6"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_6"><sup>2</sup></a> of a substance that burns, such as +chlorate of potash, and of various coloring salts.</p> + +<p>The <i>white composition</i> used for charging fire balls and +1½ inch flambeaux is formed of 500 parts of powdered +chlorate of potash, 1,500 of nitrate of baryta, 120 of light wood +charcoal, and 250 of boiled oil. Another white composition, used +for charging ¾ inch flambeaux, consists of 1,000 parts of +chlorate of potash, 1,000 of nitrate of baryta, and 175 of boiled +oil.</p> + +<p>The <i>red composition</i> used for making red flambeaux and +percussion signals consists of 1,800 parts of chlorate of potash, +300 of oxalate of strontia, 300 of carbonate of strontia, 48 of +whitewood charcoal, 240 of boiled oil, 6 of oil, and 14 of gum +lac.</p> + +<p>A red or white <i>Lamarre flambeau</i> consists of a sheet +rubber tube filled with one of the above-named compositions. The +lower extremity of this tube is closed with a cork. When the +charging has been effected, the flambeau is primed by inserting a +quickmatch in the composition. This is simply lighted with a match +or a live coal. The composition of the Lamarre quickmatch will be +given hereafter.</p> + +<p>A Lamarre flambeau 1½ inch in diameter and 3 inches in +length will burn for about thirty-five minutes. One of the same +length, and ¾ inch in diameter, lasts but a quarter of an +hour.</p> + +<p>A <i>fire ball</i> consists of an open work sack internally +strengthened with a sheet iron shell, and fitted with the Lamarre +white composition. After the charging has been done, the sphere is +wound with string, which is made to adhere by means of tar, and +canvas is then wrapped around the whole. Projectiles of this kind, +which have diameters of 6, 8, 11, and 13 inches, are shot from +mortars.</p> + +<p>The <i>illuminating grenade</i> (Fig. 13) consists of a sphere +of vulcanized rubber, two inches in diameter, charged with the +Lamarre white composition. The sphere contains an aperture to allow +of the insertion of a fuse. The priming is effected by means of a +tin tube filled with a composition consisting of three parts of +priming powder, two of sulphur, and one of saltpeter. These +grenades are thrown either by hand or with a sling, and they may +likewise be shot from mortars. Each of these projectiles +illuminates a circle thirty feet in diameter for a space of time +that varies, according to the wind, from sixty to eighty +seconds.</p> + +<p>The <i>percussion signal</i> (Fig. 14) consists of a cylinder of +zinc, one inch in diameter and one and a quarter inch in length, +filled with Lamarre red composition. It is provided with a wooden +handle, and the fuse consists of a capsule which is exploded by +striking it against some rough object. This signal burns for nearly +a minute.</p> + +<p><i>Belgian illuminating balls and cylinders</i> are canvas bags +filled with certain compositions. The cylinders, five inches in +diameter and seven in length, are charged with a mixture of six +parts of sulphur, two of priming powder, one of antimony, and two +of beeswax cut up into thin slices. They are primed with a +quickmatch. The balls, one and a half inch in diameter, are charged +with a composition consisting of twelve parts of saltpeter, eight +of sulphur, four of priming powder, two of sawdust, two of beeswax, +and two of tallow. They are thrown by hand. They burn for six +minutes.</p> + +<p><i>Illuminating kegs</i> (Fig. 15) consist of powder kegs filled +with shavings covered with pitch. An aperture two or three inches +in diameter is made in each head, and then a large number of holes, +half an inch in diameter, and arranged quincuncially, are bored in +the staves and heads. All these apertures are filled with +port-fires.</p> + +<p>The <i>illuminating rocket</i> (Fig. 17) consists of a sheet +iron cartridge, <i>a</i>, containing a composition designed to give +it motion, of a cylinder, <i>b</i>, of sheet iron, capped with a +cone of the same material and containing illuminating stars of +Lamarre composition and an explosive for expelling them, and, +finally, of a directing stick, <i>c</i>. Priming is effected by +means of a bunch of quickmatches inclosed in a cardboard tube +placed in contact with the propelling composition. This latter is +the same as that used in signal rockets. As in the case of the +latter, a space is left in the axis of the cartridges. These +rockets are fired from a trough placed at an inclination of fifty +or sixty degrees. Those of three inches illuminate the earth for a +distance of 900 yards. They may be used to advantage in the +operation of signaling.</p> + +<p>A <i>parachute fire</i> is a device designed to be ejected from +a pot at the end of the rocket's travel, and to emit a bright light +during its slow descent. It consists of a small cylindrical +cardboard box (Fig. 16) filled with common star paste or Lamarre +stars, and attached to a parachute, <i>e</i>, by means of a small +brass chain, <i>d</i>.</p> + +<p>To make this parachute, we cut a circle ten feet in diameter out +of a piece of calico, and divide its circumference into ten or +twelve equal parts. At each point of division we attach a piece of +fine hempen cord about three feet in length, and connect these +cords with each other, as well as with the suspension chain, by +ligatures that are protected against the fire by means of balls of +sized paper.</p> + +<p>In rockets designed to receive these parachutes, a small cavity +is reserved at the extremity of the cartridge for the reception of +225 grains of powder. To fill the pot, the chain, <i>d</i>, is +rolled spirally around the box, <i>c</i>, and the latter is covered +with the parachute, <i>e</i>, which has been folded in plaits, and +then folded lengthwise alternately in one direction and the +other.</p> + +<p>The <i>parachute port-fire</i> consists of a cardboard tube of +from quarter to half an inch in diameter, and from four to five +inches in length, closed at one extremity and filled with star +paste. This is connected by a brass wire with a cotton parachute +eight inches in diameter. A rocket pot is capable of holding twenty +of these port-fires.</p> + +<p>Parachute fires and port-fires are used to advantage in the +operation of signaling.—<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor5">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 583, page +9303.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor6">[2]</a> + +<div class="note">For preparation see page 9304 of +SUPPLEMENT.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENT IN LAYING OUT FRAMES OF VESSELS—THE FRAME +TRACER.</h2> + +<h3>By GUSTAVE SONNENBURG.</h3> + +<p>To avoid the long and time-consuming laying out of a boat by +ordinates and abscissas, I have constructed a handy apparatus, by +which it is possible without much trouble to obtain the sections of +a vessel graphically and sufficiently accurate. The description of +its construction is given with reference to the accompanying cut. A +is a wooden rod of rectangular section, to which are adapted two +brackets, a<sub>1</sub> a<sub>2</sub>, lined with India rubber or +leather; a<sub>1</sub> is fixed to the wood, a<sub>2</sub> is of +metal, and, like the movable block of a slide gauge, moves along A. +In the same plane is a second rod, perpendicular to A, and attached +thereto, which is perforated by a number of holes. A revolving pin, +C, is adapted to pass through these holes, to which a socket, D, is +pivoted, C acting as its axis. To prevent this pin from falling +out, it is secured by a nut behind the rod. Through the socket, D, +runs a rod, E, which carries the guide point, s<sub>1</sub>, and +pencil, s<sub>2</sub>. Over s<sub>1</sub> a rubber band is +stretched, to prevent injury to the varnish of the boat. Back of +and to A and B a drawing board is attached, over which a sheet of +paper is stretched.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12b_th.jpg" alt=" THE FRAME TRACER."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE FRAME TRACER.</p> + +<p>The method of obtaining a section line is as follows: The rod, +A, is placed across the gunwale and perpendicular to the axis of +the boat, and its anterior vertical face is adjusted to each frame +of the boat which it is desired to reproduce. By means of the +brackets, a<sub>1</sub> and a<sub>2</sub>, A is fixed in place. The +bolt, C, is now placed in the perforations already alluded to, +which are recognized as most available for producing the +constructional diagram. At the same time the position of the pencil +point, s<sub>2</sub>, must be chosen for obtaining the best +results.</p> + +<p>Next the operator moves along the side of the boat the sharpened +end, s<sub>1</sub>, of the rod, E, and thus for the curve from keel +to gunwale, s<sub>2</sub> describes a construction line. It is at +once evident that a<sub>2</sub>, for example, corresponds to the +point, a<sub>1</sub>. The apparatus is now removed and placed on +the working floor. If, reversing things, the point, s<sub>1</sub>, +is carried around the construction curve, the point, s<sub>2</sub>, +will inscribe the desired section in its natural dimensions. This +operation is best conducted after one has chosen and described all +the construction curves of the boat. Next, the different section +lines are determined, one by one, by the reversed method above +described. The result is a half section of the boat; the other +symmetrical half is easily obtained.</p> + +<p>If the whole process is repeated for the other side of the boat, +tracing paper being used instead of drawing paper, the boat may be +tested for symmetry of building, a good control for the value of +the ship. For measuring boats, as for clubs and regattas, for +seamen, and often for the so-called <i>Spranzen</i> (copying) of +English models, my apparatus, I doubt not, will be very +useful.—<i>Neuste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>TAR FOR FIRING RETORTS.</h2> + +<p>The attention of gas engineers has been forcibly directed to the +use of tar as a fuel for the firing of retorts, now that this once +high-priced material is suffering, like everything else (but, +perhaps, to a more marked extent), by what is called "depression in +trade." In fact, it has in many places reached so low a commercial +value that it is profitable to burn it as a fuel. Happily, this is +not the case at Nottingham; and our interest in tar as a fuel is +more experimental, in view of what may happen if a further fall in +tar products sets in. I have abandoned the use of steam injection +for our experimental tar fires in favor of another system. The +steam injectors produce excellent heats, but are rather +intermittent in their action, and the steam they require is a +serious item, and not always available.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>Tar being a <i>pseudo</i> liquid fuel, in arranging for its +combustion one has to provide for the 20 to 25 per cent. of solid +carbon which it contains, and which is deposited in the furnace as +a kind of coke or breeze on the distillation of the volatile +portions, which are much more easily consumed than the tar +coke.</p> + +<h3>THE TAR FIRE</h3> + +<p>I have adopted is one that can be readily adapted to an ordinary +coke furnace, and be as readily removed, leaving the furnace as +before. The diagram conveys some idea of the method adopted. An +iron frame, d, standing on legs on the floor just in front of the +furnace door, carries three fire tiles on iron bearers. The top +one, a, is not moved, and serves to shield the upper face of the +tile, b, from the fierce heat radiated from the furnace, and also +causes the air that rushes into the furnace between the tiles, a +and b, to travel over the upper face of the tile, b, on which the +tar flows, thereby keeping it cool, and preventing the tar from +bursting into flame until it reaches the edge of the tile, b, over +the whole edge of which it is made to run fairly well by a +distributing arrangement. A rapid combustion takes place here, but +some unconsumed tar falls on to the bed below. About one-third of +the grate area is filled up by a fire tile, and on this the tar +coke falls. The tile, c, is moved away from time to time, and the +tar coke that accumulates in front of it is pushed back on to the +fire bars, e, at the back of the furnace, to be there consumed. Air +is thus admitted, by three narrow slot-like openings, to the front +of the furnace between the tiles, a, b, and c, and under c and +through the fire bars, e. The air openings below are about three +times the area of the openings in the front of the furnace; but as +the openings between the fire bars and the tiles are always more or +less covered by tar coke, it is impossible to say what the +effective openings are. This disposition answers admirably, and +requires little attention. Three minutes per hour per fire seems to +be the average, and the labor is of a very light kind, consisting +of clearing the passages between the tiles, and occasionally +pushing back the coke on to the fire bars. These latter are not +interfered with, and will not require cleaning unless any bricks in +the furnace have been melted, when a bed of slag will be found on +them.</p> + +<h3>THE AMOUNT OF DRAUGHT</h3> + +<p>required for these fires is very small, and less than with coke +firing. I find that 0.08 in. vacuum is sufficient with tar fires, +and 0.25 in. for coke fires. The fires would require less attention +with more draught and larger tar supply, as the apertures do not so +easily close with a sharp draught, and the tar is better carried +forward into the furnace. A regular feed of tar is required, and +considerable difficulty seems to have been experienced in obtaining +this. So long as we employed ordinary forms of taps or valves, so +long (even with filtration) did we experience difficulties with the +flow of viscous tar. But on the construction of valves specially +designed for the regulation of its flow, the difficulty immediately +disappeared, and there is no longer the slightest trouble on this +account. The labor connected with the feeding of furnaces with coke +and cleaning fires from clinker is of a very arduous and heavy +nature. Eight coke fires are normally considered to be work for one +man. A lad could work sixteen of these tar fires.</p> + +<h3>COMPOSITION OF FURNACE GASES.</h3> + +<p>Considerable attention has been paid to the composition of the +furnace gases from the tar fires. The slightest deficiency in the +air supply, of course, results in the immediate production of +smoke, so that the damper must be set to provide always a +sufficient air supply. Under these circumstances of damper, the +following analyses of combustion gases from tar fires have been +obtained:</p> + +<pre> + No Smoke. + CO₂. O. CO. + 11.7 5.0 Not determined. + 13.3 3.7 " + 10.8 5.4 " + 14.8 2.5 " + 13.5 3.0 " + 12.4 5.6 " + 12.4 4.6 " + 13.1 5.9 " + 15.3 1.0 " + 10.8 4.0 " + 14.0 2.8 " + ______ ______ + Average 12.9 3.9 +(11 analyses) ______ ______ + 11.5 Not determined. + 14.3 " + 14.6 " +</pre> + +<p>Damper adjusted so that a slight smoke was observable in the +combustion gases.</p> + +<pre> + CO₂. O. CO. + 17.30 None. Not determined. + 16.60 " " + 16.50 0.1 " + 15.80 0.1 " + 16.20 1.8 0.7 + _______ _____ _____ +Average 16.48 0.4 0.7 +</pre> + +<p>—<i>Gas Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW MERCURY PUMP.</h2> + +<p>The mercury pumps now in use, whether those of Geissler, +Alvergniat, Toepler, or Sprengel, although possessed of +considerable advantages, have also serious defects. For instance, +Geissler's pump requires a considerable number of taps, that of +Alvergniat and Toepler is very fragile in consequence of its +complicated system of tubes connected together, and that of +Sprengel is only suitable for certain purposes.</p> + +<p>The new mercury pump constructed by Messrs. Greisser and +Friedrichs, at Stutzerbach, is remarkable for simplicity of +construction and for the ease with which it is manipulated, and +also because it enables us to arrive at a perfect vacuum.</p> + +<p>The characteristic of this pump is, according to <i>La Lumiere +Electrique</i>, a tap of peculiar construction. It has two tubes +placed obliquely in respect to its axis, which, when we turn this +tap 90 or 180 degrees, are brought opposite one of the three +openings in the body of the tap.</p> + +<p>Thus the striæ that are formed between the hollowed-out +parts of the tap do not affect its tightness; and, besides, the +turns of the tap have for their principal positions 90 and 180 +degrees, instead of 45 and 90 degrees, as in Geissler's pump.</p> + +<p>The working of the apparatus, which only requires the +manipulation of a single tap, is very simple. When the mercury is +raised, the tap is turned in such a manner that the surplus of the +liquid can pass into the enlarged appendage, a, placed above the +tap, and communication is then cut off by turning the tap to 90 +degrees.</p> + +<p>The mercury reservoir having descended, the bulb empties itself, +and then the tap is turned on again, in order to establish +communication with the exhausting tube. The tap is then closed, the +mercury ascends again, and this action keeps on repeating.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12c_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<p>NO ELECTRICITY FROM THE CONDENSATION OF VAPOR.—It has been +maintained by Palmieri and others that the condensation of vapor +results in the production of an electrical charge. Herr S. +Kalischer has renewed his investigations upon this point, and +believes that he has proved that no electricity results from such +condensation. Atmospheric vapor was condensed upon a vessel coated +with tin foil, filled with ice, carefully insulated, and connected +with a very sensitive electrometer. No evidence could be obtained +of electricity.—<i>Ann. der Physik und Chemie</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER.</h2> + +<p>An interesting contribution was made by M. Mercadier in a recent +number of the <i>Comptes Rendus de l'Academie Francaise</i>. On the +ground of some novel and some already accepted experimental +evidence, M. Mercadier holds that the mechanism by virtue of which +the telephonic diaphragms execute their movements is analogous to, +if not identical with, that by which solid bodies of any form, a +wall for instance, transmit to one of their surfaces all the +vibratory movements of any kind which are produced in the air in +contact with the other surface. It is a phenomenon or resonance. +Movements corresponding to particular sounds may be superposed in +slender diaphragms, but this superposition must necessarily be +disturbing under all but exceptional circumstances. In proof of +this view, it is cited that diaphragms much too rigid, or charged +with irregularly distributed masses over the surface, or pierced +with holes, or otherwise evidently unfitted for the purpose, are +available for transmission. They will likewise serve when feathers, +wool, wood, metals, mica, and other substances to the thickness of +four inches are placed between the diaphragm and the source of +vibratory movement. The magnetic field does not alter these +relations in any way. The real diaphragm may be removed altogether. +It is sufficient to replace it by a few grains of iron filings +thrown on the pole covered with a piece of pasteboard or paper. +Such a telephone works distinctly although feebly; but any slender +flexible disk, metallic or not, spread over across the opening of +the cover of the instrument, with one or two tenths of a gramme +(three grains) of iron filings, will yield results of increased and +even ordinary intensity. This is the iron filing telephone, which +is reversible; for a given magnetic field there is a certain weight +of iron filings for maximum intensity. It appears thus that the +advantage of the iron diaphragm over iron filings reduces itself to +presenting in a certain volume a much more considerable number of +magnetic molecules to the action of the field. The iron diaphragm +increases the telephonic intensity, but it is by no means +indispensable.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>ON ELECTRO-DISSOLUTION, AND ITS USE AS REGARDS ANALYSIS.</h2> + +<h3>By H.N. WARREN, Research Analyst.</h3> + +<p>On the same principle that electro-dissolution is used for the +estimation of combined carbon in steel, etc., I have lately varied +the experiment by introducing, instead of steel, iron containing a +certain percentage of boron, and, having connected the respective +boride with the positive pole of a powerful battery, and to the +negative a plate of platinum, using as a solvent dilute sulphuric +acid, I observed, after the lapse of about twelve hours, the iron +had entirely passed into solution, and a considerable amount of +brownish precipitate had collected at the bottom of the vessel, +intercepted by flakes of graphite and carbon; the precipitate, +having been collected on a filter paper, washed, and dried, on +examination proved to be amorphous boron, containing graphite and +other impurities, which had become chemically introduced during the +preparation of the boron compound. The boron was next introduced +into a small clay crucible, and intensely heated in a current of +hydrogen gas, for the purpose of rendering it more dense and +destroying its pyrophoric properties, and was lastly introduced +into a combustion tubing, heated to bright redness, and a stream of +dry carbonic anhydride passed over it, in order to separate the +carbon, finally pure boron being obtained.</p> + +<p>In like manner silicon-eisen, containing 9 per cent. of silicon, +was treated, but not giving so satisfactory a result. A small +quantity only of silicon separates in the uncombined form, the +greater quantity separating in the form of silica, SiO<sub>2</sub>, +the amorphous silicon so obtained apparently being more prone to +oxidation than the boron so obtained.</p> + +<p>Ferrous sulphide was next similarly treated, and gave, after the +lapse of a few hours, a copious blackish precipitation of sulphur, +and possessing properties similar to the sulphur obtained by +dissolving sulphides such as cupric sulphide in dilute nitric acid, +in all other respects resembling common sulphur.</p> + +<p>Phosphides of iron, zinc, etc., were next introduced, and gave, +besides carbon and other impurities, a residue containing a large +percentage of phosphorus, which differed from ordinary phosphorus +with respect to its insolubility in carbon disulphide, and which +resembled the reaction in the case with silicon-eisen rather than +that of the boron compound, insomuch that a large quantity of the +phosphorus had passed into solution.</p> + +<p>A rod of impure copper, containing arsenic, iron, zinc, and +other impurities, was next substituted, using hydrochloric acid as +a solvent in place of sulphuric acid. In the course of a day the +copper had entirely dissolved and precipitated itself on the +negative electrode, the impurities remaining in solution. The +copper, after having been washed, dried, and weighed, gave +identical results with regard to percentage with a careful +gravimetric estimation. I have lately used this method, and +obtained excellent results with respect to the analysis of +commercial copper, especially in the estimation of small quantities +of arsenic, thus enabling the experimenter to perform his +investigation on a much larger quantity than when precipitation is +resorted to, at the same time avoiding the precipitated copper +carrying down with it the arsenic. I have in this manner detected +arsenic in commercial copper when all other methods have totally +failed. I have also found the above method especially applicable +with respect to the analysis of brass.</p> + +<p>With respect to ammoniacal dissolution, which I will briefly +mention, a rod composed of an alloy of copper and silver was +experimented upon, the copper becoming entirely dissolved and +precipitating itself on the platinum electrode, the whole of the +silver remaining suspended to the positive electrode in an +aborescent form. Arsenide of zinc was similarly treated, the +arsenic becoming precipitated in like manner on the platinum +electrode. Various other alloys, being experimented upon, gave +similar results.</p> + +<p>I may also, in the last instance, mention that I have found the +above methods of electro-dissolution peculiarly adapted for the +preparation of unstable compounds such as stannic nitrate, potassic +ferrate, ferric acetate, which are decomposed on the application of +heat, and in some instances have succeeded by the following means +of crystallizing the resulting compound obtained.—<i>Chem. +News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEWLY DISCOVERED SUBSTANCE IN URINE.</h2> + +<p>Dr. Leo's researches on sugar in urine are interesting, and tend +to correct the commonly accepted views on the subject. Professor +Scheibler, a chemist well known for his researches on sugar, has +observed that the determination of the quantity of that substance +contained in a liquid gives different results, according as it is +done by Trommer's method or with the polariscope. As sugar nowadays +is exclusively dealt with according to the degree of polarization, +this fact is of enormous value in trade. Scheibler has isolated a +substance that is more powerful in that respect than grape sugar. +Dr. Leo's researches yield analogous results, though in a different +field. He has examined a great quantity of diabetic urine after +three different methods, namely, Trommer's (alkaline solution of +copper); by fermentation; and with the polarization apparatus. In +many cases the results agreed, while in others there was a +considerable difference.</p> + +<p>He succeeded in isolating a substance corresponding in its +chemical composition to grape sugar, and also a carbo-hydrate +differing considerably from grape sugar, and turning the plane of +polarization to the left. The power of reduction of this newly +discovered substance is to that of grape sugar as 1:2.48. Dr. Leo +found this substance in three specimens of diabetic urine, but it +was absent in normal urine, although a great amount was examined +for that purpose. From this it may be concluded that the substance +does not originate outside the organism, and that it is a +pathological product. The theory of Dr. Jaques Meyer, of Carlsbad, +that it may be connected with obesity, is negatived by the fact +that of the three persons in whom this substance was found, only +one was corpulent.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>FURNACE FOR DECOMPOSING CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/13a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/13a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>The problem of decomposing chloride of magnesium is one which +has attracted the attention of technical chemists for many years. +The solution of this problem would be of great importance to the +alkali trade, and, consequently, to nearly every industry. The late +Mr. Weldon made many experiments on this subject, but without any +particular success. Of late a furnace has been patented in Germany, +by A. Vogt, which is worked on a principle similar to that applied +to salt cake furnaces; but with this difference, that in place of +the pot it has a revolving drum, and instead of the roaster a +furnace with a number of shelves. The heating gases are furnished +by a producer, and pass from below upward over the shelves, S, then +through the channel, C, into the drum, D, which contains the +concentrated chloride of magnesium. When the latter has solidified, +but before being to any extent decomposed, it is removed from the +drum and placed on the top shelf of the furnace. It is then +gradually removed one shelf lower as the decomposition increases, +until it arrives at the bottom shelf, where it is completely +decomposed in the state of magnesia, which is emptied through, E. +The drum, D, after being emptied, is again filled with concentrated +solution of chloride of magnesium. The hydrochloric acid leaves +through F and G. If, instead of hydrochloric acid, chlorine is to +be evolved, it is necessary to heat the furnace by means of hot +air, as otherwise the carbonic acid in the gases from the generator +would prevent the formation of bleaching powder. The air is heated +in two regenerating chambers, which are placed below the +furnace.—<i>Industries</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE FILTRATION AND THE SECRETION THEORY.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the Physiological Society, Dr. J. Munk +reported on experiments instituted by him in the course of the last +two years with a view of arriving at an experimental decision +between the two theories of the secretion of urine—the +filtration theory of Ludwig and the secretion theory of Heidenhain. +According to the first theory, the blood pressure prescribed the +measure for the urine secretion; according to the second theory, +the urine got secreted from the secretory epithelial cells of the +kidneys, and the quantity of the matter secreted was dependent on +the rate of movement of the circulation of the blood. The speaker +had instituted his experiments on excided but living kidneys, +through which he conducted defibrinized blood of the same animals, +under pressures which he was able to vary at pleasure between 80 +mm. and 190 mm. Fifty experiments on dogs whose blood and kidneys +were, during the experiment, kept at 40° C., yielded the result +that the blood of starving animals induced no secretion of urine, +which on the other hand showed itself in copious quantities where +normal blood was conducted through the kidney. If to the famished +blood was added one of the substances contained as ultimate +products of digestion in the blood, such, for example, as urea, +then did the secretion ensue.</p> + +<p>The fluid dropping from the ureter contained more urea than did +the blood. That fluid was therefore no filtrate, but a secretion. +An enhancement of the pressure of the blood flowing through the +kidney had no influence on the quantity of the secretion passing +away. An increased rate of movement on the part of the blood, on +the other hand, increased in equal degree the quantity of urine. On +a solution of common salt or of mere serum sanguinis being poured +through the kidney, no secretion followed. All these facts, +involving the exclusion of the possibility of a central influence +being exercised from, the heart or from the nervous system on the +kidneys, were deemed by the speaker arguments proving that the +urine was secreted by the renal epithelial cells. A series of +diuretics was next tried, in order to establish whether they +operated in the way of stimulus centrally on the heart or +peripherally on the renal cells. Digitalis was a central diuretic. +Common salt, on the other hand, was a peripheral diuretic. Added in +the portion of 2 per cent. to the blood, it increased the quantity +of urine eight to fifteen fold. Even in much less doses, it was a +powerful diuretic. In a similar manner, if yet not so intensely, +operated saltpeter and coffeine, as also urea and pilocarpine. On +the introduction, however, of the last substance into the blood, +the rate of circulation was accelerated in an equal measure as was +the quantity of urine increased, so that in this case the increase +in the quantity of urine was, perhaps, exclusively conditioned by +the greater speed in the movement of the blood. On the other hand, +the quantity of secreted urine was reduced when morphine or +strychine was administered to the blood. In the case of the +application of strychnine, the rate in the current of the blood was +retarded in a proportion equal to the reduction in the secretion of +the urine.</p> + +<p>The speaker had, finally, demonstrated the synthesis of hippuric +acid and sulphate of phenol in the excided kidney as a function of +its cells, by adding to the blood pouring through the kidney, in +the first place, benzoic acid and glycol; in the second place, +phenol and sulphate of soda. In order that these syntheses might +make their appearance in the excided kidney, the presence of the +blood corpuscles was not necessary, though, indeed, the presence of +oxygen in the blood was indispensable.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>VARYING CYLINDRICAL LENS.</h2> + +<h3>By TEMPEST ANDERSON, M.D., B. Sc.</h3> + +<p>The author has had constructed a cylindrical lens in which the +axis remains constant in direction and amount of refraction, while +the refraction in the meridian at right angles to this varies +continuously.</p> + +<p>A cone may be regarded as a succession of cylinders of different +diameters graduating into one another by exceedingly small steps, +so that if a short enough portion be considered, its curvature at +any point may be regarded as cylindrical. A lens with one side +plane and the other ground on a conical tool is therefore a concave +cylindrical lens varying in concavity at different parts according +to the diameter of the cone at the corresponding part. Two such +lenses mounted with axes parallel and with curvatures varying in +opposite directions produce a compound cylindrical lens, whose +refraction in the direction of the axes is zero, and whose +refraction in the meridian at right angles to this is at any point +the sum of the refractions of the two lenses. This sum is nearly +constant for a considerable distance along the axis so long as the +same position of the lenses is maintained. If the lenses be slid +one over the other in the direction of their axes, this sum +changes, and we have a varying cylindrical lens. The lens is +graduated by marking on the frame the relative position of the +lenses when cylindrical lenses of known power are neutralized.</p> + +<p>Lenses were exhibited to the Royal Society, London, varying from +to -6 DCy, and from to +6 DCy.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>THE LAWS OF THE ABSORPTION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS.</h2> + +<h3>By H. BECQUEREL.</h3> + +<p>1. The absorption spectrum observed through a crystal varies +with the direction of the rectilinear luminous vibration which +propagates itself in this crystal. 2. The bands or rays observed +through the same crystal have, in the spectrum, fixed positions, +their intensity alone varying. 3. For a given band or ray there +exist in the crystal three rectangular directions of symmetry, +according to one of which the band generally disappears, so that +for a suitable direction of the luminous vibrations the crystal no +longer absorbs the radiations corresponding to the region of the +spectrum where the band question appeared. These three directions +may be called the principal directions of absorption, relative to +this band. 4. In the orthorhombic crystals, by a necessary +consequence of crystalline symmetry, the principal directions of +absorption of all the bands coincide with the three axes of +symmetry. We may thus observe three principal absorption spectra. +In uniaxial crystals the number of absorption spectra is reduced to +two. 5. In clinorhombic crystals one of the principal directions of +absorption of each crystal coincides with the only axis of +symmetry; the two other principal rectangular directions of each +band may be found variously disposed in the plane normal to this +axis. Most commonly these principal directions are very near to the +principal corresponding directions of optical elasticity. 6. In +various crystals the characters of the absorption phenomena differ +strikingly from those which we might expect to find after an +examination of the optical properties of the crystal. We have just +seen that in clinorhombic crystals the principal absorption +directions of certain bands were completely different from the axis +of optical elasticity of the crystal for the corresponding +radiations. If we examine this anomaly, we perceive that the +crystals manifesting these effects are complex bodies, formed of +various matters, one, or sometimes several, of which absorb light +and give each different absorption bands. Now, M. De Senarmont has +shown that the geometric isomorphism of certain substances does not +necessarily involve identity of optical properties, and in +particular in the directions of the axes of optical elasticity in +relation to the geometric directions of the crystal. In a crystal +containing a mixture of isomorphous substances, each substance +brings its own influence, which may be made to predominate in turn +according to the proportions of the mixture. We may, therefore, +admit that the molecules of each substance enter into the crystal +retaining all the optical properties which they would have if each +crystallized separately. The principal directions of optical +elasticity are given by the resultant of the actions which each of +the component substances exerts on the propagation of light, while +the absorption of a given region of the spectrum is due to a single +one of these substances, and may have for its directions of +symmetry the directions which it would have in the absorbing +molecule supposing it isolated. It may happen that these directions +do not coincide with the axes of optical elasticity of the compound +crystal. If such is the cause of the anomaly of certain principal +directions of absorption, the bands which present these anomalies +must belong to substances different from those which yield bands +having other principal directions of absorption. If so, we are in +possession of a novel method of spectral analysis, which permits us +to distinguish in certain crystals bands belonging to different +matters, isomorphous, but not having the same optical properties. +Two bands appearing in a crystal with common characters, but +presenting in another crystal characters essentially different, +must also be ascribed to two different bodies.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 585, page 9345.]</p> + +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>HISTORY OF THE WORLD'S POSTAL SERVICE.</h2> + +<p>It is commonly believed in Europe that the mail is chiefly +forwarded by the railroads; but this is only partially the case, as +the largest portion of the mails is intrusted now, as formerly, to +foot messengers. How long this will last is of course uncertain, as +the present postal service seems suitable enough for the needs of +the people. The first task of the mail is naturally the collection +of letters. Fig. 17 represents a letter box in a level country.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14a_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 17.—COUNTRY LETTER BOX."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 17.—COUNTRY LETTER BOX.</p> + +<p>By way of example, it is not uninteresting to know that the +inhabitants of Hanover in Germany made great opposition to the +introduction of letter boxes, for the moral reason that they could +be used to carry on forbidden correspondence, and that consequently +all letters should be delivered personally to the post master.</p> + +<p>After the letters are collected, the sorting for the place of +destination follows, and Fig. 18 represents the sorting room in the +Berlin Post Office. A feverish sort of life is led here day and +night, as deficient addresses must be completed, and the illegible +ones deciphered.</p> + +<p>It may here be mentioned that the delivery of letters to each +floor of apartment houses is limited chiefly to Austria and +Germany. In France and England, the letters are delivered to the +janitor or else thrown into the letter box placed in the hall.</p> + +<p>After the letters are arranged, then comes the transportation of +them by means of the railroad, the chaise, or gig, and finally the +dog mail, as seen in Fig. 19. It is hard to believe that this +primitive vehicle is useful for sending mail that is especially +urgent, and yet it is used in the northern part of Canada. Drawn by +three or four dogs, it glides swiftly over the snow.</p> + +<p>It is indeed a large jump from free America, the home of the +most unlimited progress, into the Flowery Kingdom, where cues are +worn, but we hope our readers are willing to accompany us, in order +to have the pleasure of seeing how rapidly a Chinese mail carrier +(Fig. 20) trots along his route under his sun umbrella.</p> + +<p>Only the largest and most robust pedestrians are chosen for +service, and they are obliged to pass through a severe course of +training before they can lay any claim to the dignified name, +"Thousand Mile Horse."</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14b_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 18.—SORTING ROOM IN BERLIN POST OFFICE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 18.—SORTING ROOM IN BERLIN POST +OFFICE.</p> + +<p>But even the Chinese carrier may not strike us so curiously as +another associate, given in our next picture, Fig. 21, and yet he +is a European employe from the Landes department of highly +cultivated France. The inhabitants of this country buckle stilts on +to their feet, so as to make their way faster through brambles and +underbrush which surrounds them. The mail carrier copied them in +his equipment, and thus he goes around on stilts, provided with a +large cane to help him keep his balance, and furnishes a correct +example of a post office official suiting the demands of every +district.</p> + +<p>While the mail in Europe has but little to do with the +transportation of passengers, it is important in its activity in +this respect in the large Russian empire.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14c_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 19.—DOG POST AT LAKE SUPERIOR."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 19.—DOG POST AT LAKE SUPERIOR.</p> + +<p>The tarantass (Fig. 22), drawn by three nimble horses, flies +through the endless deserts with wind-like rapidity.</p> + +<p>The next illustration (Fig. 23) leads us to a much more remote +and deserted country, "Post office on the Booby Island," occupied +only by birds, and a hut containing a box in which are pens, paper, +ink, and wafers. The mariners put their letters in the box, and +look in to see if there is anything there addressed to them, then +they continue their journey.</p> + +<p>Postage stamps are not demanded in this ideal post office, but +provision is made for the shipwrecked, by a notice informing them +where they can find means of nourishment.</p> + +<p>Once again we make a leap. The Bosnian mail carrier's equipment +(Fig. 24) is, or rather was, quite singular, for our picture was +taken before the occupation.</p> + +<p>This mounted mail carrier with his weapons gives one the +impression of a robber.</p> + +<p>The task of conducting the mail through the Alps of Switzerland +(Fig. 25) must be uncomfortable in winter, when the sledges glide +by fearful precipices and over snow-covered passes.</p> + +<p>Since the tariff union mail developed from the Prussian mail, +and the world's mail from the tariff union, it seems suitable to +close our series of pictures by representing the old Prussian +postal service (Fig. 26) carried on by soldier postmen in the +eighteenth century during the reign of Frederick the Great.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14d_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 20.—CHINESE POSTMAN."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 20.—CHINESE POSTMAN.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14e.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14e_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 21.—DELIVERING LETTERS IN LANDES DEPARTMENT,"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 21.—DELIVERING LETTERS IN LANDES +DEPARTMENT, FRANCE.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14f_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 22.—RUSSIAN EXTRA POST."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 22.—RUSSIAN EXTRA POST.</p> + +<p>The complaint is made that poetry is wanting in our era, and it +has certainly disappeared from the postal service. One remembers +that the postilion was for quite a while the favorite hero of our +poets, the best of whom have sung to his praises, and given space +to his melancholy thoughts of modern times in which he is pushed +aside. It is too true that the post horn, formerly blown by a +postilion, is now silenced, that the horse has not been able to +keep up in the race with the world in its use of the steam horse, +and yet how much poetry there is in that little post office all +alone by itself on the Booby Island, that we have +described—the sublimest poetry, that of love for mankind!</p> + +<p>The poet of the modern postal system has not yet appeared; but +he will find plenty of material. He will be able to depict the +dangers a postman passes through in discharging his duty on the +field, he will sing the praises of those who are injured in a +railroad disaster, and yet continue their good work.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/15a_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 23.—POST OFFICE ON BOOBY ISLAND."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 23.—POST OFFICE ON BOOBY ISLAND.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/15b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 24.—BOSNIAN POST."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 24.—BOSNIAN POST.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/15c_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 25.—SWISS ALPINE POST IN WINTER."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 25.—SWISS ALPINE POST IN WINTER.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/15d_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 26.—SOLDIER POSTMAN OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 26.—SOLDIER POSTMAN OF THE EIGHTEENTH +CENTURY.</p> + +<p>He can also praise the noble thought of uniting the nations, +which assumed its first tangible form in the world's mail. It will +not be a sentimental song, but one full of power and indicative of +our own time, in spite of those who scorn it.—<i>Translated +for the Scientific American Supplement by Jenny H. Beach, from Neue +Illustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>ON NICKEL PLATING.</h2> + +<h3>By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN.</h3> + +<p>The compound used principally for the electro-deposition of +nickel is a double sulphate of nickel and ammonia. The silvery +appearance of the deposit depends mainly on the purity of the salt +as well as the anodes. The condition of the bath, as to age, +temperature, and degree of saturation, position of anodes, strength +of current, and other details of manipulation, which require care, +cleanliness, and experience, such as may be met with in any +intelligent workman fairly acquainted with his business, are easily +acquired.</p> + +<p>In the present paper I shall deal principally with the chemical +department of this subject, and shall briefly introduce, where +necessary, allusion to the mechanical and electrical details +connected with the process. At a future time I shall be glad to +enlarge upon this part of the subject, with a view of making the +article complete.</p> + +<p>A short time ago nickel plating was nearly as expensive as +silver plating. This is explained by the fact that only a few +people, at least in this country, were expert in the mechanical +portions of the process, and only a very few chemists gave +attention to the matter. To this must be added that our text-books +were fearfully deficient in information bearing on this +subject.</p> + +<p>The salt used, and also the anodes, were originally introduced +into this country from America, and latterly from Germany. I am not +aware of any English manufacturer who makes a specialty in the way +of anodes. This is a matter on which we can hardly congratulate +ourselves, as a well known London firm some time ago supplied me +with my first experimental anodes, which were in every way very +superior to the German or American productions. Although the price +paid per pound was greater, the plates themselves were cheaper on +account of their lesser thickness.</p> + +<p>The texture of the inner portions of these foreign anodes would +lead one to infer that the metallurgy of nickel was very primitive. +A good homogeneous plate can be produced, still the spongy, rotten +plates of foreign manufacture were allowed the free run of our +markets. The German plates are, in my opinion, more compact than +the American. A serious fault with plates of earlier manufacture +was their crumpled condition after a little use. This involved a +difficulty in cleaning them when necessary. The English plates were +not open to this objection; in fact, when the outer surfaces were +planed away, they remained perfectly smooth and compact.</p> + +<p>Large plates have been known to disintegrate and fall to pieces +after being used for some time. A large anode surface, compared +with that of the article to be plated, is of paramount importance. +The tank should be sufficiently wide to take the largest article +for plating, and to admit of the anodes being moved nearer to or +further from the article. In this way the necessary electrical +resistance can very conveniently be inserted between the anode and +cathode surfaces. The elimination of hydrogen from the cathode must +be avoided, or at any rate must not accumulate. Moving the article +being plated, while in the bath, taking care not to break the +electrical contacts, is a good security against a streaky or foggy +appearance in the deposit.</p> + +<p>At one time a mechanical arrangement was made, by which the +cathodes were kept in motion. The addition of a little borax to the +bath is a great advantage in mitigating the appearance of gas. Its +behavior is electrical rather than chemical. If the anode surface +is too great, a few plates should be transferred to the cathode +bars.</p> + +<p>When an article has been nickel plated, it generally presents a +dull appearance, resembling frosted silver. To get over this I +tried, some time ago, the use of bisulphide of carbon in the same +way as used for obtaining a bright silver deposit. Curiously the +deposit was very dark, almost black, which could not be buffed or +polished bright. But by using a very small quantity of the +bisulphide mixture, the plated surfaces were so bright that the use +of polishing mops or buffs could be almost dispensed with. When we +consider the amount of labor required in polishing a nickel plated +article, and the impossibility of finishing off bright an undercut +surface, this becomes an important addendum to the nickel plater's +list of odds and ends.</p> + +<p>This mixture is made precisely in the same way as for bright +silvering, but a great deal less is to be added to the bath, about +one pint per 100 gallons. It should be well stirred in, after the +day's work is done, when the bath will be in proper condition for +working next day. The mixture is made by shaking together, in a +glass bottle, one ounce bisulphide and one gallon of the plating +liquid, allow to stand until excess of bisulphide has settled, and +decant the clear liquid for use as required. It is better to add +this by degrees than to run the risk of overdoing. If too much is +added, the bath is not of necessity spoiled, but it takes a great +deal of working to bring it in order again.</p> + +<p>About eight ounces of the double sulphate to each gallon of +distilled or rain water is a good proportion to use when making up +a bath. There is a slight excess with this. It is a mistake to add +the salt afterward, when the bath is in good condition. The +chloride and cyanide are said to give good results. I can only say +that the use of either of these salts has not led to promising +results in my hands.</p> + +<p>In preparing the double sulphate, English grain nickel is +decidedly the best form of metal to use. In practice, old anodes +are generally used.</p> + +<p>The metal is dissolved in a mixture of nitric and dilute +sulphuric acid, with the application of a gentle heat. When +sufficient metal has been dissolved, and the unused nitric acid +expelled, the salt may be precipitated by a strong solution +sulphate of ammonia, or, if much free acid is present, carbonate of +ammonia is better to use.</p> + +<p>Tin, lead, and portion of the iron, if present, are removed by +this method. The silica, carbon, and portions of copper are left +behind with the undissolved fragments of metals.</p> + +<p>The precipitated salt, after slight washing, is dissolved in +water and strong solution ammonia added. A clean iron plate is +immersed in the solution to remove any trace of copper. This plate +must be cleaned occasionally so as to remove any reduced copper, +which will impede its action. As soon as the liquid is free from +copper, it is left alkaline and well stirred so as to facilitate +peroxidation and removal of iron, which forms a film on the bath. +When this ceases, the liquid is rendered neutral by addition of +sulphuric acid, and filtered or decanted. The solution, when +properly diluted, has sp. gr. about 1.06 at 60° F. It is best +to work the bath with a weak current for a short time until the +liquid yields a fine white deposit. Too strong a current must be +avoided.</p> + +<p>If the copper has not been removed, it will deposit on the +anodes when the bath is at rest. It should then be removed by +scouring.</p> + +<p>Copper produces a reddish tinge, which is by no means unpleasant +compared with the dazzling whiteness of the nickel deposit. If this +is desired, it is far better to use a separate bath, using anodes +of suitable composition.</p> + +<p>The want of adhesion between the deposited coating and the +article need not be feared if cleanliness be attended to and the +article, while in the bath, be not touched by the hands.</p> + +<p>The bath should be neutral, or nearly so, slightly acid rather +than alkaline. It is obvious that, as such a liquid has no +detergent action on a soiled surface, scrupulous care must be taken +in scouring and rinsing. Boiling alkaline solutions and a free use +of powdered pumice and the scrubbing brush must on no account be +neglected.</p> + +<p>A few words on the construction of the tanks. A stout wood box, +which need not be water-tight, is lined with sheet lead, the joints +being blown, <i>not soldered</i>. An inner casing of wood which +projects a few inches above the lead lining is necessary in order +to avoid any chance of "short circuiting" or damage to the lead +from the accidental falling of anodes or any article which might +cut the lead. It is by no means a necessity that the lining should +be such as to prevent the liquid getting to the lead.</p> + +<p>On a future occasion I hope to supplement this paper with the +analysis of the double sulphates used, and an account of the +behavior of electrolytically prepared crucibles and dishes as +compared with those now in the market.—<i>Chem. News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>CHILLED CAST IRON.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the engineering section of the Bristol +Naturalists' Society a paper on "Chilled Iron" was read by Mr. +Morgans, of which we give an abstract. Among the descriptions of +chilled castings in common use the author instanced the following: +Sheet, corn milling, and sugar rolls; tilt hammer anvils and bits, +plowshares, "brasses" and bushes, cart-wheel boxes, serrated cones +and cups for grinding mills, railway and tramway wheels and +crossings, artillery shot and bolts, stone-breaker jaws, circular +cutters, etc. Mr. Morgans then spoke of the high reputation of +sheet mill rolls and wheel axle boxes made in Bristol. Of the +latter in combination with wrought iron wheels and steeled axles, +the local wagon works company are exporting large numbers. With +respect to the strength and fatigue resistance of chilled castings, +details were given of some impact tests made in July, 1864, at +Pontypool, in the presence of Captain Palliser, upon some of his +chilled bolts, 12¾ in. long by 4 in. diameter, made from +Pontypool cold-blast pig iron. Those made from No. 1 pig +iron—the most graphitic and costly—broke more easily +than those from No. 2, and so on until those made from No. 4 were +tested, when the maximum strength was reached. No. 4 pig iron was +in fracture a pale gray, bordering on mottled. Several points +regarding foundry operations in the production of chilled castings +were raised for discussion. They embraced the depth of chill to be +imparted to chilled rolls and railway wheels, and in the case of +traction wheels, the width of chill in the tread; preparation of +the chills—by coating with various carbonaceous matters, +lime, beer grounds, or, occasionally, some mysterious +compost—and moulds, selection and mixture of pig irons, +methods and plant for melting, suitable heat for pouring, +prevention of honeycombing, ferrostatic pressure of head, etc. +Melting for rolls being mostly conducted in reverberatories, the +variations in the condition of the furnace atmosphere, altering +from reducing to oxidizing, and <i>vice versa</i>, in cases of bad +stoking and different fuels, were referred to as occasionally +affecting results. Siemens' method of melting by radiant heat was +mentioned for discussion. For promoting the success of a chilled +roll in its work, lathing or turning it to perfect circularity in +the necks first, and then turning the body while the necks bear in +steady brasses, are matters of the utmost importance.</p> + +<p>The author next referred to the great excellence for chilling +purposes possessed by some American pig irons, and to the fact that +iron of a given carbon content derived from some ores and fluxes +differed much in chilling properties from iron holding a similar +proportion of carbon—free and combined—derived from +other ores and materials. Those irons are best which develop the +hardest possible chill most uniformly to the desired depth without +producing a too abrupt line of division between the hard white skin +and the softer gray body. A medium shading off both ways is wanted +here, as in all things. The impossibility of securing a uniform +quality and chemical composition in any number grade of any brand +of pig iron over a lengthened period was adverted to. Consequent +from this a too resolute faith in any particular make of pig iron +is likely to be at times ill-requited. Occasional physical tests, +accompanied with chemical analysis of irons used for chilling, were +advocated; and the author was of opinion it would be well whenever +a chilled casting had enjoyed a good reputation for standing up to +its work, that when it was retired from work some portions of it +should be chemically analyzed so as to obtain clews to compositions +of excellence. Some of the physical characteristics of chilled +iron, as well as the surprising locomotive properties of carbon +present in heated iron, were noticed.</p> + +<p>Attention was called to some German data, published by Dr. Percy +in 1864, concerning an iron which before melting +weighed—approximately—448¼ lb. per cubic foot, +and contained—approximately—4 per cent. of +carbon—3¼ being graphitic and ¾ combined. The +chilled portion of a casting from this had a specific gravity +equivalent to 471 lb. per cubic foot, and contained 5 per cent. of +carbon, all combined. The soft portion of the same casting weighed +447¾ lb. per cubic foot, and contained 34.5 per cent. of +carbon—31.5 being graphitic and 3.5 combined. Mr. Morgans +doubted whether so great an increase in density often arises from +chilling. Tool steel, when hardened by being chilled in cold water, +does not become condensed, but slightly expanded from its bulk when +annealed and soft. Here an increase of hardness is accompanied by a +decrease of density. The gradual development of a network of cracks +over the face of a chilled anvil orbit while being used in tilt +hammers was mentioned. Such minute cleavages became more marked as +the chill is worn down by work and from grinding. Traces of the +same occurrence are observable over the surface of much worn +chilled rolls used in sheet mills. In such cases the sheets get a +faint diaper pattern impressed upon them. The opening of crack +spaces points to lateral shrinkage of the portions of chilled +material they surround, and to some release from a state of +involuntary tension. If this action is accompanied by some actual +densification of the fissured chill, then we have a result that +possibly conflicts with the example of condensation from chilling +cited by Dr. Percy.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>SNOW HALL.</h2> + +<p>The recent dedication of Snow Hall, at Lawrence, Kansas, is an +event in the history of the State, both historic and prophetic. +Since the incorporation of the University of Kansas, and before +that event, there has been a steady growth of science in the State, +which has culminated in Snow Hall, a building set apart for the +increase and diffusion of the knowledge of natural science, as long +as its massive walls shall stand. It is named in honor of the man +who has been the inspiration and guiding spirit of the whole +enterprise, and some incidents in his life may be of interest to +the public.</p> + +<p>Twenty years ago Professor Frank H. Snow, a recent graduate of +Williams College, came to Kansas, to become a member of the faculty +of the State University. His election to the chair of natural +science was unexpected, as he first taught mathematics in the +university, and expected in due time to become professor of Greek. +As professor of the mellifluous and most plastic of all the ancient +tongues, he would undoubtedly have been proficient, as his college +classics still remain fresh in his warm and retentive memory, and +his literary taste is so severe and chaste as to make some of his +scientific papers read like a psalm. But nature designed him for +another, and some think a better, field, and endowed him with +powers as a naturalist that have won for him recognition among the +highest living authorities of his profession.</p> + +<p>Upon being elected to the chair of natural history, Prof. Snow +entered upon his life work with an enthusiasm that charmed his +associates and inspired his pupils. The true naturalist must +possess large and accurate powers of observation and a love for his +chosen profession that carries him over all obstacles and renders +him oblivious to everything else except the specimen upon which he +has set his heart. Years ago the writer was walking in the hall of +the new university building in company with General Fraser and +Professor Snow, when the latter suddenly darted forward up the +stairs and captured an insect in its flight, that had evidently +just dug its way out of the pine of the new building. In a few +moments he returned with such a glow on his countenance and such a +satisfied air at having captured a rare but familiar specimen, +whose name was on his lips, that we both felt "Surely here is a +genuine naturalist."</p> + +<p>Some years ago an incident occurred in connection with his +scientific excursions in Colorado that is quite characteristic, +showing his obliviousness to self and everything else save the +object of his scientific pursuit, and a fertility in overcoming +danger when it meets him face to face. He was descending alone from +one of the highest peaks of the Rockies, when he thought he could +leave the path and reach the foot of the mountain by passing +directly down its side over an immense glacier of snow and ice, and +thus save time and a journey of several miles. After a while his +way down the glacier grew steeper and more difficult, until he +reached a point where he could not advance any further, and found, +to his consternation, that he could not return by the way he had +come. There he clung to the side of the immense glacier, ready, +should he miss his hold, to be plunged hundreds of feet into a deep +chasm. The situation flashed over him, and he knew now it was, +indeed, a struggle for dear life. With a precarious foothold, he +clung to the glacier with one hand, while with his pocket knife he +cut a safer foothold with the other. Resting a little, he cut +another foothold lower down in the hard snow, and so worked his way +after a severe struggle of several hours amid constant danger to +the foot of the mountain in safety. "But," continued the professor, +speaking of this incident to some of his friends, "I was richly +repaid for all my trouble and peril, for when I reached the foot of +the mountain I captured a new and very rare species of butterfly." +Multitudes of practical men cannot appreciate such devotion to pure +science, but it is this absorbing passion and pure grit that enable +the devotees of science to enlarge its boundaries year by year.</p> + +<p>Once, while on a scientific excursion on the great plains, with +the lamented Prof. Mudge, he nearly lost his life. He had captured +a rattlesnake, and, in trying to introduce it into a jar filled +with alcohol, the snake managed to bite him on the hand. The arm +was immediately bound tightly with a handkerchief, and the wound +enlarged with a pocket knife, and both professors took turns in +sucking it as clean as possible, and ejecting the poison from their +mouths. This and a heavy dose of spirits brought the professor +through in safety, although the poison remaining in the wound +caused considerable swelling and pain in the hand and arm. When +this incident was mentioned in the Kansas Academy of Science that +year, some one said, "Now we know the effect of the bite of the +prairie rattlesnake on the human system. Let some one, in the +interests of pure science, try the effect of the timber rattlesnake +on the human system." But like the mice in the fable, no one was +found who cared to put the bell on the cat.</p> + +<p>Professors Mudge and Snow, because scientists were so few in the +State at that early day, divided the field of natural science +between themselves, the former taking geology and the latter living +forms. Professor Mudge built up at the agricultural college a royal +cabinet, easily worth $10,000, and Professor Snow has made a +collection at the State University whose value cannot be readily +estimated until it is catalogued and placed in cases in Snow +Hall.</p> + +<p>As a scientist, Professor Snow is an indefatigable worker, +conscientious and painstaking to the last degree, never neglecting +anything that can be discovered by the microscope, and when he +describes and names a new species, he gives the absolute facts, +without regard to theories or philosophies. For accuracy his +descriptions of animal and vegetable life resemble photographs, and +are received by scientists with unquestioned authority. He +possesses another quality, which may be called honesty. Some +scientists, whose reputation has reached other continents, cannot +be trusted alone in the cabinet with the keys, for they are liable +to borrow valuable specimens, and forget afterward to return +them.</p> + +<p>It is possible only to glance at the immense amount of work +performed by Professor Snow during the last twenty years. +Neglecting the small fry that can only be taken in nets with very +fine meshes, he ascertained that there are twenty-seven species of +fish in the Kansas River at Lawrence. Work on this paper occupied +the leisure time of two summers, as much time in such +investigations only produces negative results. For several years he +worked on a catalogue of the birds of Kansas, inspiring several +persons in different parts of the State to assist him. Later this +work was turned over to Colonel N.S. Gross, of Topeka, an +enthusiast in ornithology. Colonel Goss has a very fine collection +of mounted birds in the capitol building at Topeka, and he has +recently published a catalogue of the "Birds of Kansas," which +contains 335 species. Professor Snow has worked faithfully on the +plants of Kansas, but as other botanists came into the State, he +turned the work over to their hands. For several years he has given +a large share of his time and strength to entomology. Nearly every +year he has led scientific excursions to different points in +Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, etc., where he might reap the best +results.</p> + +<p>Once, during a meeting of the Kansas Academy of Science, at +Lawrence, Professor Snow was advertised to read a paper on some +rare species of butterflies. As the hour approached, the hall in +the university building was thronged, principally by ladies from +the city, when Professor Snow brought out piles of his trays of +butterflies, and without a note gave such an exhibit and +description of his specimens as charmed the whole audience.</p> + +<p>In meteorology, Professor Snow is an acknowledged authority, +wherever this science is studied, and he has, probably, all things +considered, the best meteorological record in the State.</p> + +<p>Personally, Professor Snow possesses qualities that are worth +more, perhaps, to his pupils, in forming character, than the +knowledge derived from him as an instructor. His life is pure and +ennobling, his presence inspiring, and many young men have gone +from his lecture room to hold good positions in the scientific +world. When one sees him in his own home, surrounded by his family, +with books and specimens and instruments all around, he feels that +the ideal home has not lost everything in the fall.</p> + +<p>Snow Hall is the natural resultant of twenty years of earnest +and faithful labor on the part of this eminent scientist. The +regents displayed the rare good sense of committing everything +regarding the plans of the building, and the form and arrangement +of the cases, to Professor Snow, which has resulted in giving to +Kansas the model building of its kind in the West, if not in this +country. Very large collections have accumulated at the State +University, under the labors of Professor Snow and his assistants, +which need to be classified, arranged, and labeled; and when the +legislature appropriates the money to furnish cases to display this +collection in almost every department of natural science, Kansas +will possess a hall of natural science whose influence will be felt +throughout the State, and be an attraction to scientists +everywhere.—<i>Chaplain J.D. Parker, in Kansas City +Journal</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>ELIMINATION OF POISONS.</h2> + +<p>A study of the means by which nature rids the economy of what is +harmful has been made by Sanquirico, of Siena, and his experiments +and conclusions are as follows:</p> + +<p>He finds that the vessels of the body, without undergoing +extensive structural alteration, can by exosmosis rid themselves of +fluid to an amount of eight per cent. of the body weight of the +subject of the experiment.</p> + +<p>Through the injection of neutral fluids a great increase in the +vascular tension is effected, which is relieved by elimination +through the kidneys.</p> + +<p>With reference to this fact, the author, in 1885, made +experiments with alcohol and strychnine, and continued his +researches in the use of chloral and aconitine with results +favorable to the method employed, which is as follows:</p> + +<p>The minimal fatal dose of a given poison was selected, and found +to be in a certain relation to the body weight.</p> + +<p>Immediately upon the injection of the poison a solution of +sodium chloride, 0.75 per cent. in strength, was injected into the +subcutaneous tissues of the neck, in quantities being eight per +cent. of the body weight of the animal.</p> + +<p>In the case of those poisons whose effect is not instantaneous, +the injection of saline solution was made on the first appearance +of toxic symptoms. In other poisons the injection was made at +once.</p> + +<p>The result of the use of salines was a diuresis varying in the +promptness of its appearance and in its amount.</p> + +<p>Those animals in which diuresis was limited at first and then +increased generally recovered, while those in which diuresis was +not established perished. The poison used was found in the urine of +those which died and also those which recovered.</p> + +<p>The author succeeded in rescuing animals poisoned by alcohol, +strychnine, chloral, and aconitine. With morphine, curare, and +hypnone, the method of elimination failed, although ten per cent. +in quantity of the body weight of the animal was used in the saline +injection. With aconitine, diuresis was not always established, and +when it failed the animal died in +convulsions.—<i>Centralblatt fur die Medicinischen +Wissenschaften, December</i> 18, 1886.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. 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