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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:37:43 -0700 |
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diff --git a/old/11735-h/11735-h.htm b/old/11735-h/11735-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d59fea7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11735-h/11735-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4871 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, MARCH 21, 1885</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +.note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} /* footnote */ +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 481, +March 21, 1885, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 481, March 21, 1885 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 28, 2004 [EBook #11735] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 481 *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 481</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, MARCH 21, 1885</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 481.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—The Righi +Railroad.—With 3 engravings.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">The Chinese Pump.—1 figure.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">The Water Clock.—3 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">New Self-propelling and Steering Torpedoes.</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Dobson and Barbour's Improvements in Heilmann's +Combers.—1 figure.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">Machine for Polishing Boots and Shoes.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#7">TECHNOLOGY.—The Use of Gas in the +Workshop.—By T. FLETCHER.—Placing of lights.—Best +burners.—Light lost by shades.—Use of the +blowpipe.—Gas furnaces.—Gas engines.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">The Gas Meter.—3 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">The Municipal School for Instruction in +Watchmaking at Geneva.—1 engraving.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#10">ELECTRICITY, ETC.—Personal Safety with the +Electric Currents.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">A Visit to Canada and the United States; or, +Electricity in America in 1884.—By W.H. PREECE.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#12">ARCHITECTURE.—The House of a Thousand +Terrors, Rotterdam.—With engraving.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#13">GEOLOGY.—On the Origin and Structure of +Coal,—With full page of illustrations.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#14">POLITICAL ECONOMY.—Labor and Wages in +America.—By D. PIDGEON.—Who and what are the +operatives.—Native labor.—Alien employes.—Housing +of labor.—Sobriety.—Pauperism.—Artisans' +homes.—Interest of employer in the condition of his +employes.—Wages in Europe and America.—Expenditures of +workingmen.—Free trade and protection.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#15">MISCELLANEOUS.—Ice Boat Races on the +Mueggelsee, near Berlin.—With engraving.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#16">BIOGRAPHY.—DUPUY DE LOME—With +portrait.</a> </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<a name="1"></a> + +<h2>THE RIGHI RAILROAD.</h2> + +<p>In the year 1864, the well-known geographer, Heinrich Keller, +from Zurich, on ascending to the summit of the Righi Mountain, in +the heart of Switzerland, discovered one of the finest panoramic +displays of mountain scenery that he had ever witnessed. To his +enthusiastic descriptions some lovers of nature in Zurich and Berne +listened with much interest, and in the year 1865, Dr. Abel, Mr. +Escher von der Luith, Aulic Councilor, Dr. Horner, and others, in +connection with Keller himself, subscribed money to the amount of +2,000 marks ($500) for the purpose of building a hotel on the top +of the mountain overlooking the view. This hotel was simple enough, +being merely a hut such as is to be found in abundance in the Alps, +and which are built by the German and Austrian Alpine Clubs. At +present the old hotel is replaced by another and more comfortable +building, which is rendered accessible by a railway that ascends +the mountain. Mr. Riggenbach, director of the railway works at +Olten, was the projector of this road, which was begun in 1869 and +completed in 1871. Vitznau at Lucerne is the starting point. The +ascent, which is at first gradual, soon increases one in four. +After a quarter of an hour the train passes through a tunnel 240 +feet in length, and over an iron bridge of the same length, by +means of which the Schnurtobel, a deep gorge with picturesque +waterfalls, is crossed. At Station Freibergen a beautiful mountain +scene presents itself, and the eye rests upon the glittering, +ice-covered ridge of the Jungfrau, the Monk, and the Eiger. Further +up is station Kaltbad, where the road forks, and one branch runs to +Scheideck. At about ten minutes from Kaltbad is the so-called +"Kanzli" (4,770 feet), an open rotunda on a projecting rock, from +which a magnificent view is obtained. The next station is +Stoffelhohe, from which the railroad leads very near to the abyss +on the way to Righi-Stoffel, and from this point it reaches its +terminus (Righi-Kulin) in a few minutes. This is 5,905 feet above +the sea, the loftiest and most northern point of the Righi +group.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 1.—STARTING POINT OF THE RIGHI RAILROAD."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—STARTING POINT OF THE RIGHI +RAILROAD.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1c_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 2.—THE RIGHI RAILROAD."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—THE RIGHI RAILROAD.</p> + +<p>The gauge of this railroad is the same as that of most ordinary +ones. Between the rails runs a third broad and massive rail +provided with teeth, which gear with a cogwheel under the +locomotive. The train is propelled upward by steam power, while in +its descent the speed is regulated by an ingenious mode of +introducing atmospheric air into the cylinder. The carriage for the +passengers is placed in both cases in front of the engine. The +larger carriages have 54 seats, and the smaller 34. Only one is +dispatched at a time. In case of accident, the train can be stopped +almost instantaneously.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/2a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/2a_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 3.—NEW LOCOMOTIVE ON THE RIGHI RAILROAD."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.—NEW LOCOMOTIVE ON THE RIGHI +RAILROAD.</p> + +<p>We give herewith, from <i>La Lumiere Electrique</i>, several +engravings illustrating the system. Fig. 1 shows the starting +station. As may be seen on Figs. 2 and 3, the method selected for +obtaining adhesion permits of ascending the steepest gradients, and +that too with entire security.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>HIGH SPEED STEAM ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>The use of rapidly rotating machinery in electric lighting has +created a demand for engines running from 400 to 1,200 revolutions +per minute, and capable of being coupled directly to a dynamo +machine. We have already illustrated several forms of these +engines, and now publish engravings of another in which the most +noticeable feature is the employment of separate expansion valves +and very short steam passages. Many high-speed engines labor under +the well-grounded suspicion of being heavy steam users, and their +want of economy often precludes their employment. Mr. Chandler, the +inventor of the engine illustrated above, has therefore adopted a +more elaborate arrangement of valves than ordinarily obtains in +engines of this class, and claims that he gains thereby an +additional economy of 33 per cent. in steam. The valves are +cylindrical, and are driven by independent eccentrics, the spindle +of the cut-off valve passing through the center of the main valve. +The upper valve is exposed to the steam on its top face, and works +in a cylinder with a groove cut around its inner surface. As soon +as the lower edge of the valve passes below the bottom lip of the +groove, the steam is cut off from the space between it and the main +valve, which is fitted with packing rings and works over a latticed +port. This port opens directly into the cylinder. The exhaust takes +place chiefly through a port uncovered when the piston is +approaching the end of its stroke. The remaining vapor left in the +cylinder is exhausted under the lower edge of the main valve, until +cushioning commences, and the steam from both upper and lower ports +is discharged into the exhaust box shown in Fig. 2. The speed of +the engine is controlled by a centrifugal governor and an +equilibrium valve. This is a "dead face" valve, and when the engine +is running empty it opens and closes many times per minute. The +spindle on which the valve is mounted revolves with the governor +pulley, and consequently never sticks. To prevent the small gland +being jammed by unequal screwing up, the pressure is applied by a +loose flange which is rounded at the part which presses against the +gland. The governor is adjustable while the engine is running.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/2b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/2b_th.jpg" alt= +" IMPROVED HIGH SPEED STEAM ENGINE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED HIGH SPEED STEAM ENGINE.</p> + +<p>Another economy claimed for this engine is in the use of oil. +The cranks and connecting rods work in a closed chamber, the lower +part of which is filled with oil and water. The oil floats in a +layer on the surface of the water, and at every revolution is +splashed all over the working parts, including the interior of the +cylinder, which it reaches through holes in the piston. The oil is +maintained exactly at one level by a very ingenious arrangement. +The bottom of the crank chamber communicates through a hole, C, +with an outer box, which receives the water deposited by the +exhaust steam. The level of this water is exactly determined by an +overflow hole, B, which allows all excess above that level to pass +into an elbow of the exhaust pipe, out of which it is licked by the +passing steam and carried away. Thus, as the oil is gradually used +the pressure of the water in the other leg of the hydrostatic +balance raises the level of the remaining portion. When a fresh +supply of oil is poured into the box, it forces out some of the +water and descends very nearly to the level of the hole, B.</p> + +<p>The engine is made with either one or two cylinders, and is, of +course, single-acting. The pistons and connecting rods are of +forged steel and phosphor-bronze. The following is a list of their +sizes:</p> + +<pre> + <i>Single Engines</i>. +----------------------------------------------------------- + Brake | | | | | +Horsepower| Bore of | Revolutions| | | + at 62 lb.| Cylinder. | per minute.| Height. |Floor Space.| + Boiler | | | | | +Pressure. | | | | | +----------|-----------|------------|---------|------------- + | in. | | in. | in. in. | + 2¼ | 4 | 1,100 | 26 | 14 by 14 | + 3½ | 5 | 1,000 | 28 | 14 " 15 | + 6 | 6½ | 800 | 30 | 16 " 16 | + 10 | 8 | 700 | 32 | 18 " 18 | +----------------------------------------------------------- + + <i>Double Engines</i>. +----------------------------------------------------------- + Brake | | | | | +Horsepower| Bore of | Revolutions| | | + at 62 lb.| Cylinder. | per minute.| Height. |Floor Space.| + Boiler | | | | | +Pressure. | | | | | +----------|-----------|------------|---------|------------- + | in. | | in. | in. in. | + 4½ | 4 | 1,100 | 26 | 14 by 20 | + 7¼ | 5 | 1,000 | 28 | 14 " 20 | + 12 | 6½ | 800 | 30 | 16 " 26 | + 20 | 8 | 700 | 32 | 18 " 32 | +----------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p>The manufacturer is Mr. F.D. Bumstead, Hednesford, +Staffordshire.—<i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="2"></a> + +<h2>THE CHINESE PUMP.</h2> + +<p>If a glass tube about three feet in length, provided at its +upper extremity with a valve that opens outwardly, and at its lower +with one that opens inwardly, be dipped into water and given a +series of up and down motions, the water will be seen to quickly +rise therein and finally spurt out at the top. The explanation of +the phenomenon is very simple. Upon immersing the tube in the water +it fills as far as to the external level of the liquid, and the air +is expelled from the interior. If the tube be suddenly raised +without removing its lower extremity from the water, the valve will +close, the water will rise with the tube, and, through the velocity +it has acquired, will ascend far above its preceding level. Now, +upon repeating the up and down motion of the tube in the water five +or six times, the tube will be filled, and will expel the liquid +every time that the vertical motion occurs.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/2c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/2c_th.jpg" alt=" THE CHINESE PUMP."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE CHINESE PUMP.</p> + +<p>We speak here of a <i>glass</i> tube, because with this the +phenomenon may be observed. Any tube, of course, would produce the +same results.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of the apparatus is very simple. The tube is +closed above or below, according to the system one desires to +adopt, by means of a perforated cork. The valve is made of a piece +of kid skin, which is fixed by means of a bent pin and a brass wire +(Fig. 2). It is necessary to wet the skin in order that it may work +properly and form a hermetic valve. The arrangement of the lower +valve necessitates the use of a tube of considerable diameter (Fig. +1). We would advise the adoption of the arrangement shown in Fig. +2. Under such circumstances a tube half an inch in diameter and +about 3 feet in length will answer very well.</p> + +<p>It is better yet to simply use one's forefinger. The tube is +taken in the right hand, as shown in Fig. 3, and the forefinger +placed over the aperture. The finger should be wetted in order to +perfect its adherence, and should not be pressed too hard against +the mouth of the tube. It is only necessary to plunge the apparatus +a few inches into the liquid and work it rapidly up and down, when +the water will rise therein at every motion and spurt out of the +top.</p> + +<p>This is an easy way of constructing the <i>Chinese Pump</i>, +which is found described in treatises upon hydraulics. Such a pump +could not, of course, be economically used in practice on account +of the friction of the column of water against a wide surface in +the interior of the tube. It is necessary to consider the +pistonless pump for what it is worth—an interesting +experimental apparatus that any one can make for +himself.—<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="3"></a> + +<h2>THE WATER CLOCK.</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American</i>:</p> + +<p>Referring to the clepsydra, or water clock, described and +illustrated in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of December 20, +1884, it strikes me that the ingenious principle embodied in that +interesting device could be put into a shape more modern and +practical, doing away with some of its defects and insuring a +greater degree of accuracy.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt=" Fig 1."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig 1.</p> + +<p>I would propose the construction given in the subjoined sketch, +viz.: The drum, A (Figs. 1 and 3), is mounted in a yoke suspended +in such a manner as to bring no unnecessary, but still sufficient, +pressure on the friction roller, B, to cause it to revolve the +friction cone, C (both cone and roller being of wood and, say, well +rubbed with resin so as to increase adhesion).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3b_th.jpg" alt=" Fig 2."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig 2.</p> + +<p>The friction roller should be movable (on a screw thread), but +so arranged that it can be fixed at any point, say by a lock nut, +screw, clamp, or other simple means. It will be evident that, by +shifting the roller, a greater or less speed of the cone can be +effected, and as to the end of the cone's axis an index hand +sweeping an ordinary clock face is attached, the speed of this +index hand can be regulated to a nicety, in proportion to that of +the drum. Of course, before fixing the size and proportion of the +disk and cone, the number of revolutions of the drum in a given +time must be ascertained by experiment. For instance, the drum +being found to make 15 revolutions in 12 hours, the proportions +would be:</p> + +<pre> +Circumference of roller = 12 units. +Circumference of middle part of cone = 15 units. +</pre> + +<p>Or, the drum making 2½ revolutions in 3 hours, equal to 9 +revolutions in 12 hours:</p> + +<pre> +Circumference of roller = 12 units. +Circumference of middle part of cone = 9 units. +</pre> + +<p>Any slight inaccuracy can be compensated by the cone and disk +device.</p> + +<p>The drum, or cylinder, is caused to gradually revolve by a +weight attached to an endless cord passing once around the drum. +The latter might be varnished to prevent slipping. The weight +should be provided with an automatic wedge, allowing it to be +slipped along the cord in an upward direction, but preventing its +descent. The weight is represented partly in section in the +engraving. This weight should not be quite sufficient to revolve +the drum, it being counterbalanced by the liquid raised in the +chambers of the drum. The liquid, however, following its tendency +to seek the lowest level, gradually runs back through the small +hole, D, in the partitions, but is continually raised again, with +the chamber it has just entered, by the weight slightly turning the +cylinder as it (the weight) gradually gains advantage over the as +gradually diminishing weight of each chamber raised.</p> + +<p>As to the drum, the same might be constructed as follows, viz.: +First solder the partitions into the cylinder, making them slanting +or having the direction of chords of a circle (see Fig. 2). The end +disks should be dish shaped, as shown. Place them on a level +surface, apply heat, and melt some mastic or good sealing wax in +the same. Then adjust the cylinder part, with its partitions, +allowing it to sink into the slight depth of molten matter. In this +way, or perhaps by employing a solution of rubber instead of the +sealing wax, the chambers will be well isolated and not liable to +leak. The water is then introduced through the center openings of +the disks before hermetically sealing the drum to its axis.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3c_th.jpg" alt=" Fig. 3."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 3.</p> + +<p>The revolving parts of the clock being nicely balanced, a pretty +accurate timepiece, I should think, would be the result. It is +needless to mention that the "winding" is effected by slipping the +weight to its highest point.</p> + +<p>Of course I am far from considering the above an "instrument of +precision," but would rather look upon it in the light of a +contrivance, interesting, perhaps, especially to amateur mechanics, +as not presenting any particular difficulties of construction.</p> + +<p>ED. C. MAGNUS.</p> + +<p>Crefeld, January 5, 1885.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="4"></a> + +<h2>NEW TORPEDO.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate a new form of self-propelling and steering +torpedo, designed and patented by Mr. Richard Paulson, of Boon +Hills, Langwith, Notts. That torpedoes will play an important part +in the next naval war is evident from the fact that great activity +is being displayed by the various governments of the world in the +construction of this weapon. Our own Government also has latterly +paid great attention to this subject.</p> + +<p>The methods hitherto proposed for propelling torpedoes have been +by means of carbonic acid or other compressed gas carried by the +torpedoes, and by means of electricity conveyed by a conductor +leading from a controlling station to electrical apparatus carried +by the torpedo. The first method has, to a considerable extent, +failed on account of the inefficient way in which the compressed +gas was employed to propel the torpedo. The second is open to the +objection that by means of telephones placed in the water or by +other signaling apparatus the torpedo can be heard approaching +while yet at a considerable distance, and that a quick speeded +dredger, kept ready for the purpose when any attack is expected, +can be run between the torpedo and the controlling station and the +conductor cut and the torpedo captured. The arrangements for +steering by means of an electrical conductor from a controlling +station are also open to the latter objection. The torpedo we now +illustrate, in elevation in Fig. 1, and in plan in Fig. 2, is +designed to obviate these objections, and possesses in addition +other advantages which will be enumerated in the following +description.</p> + +<p>As stated above, the torpedo is self-propelling, the necessary +energy being stored up in liquefied carbonic acid contained in a +cylindrical vessel, E, carried by the torpedo. The vessel, E, +communicates, by means of a small bent pipe extending nearly to its +bottom, with a small chamber, B, the passage of the liquid being +controlled by means of the cock or tap, F. The chamber, B, is in +communication, by means of a small aperture, with the nozzle, G, of +an injector, T, constructed on the ordinary principles. The liquid +as it passes into the chamber, B, volatilizes, and the gas passes +through the nozzle of the injector, which is surrounded by water in +direct communication with the sea by means of the opening, W. The +gas imparts its energy in the well-known manner to the water, being +itself entirely or partially condensed, the water thus charged with +carbonic acid gas being forced through the combining cone of the +injector at a very high speed and pressure. Preferably the water is +here divided into two streams, each driving a separate rotary motor +or turbine, H, themselves driving twin screws or propellers, I. The +motors exhaust into the hollow shafts, J, of the propellers, which +are extended some distance beyond the propellers, so that the +remaining energy of the water may be utilized to aid in propelling +the torpedo on the well known principle of jet propulsion. The +torpedo is preferably steered by means of the twin screws. A disk +or other valve, A, is pivoted in an aperture in a diaphragm +dividing the outlet of the injector, and is operated by means +hereafter described, so as to diminish the stream of water on one +side and increase it on the other, so that one motor, and +consequently the corresponding propeller, is driven at a higher +speed than the other, and so steers the torpedo.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3d_th.jpg" alt= +" PAULSON'S SELF PROPELLING AND STEERING TORPEDO."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PAULSON'S SELF PROPELLING AND STEERING TORPEDO.</p> + +<p>The valve, A, is operated automatically by the following +arrangement: A mariner's compass, P, placed in the head of the +torpedo has its needle connected to one pole of a powerful battery, +D. A dial of non-magnetic material marked with the points of the +compass is capable of being rotated by the connections shown. This +dial carries two insulated studs, <i>p</i>, each electrically +connected with one terminal of the coils of an electromagnet, K, +whose other terminal is connected to the other pole of the battery. +These two magnets are arranged on opposite sides of an armature +fixed on a lever operating the disk or valve, A. Before launching +the torpedo the dial is set, so that when the torpedo is steering +direct for the object to be struck, or other desired point, one end +of the needle of the compass, P, is between the steeds, <i>p</i>, +but contact with neither, the needle of course pointing to the +magnetic north. Should the torpedo however deviate from this +course, the needle makes contact with one or other of the studs +according to the direction in which the deviation takes place, and +completes the circuit through the corresponding electromagnet, +which attracts the armature and causes the disk to move, so as to +diminish the supply of water to one motor and increase it to the +other, and so cause the torpedo to again assume the required +direction. Supposing the object which it is intended that the +torpedo should strike be a large mass of iron, such as an ironclad, +the needle will be attracted, and, making the corresponding +contact, will cause the torpedo to be steered directly away from +the object. In order to prevent this, a second compass, Q, is +mounted in the front of the torpedo, and when attracted by a mass +of iron, it short-circuits the battery, D, and thus prevents the +armature being attracted, and consequently the torpedo from +deviating. This needle is also capable of slight movement in a +vertical plane, so that when passing over or under a mass of iron +it is attracted downward or upward, and completes a circuit by +means of the stops, which operate so as to explode the charge. The +charge can also be exploded in the ordinary manner, viz., by means +of the firing pin, X, when the torpedo runs into any solid +object.</p> + +<p>The depth at which the torpedo travels below the surface of the +water is regulated by means of a flexible diaphragm, M, secured in +the outer casing and connected to a rod sliding freely in fixed +bearings. A spiral or other spring, O, is compressed between a +color on the rod and an adjustable fixed nut, by which the tension +of the spring is regulated so that the pressure of water on the +diaphragm, A, when the torpedo is at the desired depth just +counterbalances the pressure of the spring, the diaphragm being +then flush with the outer casing. The rod is connected by suitable +levers to two horizontal fins, S, pivoted one on either side of the +torpedo, so that they shall be in equilibrium. Should the torpedo +sink too deep or rise too high, the diaphragm will be depressed or +extended, and will operate on the lines so as to cause the torpedo +to ascend or descend as the case may be.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid the risk of a spent torpedo destroying a +friendly vessel, a valve is arranged in any suitable part of the +outer casing, and is weighted or loaded with a spring in such a +manner that when under way the pressure of the water keeps the +valve closed, but when it stops the valve opens and admits water to +sink the torpedo.</p> + +<p>In our description we have only given the main features of the +invention, the inventor having mentioned to us, in confidence, +several improvements designed to perfect the details of his +invention, among which we may mention the steering arrangement and +arrangements for attacking a vessel provided with what our +contemporary, <i>Engineering</i>, not inaptly terms a "crinoline," +<i>i. e.</i>, a network for keeping off torpedoes. The transverse +dimensions of our engravings have been considerably augmented for +the sake of clearness.—<i>Mech. World.</i></p> + +<hr> +<a name="16"></a> + +<h2>DUPUY DE LOME.</h2> + +<p>M. Dupuy De Lome died on the 1st Feb., 1885, at the age of 68. +It may be questioned whether any constructor has ever rendered +greater services to the navy of any country than those rendered by +M. Dupuy to the French Navy during the thirty years 1840-70. Since +the fall of the Empire his connection with the naval service has +been terminated, but his professional and scientific standing has +been fully maintained, and his energies have found scope in the +conduct of the great and growing business of the <i>Forges et +Chantiers</i> Company. In him France has undoubtedly lost her +greatest naval architect.</p> + +<p>The son of a naval officer, M. Dupuy was born in October, 1816, +near L'Orient, and entered <i>L'Ecole Polytechnique</i> when +nineteen years of age. In that famous establishment he received the +thorough preliminary training which France has so long and wisely +provided for those who are to become the designers of her +war-ships. After finishing his professional education, he came to +England about 1842, and made a thorough study of iron shipbuilding +and steam navigation, in both of which we then held a long lead of +France. His report, subsequently published under the title of +"Memoire sur la Construction des Batiments en Fer"—Paris, +1844—is probably the best account given to the world of the +state of iron shipbuilding forty years ago: and its perusal not +merely enables one to gauge the progress since made, but to form an +estimate of the great ability and clear style of the writer. We may +assume that this visit to England, coming after the thorough +education received in Francem did much toward forming the views to +which expression was soon given in designs and reports on new types +of war ships.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4a_th.jpg" alt=" M. DUPUY DE LOME."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">M. DUPUY DE LOME.</p> + +<p>When the young constructor settled down to his work in the +arsenal at Toulon, on his return from England, the only armed +steamships in the French Navy were propelled by paddle-wheels, and +there was great opposition to the introduction of steam power into +line-of-battle ships. The paddle-wheel was seen to be unsuited to +such large fighting vessels, and there was no confidence in the +screw; while the great majority of naval officers in France, as +well as in England, were averse to any decrease in sail spread. M. +Dupuy had carefully studied the details of the Great Britain, which +he had seen building at Bristol, and was convinced that full steam +power should be given to line-of-battle ships. He grasped and held +fast to this fundamental idea; and as early as the year 1845 he +addressed a remarkable report to the Minister of Marine, suggesting +the construction of a full-powered screw frigate, to be built with +an iron hull, and protected by a belt of armor formed by several +thicknesses of iron plating. This report alone would justify his +claim to be considered the leading naval architect of that time; it +did not bear fruit fully for some years, but its recommendations +were ultimately realized.</p> + +<p>M. Dupuy did not stand alone in the feeling that radical changes +in the construction and propulsion of ships were imminent. His +colleagues in the "Genie Maritime" were impressed with the same +idea: and in England, about this date, the earliest screw +liners—the wonderful converted "block ships"—were +ordered. This action on our part decided the French also to begin +the conversion of their sailing line-of-battle ships into vessels +with auxiliary steam power. But M. Dupuy conceived and carried out +the bolder scheme of designing a full-powered screw liner, and in +1847 the Napoleon was ordered. Her success made the steam +reconstruction of the fleets of the world a necessity. She was +launched in 1850, tried in 1852, and attained a speed of nearly 14 +knots an hour. During the Crimean War her performances attracted +great attention, and the type she represented was largely increased +in numbers. She was about 240 ft. in length, 55 ft. in breadth, and +of 5,000 tons displacement, with two gun decks. In her design +boldness and prudence were well combined. The good qualities of the +sailing line-of-battle ships which had been secured by the genius +of Sané and his colleagues were maintained; while the new +conditions involved in the introduction of steam power and large +coal supply were thoroughly fulfilled. The steam reconstruction had +scarcely attained its full swing when the ironclad reconstructor +became imperative. Here again M. Dupuy occupied a distinguished +position, and realized his scheme of 1845 with certain +modifications. His eminent services led to his appointment in 1857 +to the highest office in the Constructive Corps—Directeur du +Materiel—and his design for the earliest seagoing ironclad, +La Gloire, was approved in the same year. Once started, the French +pressed on the construction of their ironclads with all haste, and +in the autumn of 1863 they had at sea a squadron of five ironclads, +not including in this list La Gloire. It is unnecessary to trace +further the progress of the race for maritime supremacy; but to the +energy and great ability of M. Dupuy de Lome must be largely +attributed the fact that France took, and for a long time kept, +such a lead of us in ironclads. In the design of La Gloire, as is +well known, he again followed the principle of utilizing known +forms and dimensions as far as was consistent with modern +conditions, and the Napoleon was nearly reproduced in La Gloire so +far as under-water shape was concerned, but with one gun deck +instead of two, and with a completely protected battery. So long as +he retained office, M. Dupuy consistently adhered to this +principle; but he at the same time showed himself ready to consider +how best to meet the constantly growing demands for thicker armor, +heavier guns, and higher speeds. It is singular, however, +especially when his early enthusiasm for iron ships is remembered, +to find how small a proportion of the ships added to the French +Navy during his occupancy of office were built of anything but +wood.</p> + +<p>Distinctions were showered upon him. In 1860 he was made a +Councilor of State, and represented the French Admiralty in +Parliament; from 1869 to 1875 he was a Deputy, and in 1877 he was +elected a Life Senator. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences +and of other distinguished scientific bodies. Of late his name has +been little connected with ship design; but his interest in the +subject was unabated.</p> + +<p>In 1870 M. Dupuy devoted a large amount of time and thought to +perfecting a system of navigable balloons, and the French +Government gave him great assistance in carrying out the +experiments. It does not seem, however, that any sufficient success +was reached to justify further trials. The theoretical +investigations on which the design was based, and the ingenuity +displayed in carrying out the construction of the balloon, were +worthy of M. Dupuy's high reputation. The fleet that he constructed +for France has already disappeared to a great extent, and the +vessels still remaining will soon fall out of service. But the name +and reputation of their designer will live as long as the history +of naval construction is studied.—<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="7"></a> + +<h2>THE USE OF GAS IN THE WORKSHOP.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the Manchester Association of Employers, +Foremen, and Draughtsmen of the Mechanical Trades of Great Britain, +an interesting lecture on "Gas for Light and Work in the Workshop" +was delivered by Mr. T. Fletcher, F.C.S., of Warington.</p> + +<p>Mr. Fletcher illustrated his remarks with a number of +interesting experiments, and spoke as follows:</p> + +<p>There are very few workshops where gas is used so profitably as +it might be; and my object to-night is to make a few suggestions, +which are the result of my own experience. In a large space, such +as an erecting or moulder's shop, it is always desirable to have +all the lights distributed about the center. Wall lights, except +for bench work, are wasteful, as a large proportion of the light is +absorbed by the walls, and lost. Unless the shop is draughty, it is +by far the best policy to have a few large burners rather than a +number of small ones. I will show you the difference in the light +obtained by burning the same quantity of gas in one and in two +flames. I do not need to tell you how much the difference is; you +can easily see for yourselves. The additional light is not caused, +as some of you may suppose, by a combined burner, as I have here a +simple one, burning the same quantity of gas as the two smaller +burners together; and the advantage of the simple large burner is +quite as great. It is a well-known fact that the larger the gas +consumption in a single flame, the higher the duty obtained for the +gas burnt. There is a practical limit to this with ordinary simple +burners; as when they are too large they are very sensitive to +draught, and liable to unsteadiness and smoking. I have here a +sample of a works' pendant or pillar light, which, not including +the gas supply-pipe, can be made for about a shilling. For all +practical purposes I believe this light (which carries five No. 6 +Bray's union jets, and which we use as a portable light at repairs +and breakdowns) is as efficient and economical a form as it is +possible to make for ordinary rough work. The burners are in the +best position, and the light is both powerful and quite shadowless; +giving, in fact, the best light underneath the burners. It must, of +course, be protected in a draughty shop; and on this protection +something needs to be said.</p> + +<p>Regenerator burners for lighting are coming into use; and, where +large lights are required for long periods, no doubt they are +economical. Burners of the Bower or Wenham class would be worth +adopting for main street or open space lighting in important +positions; but when we consider that, with the fifty-four hours' +system in workshops, artificial light is only wanted, on an +average, for four hundred hours per annum, we may take it as +certain that, at the present prices of regenerator burners, they +are a bad investment for use in ordinary work. We must not forget +that the distance of the burner from the work is a vital point of +the cost question; and, for all except large spaces, requiring +general illumination, a common cheap burner on a swivel joint has +yet to meet with a competitor. Do not think I am old-fashioned or +prejudiced in this matter. It is purely a question of figures; and +my condemnation of regenerator burners applies only to the general +requirements in ordinary engineering and other work shops where +each man wants a light on one spot only.</p> + +<p>Some people think that clear glass does not stop any light. This +is a great mistake, as you will find it quite easy to throw a +distinct shadow of a sheet of perfect glass on a white paper, as I +will show you. Opal and ground glass throw a very strong shadow, +and practically waste half the light. It is better to have a white +enameled or whitewashed sheet-iron reflecting hood, which will +protect the sides from wind, if such an arrangement suits other +requirements.</p> + +<p>I have endeavored in the engraving below to reproduce the +shadows thrown by different samples of glass. This gives a fair +idea of the actual loss of light involved by glass shades.</p> + +<p>When lights are suspended, it is a common and costly fashion to +put them high up. When we consider that light decreases as the +square of the distance, it will be readily understood that to +light, for instance, the floor of a moulding shop, a burner 6 feet +from the floor will do as much work as four burners, the same size, +placed 12 feet from the floor. It is therefore a most important +matter that all lights should be as low as possible, consistent +with the necessities of the shop, as not only is the expense +enormously increased by lofty lights, but the air becomes more +vitiated and unpleasant, interfering with the men's power of +working. Any lights suspended, and, in fact, all workshop lights, +must have a ball-joint or universal swivel at the point where they +branch from the main, as they are liable to be knocked in all +directions, and must, therefore, be free to move to prevent +accidents. It is better to have wind-screens, if necessary, rather +than glass lanterns, as not only does the glass stop a considerable +amount of light when clean, but it is in practice constantly dirty +in almost every workshop or yard.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4b_th.jpg" alt= +" PILLAR LIGHT OR PENDANT FOR WORKSHOPS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PILLAR LIGHT OR PENDANT FOR WORKSHOPS.</p> + +<p>For bench work and machine tools, each man must have his own +light under his own control; and in this matter a little attention +will make a considerable saving. The burners should be union +jets—<i>i. e.</i>, burners with two holes at an angle to each +other—not slit or batswing, as the latter are extremely +liable to partial stoppage with dust. Where batswing burners are +used, I have often seen fully 90 per cent. more or less choked and +unsatisfactory; whereas a union jet does not give any trouble. It +is not generally known that any burner used at ordinary pressures +of gas gives a much better light when it is turned over with the +flat of the flame horizontal, until the flame becomes +saucer-shaped, as I show you. You can see for yourselves the +increase in light; and in addition to this the workman has the +great advantage of a shadowless flame. In practice, a burner +consuming 5 cubic feet of gas per hour with a horizontal flame is a +better fitter's than an upright burner with 6 cubic feet per hour. +I do not believe in the policy of giving a man a poor light to work +by—it does not pay; and I never expect to get a man to work +properly with smaller burners than these. We have a good governor +on the main: and the lights are all worked with a low pressure of +gas, to get the best possible duty. As a good practical light for a +man at bench moulding, the one I have here may be taken as a fair +sample. It is free to move, and the light is as near the perfect +position as the necessities of the work will permit. When the light +is not wanted, by simply pushing it away it turns itself down; the +swivel being, in fact, a combined swivel and tap.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4c_th.jpg" alt=" LOSS OF LIGHT BY GLASS SHADES."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">LOSS OF LIGHT BY GLASS SHADES.</p> + +<p>You will see on one of the lights I have here, a new swivel +joint, which has been patented only within the last few days. The +peculiarity of this swivel is that the body is made of two +hemispheres revolving on each other in a ground joint. It will be +made also with a universal movement; and its special advantage, +either for gas, water, or steam, is that there is no obstruction +whatever to a free passage—in fact, the way through the +swivel body is larger than the way through the pipes with which it +is connected. It can easily be made to stand any pressure, and if +damaged by grit or dirt it can be reground with ease as often as +necessary without deterioration, whereas an ordinary swivel, if +damaged by grit, has to be thrown away as useless.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>For meals, where a steam-kettle is not used, it is the best +policy to have a cistern holding about 1½ pints for each +man, and to boil this with a gas-burner. The lighting of the burner +at a specified time may be deputed to a boy. If the men's dinners +have to be heated, it is easy to purchase ovens which will do all +the work required by gas at a much cheaper rate than by coal, if we +consider the labor and attention necessary with any coal fire. Not +that gas is cheaper than coal; but say we have 100 dinners to warm. +This can be done in a gas-oven in about 20 minutes, at a cost for +gas of less than 1d.; in fact, for one-fourth the cost of labor +only in attending to a coal fire, without considering the cost of +wood or coals. Gas, in many instances, is an apparently expensive +fuel; but when the incidental saving in other matters is taken into +consideration, I have found it exceedingly profitable for all +except large or continuous work, and in many cases for this also. I +only need instance wire card-making and the brazing shops of wire +cable makers to show that a large and free use of gas is compatible +with the strictest economy and profitable working.</p> + +<p>Of all the tools in a workshop, nothing saves more time and +worry than two or three sizes of good blowpipes and an efficient +blower. I have seen in one day more work spoilt, and time lost, for +want of these than would have paid for the apparatus twice over; +and in almost every shop emergencies are constantly happening in +which a good blowpipe will render most efficient service. Small +brazing work can often be done in less time than would be consumed +in going to the smith's hearth and back again, independently of the +policy of keeping a man in his own place, and to his own work. The +shrinking on of collars, forging, hardening, and tempering of +tools, melting lead or resin out of pipes which have been bent, and +endless other odd matters, are constantly turning up; and on these, +in the absence of a blowpipe, I have often seen men spend hours +instead of minutes. Things which need a blowpipe are usually most +awkward to do without one; and men will go fiddling about and +tumbling over each other without seeing really what they intend to +do. They are content, as it all counts in the day's work; that it +comes off the profits is not their concern. It will, perhaps, be +new to many of you that blowpipes can easily be made in a form +which admits of any special shape of flame being produced. I have +made for special work—such as heating up odd shapes of +forgings, brands, etc.—blowpipes constructed of perforated +tubes formed to almost every conceivable shape; these being +supplied with gas from the ordinary main and a blast of air from a +Root's or foot blower. I have here an example of a straight-line +blowpipe made for heating wire passed along it at a high speed. The +same flame, as you no doubt will readily understand, can be made of +any power and of any shape, and will work any side up; in fact, as +a rule, a downward vertical or nearly vertical position is usually +the best for any blowpipe. As an example of this class of work, I +may instance the shrinking on of collars and tires, which, with +suitable ring-burner and a Root's blower, could be equally heated +in five minutes for shrinking on; in fact, the work could be done +in less time than it would usually take to find a laborer to light +a fire. When the rings vary much in size, the burners can easily be +made in segments of circles. But then they are not nearly so handy, +as each needs to be connected up to the gas and air supply; and it +is, in practice, usually cheaper to have separate ring burners of +different sizes. Of course, you will understand that a +½-inch gas-pipe will not supply heat enough to make a +locomotive tire red hot, and that for large work a large gas supply +is necessary. Our own rule for burners of this class is that the +holes in the tube should be 1/8 to 1/10 inch in diameter, from +¼ to ½ inch pitch; and the area of the tube must be +equal to the combined area of the holes. The gas supply-pipe must +not be less than half the area of the burner-tube. Those of you who +wish to study this matter further will, I think, find sufficient +information in my paper on "The Construction of High-Power Burners +for Heating by Gas," printed in the Transactions of the Gas +Institute for 1883, and in the papers on the "Use and Construction +of the Blowpipe" and "The Use of Gas as a Workshop Tool."</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>No doubt many of you have been troubled with the twisting of +some special light casting, and will, perhaps, spend hours in the +risky operation of bending an iron pattern so as to get a straight +casting. A ladleful of lead and tin, melted in a small gas-furnace, +will, in a few minutes, give you a pattern which you can bend and +adjust to any required shape. It enables you to make trials to any +extent, and get castings with the utmost precision. There is also +this advantage, that a soft metal pattern can be cut about and +experimented with in a way which no other material admits of. +Awkward patterns commence with us with plaster, wax, sheets of wet +blotting paper pasted together on a shape or wood; but they almost +invariably make their appearance in the foundry after being +converted into soft metal by the aid of a gas-furnace. I refer, of +course, to thin, awkward, and generally difficult castings, which, +under ordinary treatment, are either turned out badly or require a +great amount of fitting. As an illustration of the use of this +system of pattern-making, I have here two castings of my own, from +patterns which, under the ordinary engineer's system, would be +excessively costly and difficult to make as well as these are made. +The surface is a mass of intricate pattern work and perforations. +To produce the flat original, as you see it, a small piece of the +pattern is first cut, and from this a number of tin castings are +made and soldered together. From this pattern, reproduced in iron +for the sake of permanence, is cast the flat center plate you see. +To produce the curved pattern I show you, nothing more is necessary +than to bend the tin pattern on a block of the right shape, and we +now get a pattern which would puzzle a good many pattern-makers of +the old style.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5c_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>I will now show you by a practical utilization of the well known +flameless combustion, how to light a coke furnace without either +paper or wood, and without disturbing the fuel, by the use of a +blowpipe which for the first minute is allowed to work in the +ordinary way with a flame to ignite the coke. I then pinch the gas +tube to extinguish the flame, allow the gas to pass as before, and +so blow a mixture of unburnt air and gas into the fuel. The +enormous heat generated by the combustion of the mixture in contact +with the solid fuel will be appreciable to you all, and if this +blast of mixed air and gas is continued, there is hardly any limit +to the temperatures which can be obtained in a furnace. I shall be +able to show you the difference in temperature obtained in a +furnace by an ordinary air blast, by a blowpipe flame directed into +the furnace, and by the same mixture of gas and air which I use in +the blowpipe being blown in and burnt in contact with the ignited +coke. In each case the air blast, both in quantity and pressure, is +absolutely the same; but the roar and the intense, blinding glare +produced by blowing the unburnt mixture into the furnace is +unmistakable. The heat obtained in the coke furnace I am using, in +less than ten minutes, is greater than any known crucible would +stand. I am informed that this system of air and gas or air and +petroleum vapor blast, first discovered and published by myself in +a work on metallurgy issued in 1881, is now becoming largely used +for commercial purposes on the Continent, not only on account of +the enormous increase in the heat, and the consequent work got out +of any specified furnace, but also because the coke or solid fuel +used stands much longer, and the dropping, which is so great a +nuisance in crucible furnaces, is almost entirely prevented; in +fact, once the furnace is started, no solid fuel is necessary, and +the coke as it burns away can be replaced with lumps of broken +ganister or any infusible material. Few, if any, samples of +firebrick will stand the heat of this blast, if the system is fully +utilized. You will find it a matter of little difficulty, with this +system of using gas, to melt a crucible of cast iron in an ordinary +bed-room fire grate if the front bars are covered with sheet iron, +with a hole (say) three inches in diameter, to admit the combined +gas and air blast. The only care needed is to see that you do not +melt down the firebars during the process. I will also show you +how, on an ordinary table, with a small pan of broken coke and the +same blowpipe, used in the way already described, you can get a +good welding heat in a few minutes, starting all cold. In this case +the blowpipe is simply fixed with the nozzle six inches above the +coke, and the flame directed downward. As soon as the coke shows +red, the gas pipe is pinched so as to blow the flame out, and the +mixture of gas and air is blown from above into the coke as before. +With this and a little practice, you can get a weld on a 7/8 inch +round bar in 10 minutes.</p> + +<p>There is one use of gas which has already proved an immense +service to those who, in the strictest sense, live by their wits. +In a small private workshop, with the assistance of gas furnaces, +blowpipes, and other gas heating appliances, it is a very easy +matter to carry out important experiments privately on a practical +scale. A man with an idea can readily carry out his idea without +skilled assistance, and without it ever making its appearance in +the works until it is an accomplished fact. How many of you have +been blocked in important experiments by the tacit resistance of an +old fashioned good workman, who cannot or will not see what you are +driving at, and who persists in saying that what you want is not +possible? The application of gas will often enable you to go over +his head, and do what, if the workman had his own way, would be an +impossibility. When a man is unable or unwilling to see a way out +of a difficulty, a master or foreman has the power to take the law +in his own hands; and when a workman has been met with this kind of +a reply once or twice, he usually gives way, and does not in future +attempt to dictate and teach his master his own business. In +carrying out this matter, it is not necessary that a specimen of +fine workmanship shall be produced. A man usually appreciates the +wits which have produced what he has considered impossible. In +purely experimental work I think I may fairly state that the use of +gas as a fuel in the private workshop and laboratory has done +incalculable service in the improvement of processes and trades, +and has played an important part in insuring the success and +fortunes of many hundreds of experimenters, who have brought their +labors to a successful issue in cases where, in its absence, +neither time nor patience would have been available. I need only to +call to your mind the number of new alloys which, for almost +endless different purposes, have come into use during the last +eight or ten years. I think the use of small gas furnaces in +private workshops and laboratories may fairly be said to have +enabled the experiments on most, if not all, of these alloys to be +carried out to a successful issue.</p> + +<p>I have been asked to say something regarding gas engines. The +only thing I can say is that I know very little about them. In my +own works we have about 300,000 cubic feet of space, all of which +requires to be heated, more or less, during the greater part of the +year. For this purpose we must have a steam boiler, and having this +steam, it costs little to run it first through the engine, and so +obtain our power for a good part of the year practically without +any cost. It would not pay, under any circumstances, to have two +separate sources of power for summer and winter; and therefore the +use of gas for power has never been considered.</p> + +<p>For irregular work and comparatively small powers, gas-engines +have special and great advantages; and in this respect they may, +perhaps, class with gas melting furnaces. If I wanted 1, or 10, or +20 lb. of melted metal, I could melt and make the casting in less +time and with less cost than would be required to light a coke +fire. There is no possible comparison in the two, as to convenience +and economy; but if I wanted to melt 3 or 4 cwt. or 3 or 4 tons +every day, I should not dream of using gas for the purpose, as the +extra cost of gas in such a case would not be compensated by the +saving in time. In commercial matters we must always consider first +what is the most profitable way of going about our work; and, so +far as I myself am concerned, I have always found it advantageous +to expend some money annually on proving this by direct experiment. +It is almost always possible to learn something, even from a +failure.</p> + +<p>I will now, with a blowpipe and small foot blower, heat a short +length of locomotive boiler tube to a brazing heat on the table; +and, in conclusion, will convert the table into a small foundry. I +cannot cast you a flywheel for a factory engine; so will try at +something smaller, and will reproduce a medallion portrait of Her +Majesty, in cast iron, the original of which is silver, commonly +valued at half a crown. From the time I light the furnace until I +turn you out the finished casting I shall perhaps keep you eight or +nine minutes. I can remember in the good old times 25 years ago, +before I used gas furnaces, that it sometimes took about two hours +to get a good wind furnace into condition to put the crucible in. +My time in those days was not worth much; but if I valued it at 2s. +6d. per week, it would even then have been cheaper to use gas to do +the same thing, irrespective of the cost of coke.</p> + +<p>The age of gaseous fuel is commencing; and I feel daily, from +the correspondence I receive, that there is a growing impression +that gas is going to perform miracles. We do not need to go mad +about it; and my own precept and practice is to employ gas only +where its use shows a profit, either in time or money. Many of +those present know that I am as ready to totally condemn gaseous +fuel where it does not pay as to advise its use where some +advantage is to be gained. You will understand that my remarks +apply to coal gas only. As to producer or furnace gases, I know +practically nothing, except that sometimes it pays better to burn +your candle as a candle than make it into gas, and burn it as a gas +afterward. The use of producer gas no doubt pays on a large scale; +and things on a large scale, so far as gas is concerned, are not +matters with which I have time to concern myself. The commercial +use of coal gas has yet to be developed. It is in its infancy; and +there are very few, if any, who have any conception of its endless +uses, both for domestic and manufacturing purposes. The more +general the information which can be given about its uses, the +sooner it will find its own level, and the sooner the gas companies +will appreciate the fact that their best customers are to be found +among those who can use coal gas as a fuel for special work in +manufacturing industries because it is profitable to use, and saves +expensive labor. My own experiments with alloys of the rarer +metals, which have not been concluded without profit to myself, +would certainly never have been undertaken except with the use of +gas furnaces, which were both practically unlimited in power and +admitted of the most absolute precision in use; and I may safely +say, without violating any confidence, that many of the precious +stories and so-called "natural" products make their appearance in +the world first in a crucible in a gas furnace.</p> + +<p>At the conclusion of my lecture before the Institute at Leeds, +on "Combustion and the Utilization of Waste Heat," Mr. Kitson, the +Chairman, remarked that if he were a dreamer of dreams, he might +look forward to the time when he would be growing cucumbers with +the waste heat of his iron furnaces. Many wilder dreams than this +have come true in the science of engineering; and the realization +has brought honor and fortune to the dreamers, as you must all +know. The history of engineering is full of the realization of +"dreams," which have been denounced as absurdities by some of the +best living authorities.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="8"></a> + +<h2>THE GAS METER</h2> + +<p>The gas meter was invented by Clegg in 1816. Since that epoch no +essential modification has been made of its structure. Fig. 1 shows +the principle of the apparatus, <i>mnpq</i> is a drum movable +around a horizontal axis. This is divided by partitions of peculiar +form into four vessels of equal capacity, and dips into a closed +water reservoir, RR'. A tube, <i>t</i>, near the axis, and the +orifice of which is above the level of the water, leads the gas to +be measured. This latter enters under the partition, <i>l'm</i>, of +one of the buckets, and exerts an upward thrust upon it that +communicates a rotary motion to the drum. The bucket, <i>l'mi</i>, +closed hydraulically, rises and fills with gas until the following +one comes to occupy its place above the entrance tube and fills +with gas in turn. Simultaneously, as soon as the edge of each +bucket emerges at <i>e</i>, the gas flows out through the opening +that the water ceases to close, and escapes from the reservoir +through the exit aperture, S. The gas, in continuing to traverse +the system, is thus filling one bucket while the preceding one is +losing its contents; so that, if the capacity of each bucket is +known, the volumes of the gas discharged will likewise be known +when the number of revolutions made by the drum shall have been +counted. The addition of a revolution counter to the drum, then, +will solve the problem.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6a_th.jpg" alt=" THE GAS METER."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE GAS METER.</p> + +<p>The instrument, as usually constructed, is shown in Figs. 2 and +3.</p> + +<p>The reservoir, RR' contains the measuring drum, <i>mmmm</i>, +movable around the horizontal axis, <i>aa'</i>. The gas enters at +E, passes at S into an opening that may be closed by a valve, and +is distributed through the box, BB', which communicates with the +reservoir through an orifice in the partition, <i>hh'</i>. This +orifice is traversed by the axle, <i>aa'</i>. The box, like the +reservoir, contains water up to a certain level, <i>r</i>. Through +a U-shaped tube, <i>lnl'</i>, the gas passes from the box, BB', +into the movable drum, sets the latter in motion, and makes its +exit at S. In order to count the volume discharged, that is to say, +the number of revolutions of the drum, the axle terminates at a in +an endless screw which, by means of a cog wheel, moves a vertical +rod that traverses the tube, <i>gg</i>, and projects from the box. +As the tube, <i>gg</i>, dips into the water, it does not allow the +gas to escape, and this permits of the revolution counter that the +rod actuates being placed in an external case, CC'.</p> + +<p>The counter consists of toothed wheels and pinions so arranged +that if the first wheel makes one complete revolution corresponding +to a discharge of 1,000 liters, the following wheel, which +indicates cubic meters, shall advance one division, and that if +this second wheel makes one complete revolution marked 10 cubic +meters, the third, which indicates tenths, shall advance one +division, and so on. Hands fixed to the axles of the wheels, and +movable over dials, permit the volume of gas to be read that has +traversed the counter.</p> + +<p>The object of the other parts of the instrument are to secure +regularity in its operation by keeping the level of the liquid +constant. It is evident, in fact, that if the level of the water +gets below <i>r</i>, the capacity of the buckets will be increased, +and the counter will indicate a discharge less than is really the +case, and <i>vice versa</i>. If the level descends as far as to the +orifice in the partition, <i>hh'</i>, the gas will flow out without +causing the apparatus to move. The water is introduced into the +counter through <i>f</i>, which is closed with a screw cap, and +passes through the opening shown by dotted lines into the +reservoir, RR', whence it flows to the box, BB', When it has +reached the desired level, it gains the orifice, <i>r</i>, of a +waste pipe, escapes through the siphon, <i>ruv</i>, and makes its +exit through the aperture, <i>b'</i>, when the screw cap of the +latter is removed. If, by accident, the level of the water should +fall below a certain limit, a float, <i>f</i>, which follows its +every movement, would close the valve, <i>s</i>, and stop the flow +of the gas. Finally a tube, <i>tt'</i> soldered to the lower part +of the tube, <i>lnl'</i>, and dipping into the water of a +compartment, P, serves to allow the surplus water to flow out at +<i>b'</i>. To prevent the apparatus from being disarranged upon the +drum being revolved in the opposite direction, there is fixed to +the axle, <i>aa'</i>, a cam which lifts a click, <i>z</i>, when the +rotation is regular, but which is arrested by it when the contrary +is the case.—<i>Science et Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="5"></a> + +<h2>DOBSON AND BARLOW'S IMPROVEMENTS IN HEILMANN'S COMBERS.</h2> + +<p>Next to the mule, there is no doubt that the most beautiful +machine used in the cotton trade is Heilmann's comber. Although the +details of this machine are hard to master, when once its action is +understood it will be found to be really simple. The object of +combing is to remove the short staples and the dirt left in after +the carding of the cotton, such as is used in the spinning of fine +and even coarse numbers. The operation is an extremely delicate +one, and its successful realization is a good illustration of what +is possible with machinery. Combing machines are usually made with +six heads, and sometimes with eight. As the working of each head is +identical, we only speak of one of them. By means of a pair of +fluted feeding rollers a narrow lap, about 7½ in. wide, is +passed into the head, in which the following action takes place: +Assuming that the stroke is finished, the lap is seized near its +end by a pair of nippers, so as to leave about half the length of +the staple projecting. These projecting fibers are combed by a +revolving cylinder, partially covered with comb teeth. When the +front or projecting ends of the fibers are thus combed, a straight +comb in front of the nippers drops into them, the nippers open, and +the fibers are drawn through the straight comb. This combs the tail +ends, and at the same time the fibers, now completely combed, are +placed on or pieced to the fibers that had been combed in the +previous stroke, producing in this way a continuous fleece of +combed cotton. In short, in this most striking operation, the fiber +during the combing is completely detached from the ribbon lap, +carried over, and pieced to the tail end of the combed fleece, for +a moment having no connection with either. Since the expiry of the +patent, Messrs. Bobson and Barlow, of Bolton, have constructed a +great many of these machines, and have found that, as compared with +the original make, it was possible to greatly increase their +efficiency. They accordingly devoted much attention to this object, +and have patents for several improvements. To describe these so as +to be understood by everybody would be a most difficult task, and +would take more space than we can afford. We simply wish to record +what these improvements are, and will suppose we are writing for +those who have a good acquaintance with Heilmann's comber.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6b_th.jpg" alt= +" DOBSON AND BARLOW'S IMPROVEMENTS IN HEILMANN'S COMBERS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">DOBSON AND BARLOW'S IMPROVEMENTS IN HEILMANN'S +COMBERS.</p> + +<p>We give herewith a perspective view of the improved machine. On +examination it will be noticed that an alteration is made in the +motion seen at the end of the machine for working the detached +rollers. This alteration we believe to be a decided improvement +over Heilmann's original arrangement. It dispenses with the large +detaching cam, the cradle, the notch-wheel, the catch and its +spring, the large spur wheel which drives the calender roller, and +the internal wheels for the detaching roller-shaft, substituting in +their stead a much simpler motion, consisting of a smaller cam, a +quadrant, and a clutch. The arrangement, having fewer parts, is +also much more compact than the old one, for with the driving +pulleys in the best position it enables the machine outside the +framing to be shortened 10 in., an important point in a room full +of combers. The action of this detaching motion is positive, and +enables the machine to be run at a high speed without danger of +missing, as happens when the point of the catch for the old +notch-wheel becomes broken or worn away. Another important feature +of the new arrangement is that it allows the motion of the +detaching-roller to be varied. By an adjustment, easily made in a +few seconds, the delivery may be altered to suit different classes +of cotton or kinds of work without the necessity of changing the +cams or the notch-wheels.</p> + +<p>An improvement has been made in the construction of the nippers. +In the ordinary Heilmann's comber, the upper blade has a groove in +its nipping edge, and the cushion plate is covered with cloth and +leather, the fibers being held by the grip between the leather of +the cushion plate and the edges of the groove in the upper blade, +or knife, as it is called. The objections to this mode of +construction were that the leather on the cushion plate required +frequent renewing, and unless the adjustment was more accurate than +could always be relied on, the grip of the nippers was not perfect, +for while at one end the nipper might be closed, at the other end +it might be open wide enough to allow the cotton to be pulled +through by the combing cylinder, and made into waste. In Messrs. +Dobson and Barlow's nipper there is neither cloth nor leather on +the cushion plate. Its edge is made into a blunt ^, upon which the +narrow flat surface of a strip of India rubber or leather fixed in +the knife falls to give the nip. By this plan the cushion is +applied to the knife instead of to the plate, which of course makes +the cushion plate, after it has once been set, a fixture; it also +dispenses with the accurate setting, as is now necessary in the old +arrangement. It further does away with the frequent and expensive +covering of the cushion-plate with roller leather and cloth, thus +effecting a considerable saving, not only in cost of material, but +also in labor, inasmuch as the nipper knives can be taken off, +recovered, and replaced in one-sixth the time required to cover the +cushion plates and replace them on the old system. American cotton +of 7/8" staple to silk of 2½" staple can also be combed by +this improved arrangement, an achievement which has been attempted +by many, but hitherto without arriving at any success. Messrs. +Dobson and Barlow have however overcome the difficulty by their +improvements, which combine three important qualities, viz., +simplicity, perfection, and cheapness. Many hundreds of other +makers' machines have been altered to their new arrangements. The +cam for working the nipper has also been altered to give a smoother +motion than usual; one that moves the nipper quietly and without +jerks when the machine runs from 80 to 95 strokes per minute. A +very decided improvement has been made in the construction of the +combing cylinder. The combs are always fixed on a piece called the +"half-lap," which, in its turn, is secured to a barrel called the +"comb-stock." Now it is very desirable and important that these +half-laps should be perfectly true and exactly interchangeable. +When one half-lap is taken off for repairs, another half-lap must +be ready to take its place on the cylinder. The original mode in +which the cylinders were made rendered it a matter of mechanical +difficulty—almost an impossibility in the machine +shop—to produce them exactly alike. To avoid this difficulty, +Messrs. Dobson and Barlow have reconstructed the combing cylinder, +and the parts being fitted together by simple turning or boring, +accuracy and interchangeability can always be depended upon. The +screws which fasten the cylinder to the shaft are also cased up +with the cylinder tins, thus avoiding any accumulation of fly on +the screw heads.</p> + +<p>The motion for working the top detaching, the leather, or the +piecing roller, as it is variously called, has also been improved. +The ends of this roller are always carried on the top of two levers +that are oscillated by a connecting rod attached to their bottom +ends. In the new motion the connecting rod is dispensed with, and +one joint saved. The joint that remains is at the foot of the +levers that carry the leather roller. This joint is constructed so +that it may be easily altered, and by its means one of the most +delicate settings of the combing machine, viz., that of the leather +roller, may be made with greater readiness than with the old +system. Further, from the mode of mounting these rollers another +advantage is gained in the facility of setting them. In setting +with the old arrangement, only one end of the roller is adjusted at +a time; in the new, the adjustment sets the ends of two rollers. +With regard to the leather roller also, it was found that as the +round brass tubes in which its ends revolved had very little +wearing surface, they got worn into flats on the outside, and thus +worked inaccurately. In the machine under notice this defect is +remedied. The tubes are made square on the outside, and having +ample bearing surface they keep their adjustment perfectly.</p> + +<p>On the top of the detaching roller is a large steel fluted +roller carried at each end by a small arm called a "horse tail." In +the original machine this roller simply kept its place upon the +detaching roller by its weight, and when the machine came to be run +at high speeds it was found that owing to its lightness the contact +thus obtained was not reliable, the flutes or ribs of the roller +slipping upon those of the detaching roller, which for good work is +undesirable. This is remedied by placing a heavier top roller in +the horse tails, which is made with a broader bearing so as to give +greater solidity to the top roller. Another good idea we noticed in +this machine was in the application of a treble brush carrier +wheel, which permits of the brushes being driven at three different +speeds as they become worn. For instance, when the brushes are new +the bristles are long, and consequently they are not required to +revolve as quickly as when the bristles are far worn. By this +improvement the brush lasts considerably longer than in any other +system of machine. Their speed can also be regulated according to +the length of the bristles, and the change from one speed to the +other can be effected in a very few minutes.</p> + +<p>A common defect in combing machines is the flocking that +frequently happens. This is the filling up of the combs on the +cylinder with dirt and cotton, which the brush fails to remove. +Although in general appearance the cleaning apparatus is the same +as the ordinary one, modifications are introduced which make its +action always effective and reliable. We were informed by a mill +manager, who has a great number of these combers, that he meets +with no inconvenience from flocking from one week end to another. +Altogether, it will be seen that Messrs. Dobson and Barlow have +almost reconstructed the machine, strengthening and improving those +parts which experience showed it was necessary to modify. As a +result their improved machine works at a high speed (80 to 95 +strokes per minute, according to the class of cotton), with great +smoothness and without noise, and from the almost complete absense +of vibration the risk of breakages is reduced to a +minimum.—<i>Textile Manufacturer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="9"></a> + +<h2>THE MUNICIPAL SCHOOL FOR INSTRUCTION IN WATCH-MAKING, AT +GENEVA.</h2> + +<p>When, in 1587, Charles Cusin, of Autun, settled at Geneva and +introduced the manufacture of watches there, he had no idea of the +extraordinary development that this new industry was to assume. At +the end of the seventeenth century this city already contained a +hundred master watch makers and eighty master jewelers, and the +products of her manufactures soon became known and appreciated by +the whole world.</p> + +<p>The French revolution arrested this impetus, but the entrance of +the Canton of Geneva into the Confederation in 1814, rendered +commerce, the arts, and the industries somewhat active, and +watch-making soon saw a new era of prosperity dawning.</p> + +<p>On the 13th of Feb., 1824, at the instigation of a few devoted +citizens, the industrial section of the Society of Arts adopted the +resolution to form a watch-making school, which, having been +created by private initiative, was only sustained through +considerable sacrifices.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7a_th.jpg" alt= +" CLASS IN ESCAPEMENTS AT THE WATCH MAKING SCHOOL, GENEVA."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">CLASS IN ESCAPEMENTS AT THE WATCH MAKING SCHOOL, +GENEVA.</p> + +<p>In 1840 the school was transferred to the granary building +belonging to the city. In 1842, when it contained about fifty +pupils, it was made over to the administrative council of the city +by the committee of the Society of Arts. From 1824 to 1842 the +school had given instruction to about two hundred pupils. From 1843 +to 1879 it was frequented by nearly eight hundred pupils, +two-thirds of whom were Genevans, and the other third Swiss of +other cantons and foreigners.</p> + +<p>The school, then, has furnished the watch-making industry with +the respectable number of a thousand workmen, among whom large +numbers have been, or are yet, distinguished artists.</p> + +<p>The rooms of the granary, where the school remained for nearly +forty years, became inadequate, despite the successive additions +that had been made to them, and it became necessary to completely +transform them. The magnificent legacy that the city owes to the +munificence of the Duke of Brunswick was partly employed in the +reorganization, and the school is now located in a vast building +designed to answer the requirements of instruction. This structure, +which is located in Necker Street, presents an imposing and severe +aspect. The main building embraces most of the workshops, the +office, the library, and the classroom for instruction in +mechanics, all of which receive a direct light. At right angles +with the main building are two wings. The one to the north contains +in its three upper stories workshops occupied by classes in +escapements, bezil setting, compensating balances, and ruby +working. On the ground floor are installed juvenile schools.</p> + +<p>The south wing contains halls for lectures on theory, and two +workshops looking toward the north. The ground floor is used for +the same purpose as that of the north wing.</p> + +<p>Finally, in the center of the main building is a wing parallel +with its two mates. It is in this that is located the vast +staircase that leads to spacious landings at which ends on every +story a large corridor common to all the halls and workshops. It is +in this part of the building that we find the amphitheater of +physics and chemistry and the laboratories. Here also is located +the museum in course of formation (gotten up in view of the +historical study of watch-making), and the amphitheater designed +for certain public lecture courses.</p> + +<p>In the way of heating and lighting all parts of the building +nothing has been neglected, and special care has been taken to have +the ventilation perfect.</p> + +<p>At present the instruction comprises a practical and a +theoretical course.</p> + +<p><i>Practical Instruction</i>.—This is divided into three +sections: (1) an elementary one having in view the construction of +the simple watch in its essential parts; (2) a higher section in +which the pupils learn to recognize the complicated parts; and (3) +a section of mechanics applied to watch-making and to the study of +the construction of machines and tools for facilitating and +improving the manufacture.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Elementary Section, First Year</i>.—The pupil must +manufacture all the small tools necessary for making unfinished +movements; that is, drills, reamers, punches, files, etc. He must +then learn to file and turn, and to make use of the finishing lathe +with the bow, or of the foot lathe.</p> + +<p>In general, the time taken by an apprentice to manufacture his +tools is from two to three months, and he can scarcely go to work +on the movements before this.</p> + +<p>In this class the regular pupils have to execute seven pieces of +work in the rough, two for horizontal escapements with key and +regulating wheel, and five for various other escapements. Among +these there is one for simple repetition and one for minute piece. +Aside from the work fixed by the programme, the pupils may +manufacture all the other complicated pieces upon obtaining the +authority for it from their masters and the director.</p> + +<p>The average time employed in performing the work imposed by the +programme necessarily depends upon the capacity of the pupil, but +we may say that in general ten months are necessary.</p> + +<p><i>Second Year</i>.—After executing his last piece of work +in a satisfactory manner, the apprentice passes into the class in +regulators, where he begins to manufacture the small tools that he +will require.</p> + +<p>In this work, as in the preceding, he must take all his pieces +from the crude metal, and he must do the forging himself, as well +as the roughing down, the turning, filing, and shaping, and finally +the finishing, without the aid of any other machine than the +dividing one.</p> + +<p>In general, after eighteen months of work, the apprentice goes +to the finishing shop, where the delicate and minute work begins, +pivoting, putting the wheels in place, and practical study of +gearings. After learning how to divide a wheel correctly, he is set +to work on pinions and wheels in the rough, which he must rivet, +finish, and pivot according to the different planes of the pieces +that have been calculated and executed by him under the direction +of the master.</p> + +<p>The programme to be followed by the pupils of the class in +finishing is, as regards number of pieces, the same as that of the +preceding classes, that is to say, seven.</p> + +<p>In general, the pupil passes from the class in finishing to the +class in dial-trains, where he makes two of these for his +pieces—one a simple and the other a minute train. The +teaching of this part is very important as regards the manufacture +of escapements. In constructing the dial train, the pupil perfects +his filing and learns to make the adjustments correct.</p> + +<p>The last class in the elementary instruction is the one in +escapements (Fig. 1), the programme of which includes several +distinct parts: (1) The tools that are strictly necessary; (2) +escapement and cylinder adjustment; (3) making the compensating +balances for the pupil's pieces; (4) pivoting, putting in place, +and finishing the escapements in regulating pieces. Here, as in the +preceding classes, the pupils must do all the work themselves. +During their stay in the elementary classes the work done is +submitted to the director, who examines it and sends it back to the +instructors accompanied with a bulletin containing his estimate as +to its value, and his observations if there is occasion to make +any.</p> + +<p>Pupils who cannot or who do not wish to go over the entire field +of the programme stop here, and are now capable of earning their +living and of lightening the load that oppresses their +parents.—<i>Science et Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="6"></a> + +<h2>MACHINE FOR POLISHING BOOTS AND SHOES.</h2> + +<p>The principle of an apparatus for blackening boots and shoes +dates back to 1838, the epoch at which a machine of this kind was +put into use at the Polytechnic School. Since then it seems that +not many applications have been made of it, notwithstanding the +services that a machine of this kind is capable of rendering in +barracks, lyceums, hotels, etc. Mr. Audoye, an inventor, has +recently taken up the question again, and has proposed to The +Société d'Encouragement a model that gives a +practical solution of it. The use of this will allow a notable +saving in time and trouble to be effected.</p> + +<p>This brush (see engraving) revolves around a horizontal axle +supported by a cast iron frame similar to that of a sewing machine. +Motion is communicated to it by a double pedal, which actuates a +connecting rod and a system of pulleys. The external surface of the +brush contains three channels in which the foot gear to be polished +is successively placed. In the first of these the dust and mud are +removed, in the second the blacking is spread on, and in the third +the final polish is obtained.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7b_th.jpg" alt= +" MACHINE FOR POLISHING BOOTS AND SHOES."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">MACHINE FOR POLISHING BOOTS AND SHOES.</p> + +<p>In order to guide the blacking to that part of the brush which +is to receive it, Mr. Audoye protects the lower part of the latter +by a half-cylinder of sheet iron. On this there is placed a vessel +containing the blacking, and into which dips a copper cylinder +having a grooved surface. The horizontal axis of this cylinder is +movable; when at rest it is so placed that the cylinder is an inch +or so below the brush, but when the operator pulls a button that is +within reach of his left hand, the axis is lifted, a contact takes +place between the brush and the cylinder, and the former is thus +given a rotary motion. As the cylinder still continues to dip into +the blacking, the latter is thus spread ever the brush.—<i>La +Genie Civil</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="10"></a> + +<h2>PERSONAL SAFETY WITH THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS.</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American</i>:</p> + +<p>In your paper of the 21st of February there is an article on +personal safety with electric currents, by Prof. A.E. Dolbear. He +says that a Holtz machine may give through a short wire a very +strong current. For if E = 50,000 volts, R = 0.001 ohm, then C = +50000/0.001 = 50,000,000 amperes. Now that is a very large quantity +of electricity, and is equal to an enormous horse power. I think +the person receiving that charge would not need another. According +to Ohm's law, the strength of current is proportional to the +electromotive force divided by the total resistance, external and +internal. The last is a very important element in the Holtz +machine, and will make a big difference in the current strength. +Here are some of the results obtained from experiments made with +the Holtz machine. A machine with a plate 46 in. in diameter, +making 5 turns in 3 seconds, produced a constant current capable of +decomposing 3½ millionths of a milligram in a second. This +is equal to the effect produced by a Grove's cell in a circuit of +45,000 ohms resistance. The current produced would be about +0.0000044 ampere. That is rather small compared with the +Professor's result. Rossetti found that the current is nearly +proportional to the velocity of rotation. It increases a little +faster than the velocity.</p> + +<p>The electromotive force and resistance is constant if the +velocity is constant. The electromotive force is independent of the +velocity, but diminishes as the moisture increases, and is about +equal to 52,000 Daniell cells. The resistance when making 120 +revolutions per minute is 2,810 million ohms. At 450 per minute, +646 million.</p> + +<p>Taking it at 450, C = 53950/64600000.001 = 0.0000835 ampere, +against the Professor's 50,000,000, amperes, and it would be equal +to about 0.006 horse power, which I think would be the more correct +of the two; calling E equal to 50,000 Daniell cells.</p> + +<p>Yours, Respectfully,</p> + +<p>E. ELLSWORTH.</p> + +<p>Portland, Me., March 5, 1885.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="11"></a> + +<h2>A VISIT TO CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES IN THE YEAR 1884.<a +name="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Mr. W.H. PREECE, F.R.S.</h3> + +<p>I do not know what the sensations of a man can be who is about +to undergo the painful operation of execution; but I am inclined to +think his sensations must be somewhat similar to those of a +lecturer, brimful of notes, who has to wait until the clock strikes +before he is allowed to address his audience.</p> + +<p>The President has been kind enough to refer to the paper I +propose to give you, as "Electricity in America in the year 1884;" +but I would rather, after having thought more about it, that it be +called "A Visit to Canada and the United States in the year +1884."</p> + +<p>It will be in the recollection of a good many who are present +that in the year 1877 I visited America, in conjunction with Mr. +H.C. Fischer, the Controller of our Central Telegraph Station, to +officially inspect and report upon the telegraph arrangements of +that country; and on the 9th February, 1878, I had the pleasure of +communicating to the members of this Society my experiences of that +visit.</p> + +<p>During the present year my visit was not an official one; I went +for a holiday, and specially to accompany the members of the +British Association, who, for the first time in the history of that +association, held a meeting outside the limits of the United +Kingdom.</p> + +<p>We sailed from Liverpool in a splendid steamship called the +Parisian. There were nearly 200 B.A. members on board; and +notwithstanding the fact that rude Boreas tried all he could to +prevent us from reaching the other side of the Atlantic; +notwithstanding the fact that the Atlantic expressed its anger in +the most unmistakable terms at our audacity in turning from our +native shore; notwithstanding the fact that Greenland's icy +mountains blew chilly blasts upon us, and made us call out all the +warm things we possessed—I say notwithstanding all this, we +reached the Gulf of St. Lawrence in safety, and I do not think that +a merrier or a happier crew ever crossed the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>There is one very interesting fact that is not generally known, +and I certainly was unaware of it before I started, in connection +with this particular route across the Atlantic, and that is, that +by it the ship passes within only 200 miles of Greenland. The great +circle that directs the shortest route from the north of Ireland to +the Straits of Belle Isle passes within the cold region, and hence, +while you were all sweltering in heat in London, we were compelled +to bring out our ulsters and all our warm garments, to enable us to +cross with any degree of comfort. The advantage of this particular +route is supposed to be the fact that only five days are spent upon +the ocean, and the remainder of the voyage is occupied in the calms +and comforts of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. But I am inclined +to think that the roughness of the ocean and the coolness of the +weather at all seasons are quite sufficient to prevent anybody from +repeating our experience.</p> + +<p>We arrived at Montreal in time to attend the opening meeting of +the British Association; and at Montreal we were received with +great hospitality, great attention, and great kindness from all our +brethren in Canada, and we held there certainly a very successful +and very pleasant gathering. There were 1,773 members of the +British Association altogether present, and of that number there +were 600 who had crossed the Atlantic; the remainder being made up +of Canadians, and by at least 200 Americans, including all the most +distinguished professors who adorn the rolls of science in the +United States. As is invariably the rule in these British +Association meetings, we had not only papers to enlighten us, but +entertainments to cheer us; and excursions were arranged in every +direction, to enable us to become acquainted with the beauties and +peculiarities of the American continent. Some members went to +Quebec, some to Ottawa, others to the Lakes, others to Toronto, +many went to Niagara; and altogether the arrangements made for our +comfort and pleasure were such, that I have not heard one single +soul who attended this meeting at Montreal express the slightest +regret that he crossed the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>The meeting at Montreal certainly cannot be called an +electricians' meeting. The gathering of the British Association has +often been distinguished by the first appearance of some new +instrument or the divulgence of some new scientific secret; but +there was nothing of any special interest brought forward on this +occasion. The only real novelty or striking fact that I can recall +as having taken place was a remarkable discussion that originated +by Professor Oliver Lodge, upon the "Seat of the Electromotive +Force in a Voltaic Cell."</p> + +<p>This was an experiment on the part of the British Association. +Discussions, as a rule, have not been the case at our meetings. +Papers have been read and papers have been discussed; but on this +occasion three or four subjects were named as fit for discussion, +and distinguished professors were selected to open the +discussion.</p> + +<p>On this particular subject, Professor Oliver Lodge opened the +discussion, and he did so in an original, an efficient, and in a +chirpy kind of manner that took by storm not only the professors +who knew him, but those who did not know him; and I am bound to say +that I do not think we could possibly better spend an evening +during the coming session, or more profitably, than by asking +Professor Oliver Lodge to bring the subject before this Society, so +as to allow us on this side of the water to discuss the same +subject.</p> + +<p>Of course the prominent figure at our meetings was Lord +Rayleigh; and I do not think that any person could possibly have +been present at those meetings of the British Association without +feeling an intense personal admiration for this man, and an +affection for the way in which he maintained the position of an +English gentleman and the credit of an English scientific body, to +the astonishment and delight of every one present. Then, again, we +had our past President, Sir William Thomson, who was not quite so +ubiquitous as usual; he did not dance from section to section as he +usually does, but remained as president of his own section, A. I +think he only left his section for a day, and that was to attend +the electrical day in Section G; but in his own section he brought +down those words of wisdom that one always hears from him, and +which make one always regret that there is not always present about +him a shorthand writer to take down thoughts and ideas that never +occur again, and are only heard by those who have the benefit of +being present.</p> + +<p>The subjects brought forward were not of intense interest. We +had a paper by Dr. Traill, describing the Portrush Railway, and +there were various other papers; and I can pass over some of the +other subjects, because I shall have to deal with them under +another head. But while we were in Montreal, a deputation of +American professors and members of the American Association came +over, and invited a good many of those who were present at Montreal +to visit the American Association at Philadelphia. I was one of +those who went over to America simply and solely for a holiday, and +I am bound to say that I set my face determinedly against going to +Philadelphia. I traveled with two charming companions, and we all +decided not to go to Philadelphia. But the compact was broken, and +we capitulated, and went from the charming climate of Montreal into +the most intense heat and into the greatest discomfort that I think +poor members of the Telegraph Engineers' Society ever experienced. +We entered a heat that was 100° by day and 98° by night; +and I do not think there is anybody in this room, unless he has +been brought up in the furnace-room of an Atlantic steamer, who can +fully appreciate the heat of Philadelphia in these summer months. +The discomforts of the climate were, however, amply compensated for +by the hospitality and kindness of the inhabitants. We spent, in +spite of the heat, a very pleasant time.</p> + +<p>Before referring further to the meetings at Philadelphia, I may +just mention the other journeys that I took. My holiday having been +broken by the rupture of the union to which I have alluded, I had +to devote it then to other purposes, and, in addition to Montreal +and Philadelphia, I went to New York (to which I shall refer +again), from New York to Buffalo, then to Lake Erie and Cleveland, +and on to Chicago, where I spent a week or more. From Chicago I +went to see the great artery of the West—the Mississippi. I +stopped for a day or two at St. Louis. One remarkable fact came to +my knowledge, and I dare say it is new to many present, and that +is, that the Mississippi, unlike other rivers, runs uphill. It +happens, rather curiously, that, owing to the earth being an oblate +spheroid, the difference between the source of the Mississippi and +the center of the earth is less than that of its mouth and the +center of the earth, and you may see how this running up hill is +accounted for.</p> + +<p>From St. Louis I went to Indianapolis, thence to Pittsburg, +where they have struck most extraordinary wells of natural gas. +Borings are made in the earth from the crust to a depth of 600 or +700 feet, when large reservoirs of natural gas are "struck." The +town is lighted by this gas, and it is also employed for motive +power. In Cleveland, also, this natural gas is found, and there is +no doubt that it is going to economize the cost of production very +much in that part of the country. From Pittsburg I went to +Baltimore, where Sir William Thomson was occupied in delivering +lectures to the students of the Johns Hopkins University. In all +these American towns one very curious feature is that they all have +great educational establishments, endowed and formed by private +munificence. In Canada there is the McGill University, and in +nearly every place one goes to there is a university, like the +Johns Hopkins at Baltimore, where Johns Hopkins left 3,500,000 +dollars to be devoted entirely to educational purposes; and that +university is under the management of one of the most enlightened +men in America, Professor Grillman, and he has as his lieutenants +Professors Rowland, Mendenhall, and other well-known men, and each +professor is in his own line particularly eminent. Sir William +Thomson delivered there a really splendid course of lectures. From +Baltimore I went through Philadelphia to Boston. I visited Long +Branch, and I spent a long time in New York, so that from what I +have said you will gather that I spent a good deal of my time in +the States. Wherever I went I devoted all my leisure time to +inquiry into the telegraphic, telephonic, and electric light +arrangements in existence. I visited all the manufactories I could +get to, and I did all I possibly could to enable me to return home +and afford information, and perhaps amusement, to my fellow-members +of this Society.</p> + +<p>As an illustration of the intense heat we experienced, I may +mention that it was at one time perfectly impossible to make the +thermometer budge. The temperature of the blood is about 97 or 98 +degrees, and if the temperature of the air be below the temperature +of the blood, of course when the hand is applied to the thermometer +the mercury rises. In one of our journeys up the Pennsylvania Road +we tried to make the thermometer budge as usual, but could not, +which proved that the temperature of the air inside the Pullman car +in which we traveled was the same as that of the blood.</p> + +<p>The American Association is of course based on the British +Association. Its mode of administration is a little different. It +is divided into sections, as is the British Association, but the +sections are not called the same. For instance, in the British +Association, Section A is devoted entirely to physics, but in the +American Association, Section A is devoted to astronomy and Section +B to physics. In the British Association, Section G is devoted to +mechanics, but in America Section D is devoted to that subject. But +with the exception of just a change in the names of some sections +which are familiar as household words to members of the British +Association, the proceedings of the American Association do not +differ very much from ours. They have, however, one very sensible +rule. The length of every paper is indicated upon the programme of +the day's proceedings, and the continuation or the stopping of any +discussion on that paper is in the hands of the section. For +instance, if the President thinks that a man is speaking too long, +he has only to say, "Does the meeting wish that this discussion +shall be continued, or shall it be stopped?" A majority on the show +of hands decides. Such a practice has a very wholesome effect in +checking discussion, and I certainly think that some of our +societies would do well to adopt a rule of the same character.</p> + +<p>The meeting of the American Association, again, was not +distinguished by any particular electrical paper, or any new +electrical subject. The main subject that was brought before us was +the peculiar effect called "Hall's effect," that Professor Hall, +now of Harvard College, and then assistant to Professor Rowland, +discovered in the powerful field of a magnet when a current was +passed through a conductor; and a description of that effect (which +he at one time thought was an indication that electricity was +something separate from matter) formed the subject of two debates +that lasted for nearly the whole of two days. I am bound to say +that in that prolonged discussion the members of this Society held +their own. I see two very prominent members present who spoke on +most of the electrical subjects dealt with—Professor G. +Forbes, who knows what he says and says what he knows, and +Professor Silvanus Thompson, who held his own under very trying +circumstances.</p> + +<p>At the same time that this meeting of the American Association +was being held at Philadelphia, where we were treated with +marvelous hospitality,—excursions, soirées, dinners, +parties, etc., etc.—and as though it were not quite +sufficient to bring over humble Britishers from this side of the +Atlantic to suffer the intense heat at one meeting of the +Association, they held at the same time an Electrical Conference. +There was a conference of electricians appointed by the United +States Government, that was chiefly distinguished on the part of +the American Government by selecting those who were not +electricians. But many attended the Electrical Conference who stand +high as electricians, one especially, who, though perhaps from want +of experience he did not shine very brilliantly as a chairman, +certainly stands as one of the ablest electricians of the +day—I mean Professor Rowland. The Conference was held under +Professor Rowland's presidency, and nearly all the well-known +professors of the United States attended. The Conference was +established by the United States Government to take into +consideration the results and conclusions arrived at by the +Congress of 1884, held in Paris. The Paris Congress decided upon +adopting certain units of resistance of electromotive force, of +current, and of quantity, and they determined the particular length +of a column of mercury that should represent the ohm—a column +of mercury 106 centimeters long and of one square millimeter in +section. It was necessary that the United States should join this +Conference, so a commission was appointed to consider the whole +matter. All these units were brought before them, as well as the +other conclusions of the Paris Congress, such as the proper mode of +recording earth currents and atmospheric electricity. The Paris +units were adopted in face of the fact that the length determined +upon at Paris was not the length that Professor Rowland himself had +found as that which should represent the ohm. It differed by about +0.2, as near as I can remember; but it was thought so necessary +that uniformity and unanimity should exist all over the world in +the adoption of a proper unit, that all differences were laid +aside, and the Americans agreed to comply with the resolutions of +the Paris Congress.</p> + +<p>There were two units that I had the temerity to bring forward, +first, at the British Association, and secondly, before the +Electrical Conference. It will be remembered, that at the meeting +of the British Association at Southampton in 1882, the late Sir W. +Siemens proposed that the unit of power should be the watt, and +that the watt, which was derived from the C.G.S. system of absolute +units, should in future, among electricians, be the unit of power. +This was accepted by the British Association at Montreal, and it +was also accepted by the American Electrical Conference at +Philadelphia. But I also, at Montreal, suggested that as the watt +was the unit of power, so we ought to make some multiple of that +unit the higher unit of power, comparable to that which is now +represented by the well-known term "horsepower." Horsepower, +unfortunately, does not form itself directly into the C.G.S. +system. The term horsepower is a meaningless quantity; it is not a +horsepower at all. It was established by the great Watt, who +determined that the average power exerted by a horse was equal to +about 22,000 foot pounds raised per minute; but this was thought by +him to be too little, so he increased it by 50 per cent., and so +arrived at what is the present horsepower, 33,000 foot pounds +raised per minute. Foot pounds bear no relation to our C.G.S. +system of units, and it is most desirable that we should have some +unit of power, somewhere about the horsepower, to enable us to +convert at once watts into horsepower. For that purpose I proposed +that 1,000 watts, or the kilowatt, should replace what is now +called the horsepower, and suggested it for the consideration of +engineers. It has been received with a great deal of consideration +by those who understand the subject, and a considerable amount of +ridicule by those who do not. It is rather a remarkable thing that, +as a rule, one will always find ridicule and ignorance running side +by side; and it is an almost invariable fact that when a new +proposition is brought forward, it is laughed at. I am always very +glad to see that, because it always succeeds in drawing attention +to the matter. I remember a friend of mine, who had written a book, +being in great glee because it was severely criticised by the +<i>Athenæum</i>, a fact which drew public attention to the +book, and caused it to make a great stir. So when I proposed that +the horsepower should be increased by 33 per cent., and made +equivalent to 1,000 watts, I was not at all sorry to find that I +had incurred the displeasure of the leader writers in nearly all +our scientific papers, and I was quite sure that the attention of +those who would not perhaps have thought of it would thereby be +drawn to the matter. Some people object to the use of a name, this +name "watt." When you have fresh ideas, you must have fresh words +to express those ideas. The watt was a new unit, it must be called +by some name, otherwise it could scarcely be conveyed to our minds. +The foot, the gallon, the yard, were all new names once; and how do +we know that they were not derived from some "John Foot," "William +Gallon," or "Jack Yard," or some man whose name was connected with +the measure when introduced? The poet says:</p> + +<pre> + "Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest— + Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood:" +</pre> + +<p>so in these names some forgotten physicist or mute engineer may +be buried. At any rate, we cannot do without names. The ohm, the +ampere, the volt, are merely words that express ideas that we all +understand; and so does the watt, and so will the 1,000 watts when +you come to think over the matter as much as some of us have +done.</p> + +<p>At this Conference several other subjects were brought up which +attracted a good deal of attention. Professor Rowland brought +forward a paper on the theory of dynamos that certainly startled a +good many of us; and it led to a discussion that is admirably +reported in our scientific papers. I think that the discussion +evolved by Professor Rowland's paper on the theory of dynamos +deserves the study of every electrician; it brought very strongly +into prominence one or two English gentlemen who were present. +Professor Fitzgerald, of Dublin, spoke with a considerable amount +of power, and showed a mastery of the subject that was pleasant not +only to his friends, but must have been gratifying to the Americans +who heard him. On this particular subject of dynamos it was truly +wonderful how the doctors disagreed. Two could not be found who +held the same views on the theory and construction of the dynamo, +and that shows that we still have a great deal to learn about the +dynamo, and that the true principle of construction of it has yet +to be brought out.</p> + +<p>It is a very curious thing, and I thought about it at the time, +that when you consider the dynamos in use, you see how very little +has been done to perfect the direct working dynamo in England. +Although the principle of the dynamo originated with Faraday, yet +all the early machines, Pacinotti, Gramme. Hefner von Alteneck, +Shuckert, Brush, Edison, and several others who have improved the +direct action machine, have not been found in England. But when we +deal with alternate-current machines, then we find the Wilde, +Ferranti, and various others; so that the tendency in England has +been very much to improve and work upon the alternate-current +machines. In other countries it is exactly the reverse; in fact, in +America I never saw one single alternate-current machine. When +Professor Forbes wanted an alternate-current machine to illustrate +a lecture that he gave, it was with the greatest difficulty that +one could be found, and, in fact, it was put together specially for +him.</p> + +<p>The other subjects brought before this Conference were Earth +Currents, Atmospheric Electricity, Accumulators or Secondary +Batteries, and Telephones. There was an extremely able paper +brought forward by Mr. T.D. Lockwood, the electrician of the +American Bell Telephone Company, on Telephones, and the +disturbances that influence their working. When that paper is +published, it will well be worth your careful examination.</p> + +<p>Papers were also read on the Transmission of Energy, and there +were papers on many other subjects.</p> + +<p>So much for the Electrical Conference.</p> + +<p>Now, the Americans at the present moment are suffering from a +mania which we, happily, have passed through, that is, the mania of +exhibitions.</p> + +<p>While we were at Philadelphia, there was an exceedingly +interesting exhibition held. I do not intend to say much about that +exhibition, for the simple reason that Professor G. Forbes has +promised, during the forthcoming session, to give us a paper +describing what he saw there, and his studies at Philadelphia; and +I am quite sure that it will be a paper worthy of him, and of you. +But, apart from this exhibition at Philadelphia, I could not go +anywhere without finding an exhibition. There was one at Chicago, +another at St. Louis, another at Boston; everybody was talking +about one at Louisville, where I did not go; and there were rumors +of great preparations for the "largest exhibition the world has +ever seen," according to their own account, at New Orleans. +However, I satisfied myself with seeing the exhibition at +Philadelphia, which consisted strictly of American goods, and was +not of the international nature general to such exhibitions. But it +was a fine exhibition, and one that no other single nation could +bring together.</p> + +<p><i>Telegraphs</i>.—When I spoke to you in 1878, my remarks +were almost entirely confined to telegraphs, for at that day the +telephone was not, as a practical instrument, in existence. I +brought from America on that occasion the first telephones that +were brought to this country. Then the practical application of +electricity was applied to telegraphs, and so telegraphs formed the +subject of my theme. But while in 1877 I saw a great deal to learn, +and picked up a great many wrinkles, and brought back from America +a good many processes, I go back there now in 1884, seven years +afterward, and I do not find one single advance made—I +comeback with scarcely one single wrinkle; and, in fact, while we +in England during those seven years have progressed with giant +strides, in America, in telegraph matters, they have stood still. +But their material progress has been marvelous. In 1877, the +mileage of wire belonging to the Western Union Telegraph Company +was 200,000 miles; in 1884, they have 433,726 miles of wire; so +that during the seven years their mileage of wire has more than +doubled. During the same period their number of messages has +increased from 28,000,000 to over 40,000,000; their offices from +11,660 to 13,600; and the capital invested in their concern has +increased from $40,000,000 to $80,000,000—in fact, there is +no more gigantic telegraph organization in this world that this +Western Union Telegraph Company. It is a remarkable undertaking, +and I do not suppose there is an administration better managed. But +for some reason or other that I cannot account for, their +scientific progress has not marched with their material progress, +and invention has to a certain extent there ceased. There really +was only one telegraphic novelty to be found in the States, and +that was an instrument by Delany—a multiplex instrument by +which six messages could be sent in one or other direction at the +same time. It is an instrument that is dependent upon the principle +introduced by Meyer, where time is divided into a certain number of +sections, and where synchronous action is maintained between two +instruments. This system has been worked out with great perfection +in France by Baudot. We had a paper by Colonel Webber on the +subject, before the Society, in which the process was fully +described. Delany, in the States, has carried the process a little +further, by making it applicable to the ordinary Morse sending. On +the Meyer and Baudot principle, the ordinary Morse sender has to +wait for certain clicks, which indicate at which moment a letter +may be sent; but on the Delany plan each of the six clerks can peg +away as he chooses—he can send at any rate he likes, and he +is not disturbed in any way by having any sound to guide or control +his ear. The Delany is a very promising system. It may not work to +long distances; but the apparatus is promised to be brought over to +this country, to be exhibited at the Inventors' Exhibition next +year, and I can safely say that the Post Office will give every +possible facility to try the new invention upon its wires.</p> + +<p>One gratifying effect of my visit to the telegraph +establishments in America was that, while hitherto we have never +hesitated in England to adopt any process or invention that was a +distinct advance, whether it came from America or anywhere else, +they on the other hand have shown a disinclination to adopt +anything British; but they have now adopted our Wheatstone +automatic system. That system is at work between New Orleans and +Chicago, and New York and New Orleans—1,600 miles. It has +given them so much satisfaction that they are going to increase it +very largely; so that we really have the proud satisfaction of +finding a real, true British invention well established on the +other side of the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>The next branch that I propose to bring to your notice is the +question of the telephone.</p> + +<p>The telephone has passed through rather an awkward phase in the +States. A very determined attempt has been made to upset the Bell +patents in that country; and those who visited the Philadelphia +Exhibition saw the instruments there exhibited upon which the +advocates of the plaintiff relied. It is said that a very ingenious +American, named Drawbaugh, had anticipated all the inventors of +every part of the telephone system; that he had invented a receiver +before Bell; that he had invented the compressed carbon arrangement +before Edison; that he had invented the microphone before our +friend Professor Hughes; and that, in fact, he had done everything +on the face of the earth to establish the claims set forth. Some of +his patents were shown, and I not only had to examine his patents, +but I had to go through a great many depositions of the evidence +given, and I am bound to confess that a more flimsy case I never +saw brought before a court of law. I do not know whether I shall be +libelous in expressing my opinion (I will refer to our solicitor +before the notes are printed), but I should not hesitate to say +that I never saw a more evident conspiracy concocted to try and +disturb the position of a well-established patent. However, I have +heard that the judgment has been given as the public generally +supposed it would be given; because as soon as the case was over +the shares of the Bell company, which were at 150, jumped up to +190, and now the decision is given I am told that they will +probably reach 290.</p> + +<p>We cannot form a conception on this side of the Atlantic of the +extent to which telephones are used on the other side of the +Atlantic. It is said sometimes that the progress of the telephone +on this side of the water has been checked very much by the +restrictions brought to bear upon the telephone by the Government +of this country. But whatever restrictions have been instituted by +our Government upon the adoption of the telephone, they are not to +be compared with the restrictions that the poor unfortunate +telephone companies have to struggle against on the other side of +the Atlantic. There is not a town that does not mulct them in taxes +for every pole they erect, and for every wire they extend through +the streets. There is not a State that does not exact from them a +tax; and I was assured, and I know as a fact, that in one +particular case there was one company—a flourishing +company—that was mulcted is 75 per cent. of its receipts +before it could possibly pay a dividend. Here we only ask the +telephone companies to pay to the poor, impoverished British +Government 10 per cent.; and 10 per cent. by the side of 75 per +cent. certainly cuts but a very sorry figure. But the truth is, the +reason why the telephone is flourishing in America is that it is an +absolute necessity there for the proper transaction of business. +Where you exist in a sort of Turkish bath at from 90° to +100°, you want to be saved every possible reason for leaving +your office to conduct your business; and the telephone comes in as +a means whereby you can do so, and can loll back in your arm chair, +with your legs up in the air, with a cigar in your mouth, with a +punkah waving over your head, and a bottle of iced water by your +side. By the telephone, under such circumstances, business +transactions can be carried on with comfort to yourself and to him +with whom your business is transacted. We have not similar +conditions here. We are always glad of an excuse to get out of our +offices. In America, too, servants and messengers are the +exception, a boy is not to be had, whereas in England we get an +errand boy at half a crown a week. That which costs half a crown +here costs 12s. to 15s. in America; and, that being so, it is much +better to pay the telephone company a sum that will, at less cost, +enable your business to be transacted without the engagement of +such a boy.</p> + +<p>The Americans, again, adopt electrical contrivances for all +sorts of domestic purposes. There is not a single house in New +York, Chicago, or anywhere else that I went into, that has not in +the hall a little instrument [producing one] which, by the turn of +a pointer and the pressing of a handle, calls for a messenger, a +carriage, a cab, express wagon (that is, the fellow who looks after +your luggage), a doctor, policeman, fire-alarm, or anything else as +may be arranged for. The little instrument communicates to a +central office not far off, and in two minutes the doctor, or +messenger, or whatever it may be, presents himself.</p> + +<p>For fire-alarms and for all sorts of purposes, domestic +telegraphy is part and parcel of the nature of an American, and the +result was that when the telephone was brought to him, he adopted +it with avidity. On this side of the Atlantic domestic telegraphy +is at a minimum, and I do not think any one would have a telephone +in his house if he could help it.</p> + +<p>When you want a thing, you must pay for it. The Americans want +the telephone, and they pay for it. In London people grumble very +much at having to pay £20 to the Telephone Company for the +use of a telephone. I question very much whether £20 a year +is quite enough; at any rate, it is not enough if the American +charge is taken as a standard. The charge in New York is of two +classes—one for a system called the law system, which is +applied almost exclusively for the use of lawyers, which is +£44 a year; the other being the charge made to the ordinary +public, and which will compare with the service rendered in London, +which is charged for at £35 a year, against £20 a year +in London. The charge in Chicago is £26 a year; in Boston, +Philadelphia, and a great many other places it is £25 a year. +At Buffalo a mode of charging by results is adopted; everybody pays +for each oral message he sends—every time he uses the +telephone he pays either four, five, or six cents, according to the +number for which he guarantees. Supposing any one of us wanted a +telephone at Buffalo, the company will supply it under a guarantee +to pay for a minimum of 500 messages per annum. If 1,000 messages +are sent, the charge is less <i>pro rata</i>, being six cents, if I +remember rightly, for each message under 500, and five cents up to +1,000 messages, four cents per message over 1,000 messages; and so +everybody pays for what work he does. It is payment by results. The +people like the arrangement, the company like it because they make +it pay, and the system works well. But I am bound to say that, up +to the present moment, Buffalo is the only city in the United +States where that method has been adopted.</p> + +<p>The instruments used in the States are no better—in fact, +in many cases they are worse—than the instruments we use on +this side of the Atlantic. I have heard telephones in this country +speak infinitely better than anything that I have heard on the +other side of the Atlantic. But they transact their business in +America infinitely better than we do; and there is one great reason +for this, which is, that in America the public itself falls into +the mode of telephone working with the energy of the telegraph +operator. They assist the telephone people in every way they can; +they take disturbances with a humility that would be simply +startling to English subscribers; and they help the workers of the +system in every way they can. The result is, that all goes off with +great smoothness and comfort. But the switch apparatus used in the +American central offices is infinitely superior to anything that I +have ever seen over here, excepting at Liverpool.</p> + +<p>A new system has just been brought out, called the "multiple" +system, which has been very lately introduced. I saw it at many +places, especially at Indianapolis, at Boston, and at New York, +where three exchanges were worked by it with a rapidity that +perfectly startled me. I took the times of a great many +transactions, and found that, from the moment a subscriber called +to the moment he was put through, only five seconds elapsed; and I +am told at Milwaukee, where unfortunately I could not go, but where +there is a friend of ours in charge, Mr. Charles Haskins, who is +one of our members, and he says he has brought down the rate of +working to such a pitch that they are able to arrange that +subscribers shall be put through in four seconds.</p> + +<p>You will be surprised to learn that there are 986 exchanges at +work in the United States. There are 97,423 circuits; there are +nearly 90,000 miles of wire used for telephonic purposes; and the +number of instruments that have been manufactured amounts to +517,749. Just compare those figures with our little experience on +this side of the Atlantic. I have a return showing the number of +subscribers in and about New York, comprising the New Jersey +division, the Long Island division, Staten Island, Westchester, and +New York City, and the total amounts to 10,600 subscribers who are +put into communication with each other in the neighborhood of New +York alone; and here in England we can only muster 11,000. There +are just as many subscribers probably at this moment in New York +and its neighborhood as we have in the whole of the United +Kingdom.</p> + +<p>I am sorry to delay you so long. I have very few more points to +bring before you. I spoke only last week so much about the electric +light that I have very little to say on that point. High-tension +currents are used for electric lighting in America, and all wires +are carried overhead along the streets. A more hideous contrivance +was probably never invented since the world was created than the +system of carrying wires overhead through the magnificent streets +and cities in America. They spend thousands upon thousands of +pounds in beautifying their cities with very fine buildings, and +then they disfigure them all by carrying down the pavements the +most villainous-looking telegraph posts that ever were constructed. +The practice is carried to such an extent, that down Broadway in +New York there are no less than six distinct lines of poles; and +through the city of New York there are no less than thirty-two +separate and distinct companies carrying all their wires through +the streets of the city. How the authorities have stood it so long +I cannot make out. They object to underground wires—why, one +cannot tell. It is something like taking a horse to the +pond—you cannot make him drink. So it is with these telephone +companies: the public of America and the Town Councils have been +trying to force the telephone and telegraph companies to put their +wires underground, but they are the horses that are led to the +pool, and they will not drink. It is said that the Town Council of +Philadelphia have issued most stringent orders that on the first of +January next, men with axes and tools are to start out and cut down +every pole in the city. It is all very well to threaten; but my +impression is that any member of Town Council or any individual of +Philadelphia who attempts to do such a thing will be lynched by the +first telephone subscriber he meets.</p> + +<p>This practice of running overhead wires has great disadvantages +when the wires are used for electric-lighting purposes as well as +for ordinary telephone or telegraph purposes. No doubt the +high-tension system can be carried out overhead with economy; but +where overhead wires carrying these heavy currents exist in the +neighborhood of telephone circuits, there is every possible +liability to accident; and in my short trip I came across seven +distinct cases of offices being destroyed by fire, of test boxes +being utterly ruined, of a whole house being gutted, and of various +accidents, all clearly traceable to contacts arising from the +falling of overhead wires, charged with high-tension current, upon +telegraph and telephone wires below. The danger is so great and +damage so serious that, at Philadelphia, Mr. Plush, the electrician +to the Telephone Company, has devised this exceedingly pretty +cut-out. It is a little electro-magnetic cut-out that breaks the +telephone circuit whenever a current passes into the circuit equal +to or more than an ampere. The arrangement works with great ease. +It is applied to every telephone circuit simply, to protect the +telephone system from electric light wires, that ought never to be +allowed anywhere near a telephone circuit.</p> + +<p>Fire-alarms are used in America; but in England, also, the fire +systems of Edward Bright, Spagnoletti, and Higgins have been +introduced, and in that respect we are in very near the same +position as our friends on the other side of the Atlantic. Some +members present may remember that, when I described my last visit +to America, I mentioned how in Chicago the fire-alarm was worked by +an electric method, and I told you a story then that you did not +believe, and which I have told over and over again, but nobody has +yet believed me, and I began to think that I must have made a +mistake somewhere or other. So I meant, when at Chicago this time, +to see whether I had been deceived myself. There was very little +room for improvement, because, as I told you before, they had very +near reached perfection. This is what they did: At the corner of +the street where a fire-alarm box is fixed, a handle is pulled +down, and the moment that handle is released a current goes to the +fire-station; it sounds a gong to call the attention of the men, it +unhitches the harness of the horses, the horses run to their +allotted positions at the engine, it whips the clothes off every +man who is in bed, it opens a trap at the bottom of the bed and the +men slide down into their positions on the engine. The whole of +that operation takes only six seconds. The perfection to which +fire-alarm business has been brought in the States is one of the +most interesting applications of electricity there.</p> + +<p>Of course during this visit I waited on Mr. Edison. Many of you +know that a difference took place between Mr. Edison and myself, +and I must confess that I felt a little anxiety as to how I should +be received on the other side. It is impossible for any man to +receive another with greater kindness and attention than Mr. Edison +received me. He took me all over his place and showed me +everything, and past differences were not referred to. Mr. Edison +is doing an enormous amount of work in steadily plodding away at +the electric light business. He has solved the question as far as +New York is concerned and as far as central station lighting is +concerned; and all we want on this side is to instill more +confidence into our capitalists, to try and induce them to unbutton +their pockets and give us money to carry out central lighting +here.</p> + +<p>I met another very distinguished electrician—a man who has +hid his light under a bushel—a man whose quiet modesty has +kept him very much in the background, but who really has done as +much work as any body on that side of the Atlantic, and few have +done more on this—and that is Mr. Edward Weston. He is an +Englishman who has established himself in New York. He has been +working steadily for years at his laboratory, and works and +produces plant with all the skill and exactitude that the +electrician or mechanic could desire.</p> + +<p>Another large factory I went over was that of the Western +Electric Company of Chicago, which is the largest manufactory in +the States. That company has three large factories. While I was +there, the manager, just as a matter of course, handed me over a +message which contained an order for 330 arc lamps and for +twenty-four dynamo machines. He was very proud of such an order, +but he tried to make me believe that it was an every-day +occurrence.</p> + +<p>There are no less than 90,000 arc lamps burning in the States +every day.</p> + +<p>The time has passed very rapidly. I have only just one or two +more points to allude to. I think I ought not to conclude without +referring to the more immediate things affecting travelers +generally and electricians in particular. It is astounding to come +across the different experiences narrated by different men who have +been on the other side of the Atlantic. One charming companion that +we had on board the Parisian has been interviewed, and his remarks +appeared in the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i> of Tuesday last, December +9th. There he gave the most pessimist view of life in the United +States. He said they were a miserable race—thin, pale faced +and haggard, and rushed about as though they were utterly unhappy; +and the account our friend gave of what he saw in the United States +evidently shows that the heat that did not affect some of us so +very much must have produced upon Mr. Capper a most severe bilious +attack. Well, his experiences are not mine. Throughout the whole +States I received kindnesses and attentions that I can never +forget. I had the pleasure of staying in the houses of most +charming people. I found that whenever you met an educated American +gentleman there was no distinction to be drawn between him and an +English gentleman. His ways of living, his modes of thought, his +amusements, his entertainments, are the same as ours; there is no +difference whatever to be found. In Mr. Capper's case I can readily +imagine that he spent most of his time in the halls of hotels, and +there you do see those wild fellows rushing about; they convert the +hall of the hotel into a mere stock exchange, and look just as +uncomfortable as our "stags" who run about Capel Court. You may +just as well enter a betting-ring and come away with the impression +that the members represent English society, or that that is the +most refined manner in which English gentlemen enjoy +themselves.</p> + +<p>Well, gentlemen, there are just as exceptional peculiarities +here as on the other side of the water. The Americans are the most +charming people on this earth. When we enter their houses and come +to know them, they treat us in a way that cannot be forgotten. I +noticed a very great change since I was in America before. Whether +it is a greater acquaintance with them or not I cannot say, but +there is an absence of that which we can only express by a certain +word called "cockiness." It struck me at one time that there was a +good deal of cockiness on that side of the Atlantic, that has +entirely disappeared. Constant intercourse between the two +countries is gradually bringing out a regular unanimity of feeling +and the same mode of thought.</p> + +<p>But there are some things in which the Americans are a little +lax, especially in their history. At one of their exhibitions that +I visited, for instance, there was a placard put up—</p> + +<pre> + "The steed called Lightning, say the Fates, + Was tamed in the United States. + 'Twas Franklin's hand that caught the horse; + 'Twas harnessed by Professor Morse." +</pre> + +<p>Now, considering that Franklin made his discovery in 1752, and +the United States were not formed till about thirty years +afterward, it is rather "transmogrifying" history to say the +lightning was tamed in the United States.</p> + +<p>Again, where the notice about Professor Morse was put, they say +that the instrument was invented by Morse in 1846, while alongside +it is shown the very slip which sent the message, dated 1844; so +that the slip of the original message sent by Morse was sent by his +instrument two years before it was invented.</p> + +<p>Again, that favorite old instrument of ours which we are so +proud of, the hatchment telegraph of Cooke and Wheatstone, invented +in 1837, was labeled "Whetstone and Cook, 1840," so while I am +sorry to say they are loose in their history, they are tight in +their friendships, and all the visitors receive the warmest +possible welcome from them generally, and especially so from every +member of our Society belonging to the States.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">A lecture delivered before the Society of +Telegraph Engineers and Electricians, London, Dec. 11, 1884.</div> + +<hr> +<a name="12"></a> + +<h2>THE HOUSE OF A THOUSAND TERRORS, ROTTERDAM.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/10a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/10a_th.jpg" alt= +" THE HOUSE OF A THOUSAND TERRORS, ROTTERDAM."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE HOUSE OF A THOUSAND TERRORS, ROTTERDAM.</p> + +<p>This building, which is situated at the corner of the Groote +Market and the Hang, is one of the oldest houses in Rotterdam, +besides being one of the most interesting from a historical point +of view. There is a tradition which states that when the city was +invaded and pillaged by the Spaniards, who in accordance with their +usual custom, proceeded to put the inhabitants to the sword, +without regard to age or sex, a large number of the leading +citizens took refuge within the building, and having secured and +barricaded the entrance, they killed a kid and allowed the blood to +flow beneath the door into the street; seeing which the soldiery +concluded that those inside had already been massacred, and without +troubling to force an entry passed on, leaving them unmolested. +Here the unhappy citizens remained for three days without food, by +which time the danger had passed away, and they were enabled to +effect their escape. It is from this incident that the building +takes its name. The house is built in a species of irregular bond +with bricks of varying lengths, the strings, labels, copings, etc., +being in stone. The upper portion remains in pretty much the same +condition as it existed in the 16th century, but is much disfigured +by modern paint, which has been laid over the whole of the exterior +with no sparing hand. Within the last few years the present shop +windows facing the Groote Market have been put up and various +slight alterations made to the lower part of the building to suit +the requirements of the present occupiers. The drawing has been +prepared from detail sketches made on the spot.—<i>W.E. +Pinkerton, in Building News.</i></p> + +<hr> +<a name="13"></a> + +<h2>ON THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF COAL.</h2> + +<p>The origin of coal, that combustible which is distributed over +the earth in all latitudes, from the frozen regions of Greenland to +Zambesi in the tropics, utilized by the Chinese from the remotest +antiquity for the baking of pottery and porcelain, employed by the +Greeks for working iron, and now the indispensable element of the +largest as well of the smallest industries, is far from being +sufficiently clear. The most varied hypotheses have been offered to +explain its formation. To cite them all would not be an easy thing +to do, and so we shall recall but three: (1) It has been considered +as the result of eruptions of bitumen coming from the depths, and +covering and penetrating masses of leaves, branches, bark, wood, +roots, etc., of trees that had accumulated in shallow water, and +whose most delicate relief and finest impressions have been +preserved by this species of tar solidified by cooling. (2) It has +also been considered as the result of the more or less complete +decomposition of plants under the influence of heat and dampness, +which has led them to pass successively through the following +principal stages: <i>peat, lignite, bituminous coal, +anthracite</i>. (3) Finally, while admitting that the decomposition +of plants can cause organic matter to assume these different +states, other scientists think that it is not necessary for such +matter to have been peat and lignite in order to become coal, and +that at the carboniferous epoch plants were capable of passing +directly to the state of coal if the conditions were favorable; +and, in the same way, in the secondary and tertiary epochs the +alteration of vegetable tissues generally led to lignite, while now +they give rise to peat. In other words, the nature of the +combustible formed at every great epoch depended upon general +climatic conditions and local chemical action. Anthracite and +bituminous coal would have belonged especially to primary times, +lignites to secondary and tertiary times, and peat to our own +epoch, without the peat ever being able to become lignites or the +latter coal.</p> + +<p>As for the accumulation of large masses of the combustible in +certain regions and its entire absence in others belonging to the +same formation, that is attributed, now to the presence of immense +forests growing upon a low, damp soil, exposed to alternate rising +and sinking, and whose debris kept on accumulating during the +periods of upheaval, under the influence of a powerful vegetation, +and now to the transportation of plants of all sorts, that had been +uprooted in the riparian forests by torrents and rivers, to lakes +of wide extent or to estuaries. Not being able to enter in this +place into the details of the various hypotheses, or to thoroughly +discuss them, we shall be content to make known a few facts that +have been recently observed, and that will throw a little light +upon certain still obscure points regarding the formation of +coal.</p> + +<p>(1) According to the first theory, if the impressions which we +often find in coal (such as the leaves of Cordaites, bark of +Sigillarias and Lepidodendrons, wood of Cordaites, Calamodendrons, +etc.) are but simple and superficial mouldings, executed by a +peculiar bitumen, formerly fluid, now solidified, and resembling in +its properties no other bitumen known, we ought not to find in the +interior any trace of preservation or any evidence of structure. +Now, upon making preparations that are sufficiently thin to be +transparent, from coal apparently formed of impressions of the +leaves of Cordaites, we succeed in distinguishing (in a section +perpendicular to the limb) the cuticle and the first row of +epidermic cells, the vascular bundles that correspond to the veins +and the bands of hypodermic libers; but the loose, thin-walled +cells of the mesophyllum are not seen, because they have been +crushed by pressure, and their walls touch each other. The portions +of coal that contain impressions of the bark of Sigillaria and +Lepidodendron allow the elongated, suberose tissue characteristic +of such bark to be still more clearly seen.</p> + +<p>Were we to admit that the bitumen was sufficiently fluid to +penetrate all parts of the vegetable debris, as silica and +carbonates of lime and iron have done in so many cases, we should +meet with one great difficulty. In fact, the number of fragments of +coal <i>isolated</i> in schists and sandstone is very large, and +<i>without any communication</i> with veins of coal or of bitumen +that could have penetrated the vegetable. We cannot, then, for an +instant admit such a hypothesis. Neither can we admit that the +penetration of the plants by bitumen was effected at a certain +distance, and that they have been transported, after the operation, +to the places where we now find them, since it is not rare to find +at Commentry trunks of Calamodendrons, Anthropitus, and ferns which +are still provided with roots from 15 to 30 feet in length, and the +carbonized wood of which surrounds a pith that has been replaced by +a stony mould. The fragile ligneous cylinder would certainly have +been broken during such transportation.</p> + +<p>The carbonized specimens were never fluid or pasty, since there +are some that have left their impressions with the finest details +in the schists and sandstones, but none of the latter that has left +its traces upon the coal. The surface of the isolated specimens is +well defined, and their separation from the gangue (which has never +been penetrated) is of the easiest character.</p> + +<p>The facts just pointed out are entirely contrary to the theory +of the formation of coal by way of eruption of bitumen.</p> + +<p>(2) The place occupied by peats, lignites, and bituminous and +anthracite coal in sedimentary grounds, and the organic structure +that we find less and less distinct in measure as we pass from one +of these combustibles to one more ancient, have given rise to the +theory mentioned above, viz., that vegetable matter having, under +the prolonged action of heat and moisture, experienced a greater +and greater alteration, passed successively through the different +states whose composition is indicated in the following table:</p> + +<pre> + H. C. O. N. Coke. Ashes. Density. +Peat 5.63 57.03 29.67 2.09 ---- 5.58 ---- +Lignite 5.59 70.49 17.2 1.73 49.1 4.99 1.2 +Bitumin. coal 5.14 87.45 4 1.63 68 1.78 1.29 +Anthracite 3.3 92.5 2.53 ---- 89.5 1.58 1.3 +</pre> + +<p>Aside from the fact that anthracite is not met with solely in +the lower coal measures, but is found in the middle and upper ones, +and that bituminous coal itself is met with quite abundantly in the +secondary formations, and even in tertiary ones, it seems to result +from recent observations that if vegetable matter, when once +converted into lignites, coal, etc., be preserved against the +action of air and mineral waters by sufficient thick and +impermeable strata of earth, preserves the chemical composition +that it possessed before burial. The coal measures of Commentry, as +well as certain others, such as those of Bezenet, Swansea, etc., +contain quite a large quantity of coal gravel in sandstone or +argillaceous rocks. These fragments sometimes exhibit a fracture +analogous to that of ordinary coal, with sharp angles that show +that they have not been rolled; and the sandstone has taken their +exact details, which are found in hollow form in the gangue. In +other cases these fragments exhibit the aspect of genuine shingle +or rolled pebbles. These pebbles of coal have not been misshapen +under the pressure of the surrounding sandstone, nor have they +shrunk since their burial and the solidification of the gangue, for +their surface is in contact with the internal surface of their +matrix. Everything leads to the belief that they were extracted +from pre-existing coal deposits that already possessed a definite +hardness and bulk, at the same time as were the gravels and sand in +which they are imprisoned. It became of interest, then, to +ascertain the age to which the formation of these fragments might +be referred, they being evidently more ancient than those +considered above, which, as we have seen, could not have been +transported in this state on account of their dimensions and the +fragility of made coal. Thanks to the kindness of Mr. Fayol, we +have been enabled to make such researches upon numerous specimens +that were still inclosed in their sandstone gangue and that had +been collected in the coal strata of Commentry. In some of their +physical properties they differ from the more recent isolated +fragments and from the ordinary coal of this deposit. They are less +compact, their density is less, and a thin film of water deposited +upon their surface is promptly absorbed, thus indicating a certain +amount of porosity. Their fracture is dull and they are striped +with shining coal, and can be more easily sliced with a razor.</p> + +<p>From a fresh fracture, we find by the lens, or microscope, that +some of them are formed of ordinary coal, that is, composed of +plates of variable thickness, brilliant and dull, with or without +traces of organization, and others of divers bits of wood whose +structure is preserved. When reduced to thin, transparent plates, +these latter show us the organization of the wood of +<i>Arthropitus, Cordaites</i>, and <i>Calamodendron</i>, and of the +petioles of <i>Aulacopteris</i>, that is to say, of the ligneous +and arborescent plants that we most usually meet with in the coal +measures of Commentry in the state of impression or of coal.</p> + +<p>In a certain number of specimens the diminution in volume of the +tracheæ is less than that that we have observed in the same +organs of corresponding genera. The quantity of oxygen and hydrogen +that they contain is greater, and seems to bring them near the +lignites.</p> + +<p>We cannot attribute these differences to the nature of the +plants converted into coal, since we have just seen that they are +the same in the one case as in the other. Neither does time count +for anything here, since, according to accepted ideas, the burial +having been longer, the carbonization ought to have been more +perfect, while the contrary is the case.</p> + +<p>If we admit (1) that vegetable remains alter more and more +through maceration in ordinary water and in certain mineral waters; +(2) that, beginning with their burial in sufficiently thick strata +of clay and sand, their chemical composition scarcely varies any +further; and (3) that these are important changes only as regards +their physical properties, due to loss of water and compression, we +succeed quite easily in learning what has occurred.</p> + +<p>In fact, when, as a consequence of the aforesaid alteration, the +vegetable matter had taken the chemical composition that we find in +the less advanced coal of the pebbles, it was in the first place +covered with sand and protected against further destruction, and it +gradually acquired the physical properties that we now find in it. +At the period that channels were formed, the coal was torn from the +beds in fragments, and these latter were rolled about for a time, +sometimes being broken, and then covered anew, and this too at the +same time as were the plants less advanced in composition that we +meet with at the same level. These latter, being like them +protected against ulterior alteration, we now find less advanced in +carbonization (notwithstanding their more ancient origin) than the +other vegetable fragments that were converted into coal after them, +but that were more thoroughly altered at the time of burial.</p> + +<p>There are yet a few other important deductions to be made from +the foregoing facts: (1) the same coal basin may, at the same +level, contain fragments of coal of very different ages; (2) its +contour may have been much modified owing to the ravines made by +the water which transported the ancient parts into the lowest +regions of the basin; and (3) finally, since the most recent +sandstones and schists of the same basin may contain coal which is +more ancient, but which is formed from the same species of plants +that we find at this more recent level, we must admit that the +conversion of the vegetable tissues into coal was relatively rapid, +and far from requiring an enormous length of time, as we are +generally led to believe.</p> + +<p>If, then, lignites have not become soft coal, and if the latter +has not become anthracite, it is not that time was wanting, but +climatic conditions and environment. Most analyses of specimens of +coal have been made up to the present with fragments so selected as +to give a mean composition of the mass; it is rare that trouble has +been taken to select bits of wood, bark, etc., of the same plant, +determined in advance by means of thin and transparent sections in +order to assure the chemist of the sole origin and of the absolute +purity of the coal submitted to analysis. This void has been +partially fitted, and we give in the following table the results +published by Mr. Carnot of analyses made of different portions of +plants previously determined by us:</p> + +<pre> + Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen +1. Calamodendron (5 specimens) 82.95 4.78 11.89 0.48 +2. Cordaites (4 specimens) 82.94 4.88 11.84 0.44 +3. Lepidodendron (3 specimens) 83.28 4.88 11.45 0.39 +4. Psaronius (4 specimens) 81.64 4.80 13.11 0.44 + \----v----/ +5. Ptychopteris (1 specimen) 80.62 4.85 14.53 +6. Megaphyton (1 specimen) 83.37 4.40 12.23 +</pre> + +<p>As seen from this table, the elementary composition of the +various specimens is nearly the same, notwithstanding that the +selection was made from among plants that are widely separated in +the botanical scale, or from among very different parts of plants. +In fact, with Numbers 1 and 2 the analysis was made solely of the +wood, and with No. 3 only of the prosenchymatous and suberose parts +of the bark. Here we remark a slight increase in carbon, as should +be the case. With No. 4 the analysis was of the roots and the +parenchymatous tissue that descends along the stem, and with No. 6 +of the bark and small roots. One will remark here again a slight +increase in the proportion of carbon, as was to be foreseen. The +elementary composition found nearly corresponds with that of the +coal taken from the large Commentry deposit.</p> + +<pre> + Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen and + Nitrogen. +Regnault 82.92 5.39 11.78 +Mr Carnot 83.21 5.57 11.22 +</pre> + +<p>Although the chemical composition is nearly the same, the manner +in which the different species or fragments of vegetables behave +under distillation is quite different.</p> + +<p>In fact, according to Mr. Carnot, the plants already cited +furnish the following results on distillation:</p> + +<pre> + Volatile Fixed Coke. + matters. residue. +Calamodendron 35.5 64.7 Well agglomerated. +Cordaites 42.1 57.8 Quite porous. +Lepidodendron 34.7 55.3 Well agglomerated. +Psaronius 29.4 60.5 Slightly porous. +Ptychopteris 39.4 60.5 +Megaphyton 35.5 64.5 Well agglomerated. +Coal of the Great Bed 40.5 59.5 Slightly porous. +</pre> + +<p>These differences in the proportions of volatile substances, of +fixed residua, and of density in the coke obtained seem to be in +harmony with the primitive organic nature of the carbonized +tissues. We know, in fact, that the wood of the Calamodendrons is +composed of alternately radiating bands formed of ligneous and +thick walled prosenchymatous tissue, while the wood of Cordaites, +which is less dense, recalls that of certain coniferæ of the +present day (Araucariæ).</p> + +<p>We have remarked above that the portions of Lepidodendron +analyzed belonged to that part of the bark that was considerably +thickened and lignefied. So too the portion of the Megaphyton that +was submitted to distillation was the external part of the hard +bark, formed of hypodermic fibers and traversed by small roots. The +Psaronius, on the contrary, was represented by a mixture of roots +and of parenchymatous tissue in which they descend along the +trunk.</p> + +<p>It results from these remarks that we may admit that those parts +of the vegetable that are ordinarily hard, compact, and profoundly +lignefied furnish a compact coke and relatively less volatile +matter, while the tissues that are usually not much lignefied, or +are parenchymatous, give a bubbly, porous coke and a larger +quantity of gas. The influence of the varied mode of grouping of +the elements in the primitive tissues is again found, then, even +after carbonization, and is shown by the notable differences in the +quantities and physical properties of the products of +distillation.</p> + +<p>The elementary chemical composition, which is perceptibly the +same in the specimens isolated in the sandstones and in those taken +from the great deposit, demonstrates that the difference in +composition of the environment serving as gangue did not have a +great influence upon the definitive state of the coal, a conclusion +that we had already reached upon examining the structure and +properties of the coal pebbles.</p> + +<p>We may get an idea of the nearly similar composition of the coal +produced by very different plants or parts thereof, in remarking +that as the cells, fibers, and vessels are formed of cellulose, and +some of them isomeric, the difference in composition is especially +connected with the contents of the cells, canals, etc., such as +protoplasm, oils, resins, gums, sugars, and various acids, various +incrustations, etc. After the prolonged action of water that was +more or less mineralized and of multiple organisms, matters that +were soluble, or that were rendered so by maceration, were removed, +and the organic skeletons of the different plants were brought to a +nearly similar centesimal composition representing the carbonized +derivatives of the cellulose and its isomers. The vegetable debris +thus transformed, but still resistant and elastic, were the ones +that were petrified in the mineral waters or covered with sand and +clay. Under the influence of gradual pressure, and of a desiccation +brought about by it, and by a rising of the ground, the walls of +the organic elements came into contact, and the physical properties +that we now see gradually made their appearance.</p> + +<p>The waters derived from a prolonged steeping of vegetables, and +charged with all the soluble principles extracted therefrom, have, +after their sojourn in a proper medium, deposited the carbonized +residua that have themselves become soluble, and have there formed +masses of combustibles of a different composition from that +resulting from the skeletons of plants, such as <i>cannel coal, +pitch coal, boghead</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>A thin section of a piece of Commentry cannel coal shows that +this substance consists of a yellowish-brown amorphous mass holding +here and there in suspension very different plant organs, such as +fragments of Cordaites, leaves, ferns, microspores, macrospores, +pollen grains, rootlets, etc., exactly as would have done a +gelatinous mass that upon coagulating in a liquid had carried along +with it all the solid bodies that had accidentally fallen into it +and that were in suspension.</p> + +<p>It is evident (as we have demonstrated) that other cannel coals +may show different plant organs, or even contain none at all, their +presence appearing to be accidental. The composition itself of +cannel coal must be, in our theory, connected with the chemical +nature of the materials from whence it is derived, and that were +first dissolved and then became insoluble through carbonization. +Several preparations made from Australian (New South Wales), Autun, +etc., boghead have shown us merely a yellowish-brown amorphous mass +holding in suspension lens-shaped or radiating floccose masses +which it is scarcely possible to refer to any known vegetable +organism.</p> + +<p>Among the theories that we have cited in the beginning, the one +that best agrees with the facts that we have pointed out is the +third, which would admit, then, two things in the formation of +coal. The first would include the different chemical reactions +which cannot yet be determined, but which would have brought the +vegetable matter now to the state of soft coal (with its different +varieties), and now to the state of anthracite. The second would +comprehend the preservation, through burial, of the organic matter +in the stage of carbonization that it had reached, and as the +result of compression and gradual desiccation, the development of +the physical properties that we now find in the different +carbonized substances.</p> + +<p>We annex to this article a number of figures made from +preparations of various coals. These preparations were obtained by +making the fragments sufficiently thin without the aid of any +chemical reagent, so as to avoid the reproach that things were made +to appear that the coal did not contain. This slow and delicate +method is not capable of revealing all the organisms That the +carbonaceous substance contains, but, per contra, one is riot +absolutely sure of the pre-existence of everything that resembles +organs or fragments of such that he distinguishes therein by means +of the microscope.</p> + +<p>Our researches, as we have above stated, have been confined to +different cannel coals, anthracite, boghead, and coal plants +isolated either in coal pebbles, or in schists and sandstones.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 1.—Lancashire cannel coal; longitudinal section, X200."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—Lancashire cannel coal; longitudinal +section, X200.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 2.—Lancashire cannel coal; transverse section, X200."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—Lancashire cannel coal; transverse +section, X200.</p> + +<p>Figs. 1 and 2 (magnified two hundred times) represent two +sections, made in rectangular planes, of fragments of Lancashire +cannel coal. In a certain measure, they remind one of Figs. 4 and +5, Pl 11, of Witham's "Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables," +and which were drawn from specimens of cannel coal derived likewise +from Lancashire, but which are not so highly magnified. There is an +interesting fact to note in this coincidence, and that is that this +structure, which is so difficult to explain in its details, is not +accidental, but a consequence of the nature of the materials that +served to produce the coal of this region. In the midst of a mass +of blackish debris, <i>a</i>, organic and inorganic, and immersed +in an amorphous and transparent gangue, we find a few recognizable +fragments, such as thick-walled macrospores, <i>b</i>, of various +sizes, bits of flattened petioles, <i>c</i>, pollen grains, +<i>d</i>, debris of bark, etc. In Fig. 2 all these different +remains are cut either obliquely or longitudinally, and are not +very recognizable. It is not rare to meet with a sort of vacuity, +<i>e</i>, filled with clearer matter of resinoid aspect, without +organization.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12c_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 3.—Commentry cannel coal, X200."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.—Commentry cannel coal, X200.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 3, which represents a section made from Commentry cannel +coal, the number of recognizable organs in the midst of the mass of +debris is much larger. Thus, at <i>a</i> we see a macrospore, at +<i>b</i> a fragment of the coat of a macrospore, at <i>c</i> +another macrospore having a silicified nucleus, such as has been +found in no other case, at <i>d</i> we have a transverse section of +a vascular bundle, at <i>e</i> a longitudinal section of a rootlet +traversed by another one, at <i>f</i> we have a transverse section +of another rootlet, at <i>g</i> an almost entire portion of the +vascular bundle of a root, and at <i>h</i> we see large pollen +grains recalling those that we meet with in the silicified seeds +from Saint Etienne.</p> + +<p>Cannel coal, then, shows that it is formed of a sort of dark +brown gangue of resinoid aspect (when a thin section of it is +examined) holding in suspension indeterminable black organic and +inorganic debris, which are arranged in layers, and in the midst of +which (according to the locality and the fragment studied) is found +a varying number of easily recognized vegetable organs.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12d_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 4.—Pennsylvania anthracite, X200."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.—Pennsylvania anthracite, X200.</p> + +<p>It is very rare that anthracite offers any discernible trace of +organization. Preparations made from fragments of Sable and Lamore +coal could not be made sufficiently thin to be transparent; the +mass remained very opaque, and the clearest parts exhibited merely +amorphous, irregular granulations. Still, fragments of anthracite +from Pennsylvania furnished, amid a dominant mass of dark, +yellow-brown, structureless substance, a few organized vegetable +debris, such as a fragment of a vascular bundle with radiating +elements (Fig. 4, <i>a</i>), a macrospore, <i>b</i>, and a few +pollen grains or microspores, <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12e.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12e_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 5.—Boghead from New South Wales, X500."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.—Boghead from New South Wales, +X500.</p> + +<p>From what precedes it seems to result, then, that anthracite is +in a much less appreciable state of preservation than cannel coal, +and that it is only rarely, and according to locality, that we can +discover vegetable organs in it. Soft coal comes nearer to +amorphous carbon. Boghead appears to be of an entirely different +character (Fig. 5, magnified X300). It is easily reduced to a thin +transparent plate, and shows itself to be formed of a multitude of +very small lenses, differing in size and shape, and much more +transparent than the bands that separate them. In the interior of +these lenses we distinguish very fine lines radiating from the +center and afterward branching several times. The ramifications are +lost in the periphery amid fine granulations that resemble spores. +We might say that we here had to do with numerous mycelia moulded +in a slightly colored resin. Preparations made from New South Wales +and Autun boghead presented the same aspect.</p> + +<p>If boghead was derived from the carbonization of parts that were +soluble, or that became so through maceration, and were made +insoluble at a given moment by carbonization, we can understand the +very peculiar aspect that this combustible presents when it is seen +under the microscope.</p> + +<p>The following figures were made in order to show the details of +anatomical structure that are still visible in coal, and to permit +of estimating the shrinkage that the organic substance has +undergone in becoming converted into coal.</p> + +<p>It is not rare in coal mines to find fragments of wood, of which +a portion has been preserved by carbonates of iron and lime, and +another portion converted into coal. This being the case, it was +considered of interest to ascertain whether the carbonized portion +had preserved a structure that was still recognizable, and, in such +an event, to compare this structure with that of the portion of the +specimen that was preserved in all its details by +mineralization.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12f_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 6.—<i>Arthropitus gallica</i>, St. Etienne; transverse section, X200."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.—<i>Arthropitus gallica</i>, St. +Etienne; transverse section, X200.</p> + +<p>Fig. 6 shows a transverse section of a specimen of +<i>Arthropitus Gallica</i> found under such conditions. The region +marked c is carbonized; the organic elements of the wood-cells, +tracheæ, etc., have undergone but little change in shape. +Moreover, no change at all exists in the internal parts of another +specimen (Fig. 8), where we easily distinguish by their form and +dimensions the ligneous cells, <i>aa</i>, and the elements, +<i>bb</i>, of the wood itself.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12h.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12h_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 8.—<i>Arthropitus gallica</i>, St. Etienne; transverse section through the carbonized part."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 8.—<i>Arthropitus gallica</i>, St. +Etienne; transverse section through the carbonized part.</p> + +<p>In the region, <i>b</i>, of Fig. 6, the ligneous elements have +undergone an evident change of form, and the walls have been +broken. This region, already filled by petrifying salts, but not +completely hardened, has not been able to resist, as the region, +<i>a</i>, an external pressure, and has become more or less +misshapened. As for the not yet mineralized external portion, +<i>c</i>, it has completely given way under the pressure, the walls +of the different organic elements have come into contact, the +calcareous or other salts have been expressed, and this region +exhibits the aspect of ordinary coal, while at the same time +preserving a little more hardness on account of the small quantity +of mineral salts that has remained in them despite the +compression.</p> + +<p>From the standpoint of carbonization there seems to us but +little difference between the organic elements that occupy the +region, <i>a</i>, and those that occupy <i>b</i>. If the former had +not been filled with hardened petrifying matter, they would have +been compressed and flattened like those of region <i>c</i>, and +would have given a compact and brilliant coal, having very likely +before petrifaction reached the same degree of carbonization as the +latter. The layer of coal in contact with the carbonized or +silicified part of the specimens is due, then, to a compression of +the organic elements already chemically carbonized, but in which +the mineral matter was not yet hardened and was able to escape.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12g.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12g_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 7.—<i>Arthropitus gallica</i>, St. Etienne; tangential longitudinal section."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.—<i>Arthropitus gallica</i>, St. +Etienne; tangential longitudinal section.</p> + +<p>If this be so, we ought to find the remains of organic structure +in this region <i>c</i>. In fact, on referring to Fig. 7, which +represents a tangential, longitudinal section of the same specimen, +we perceive at <i>ab</i> a ligneous duct and some unchanged +tracheæ situated in the carbonized region, and then at +<i>c</i> the same elements, though flattened, in which, however, we +still clearly distinguish the bands of the tracheæ; at +<i>d</i> is found a trachea whose contents were already solidified, +and which has not been flattened; then, near the surface, in the +region, <i>e</i>, the pressure having been greater, it is no longer +possible to recognize traces of organization in a tangential +section. In a large number of cases, the fact that the coal does +not seem to be organized must be due to the too great compression +that the carbonized cells and vessels have undergone when yet soft +and elastic, at the time this slow but continuous pressure was +being exerted.</p> + +<p>It also became of interest to find out whether, through the very +fact of carbonization, the dimensions of the organic elements had +perceptibly varied—a sort of research that presents certain +difficulties. At present we have no living plant that is +comparable, even remotely, with those that grew during the coal +epoch. Moreover, the organic elements have absolutely nothing +constant in their dimensions.</p> + +<p>Still, if we limit ourselves to a comparison of the same +carbonized wood, preserved on the one hand by petrifaction, and on +the other hand non-mineralized, we find a very perceptible +diminution in bulk. The elements have contracted in length, +breadth, and thickness, but principally in the direction of the +compression that they have undergone in the purely carbonized +specimens.</p> + +<p>In the vicinity of the carbonized portions, those of the +tracheæ that have not done so have perceptibly preserved +their primitive length, which has, so to speak, been maintained by +their neighbors, but their other dimensions have become much +smaller—a quarter in thickness and half in length.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12i.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12i_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 9.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> Commentry; prosenchymatous portion of the wood carbonized, X200."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 9.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> Commentry; +prosenchymatous portion of the wood carbonized, X200.</p> + +<p>If the two fragments of the same wood are, one of them +silicified and the other simply carbonized and preserved in +sandstone, the diminution in volume will have occurred in all +directions in the latter of the two.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12j.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12j_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 10.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> fragment of the vascular portion of the wood carbonized."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 10.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> fragment of the +vascular portion of the wood carbonized.</p> + +<p>Figs. 9 and 11, which represent a portion of the <i>fibrous</i> +region of Calamodendron wood, may give an idea of the shrinkage +that has taken place therein. In Figs. 11 and 12, which show a few +tracheæ and medullary rays of the ligneous bands of the same +plant, we observe the same phenomenon. We might cite a large number +of analogous examples, but shall be content to give the following: +Figs. 13 and 15 represent radial and tangential sections of the +bark of <i>Syringodendron pes-capræ</i>. This is the first +time that one has had before his eyes the anatomical structure of +the bark of a <i>Syringodendron</i>, a plant which has not yet been +found in a petrified state. It is coal, then, with its structure +preserved, that allows of a verification of the theory advanced by +several scientists that the often bulky trunks of +<i>Syringodendron</i> are bases of <i>Sigillariæ</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12k.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12k_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 11.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> from Autun; prosenchymatous portion of the wood silicified, X200."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 11.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> from Autun; +prosenchymatous portion of the wood silicified, X200.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12l.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12l_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 12.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> from Autun; vascular portion of the wood silicified."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 12.—<i>Calamodendron,</i> from Autun; +vascular portion of the wood silicified.</p> + +<p>If we refer to Fig. 13, which represents a radial vertical +section running through the center of one of the scars that +permitted the specimen to be determined, we shall observe, in fact, +a tissue formed of rectangular cells, longer than wide, arranged in +horizontal series, and very analogous in their aspect to those that +we have described in the suberose region of the bark of +Sigillariæ. Fig. 15 shows in tangential section the fibrous +aspect of this tissue, which has been rendered denser through +compression. Fig. 14 shows it restored. In Fig. 13, the external +part of the bark is occupied by a thick layer of cellular tissue +that exists over the entire surface of the trunk, but particularly +thick near the scars, exactly as in the barks of the +Sigillariæ that we have formerly described. Finally, at +<i>b</i>, we recognize the undoubted traces of a vascular bundle +running to the leaves. If the bundle appears to be larger than that +of the Sigillariæ, this is due to the flattening that the +trunk has undergone, the effect of this having been to spread the +bundle out in a vertical plane, although its greatest width in the +first place was in a horizontal one.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12m.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12m_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 13.—<i>Syringodendron pes-capræ</i>; from Saarbruck; radial vertical section, X200."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 13.—<i>Syringodendron +pes-capræ</i>; from Saarbruck; radial vertical section, +X200.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12n.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12n_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 14.—Suberose cells restored."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 14.—Suberose cells restored.</p> + +<p>In anatomical structure, the barks of the Syringodendrons are, +then, analogous to those of the Sigillariæ. If, now, we +compare the dimensions of the tissues of these barks with the same +silicified tissues of the barks of Sigillariæ, we shall find +that there was likewise a diminution in the dimensions, but yet a +less pronounced one than in the woods that we have previously +spoken of. The corky nature of this region of the bark was likely +richer in carbonizable elements than the wood properly so called, +and had, in consequence, to undergo much less +shrinkage.—<i>Dr. B. Renault (of Paris Museum) in Le Genie +Civil</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12o.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12o_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 15.—<i>Syringodendron pes-capræ;</i> tangential vertical section in the corky part of the bark, X200."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 15.—<i>Syringodendron +pes-capræ;</i> tangential vertical section in the corky part +of the bark, X200.</p> + +<p>DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES.—Fig. 1, Lancashire cannel +coal; longitudinal section, X200. Fig. 2, Lancashire cannel coal; +transverse section, X200. Fig. 3. Commentry cannel coal, X200. Fig. +4, Pennsylvania anthracite, X200. Fig. 5, Boghead from New South +Wales, X500. Fig. 6, <i>Arthropitus gallica</i>, St. Etienne; +transverse section, X200. Fig. 7, same; tangential longitudinal +section. Fig. 8, same; transverse section through the carbonized +part. Fig. 9. <i>Calamodendron</i>, Commentry; prosenchymatous +portion of the wood carbonized, X200. Fig. 10, same; fragment of +the vascular portion of the wood carbonized. Fig. 11, same, from +Autun; prosenchymatous portion of the wood silicified, X200. Fig. +12, same, Autun; vascular portion of the wood silicified. Fig. 13, +<i>Syringodendron pes-capræ</i>; from Saarbruck; radial +vertical section, X200. Fig. 14, Suberose cells restored. Fig. 15. +<i>Syringodendron pes-capræ</i>; tangential vertical section +in the corky part of the bark, X200.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="15"></a> + +<h2>ICE BOAT RACES ON THE MUEGGELSEE, NEAR BERLIN.</h2> + +<p>The interest in sports of different kinds is increasing +considerably in the capital of the German Empire. Oarsmen and +sailors show their ability in grand regattas; roller-skating rinks +are very, popular; numerous bicycle clubs arrange grand +tournaments; and training, starting, trotting, swimming, turning, +fencing, walking, and running are practiced everywhere. As this +winter has been quite severe in Germany, first class courses have +been made for ice boats. Ice boat, races are well known in the +United States, but are quite novel in Germany; at least, in the +neighborhood of Berlin, as they have been known only on the coast +of the Baltic Sea.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/13a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/13a_th.jpg" alt= +" ICE BOAT RACES ON THE MUEGGELSEE, NEAR BERLIN."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ICE BOAT RACES ON THE MUEGGELSEE, NEAR BERLIN.</p> + +<p>These vessels are quite simple in construction, the base +consisting of an equilateral triangle made of beams and provided at +the corners with runners. The two front runners are fixed, but the +one at the apex of the triangle is pivoted, and serves as a rudder. +The mast is on the front cross beam, and between the front cross +beam and the side beams sufficient space is left for the +helmsman.</p> + +<p>The annexed cut, taken from the <i>Illustrirte Zeitung</i>, +shows a race of the above described ice boats on the Mueggelsee +(Mueggel Lake), near Berlin. It will be seen from the clumsy +construction of the boats that the Germans have not yet learned the +art of building these vehicles.</p> + +<hr> +<a name="14"></a> + +<h2>LABOR AND WAGES IN AMERICA.<a name="FNanchor_2"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By D. PIDGEON.</h3> + +<p>The United States of America are, collectively, of such vast +extent, and, singly, so individualized in character, that to speak +of their labor conditions as a whole would be as impossible, in an +hour's address, as to describe their physical geography or geology +in a similar space of time. I shall, therefore, confine what I have +to say this evening on the subject of labor and wages in America to +a consideration of the industrial condition of certain Eastern +States, which, being essentially manufacturing districts, offer the +best instances for comparison with the labor conditions of our own +country. That this field is of adequate extent and of typical +character may be inferred from the fact that the three States +composing it, viz.. New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, +contain together nearly one-half of the whole manufacturing +population of America, while Connecticut and Massachusetts are the +very cradle of American manufacture, and the home of the typical +Yankee artisan. In addition, the State of Massachusetts is +distinguished by possessing a Bureau of Statistics of Labor, whose +sole business is to ventilate industrial questions, and to collect +such facts as will afford the statesman a sound basis for +industrial legislation. We shall find ourselves, in the sequel, +indebted for spine of our chief conclusions to this excellent +public institution.</p> + +<p>If we ask ourselves, at the outset of the inquiry, "Who and what +are the operatives of manufacturing America?" the answer involves a +distinction which cannot be too strongly insisted upon, or too +carefully kept in mind. These people consist, first, of +native-born, and, secondly, of alien workers. The United States +census, reckoning every child born in the country as an American, +even if both his parents be foreigners, I would make it appear that +only six and a half millions out of its fifty millions are of alien +birth, but, for our purpose, these figures are misleading. There is +a vast difference, in many important respects, between "Americans" +derived from a stock long settled in the States and "Americans" +with two or even with one alien parent. In the former case, the +hereditary sense of social equality, the teaching of the common +school, and the influence of democratic institutions, produce a +certain type of character which I distinguish by the epithet +"American" because it is of truly national origin. In the latter +case, the so-called "American" may really be a German, an Irishman, +an Englishman, or a Swede, but the qualities which I would +distinguish by the word "American" have not yet been developed in +him, although they will probably be exhibited by his later +descendants.</p> + +<p>Setting the census figures aside, therefore, we find, from the +Registration Reports of Massachusetts, that fifty-four out of every +hundred persons who die within the limits of this State are of +foreign parentage. Now bearing in mind that Massachusetts is +essentially a Yankee State, where comparatively few European +emigrants settle, it seems probable that, going back several +generations, the numbers, even of Massachusetts men, who may be +truly called "Americans" would dwindle considerably. These men, +however, the children of equality, of the common school, and of +democratic institutions, may be considered as leaven, leavening the +lump of European emigration, and shaping, so far as they can, the +character of the American; people that is yet to be.</p> + +<p>Native American labor is best described by reference to a recent +past, when it filled all the factories of the United States, and +challenged, by its high tone, the admiration of Europe. At the +beginning of this century, public opinion in America was most +unfriendly to the establishment of manufactories, so great were the +complaints of these made in Europe as seats of vice and disease. +Thus, when Humphreysville, the first industrial village in America, +was built, in 1804, by the Hon. David Humphreys, who wished to see +the colony independent of the mother country for her supplies of +manufactured goods, parents refused to place their children in his +factories until legislation had first made the mill-owner +responsible both for the education and morality of his operatives. +Similarly, when the cotton mills of Lowell, and the silk mills of +Hartford, began to rise, between 1832 and 1840, the American people +held the capitalist responsible for the moral, mental, and physical +health of the people whom he employed, with the result that all +England wondered at the stories of factory operatives, and their +so-called "refinements," which were given to this country by +writers like Harriett Martineau and Charles Dickens.</p> + +<p>Lowell, between the years 1832 and 1850, was, perhaps, the most +remarkable manufacturing town in the world. Help, in the new cotton +mills, was in great demand, and what were then thought very high +wages were freely offered, so that, in spite of the national +prejudice against factory labor, operatives began to flow from many +quarters into the mills. These people were, for the most part, the +daughters of farmers, storekeepers, and mechanics; of Puritan +antecedents, and religious training. In the mill they were treated +kindly, and, although their hours were long, they were not +overworked. A feeling of real, but respectful, equality existed +between them and their employers, and the best hands were often +guests at the houses of the mill owners or ministers of religion. +They lived in great boarding-houses, kept by women selected for +their high character, and it is of these industrial families, and +of their refined life, that observers like Dickens, Lyell, and Miss +Martineau spoke with enthusiasm. The last writer has made us +acquainted, in her "Mind among the Spindles," with the height to +which intellectual life once rose in Lowell mills, before the wave +of Irish emigration, following on the potato famine, swept native +American labor away from the spindles. The morality of the early +mill-girls, again, was practically stainless, and, strict as the +rules of conduct were in the factories, these were really dead +letters, so high was the standard of behavior set and sustained by +the mill-hands themselves.</p> + +<p>Such was the character of native American labor, less than forty +years ago, and such, almost, it still remains in those, now few, +centers of industry where it has been little diluted with a foreign +element. Nowhere is this so conspicuously the case as in +Massachusetts and Connecticut, and especially in the western +valleys of the former State, where important mill-streams, such as +the Housatonic, the Naugatuck, and the Farmington, are lined with +mills still largely manned by native Americans.</p> + +<p>Aside from wages, which will be separately considered, the +housing, education, sobriety, and pauperism of any given industrial +community form together the best possible test of its social +condition. In regard to the housing of labor, there is no more +important fact to be discovered than the proportion of an operative +population who possess in fee simple the houses in which they +dwell. This proportion among the wage-earners of Massachusetts is +remarkably high, one working man in every four being the proprietor +of the house in which he lives. Of the remaining three-fourths, 45 +per cent. rent their houses, and 30 per cent. are boarders. With +regard to inhabitancy, the average number of persons living in one +house in Massachusetts is rather more than six, while the average +number of the Massachusetts family is four and three quarter +persons. Hence, lodgers being excepted, almost every operative +family in this State lives under its own roof, while one fourth of +all such roofs are owned by the heads of families dwelling +therein.</p> + +<p>I leave, for a moment, the agreeable task of describing one of +these homes of native American labor, and pass on to the question +of education, whose universality among native Americans is perhaps +most vividly illustrated by the following facts. Of 1,200 persons +born in Massachusetts, whether of native or foreign parents, only +one is unable to read or write, while four Germans and Scotch, six +English, twenty French Canadians, twenty-eight Irish, and +thirty-four Italians, out of every 100 emigrants of these +nationalities respectively are illiterate. The total number of +public, elementary, and high schools in the United States is +225,800, or about one school for every 200 of the entire +population, and one for, say, every fifty of the 10,000,000 pupils +who attended school during the census year of 1880. Finally, +referring once more to Massachusetts, there are nearly 2,000 free +libraries in this single State, or one to every 800 inhabitants, +and these, together, own 3,500,000 volumes, and circulate 8,000,000 +of volumes annually.</p> + +<p>With regard to sobriety, it is well known that local option +succeeds in closing the liquor saloons in very many operative +American towns, and with the happiest results. The county of +Barnstaple in Massachusetts, for example, with a population of +32,000 souls, and having no licensed liquor saloons, yields a crop +of only three convictions per annum for drunkenness. The county of +Suffolk, on the other hand, with a population of nearly 400,000, +and a license for every 175 of its inhabitants, acknowledges one +drunkard for every 50 of its population. The labor in one case is +nearly all native; in the other, largely foreign.</p> + +<p>It is almost, if not quite, impossible to obtain the statistics +of pauperism in America. The "indoor" poor, as paupers in +almshouses are called, can be found and counted with comparative +ease, but how can the outdoor paupers be found? It is no use +inquiring for them from door to door, and the poor-master's +disbursements are so limited in amount that his bills for pauper +relief become mixed up with other items, so that they cannot be +separately stated. The total number of paupers resident in American +almshouses is 67,000, or about one in every 70,000 of the whole +population. In England, we have still one pauper in every fifty +thousand of the population. Such being the more important aspects +of native American labor, as displayed by the statistician, it is +time for the social observer to give his account of a typical +American artisan's home.</p> + +<p>We are at Ansonia, in the Naugatuck valley, one of the chief +towns of "Clockland," where, within a radius of twenty miles, +watches and clocks are made by millions and sold for a few +shillings apiece. Our friend Mr. S. is an Ansonia mechanic who +occupies a house with a basement of cut stone and a tasteful +superstructure of wood, having a wide veranda, kitchen, parlor, and +bed-room on the ground floor and three bedrooms above. The house is +painted white, adorned with green jalousies, and surrounded by a +well-tilled quarter acre lot. Its windows are aglow with geraniums, +and from its veranda we glance upward to the wooded slopes of the +Green Mountain range, and downward to the River Naugatuck, whose +blue mill-ponds look like tiny Highland lakes surrounded by great +factories. Within, a pleasant sitting-room is furnished with all +the comforts and some of the luxuries of life, the tables are +strewn with books, and the walls decorated with pretty photographs. +Mr. S.'s wife and daughter are educated and agreeable women, who +entertain us, during an hour's call, with intelligent conversation, +which, turning for the most part on the events of the War of +Independence, is characterized by ample historical knowledge, a +logical habit of mind, and a remarkable readiness to welcome new +ideas. No refreshments are offered us, for no one eats between +meals, and, in private houses, as in the public refreshment rooms, +where native labor usually takes its meals, nothing stronger than +water is ever drunk. Such are the homes of men whom I would +distinguish as "American" artisans, and such, also, are those of +many foreign workmen who have been long under native influence.</p> + +<p>It is not in the valleys of Massachusetts, however, that the +greatest manufacturing cities of the Union are to be found, the +towns already referred to containing usually only a few thousand +inhabitants, and being still, for the most part, rural in their +surroundings. They are, indeed, the fastnesses, so to speak, to +which the Yankee artisan has retired, after having been almost +literally swept out of the great manufacturing cities by successive +waves of emigrant labor, chiefly of Irish and French-Canadian +nationality. To these great cities we must now turn for examples of +a condition of operative society which contrasts most unfavorably +with that which has already been sketched; it being, meanwhile, +understood that a penumbral region, of more or less mixed +conditions, graduates the brightness of the one into the darkness +of the other picture.</p> + +<p>The city of Lowell, whose brilliant past is so well known, +exemplifies, on that very account, better than any other +manufacturing town in the States, the character of recent +alterations in American labor conditions. The mill-hands, formerly +such as I have described them, have been almost entirely replaced +by Canadians and Irish, who have given a new character and aspect +to the Lowell of forty years ago. "Little Canada," as the quarter +inhabited by the former people is called, exhibits a congeries of +narrow, unpaved lanes, lined with rickety wooden houses, which +elbow one another closely, and possess neither gardens nor yards. +They are let out in flats, and are crowded to overflowing with a +dense population of lodgers. Peeps into their interiors reveal +dirty, poorly furnished rooms, and large families, pigging +squalidly together at meal times, while unkempt men and slatternly +women lean from open windows, and scold in French, or chatter with +crowds of ragged and bare-legged children, playing in the +gutters.</p> + +<p>The Irish portion of the town has wider streets, and houses less +crowded than those of "Little Canada," but is, altogether, of +scarcely better aspect. Slatternly women gossip in groups about the +doorways. Tawdrily dressed girls saunter along the sidewalks, or +loll from the window-sills. Knots of shirt-sleeved men congregate +about the frequent liquor-saloons, talking loudly and volubly. No +signs of poverty are apparent, but everything wears an aspect of +prosperous ignorance, satisfied to eat, drink, and idle away the +hours not given to work. Such is the general aspect of operative +Lowell to-day; but some of the old well-conducted boarding-houses +remain, sheltering worthy sons and daughters of toil. Similarly, +the outskirts of the city are adorned with many pretty white +houses, where typical American families are growing up amid +wholesome moral and physical surroundings, and enjoying all the +advantages of schools, churches, libraries, and free institutions +which the Great Republic puts everywhere, with lavish profuseness, +at the service even of its least promising populations.</p> + +<p>Concerning the Lowell mill-hands of to-day, I prefer, before my +own observations, to quote from an article entitled "Early Factory +Labor in New England," written by a lady, herself one of the early +mill-girls, and published in the "Massachusetts Labor Bureau Keport +for 1883." She says:</p> + +<p>"Last winter, I was invited to speak to a company of the Lowell +mill-girls, and tell them something of my early life as a member of +their guild. When my address was over, some of them gathered round +and asked me questions. In turn, I questioned them about their +work, hours of labor, wages, and means of improvement. When I urged +them to occupy their spare time in reading and study, they seemed +to understand the need of it, but answered, sadly, 'We will try, +but we work so hard, and are so tired.' It was plain that these +operatives did not go to their labor with the jubilant feeling of +the old mill-girls, that they worked without aim or purpose, and +took no interest in anything beyond earning their daily bread. +There was a tired hopelessness about them, such as was never seen +among the early mill-girls. Yet they have more leisure, and earn +more money than the operatives of fifty years ago, but they do not +know how to improve the one or use the other. These American-born +children of foreign parentage are, indeed, under the control +neither of their church nor their parents, and they, consequently, +adopt the vices and follies instead of the good habits of our +people. It is vital to the interests of the whole community that +they should be brought under good moral influence; that they should +live in better homes, and breathe a better social atmosphere than +is now to be found in our factory towns."</p> + +<p>The city of Holyoke, another great cotton center, having 23,000 +inhabitants, is in some respects the most remarkable town in the +State of Massachusetts. It was brought into existence, 35 years +ago, by the construction of a great dam across the Connecticut +River; and, around the water power thus created, mills have sprung +up so rapidly that the population, whose normal increase is +eighteen per cent. every ten years in Massachusetts, has doubled, +during the last decade, in Holyoke. But eighty out of every 100 +persons in the city are of foreign extraction, the prevailing +nationality being French-Canadian, a people who are so rapidly +displacing other operatives, even the Irish themselves, in the +manufacturing centers of New England that they must not be +dismissed without remark.</p> + +<p>The Canadian-French were recently described in a grave State +paper as a "horde of industrial invaders," and accused of caring +nothing for American institutions, civil, political, or +educational; having come to the States, not to make a home, but to +get together a little money, and then to return whence they came. +The parent of these immigrants is the Canadian <i>habitan,</i> a +peasant proprietor, farming a few acres, living parsimoniously, +marrying early, and producing a large family, who must either clear +the soils of the inclement north, or become factory operatives in +the States. They are a simple, kindly, pious, and cheerful folk, +with few wants, little energy, and no ambition; ignorant and +credulous, Catholic by religion, and devoted to the priest, who is +their oracle, friend, and guide in all the relations of life. Such +are the people—a complete contrast with Americans—who +began, some twelve years ago, to emigrate to the mills of New +England. They came, not only intending to return to their own +country with their savings, but enjoined by the Church to do so. +Employers, however, soon found out the value of the new comers, and +Yankee superintendents preferred them as operatives before any +other nationality, not only on account of their tireless industry +and docility, but because they accepted lower wages, and kept +themselves clear of trade-union societies. Thus, finally, it has +come about that nearly 70 per cent. of the cotton operatives at +Holyoke are of French-Canadian origin, and the social condition of +all these people is precisely similar to that which has already +been described as characterizing the inhabitants of "Little Canada" +in Lowell.</p> + +<p>It has already been said that the average rate of inhabitancy is +six persons per house in the State of Massachusetts, but the +presence of the French in Holyoke actually doubles the inhabitancy +of the whole town, with what effect upon their own special quarter +may easily be imagined. Probably nowhere in Europe could there be +found more crowded houses, and worse physical conditions of life, +than in the quarters inhabited by certain alien operatives in many +manufacturing towns of the United States.</p> + +<p>Sharp contrasts as they are, these sketches fairly picture the +heights and depths of industrial conditions in a region which, as I +would again remind you, contains nearly one-half of all the factory +operatives in America. More than this, while the States in question +would yield to no others their claims to represent advanced +civilization, Massachusetts, the creation of the Puritan refugees, +and the cradle of American independence, stands confessedly at the +head of all her sister States for enlightened philanthropy. There +are no greater lovers of right, honorers of industry, and friends +to education in the world than its people, yet the present social +condition of Holyoke and of Lowell, as of many other manufacturing +cities, would have shocked all America thirty years ago, and been +impossible less than half a century back. It is time we should ask, +How is America going to treat a problem, formerly the danger and +still the perplexity of Europe, for which democratic institutions +have failed to furnish the solution once confidently, but unfairly, +expected from them?</p> + +<p>The State, the Church, and the School are all doing their best +to prevent the lapse to lower conditions which seems to threaten +labor in the States, each of them trying their utmost to "make +Americans" of alien laborers, by means of the political, religious, +and educational institutions of the country. How inadequate these +unaided agencies are for the accomplishment of their gigantic task +is nowhere so clearly realized as in the common, or free, schools +of the States. These, in districts such as I have distinguished as +"American," are filled with boys and girls, of all ages from five +to eighteen, whose appearance and intelligence bespeak high social +conditions. Whatever the occupation which these young people may +ultimately adopt—and all of them are destined for work-a-day +lives—an observer feels quite sure that they are more likely +to raise the character of their several employments, than to be +themselves degraded to lower social levels, on quitting school.</p> + +<p>But no similar confidence in the future of American labor is +engendered by visits to the schools where sits the progeny of alien +labor. In the case of the Canadians, indeed, parents and priests +alike bend all their energies to the establishment of "parochial +schools," which, if they forward the cause of the Church, do little +for education in the American sense of requiring good citizens, +even more than good scholars, at the hands of the national +teachers.</p> + +<p>The primary schools of great industrial towns, such as Fall +River, the Manchester of America, are filled, to quite as great an +extent as similar schools in Europe, with ignorant, ragged, and +bare-footed urchins. These children are, indeed, no less well cared +for and taught than their Yankee fellows, and one cannot +sufficiently admire the energy and enthusiasm with which +school-teachers generally endeavor to "make Americans" of their +stolid and ragged little alien charges. In these cases, however, +where often the children have had no schooling at all before they +are old enough to work, it is quite clear that the school cannot do +all that is required to raise the labor of to-day up to the levels +it occupied in the past. And, if the school itself is ineffective +in this regard, how much more so must be the Church, to which +immigrant youth is a comparative stranger; or those democratic +institutions which are based, to quote the words of Washington +himself, upon "the virtue and intelligence of the people."</p> + +<p>Whether the present condition of labor in America will ever +again be lifted to the levels of the past depends, in truth, less +upon the State, the Church, and the School, than upon the part +which the American employer is taking or about to take in this +question. It is impossible for any unprejudiced observer to be long +in the States, and especially in the New England States, without +coming to the conclusion that a large number of employers are very +anxious about the character of the labor they employ, and willing +to assist to the utmost of their power in improving it. In spite of +the love of money and luxury which is so conspicuous a feature of +certain sections of American society, a high ideal of the proper +function of wealth has arisen in the States, where large fortunes +are chiefly things of recent date, among large and influential +classes having an enlightened regard for the best welfare of the +country. This regard finds expression now in the establishment of a +factory, managed with one eye on profits and another on the +elevation of the artisan, and now in the endowment of free +libraries or similar institutions, offering opportunities of +improvement to all.</p> + +<p>To give only a few instances of the former movement: Mr. +Pullman, the great car-builder, has recently established, on Lake +Calumet, a vast system of workshops and workmen's homes, a +description of which reads like a chapter from More's "Utopia." The +Waterbury Watch Company has lately built a factory, employing 600 +hands, on similar lines to those of Mr. Pullman. Cheney Brothers' +silk mills at South Manchester remain now, after Irish labor has +entirely taken the place of native hands, at almost the same high +level as that which, in common with Lowell, they held forty years +ago. Messrs. Fairbanks, of St. Johnsbury, in Vermont, conduct a +large establishment, where every married <i>employe</i> owns a +house in the village, almost an Eden for beauty and order, which +has grown up around these remote but remarkable scale works. +Similarly, the Cranes at Dalton, in Massachusetts; Messrs. Brown, +Sharpe and Co., at Providence, Rhode Island; Mr. Hazard at +Peacedale, Narragansett; and last, not least, Col. Barrows, at +Willimantic, in Connecticut, have all succeeded in restoring the +past conditions of native American labor among operatives, now, for +the most part, of alien origin.</p> + +<p>I wish that time permitted me to sketch, however briefly, the +mills to which I have last alluded. It must suffice to say that the +devoted labors of Col. Barrows, President of the Willimantic Thread +Co., have succeeded in creating, out of Irish labor, social +conditions of industrial life which approach ideal perfection as +nearly as the work of imperfect man can possibly do. And, better +still, the high morality and intelligence of Col. Barrow's 1,600 +operatives, the comfort and seemliness of their homes, the cleanly +and cheerful character of the mill work, even the refinements of +the music and art schools attached to the mill, can be proved, by +hard figures, to be paying factors in the undertaking, viewed from +a purely commercial standpoint.</p> + +<p>So far, I have endeavored to show that a great contrast exists +between what once was and now is the condition of factory labor in +America. I have, further, described certain survivals of an earlier +and happier state of things, and indicated the forces now at work +tending to lift the Holyoke of to-day, for example, to the social +levels of old Lowell. I have given my reasons for believing that +the democratic institutions of America are incapable, unaided, of +accomplishing such a task as this charge implies, and concluded +that its accomplishment depends mainly on the action of the +American employer. What this action as a whole, and what, +therefore, the future of labor in America is likely to be, I +confess myself in grave doubt—doubt from which I turn, with +something like a sense of relief, to discuss those economical +considerations affecting wage-earners which have hitherto been made +to give place to social inquiries.</p> + +<p>We have now to ask what are the wages of labor in the States, +their relation to the cost of subsistence, and to wages and cost of +subsistence in our own country? Finally, I shall briefly consider +certain propositions of the American political economist which are +so inextricably mixed up with the question of labor and wages in +the States that it is impossible to discuss the one without taking +some note of the other.</p> + +<p>Until quite recently, no complete investigation, bringing the +rates of wages paid in industries common to the United States and +European countries, has ever been made, although the results of +such an investigation have been constantly and earnestly called for +both by the press and people of America. Permit me to remark, in +passing, that we know little in this country of the desire for +full, trustworthy, and accessible statistics, concerning all +matters of national interest, which dominates the public mind of +America; and as little of the willingness with which American +citizens of all classes place the particulars of their private +business at the service of the statistician. This desire for +statistical bases whereon the statesman and economist may build, is +vividly illustrated by that publication, perhaps the most wonderful +in the whole world, entitled a "Compendium of the Census of the +United States," issued with every decade. These volumes, accessible +to everybody, and arranged with marvelous skill and lucidity, offer +to the social observer a complete, accurate, and suggestive survey +of every field comprised within the vast domain of the national +interests. An evening's address would not more than suffice to +indicate the scope and appraise the value of this work, which is a +mine wherein, the ore ready dressed to his hand, the +politico-economic or industrial essayist might work for years +without exhausting its riches.</p> + +<p>But the United States Census does not treat specifically of +wages and subsistence, and it is to the Massachusetts Labor Bureau +that we must again turn for such information as we now require. Dr. +Edward Young, indeed, the late chief of the United States Bureau of +Statistics, published an elaborate work upon this subject in 1875, +but his comparisons as to the relative cost of living in America +and Europe, good in themselves, are rendered of little value by the +absence of such statistics as would give the true percentage of +difference between American and foreign wages. Several elaborate +wages reports were also published between 1879 and 1882, which, +while they gave the American side of the question with great +fullness, presented foreign wages very incompletely.</p> + +<p>Always, however, impressed with the importance of making an +accurate comparison between wages and the cost of subsistence on +the two sides of the Atlantic, but unable to undertake a very wide +inquiry with the funds at its disposal, the Massachusetts Bureau +determined, in the fall of 1883, upon reducing to narrower limits +than heretofore the field of investigation. Instead of America and +Europe, Massachusetts and Great Britain were selected for +comparison, the former as the chief manufacturing State of America, +the latter as her leading competitor.</p> + +<p>With this view, a number of agents were sent to gather +personally, from the pay rolls of American and English +manufactories, the rates of wages paid in twenty-four of the +leading industries which are common to the two districts +respectively. It was, at first, sought to extend the inquiry to +thirty-five different industries, a number which would practically +have covered the whole ground, but nine of these were finally +abandoned for want of sufficient British information.</p> + +<p>It is a perfectly easy thing, as already indicated, to gather +wage or other statistics in the counting-houses of Massachusetts +manufactories, but quite a different matter when a collection of +similar information is attempted in this country, where most +proprietors are unwilling, and many altogether refuse, to give any +information regarding their industries.</p> + +<p>The following table, of which an enlarged facsimile, marked A, +appears on the wall, specifies the twenty-four industries from +which the returns in question were made, and the number of +establishments making such returns in each industry in either +country:</p> + +<pre> +<i>Table A</i>. + +Industries. Massachusetts. Great Britain. Total + +Agricultural implements 4 1 5 +Artisans' tools 3 4 7 +Boots and shoes 18 2 20 +Brick 3 1 4 +Building trades 32 24 56 +Carpetings 1 1 2 +Carriages and Wagons 11 3 14 +Clothing 10 4 14 +Cotton goods 10 9 19 +Flax and jute goods 2 3 5 +Food preparations 5 2 7 +Furniture 11 1 12 +Glass 1 3 4 +Hats (fur wool and silk) 3 2 5 +Hosiery 5 3 8 +Liquors (malt and distilled) 10 1 11 +Machines and machinery 12 15 27 +Metals and metallic goods 25 13 38 +Printing and publishing 12 7 19 +Printing, dyeing and bleaching etc 3 4 7 +Stone 10 1 11 +Wooden goods 12 1 13 +Woolen goods 4 2 6 +Worsted goods 3 3 6 + + 210 110 320 +</pre> + +<p>Thirty-two cities in Massachusetts, and twenty-six in Great +Britain, were visited in search of returns, of which almost all our +great industrial centers yield their quota.</p> + +<p>It being, of course, impossible to obtain wage returns for all +the <i>employes</i> of these various industries in either country, +the investigation aimed at covering at least 10 per cent. of such +totals, and, in the case of Massachusetts, succeeded in getting +returns for 36,000 hands, or 13 per cent. of the whole number of +artisans employed in the twenty-four industries examined. Great +Britain, on the other hand, made returns for about half that number +of hands, but their proportion to the totals employed cannot be +similarly stated, first, because we have here no specific +industrial census, and, second, because many of the English returns +were made for an indefinite number of <i>employes</i>.</p> + +<p>The comparison was made in the following way: For each of the +twenty-four industries, a table, consisting of four sections, was +constructed, viz., "Occupation," "Aggregation," "Recapitulation," +and "Comparison." The first gave the names of the various branches +of each industry, classifying these as minutely as possible, +because the names indicating subdivisions of labor are, generally, +so different in the two countries that the actual "matching" of +occupations, desirable for a perfect comparison, is impossible. The +second, or "Aggregation" section, brings the various occupations in +the same industry into juxtaposition, and supplies opportunities +for direct comparison. The third, or "Recapitulation" section, is +drawn from the "Occupation" section, and shows the number of men, +women, young persons, and children for whom wages are given; +whether these are paid by the day, or by piece; and whether the +wage returns show the actual amounts paid to a definite number of +<i>employes</i>, or an average wage for a definite or an indefinite +number of <i>employes</i>. The fourth, or "Comparison" section, +brings the highest, lowest, and general average weekly wages into +final comparison.</p> + +<p>The first three sections of the table, being either simply +enumerative or collective in character, are easily understood +without illustration, but an example of the "Comparative" section, +marked Table B, hangs on the wall, and shows all the final +comparisons at a glance.</p> + +<pre> +<i>Table B</i>. +------------------------------------------------------------------- + | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 + --------------------------------------- +Classification. |Massac- | Great | Massac- | Great + |husetts.| Britain.| husetts.| Britain. +------------------------------------------------------------------- +Average highest weekly | dols. | dols. | dols. | dols. +wage paid to—— | | | | + Men | 37.00 | 13.39 | 25.41 | 11.36 + Women | 5.50 | ... | 8.57 | 4.10 + Young persons | 7.00 | 3.65 | 6.94 | 3.04 + Children | 5.70 | ... | 4.64 | 1.05 + | | | | +Average lowest weekly wage | | | | +paid to—— | | | | + Men | 7.60 | 3.21 | 7.09 | 4.72 + Women | 5.00 | ... | 4.62 | 2.27 + Young women | 4.50 | 1.46 | 4.26 | 1.66 + Children | 3.00 | ... | 3.09 | .60 + | | | | +Average weekly wages | | | | +paid to—— | | | | + Men | 12.04 | 8.07 | 11.85 | 8.26 + Women | 5.12 | ... | 6.09 | 3.37 + Young persons | 5.76 | 2.52 | 5.10 | 2.40 + Children—— | 5.31 | ... | 3.81 | .79 + --------------------------------------- +General average weekly wage | | | | +paid to all <i>employes</i> | 11.75 | 8.07 | 10.32 | 6.96 +------------------------------------------------------------------- +Result: General average | | + weekly wages higher in | 45.60 | 48.28 + Massachusetts by per cent | per cent. | per cent. +------------------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p>The two first columns of the table are simply illustrative of +the method applied to a single industry, exhibiting the highest +average, lowest average, and average weekly wages, whether to men, +women, young persons, or children, in the particular business of +"machine-making," together with the general average wages paid to +all the <i>employes</i> in such industry. The general average +weekly wages in this industry are thus shown to be 45.6 per cent. +higher in Massachusetts than in Great Britain.</p> + +<p>The 3d and 4th columns of the table consolidate all the +twenty-four industries, and yield, in similar terms, as in the case +of machine-making, an average comparison applying to the whole +group of industries under examination, giving, as a grand result, +that the general average weekly wages of Massachusetts are higher +by 48.28 per cent. than those of Great Britain.</p> + +<p>It is, however, explained that the British wage returns were +made in three different ways, viz., for a definite number of +<i>employes</i>, by percentage returns, and by general returns; +both of the latter being for an indefinite number of +<i>employes</i>. Where more than one wage-basis was given, the +highest figure was used in the calculations, and, this being the +case in eighteen out of the twenty-four industries, its effects on +the grand result are considerable; for, by crediting Great Britain +with the <i>average</i> instead of the <i>high</i> weekly wage, the +average percentage in favor of Massachusetts rises from 48.28 per +cent. to 75.94 per cent.</p> + +<p>In order truly to indicate the higher percentage of average +weekly wages in Massachusetts, we must, therefore, agree upon a +figure somewhere between these two extremes, viz., that of 48.28 +per cent., derived from tables in which Great Britain is credited +with the high wage, and that of 75.94 per cent., derived from those +tables in which she is credited with the average of the returns +made upon the different bases. The mean of these figures is 62.11 +per cent., which is considered to be the result of the +investigation, and may be formulated as follows: The general +average weekly wages paid to <i>employes</i> in twenty-four +manufacturing industries common to Massachusetts and Great Britain +is 62 per cent., higher in the former than the general average +weekly wages paid in the same industries in the latter country.</p> + +<p>But the question of wages forms only one side of the working +man's account; on the other stands the cost of living, and no +comparisons of prosperity, in given industrial communities, are of +any value which omit to take into consideration the relative ease +with which such communities can procure the means of subsistence. +Table C presents a summary of prices, gathered in 1883, of the +chief items in a working man's expenditure, and their cost in +Massachusetts and Great Britain.</p> + +<pre> +<i>Table C</i>. + +--------------------------------------------------------- +Articles. |Percentage higher | Percentage higher + | in Mass. | in Great Britain +--------------------------------------------------------- +Groceries | 16.18 | - +Provisions | - | 20.00 +Fuel | 104.98 | - +Dry goods | 13.26 | - +Boots and shoes | 42.75 | - +Clothing | 45.06 | - +Rents | 89.62 | - +--------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p>Having agreed that wages are probably 62 per cent. higher in +Massachusetts than in Great Britain, it would be easy, if we could +ascertain what proportion of a working man's income is spent +respectively in groceries, provisions, clothing, etc., to determine +what advantage an operative derives from the higher wages of the +United States. Dr. Engel, the chief of the Prussian Bureau of +Statistics, puts us in possession of this information, and, as the +result of a laborious inquiry, has formulated a certain economic +law which governs the relations between income and expenditure. +From him we learn (see Table D) that:</p> + +<pre> +<i>Table D</i>. + +A working man with an income of £60 per annum spends as follows: + + Per cent. + of income. Shillings. + / meat.... 248 +1. On subsistence 62 or \ groceries 496 +2. " clothing 16 " 192 +3. " rent 12 " 144 +4. " fuel 5 " 60 +5. " sundries 5 " 60 + —————— + Total shillings 1,200 + Or £60 +</pre> + +<p>Now, referring to Table C, it will be seen that the same man's +expenditure in America would be:</p> + +<pre> + Shillings. S. + +1. On subsistence / meat.... 248 - 20 p.c. = 198.4 + \ groceries 496 + 16 " = 575.3 +2. " clothing 192 + 45 " = 278.4 +3. " rent 144 + 89 " = 272.1 +4. " fuel 60 + 104 " = 122.0 +5. " sundries 60 + 50 " = 90.0 + ——————— + Total 1,536.2 + Or £76 16s. +</pre> + +<p>In other words, a workman earning £60 per annum in Great +Britain would receive £99, or 62 per cent. more wages in the +States, but living there would cost him £77, or £17 +more than here, giving him a net advantage of only 28 per cent., +instead of 62 per cent., derived from living and working in +America.</p> + +<p>But this result does not exhaust the question. The standard of +life is very different among working men in the States and in Great +Britain, and the almost inexhaustible statistics of the report, +already so often quoted, enable us to gauge this difference with +accuracy. It has been proved, by a recent investigation, whose +details we need not follow, that the expenditure of working men's +families, of similar size, in Massachusetts and in Great Britain, +stand to each other in the ratio of 15 to 10. By introducing this +new factor into our calculations, we find that a man who spends +£60 per annum in England would spend £90, instead of +£77, per annum in the States, paying American prices for +subsistence, and living up to American standards. In other words, +he would be a gainer to the extent of only £9 per annum by +living and working in the United States. Finally, if we presume +that 48 or 50 per cent., rather than 62 per cent., measures the +higher wages of Massachusetts, the same man's increased wages would +be £90 instead of £99, and he would-neither lose nor +gain in money by becoming an American citizen, and adopting +American habits.</p> + +<p>That these conclusions agree with those rough and ready +practical illustrations which, without being scientific, are +generally trustworthy, let the following story evidence.</p> + +<p>Some years ago, a skillful moulder, in my then firm's employ, +left us for the States, where he permanently settled. After a long +absence, he returned for a few weeks' holiday, when I asked him +whether he earned higher wages and found life more agreeable in +America than in England. "Well, as to money" was his reply, "I +think, taking all things into consideration, I did about as well in +the old shop as I do now; but, socially speaking, I am somebody +there, while here I am only a moulder." Social advantage, indeed, +probably measures almost all the difference between the position of +a skilled factory operative in the States and in England.</p> + +<p>Let me not seem, however, to undervalue that difference. +Statistics, after all, do not dominate human nature; on the +contrary, human nature determines the statistician's figures. Every +artisan emigrant to America gains opportunities of advancement of +which his European fellows know nothing. If he have brains, the way +to success is open there, while it is practically barred to +anything short of genius for men of his class in Europe. Our +Australian colonies, where unskilled labor can earn 7s. 6d. a day, +and live for a trifle, are, indeed, a paradise for the mere +wage-earner, who can scarcely help becoming also a wage-saver; but +America is the country which, with wage conditions such as I have +attempted to portray, still offers the best possible opportunities +of success, and even of great careers, to clever working men, and +especially to clever mechanics. That man, however, is not worthy of +a home in the great republic, who does not appreciate the higher +social levels at which native labor desires to live, who is not +anxious to make the most of the advantages which democratic +institutions offer him, who does not, in short, ardently desire to +become a "good American."</p> + +<p>There remains the question already alluded to as inextricably +bound up with American labor problems: How does the American tariff +affect wages? The idea that these are determinable by the tariff is +the corner stone of protection in the States. The artisan has been +so sedulously educated to believe that the chief object of import +duties is to protect him from falling into a ruinous competition +with what is called the "pauper labor of Europe," that no movement +on the part of workmen in the direction of free trade is ever +likely to arise in America. I am not now about to argue the +question of protection, except in so far as it relates to labor; +but it may be remarked, in passing, that internal competition, +rather than the people, is the enemy from whom the tariff will +probably receive its death blow in the future. Protection will +ultimately break down by its own weight in the States. Production +already exceeds demand, the cry for a "wider market" and for "raw +materials free" is in every manufacturer's mouth; and if America +upholds her protective legislation too long, the produce of her +factories and mills will, by and by, force its way, in spite of the +tariff, into the open markets of the world, but it will be through +the gate of national suffering. Few people in this country are, I +think, aware of the extraordinary fervor with which the doctrine +that protection benefits labor is preached in the States. We are +ourselves accustomed to hear the question of free trade argued only +from the economic standpoint, but this is by no means so commonly +the case in America. I shall try, by paraphrasing certain recent +addresses of an able personal friend and enthusiastic +protectionist, to illustrate the position taken by those persons +who advocate the tariff, not upon economic grounds, but in the +avowed interests of labor.</p> + +<p>Referring to the words "Free Trade," the speaker in question +begins by asking, "What is the essential nature of that which we +call trade?" And answers himself as follows:</p> + +<p>"The grim, ugly fact is that trade is a fight, the markets are +battle fields, the traders are gladiators, carrying on a true war +around questions of values, with no care whether the opposing party +or the community at large can afford that the trade is made. This +contest is always going on, whether a lady buys a pair of gloves, +or a syndicate corners Erie. Antagonism is so fixed an element of +trade, and so often defeats the object it blindly follows, as to +make laws which seek to mitigate the ferocity of the struggle as +welcome to the far-sighted man of business as they are to the +foredoomed victims of this relentless warfare."</p> + +<p>On the other hand, competition is said to be a—</p> + +<p>"Wonder worker in developing energy in the strongest +individuals, and massing wealth in masterful states; but, since +competitive trading can never be wholly beneficent, it should be +strictly controlled, in the interests of the toiling millions, who +are too weak successfully to oppose its attacks. The results of +forcing on the naturally weak, by means of competition, hard and +unequal bargains which are evaded by the strong, are appalling in +their magnitude, dividing whole peoples permanently into castes, +rich and poor, injuring the former by excess, and the latter by +deprivation, making a nation strong in the trading instinct, and +rich in accumulated wealth, but weak and poor in all its other +parts. This abuse is saddest of all when, failing to be recognized +as an evil, the doctrines of free trade are wrought into the policy +and social life of a people."</p> + +<p>Protective remedies for this state of things are introduced as +follows:</p> + +<p>"Wherever the value of competition has been fully recognized, +but supplemented by wise control of its energies, the results are +excellent. This fact forms the foundation of our protective laws, +whose very name 'protective' implies assailants; those hard +bargains, to wit, driven on the fighting side of trade, under the +motto of 'let the fittest survive.' When a small army is attacked +by a large one, it covers itself by earthworks. Similarly, where +there are sheep, and wolves abound, the farmer puts up fences which +effectually protect his flock; and, in the same way, tariffs are +'forts,' whence the artisan may hope successfully to defend himself +against the attacks of his powerful and unscrupulous enemy, +capital; or they may even be considered as a pistol, which a little +fellow points at a big bully who threatens him with a +thrashing."</p> + +<p>Such are the arguments which are urged with great fervor, and +immense effect, upon the American artisan, who fully and firmly +believes that protection is the only agent capable of lifting his +lot above those, dreaded levels at which the "pauper labor of +Europe" is universally believed to live.</p> + +<p>The simple answer to all this rhetoric appears to be that, while +it might be valid as an indictment of the competitive system as a +whole, it is valueless when directed against a part of that system +only. Advocates who are not prepared to say that every bargain +shall be controlled by beneficence, and who distinctly admire the +chief results of competition, cannot logically demand that labor, +alone of all salable commodities, shall be bought and sold on +altruistic principles.</p> + +<p>In what immediately precedes, I have endeavored to indicate the +character of the pleadings which make American artisans universally +supporters of the tariff, and we must now return to the question, +What, after all, is really the effect of protection on wages in +America? I answer that no legislative schemes can add to, although +they may injure, the material resources of a state. Capital can +only support the labor for which the annual harvest of such +resources pays, and all that legislation can do is artificially to +divert labor and capital from directions which they would take +under the influence of natural laws.</p> + +<p>America is selling, at the present time, about +£160,000,000 worth of food and other raw products in Europe. +These, together, represent her chief branch of business, in which +nearly fifty per cent. of her population is engaged, and all this +merchandise is sold in the free trade markets of the world. Wages +in America, therefore, cannot possibly be regulated by the tariff, +because, whatever wages can be earned by men engaged in the +production of agricultural products—the prices of which are +fixed in Liverpool—must be the rate of wages which will +substantially be paid in other branches of business. Wages, like +water, seek a level; if manufacture pays best, labor will quit +agriculture; if agriculture pays best, manufactures will decline, +and agriculture progress.</p> + +<p>A glance at the condition of industrial society in America +vividly illustrates this conclusion. Any man, with a few dollars +and a strong pair of arms, can win far greater rewards from the +soil than he could possibly obtain by the same effort in Europe. +His wages are high, because the grade of comfort to be obtained +from the land by means of a little labor is high, and the artisans' +wages must follow suit, if men are to be tempted from the field +into the workshop. American politicians, however, would have us +believe that American labor owes its prosperity to taxation; in +other words, that what the immigrant seeks is not the rich prizes +offered him by a free and fertile soil, but the blessings which +flow from a tariff that adds an average 40 per cent. to the cost of +everything he needs except food.</p> + +<p>One more illustration, and I have done. Upon the wall hangs a +diagram which shows the movements of American wages, of English +wages, and of the tariff from 1860 to 1883. I have already argued +that a tariff cannot determine wages, and the diagram affords +positive proof that it has not determined them in America, as +between 1860 and the present time. On the contrary, their movements +are evidently due to the same causes as have influenced wages here +during this period, while it is certainly remarkable that they have +fallen sooner, fallen lower, and recovered less completely in +America, where industry is "protected," than in Great Britain, were +it is "unprotected."</p> + +<p>Shortly to recapitulate all that has been advanced, I have +endeavored to show:</p> + +<p>1st. That a great change has occurred in the social condition of +labor in the United States during the last forty years, and that, +spite of all the existing agencies of improvement, it is doubtful +whether the working classes of America are not, at the present +moment, falling still further from those high ideals of operative +life which once so brilliantly distinguished the United States from +European countries.</p> + +<p>2d. That, although wages are probably some 60 per cent. higher +in the chief manufacturing districts of America than in Great +Britain, yet an English artisan would find himself little richer +there than at home, after paying the enhanced prices for +subsistence, and conforming to the higher standard of life which +prevails in the States. At the same time, his whole social position +and opportunities of advancement would be immensely improved.</p> + +<p>3d. I have tried to demonstrate that the tariff, to which the +higher wages of America are so confidently attributed, has really +no influence whatever upon them, and that it is not therefore an +engine, such as it is glowingly represented to the American +artisan, constructed for the purpose of raising his lot above that +of the so-called "pauper labor of Europe." Any inquiry into the +character of the work really accomplished by the engine in question +would lead me into regions of controversy forbidden in this +room.</p> + +<p>Finally, if I am asked why, in a review of American labor and +wages, I have said nothing of trade unionism on the one hand, and +of co-operative production on the other, I can only answer that to +have introduced these among so many other interesting, but +subsidiary, subjects which crowd around questions of labor and +wages, would have doubled the volume of this address, and more than +halved the patience with which you have kindly listened to it.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">A paper recently read before the Society of Arts, +London.</div> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. 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