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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 481,
+March 21, 1885, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 481, March 21, 1885
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 28, 2004 [EBook #11735]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 481 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the DP Team
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 481
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, MARCH 21, 1885
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 481.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Righi Railroad.--With
+      3 engravings.
+
+      The Chinese Pump.--1 figure.
+
+      The Water Clock.--3 figures.
+
+      New Self-propelling and Steering Torpedoes.
+
+      Dobson and Barbour's Improvements in Heilmann's Combers.--1 figure.
+
+      Machine for Polishing Boots and Shoes.
+
+
+II.   TECHNOLOGY.--The Use of Gas in the Workshop.--By T.
+      FLETCHER.--Placing of lights.--Best burners.--Light lost by
+      shades.--Use of the blowpipe.--Gas furnaces.--Gas engines.
+
+      The Gas Meter.--3 figures.
+
+      The Municipal School for Instruction in Watchmaking at
+      Geneva.--1 engraving.
+
+
+III.  ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Personal Safety with the Electric
+      Currents.
+
+      A Visit to Canada and the United States; or, Electricity in
+      America in 1884.--By W.H. PREECE.
+
+
+IV.   ARCHITECTURE.--The House of a Thousand Terrors, Rotterdam.--With
+      engraving.
+
+
+V.    GEOLOGY.--On the Origin and Structure of Coal,--With full page
+      of illustrations.
+
+
+VI.   POLITICAL ECONOMY.--Labor and Wages in America.--By D.
+      PIDGEON.--Who and what are the operatives.--Native labor.--Alien
+      employes.--Housing of labor.--Sobriety.--Pauperism.--Artisans'
+      homes.--Interest of employer in the condition of his
+      employes.--Wages in Europe and America.--Expenditures of
+      workingmen.--Free trade and protection.
+
+
+VII.  MISCELLANEOUS.--Ice Boat Races on the Mueggelsee, near
+      Berlin.--With engraving.
+
+
+VIII. BIOGRAPHY.--DUPUY DE LOME--With portrait.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+THE RIGHI RAILROAD.
+
+
+In the year 1864, the well-known geographer, Heinrich Keller, from Zurich,
+on ascending to the summit of the Righi Mountain, in the heart of
+Switzerland, discovered one of the finest panoramic displays of mountain
+scenery that he had ever witnessed. To his enthusiastic descriptions some
+lovers of nature in Zurich and Berne listened with much interest, and in
+the year 1865, Dr. Abel, Mr. Escher von der Luith, Aulic Councilor, Dr.
+Horner, and others, in connection with Keller himself, subscribed money to
+the amount of 2,000 marks ($500) for the purpose of building a hotel on
+the top of the mountain overlooking the view. This hotel was simple
+enough, being merely a hut such as is to be found in abundance in the
+Alps, and which are built by the German and Austrian Alpine Clubs. At
+present the old hotel is replaced by another and more comfortable
+building, which is rendered accessible by a railway that ascends the
+mountain. Mr. Riggenbach, director of the railway works at Olten, was the
+projector of this road, which was begun in 1869 and completed in 1871.
+Vitznau at Lucerne is the starting point. The ascent, which is at first
+gradual, soon increases one in four. After a quarter of an hour the train
+passes through a tunnel 240 feet in length, and over an iron bridge of the
+same length, by means of which the Schnurtobel, a deep gorge with
+picturesque waterfalls, is crossed. At Station Freibergen a beautiful
+mountain scene presents itself, and the eye rests upon the glittering,
+ice-covered ridge of the Jungfrau, the Monk, and the Eiger. Further up is
+station Kaltbad, where the road forks, and one branch runs to Scheideck.
+At about ten minutes from Kaltbad is the so-called "Kanzli" (4,770 feet),
+an open rotunda on a projecting rock, from which a magnificent view is
+obtained. The next station is Stoffelhohe, from which the railroad leads
+very near to the abyss on the way to Righi-Stoffel, and from this point it
+reaches its terminus (Righi-Kulin) in a few minutes. This is 5,905 feet
+above the sea, the loftiest and most northern point of the Righi group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--STARTING POINT OF THE RIGHI RAILROAD.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE RIGHI RAILROAD.]
+
+The gauge of this railroad is the same as that of most ordinary ones.
+Between the rails runs a third broad and massive rail provided with teeth,
+which gear with a cogwheel under the locomotive. The train is propelled
+upward by steam power, while in its descent the speed is regulated by an
+ingenious mode of introducing atmospheric air into the cylinder. The
+carriage for the passengers is placed in both cases in front of the
+engine. The larger carriages have 54 seats, and the smaller 34. Only one
+is dispatched at a time. In case of accident, the train can be stopped
+almost instantaneously.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--NEW LOCOMOTIVE ON THE RIGHI RAILROAD.]
+
+We give herewith, from _La Lumiere Electrique_, several engravings
+illustrating the system. Fig. 1 shows the starting station. As may be seen
+on Figs. 2 and 3, the method selected for obtaining adhesion permits of
+ascending the steepest gradients, and that too with entire security.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HIGH SPEED STEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+The use of rapidly rotating machinery in electric lighting has created a
+demand for engines running from 400 to 1,200 revolutions per minute, and
+capable of being coupled directly to a dynamo machine. We have already
+illustrated several forms of these engines, and now publish engravings of
+another in which the most noticeable feature is the employment of separate
+expansion valves and very short steam passages. Many high-speed engines
+labor under the well-grounded suspicion of being heavy steam users, and
+their want of economy often precludes their employment. Mr. Chandler, the
+inventor of the engine illustrated above, has therefore adopted a more
+elaborate arrangement of valves than ordinarily obtains in engines of this
+class, and claims that he gains thereby an additional economy of 33 per
+cent. in steam. The valves are cylindrical, and are driven by independent
+eccentrics, the spindle of the cut-off valve passing through the center of
+the main valve. The upper valve is exposed to the steam on its top face,
+and works in a cylinder with a groove cut around its inner surface. As
+soon as the lower edge of the valve passes below the bottom lip of the
+groove, the steam is cut off from the space between it and the main valve,
+which is fitted with packing rings and works over a latticed port. This
+port opens directly into the cylinder. The exhaust takes place chiefly
+through a port uncovered when the piston is approaching the end of its
+stroke. The remaining vapor left in the cylinder is exhausted under the
+lower edge of the main valve, until cushioning commences, and the steam
+from both upper and lower ports is discharged into the exhaust box shown
+in Fig. 2. The speed of the engine is controlled by a centrifugal governor
+and an equilibrium valve. This is a "dead face" valve, and when the engine
+is running empty it opens and closes many times per minute. The spindle
+on which the valve is mounted revolves with the governor pulley, and
+consequently never sticks. To prevent the small gland being jammed by
+unequal screwing up, the pressure is applied by a loose flange which is
+rounded at the part which presses against the gland. The governor is
+adjustable while the engine is running.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED HIGH SPEED STEAM ENGINE.]
+
+Another economy claimed for this engine is in the use of oil. The cranks
+and connecting rods work in a closed chamber, the lower part of which is
+filled with oil and water. The oil floats in a layer on the surface of the
+water, and at every revolution is splashed all over the working parts,
+including the interior of the cylinder, which it reaches through holes in
+the piston. The oil is maintained exactly at one level by a very ingenious
+arrangement. The bottom of the crank chamber communicates through a hole,
+C, with an outer box, which receives the water deposited by the exhaust
+steam. The level of this water is exactly determined by an overflow hole,
+B, which allows all excess above that level to pass into an elbow of the
+exhaust pipe, out of which it is licked by the passing steam and carried
+away. Thus, as the oil is gradually used the pressure of the water in the
+other leg of the hydrostatic balance raises the level of the remaining
+portion. When a fresh supply of oil is poured into the box, it forces out
+some of the water and descends very nearly to the level of the hole, B.
+
+The engine is made with either one or two cylinders, and is, of course,
+single-acting. The pistons and connecting rods are of forged steel and
+phosphor-bronze. The following is a list of their sizes:
+
+                _Single Engines_.
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+  Brake   |           |            |         |            |
+Horsepower| Bore of   | Revolutions|         |            |
+ at 62 lb.| Cylinder. | per minute.| Height. |Floor Space.|
+ Boiler   |           |            |         |            |
+Pressure. |           |            |         |            |
+----------|-----------|------------|---------|-------------
+          |   in.     |            |   in.   |  in.   in. |
+   21/4     |    4      |   1,100    |   26    |  14 by 14  |
+   31/2     |    5      |   1,000    |   28    |  14 "  15  |
+   6      |    61/2     |     800    |   30    |  16 "  16  |
+  10      |    8      |     700    |   32    |  18 "  18  |
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+                _Double Engines_.
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+  Brake   |           |            |         |            |
+Horsepower| Bore of   | Revolutions|         |            |
+ at 62 lb.| Cylinder. | per minute.| Height. |Floor Space.|
+ Boiler   |           |            |         |            |
+Pressure. |           |            |         |            |
+----------|-----------|------------|---------|-------------
+          |   in.     |            |   in.   |  in.   in. |
+   41/2     |    4      |   1,100    |   26    |  14 by 20  |
+   71/4     |    5      |   1,000    |   28    |  14 "  20  |
+  12      |    61/2     |     800    |   30    |  16 "  26  |
+  20      |    8      |     700    |   32    |  18 "  32  |
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+The manufacturer is Mr. F.D. Bumstead, Hednesford,
+Staffordshire.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CHINESE PUMP.
+
+
+If a glass tube about three feet in length, provided at its upper
+extremity with a valve that opens outwardly, and at its lower with one
+that opens inwardly, be dipped into water and given a series of up and
+down motions, the water will be seen to quickly rise therein and finally
+spurt out at the top. The explanation of the phenomenon is very simple.
+Upon immersing the tube in the water it fills as far as to the external
+level of the liquid, and the air is expelled from the interior. If the
+tube be suddenly raised without removing its lower extremity from the
+water, the valve will close, the water will rise with the tube, and,
+through the velocity it has acquired, will ascend far above its preceding
+level. Now, upon repeating the up and down motion of the tube in the water
+five or six times, the tube will be filled, and will expel the liquid
+every time that the vertical motion occurs.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHINESE PUMP.]
+
+We speak here of a _glass_ tube, because with this the phenomenon may be
+observed. Any tube, of course, would produce the same results.
+
+The manufacture of the apparatus is very simple. The tube is closed above
+or below, according to the system one desires to adopt, by means of a
+perforated cork. The valve is made of a piece of kid skin, which is fixed
+by means of a bent pin and a brass wire (Fig. 2). It is necessary to wet
+the skin in order that it may work properly and form a hermetic valve. The
+arrangement of the lower valve necessitates the use of a tube of
+considerable diameter (Fig. 1). We would advise the adoption of the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 2. Under such circumstances a tube half an inch
+in diameter and about 3 feet in length will answer very well.
+
+It is better yet to simply use one's forefinger. The tube is taken in the
+right hand, as shown in Fig. 3, and the forefinger placed over the
+aperture. The finger should be wetted in order to perfect its adherence,
+and should not be pressed too hard against the mouth of the tube. It is
+only necessary to plunge the apparatus a few inches into the liquid and
+work it rapidly up and down, when the water will rise therein at every
+motion and spurt out of the top.
+
+This is an easy way of constructing the _Chinese Pump_, which is found
+described in treatises upon hydraulics. Such a pump could not, of course,
+be economically used in practice on account of the friction of the column
+of water against a wide surface in the interior of the tube. It is
+necessary to consider the pistonless pump for what it is worth--an
+interesting experimental apparatus that any one can make for himself.--_La
+Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE WATER CLOCK.
+
+
+_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:
+
+Referring to the clepsydra, or water clock, described and illustrated in
+the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of December 20, 1884, it strikes me
+that the ingenious principle embodied in that interesting device could be
+put into a shape more modern and practical, doing away with some of its
+defects and insuring a greater degree of accuracy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 1.]
+
+I would propose the construction given in the subjoined sketch, viz.: The
+drum, A (Figs. 1 and 3), is mounted in a yoke suspended in such a manner
+as to bring no unnecessary, but still sufficient, pressure on the friction
+roller, B, to cause it to revolve the friction cone, C (both cone and
+roller being of wood and, say, well rubbed with resin so as to increase
+adhesion).
+
+[Illustration: Fig 2.]
+
+The friction roller should be movable (on a screw thread), but so arranged
+that it can be fixed at any point, say by a lock nut, screw, clamp, or
+other simple means. It will be evident that, by shifting the roller, a
+greater or less speed of the cone can be effected, and as to the end of
+the cone's axis an index hand sweeping an ordinary clock face is attached,
+the speed of this index hand can be regulated to a nicety, in proportion
+to that of the drum. Of course, before fixing the size and proportion of
+the disk and cone, the number of revolutions of the drum in a given time
+must be ascertained by experiment. For instance, the drum being found to
+make 15 revolutions in 12 hours, the proportions would be:
+
+Circumference of roller = 12 units.
+Circumference of middle part of cone = 15 units.
+
+Or, the drum making 21/2 revolutions in 3 hours, equal to 9 revolutions in
+12 hours:
+
+Circumference of roller = 12 units.
+Circumference of middle part of cone = 9 units.
+
+Any slight inaccuracy can be compensated by the cone and disk device.
+
+The drum, or cylinder, is caused to gradually revolve by a weight attached
+to an endless cord passing once around the drum. The latter might be
+varnished to prevent slipping. The weight should be provided with an
+automatic wedge, allowing it to be slipped along the cord in an upward
+direction, but preventing its descent. The weight is represented partly in
+section in the engraving. This weight should not be quite sufficient to
+revolve the drum, it being counterbalanced by the liquid raised in the
+chambers of the drum. The liquid, however, following its tendency to seek
+the lowest level, gradually runs back through the small hole, D, in the
+partitions, but is continually raised again, with the chamber it has just
+entered, by the weight slightly turning the cylinder as it (the weight)
+gradually gains advantage over the as gradually diminishing weight of each
+chamber raised.
+
+As to the drum, the same might be constructed as follows, viz.: First
+solder the partitions into the cylinder, making them slanting or having
+the direction of chords of a circle (see Fig. 2). The end disks should be
+dish shaped, as shown. Place them on a level surface, apply heat, and melt
+some mastic or good sealing wax in the same. Then adjust the cylinder
+part, with its partitions, allowing it to sink into the slight depth of
+molten matter. In this way, or perhaps by employing a solution of rubber
+instead of the sealing wax, the chambers will be well isolated and not
+liable to leak. The water is then introduced through the center openings
+of the disks before hermetically sealing the drum to its axis.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+The revolving parts of the clock being nicely balanced, a pretty accurate
+timepiece, I should think, would be the result. It is needless to mention
+that the "winding" is effected by slipping the weight to its highest
+point.
+
+Of course I am far from considering the above an "instrument of
+precision," but would rather look upon it in the light of a contrivance,
+interesting, perhaps, especially to amateur mechanics, as not presenting
+any particular difficulties of construction.
+
+ED. C. MAGNUS.
+
+Crefeld, January 5, 1885.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW TORPEDO.
+
+
+We illustrate a new form of self-propelling and steering torpedo, designed
+and patented by Mr. Richard Paulson, of Boon Hills, Langwith, Notts. That
+torpedoes will play an important part in the next naval war is evident
+from the fact that great activity is being displayed by the various
+governments of the world in the construction of this weapon. Our own
+Government also has latterly paid great attention to this subject.
+
+The methods hitherto proposed for propelling torpedoes have been by means
+of carbonic acid or other compressed gas carried by the torpedoes, and by
+means of electricity conveyed by a conductor leading from a controlling
+station to electrical apparatus carried by the torpedo. The first method
+has, to a considerable extent, failed on account of the inefficient way in
+which the compressed gas was employed to propel the torpedo. The second is
+open to the objection that by means of telephones placed in the water or
+by other signaling apparatus the torpedo can be heard approaching while
+yet at a considerable distance, and that a quick speeded dredger, kept
+ready for the purpose when any attack is expected, can be run between the
+torpedo and the controlling station and the conductor cut and the torpedo
+captured. The arrangements for steering by means of an electrical
+conductor from a controlling station are also open to the latter
+objection. The torpedo we now illustrate, in elevation in Fig. 1, and in
+plan in Fig. 2, is designed to obviate these objections, and possesses in
+addition other advantages which will be enumerated in the following
+description.
+
+As stated above, the torpedo is self-propelling, the necessary energy
+being stored up in liquefied carbonic acid contained in a cylindrical
+vessel, E, carried by the torpedo. The vessel, E, communicates, by means
+of a small bent pipe extending nearly to its bottom, with a small chamber,
+B, the passage of the liquid being controlled by means of the cock or tap,
+F. The chamber, B, is in communication, by means of a small aperture, with
+the nozzle, G, of an injector, T, constructed on the ordinary principles.
+The liquid as it passes into the chamber, B, volatilizes, and the gas
+passes through the nozzle of the injector, which is surrounded by water in
+direct communication with the sea by means of the opening, W. The gas
+imparts its energy in the well-known manner to the water, being itself
+entirely or partially condensed, the water thus charged with carbonic acid
+gas being forced through the combining cone of the injector at a very high
+speed and pressure. Preferably the water is here divided into two streams,
+each driving a separate rotary motor or turbine, H, themselves driving
+twin screws or propellers, I. The motors exhaust into the hollow shafts,
+J, of the propellers, which are extended some distance beyond the
+propellers, so that the remaining energy of the water may be utilized to
+aid in propelling the torpedo on the well known principle of jet
+propulsion. The torpedo is preferably steered by means of the twin screws.
+A disk or other valve, A, is pivoted in an aperture in a diaphragm
+dividing the outlet of the injector, and is operated by means hereafter
+described, so as to diminish the stream of water on one side and increase
+it on the other, so that one motor, and consequently the corresponding
+propeller, is driven at a higher speed than the other, and so steers the
+torpedo.
+
+[Illustration: PAULSON'S SELF PROPELLING AND STEERING TORPEDO.]
+
+The valve, A, is operated automatically by the following arrangement: A
+mariner's compass, P, placed in the head of the torpedo has its needle
+connected to one pole of a powerful battery, D. A dial of non-magnetic
+material marked with the points of the compass is capable of being rotated
+by the connections shown. This dial carries two insulated studs, _p_, each
+electrically connected with one terminal of the coils of an electromagnet,
+K, whose other terminal is connected to the other pole of the battery.
+These two magnets are arranged on opposite sides of an armature fixed on a
+lever operating the disk or valve, A. Before launching the torpedo the
+dial is set, so that when the torpedo is steering direct for the object to
+be struck, or other desired point, one end of the needle of the compass,
+P, is between the steeds, _p_, but contact with neither, the needle of
+course pointing to the magnetic north. Should the torpedo however deviate
+from this course, the needle makes contact with one or other of the studs
+according to the direction in which the deviation takes place, and
+completes the circuit through the corresponding electromagnet, which
+attracts the armature and causes the disk to move, so as to diminish the
+supply of water to one motor and increase it to the other, and so cause
+the torpedo to again assume the required direction. Supposing the object
+which it is intended that the torpedo should strike be a large mass of
+iron, such as an ironclad, the needle will be attracted, and, making the
+corresponding contact, will cause the torpedo to be steered directly away
+from the object. In order to prevent this, a second compass, Q, is mounted
+in the front of the torpedo, and when attracted by a mass of iron, it
+short-circuits the battery, D, and thus prevents the armature being
+attracted, and consequently the torpedo from deviating. This needle is
+also capable of slight movement in a vertical plane, so that when passing
+over or under a mass of iron it is attracted downward or upward, and
+completes a circuit by means of the stops, which operate so as to explode
+the charge. The charge can also be exploded in the ordinary manner, viz.,
+by means of the firing pin, X, when the torpedo runs into any solid
+object.
+
+The depth at which the torpedo travels below the surface of the water is
+regulated by means of a flexible diaphragm, M, secured in the outer casing
+and connected to a rod sliding freely in fixed bearings. A spiral or other
+spring, O, is compressed between a color on the rod and an adjustable
+fixed nut, by which the tension of the spring is regulated so that the
+pressure of water on the diaphragm, A, when the torpedo is at the desired
+depth just counterbalances the pressure of the spring, the diaphragm being
+then flush with the outer casing. The rod is connected by suitable levers
+to two horizontal fins, S, pivoted one on either side of the torpedo, so
+that they shall be in equilibrium. Should the torpedo sink too deep or
+rise too high, the diaphragm will be depressed or extended, and will
+operate on the lines so as to cause the torpedo to ascend or descend as
+the case may be.
+
+In order to avoid the risk of a spent torpedo destroying a friendly
+vessel, a valve is arranged in any suitable part of the outer casing, and
+is weighted or loaded with a spring in such a manner that when under way
+the pressure of the water keeps the valve closed, but when it stops the
+valve opens and admits water to sink the torpedo.
+
+In our description we have only given the main features of the invention,
+the inventor having mentioned to us, in confidence, several improvements
+designed to perfect the details of his invention, among which we may
+mention the steering arrangement and arrangements for attacking a vessel
+provided with what our contemporary, _Engineering_, not inaptly terms a
+"crinoline," _i. e._, a network for keeping off torpedoes. The transverse
+dimensions of our engravings have been considerably augmented for the sake
+of clearness.--_Mech. World._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DUPUY DE LOME.
+
+
+M. Dupuy De Lome died on the 1st Feb., 1885, at the age of 68. It may be
+questioned whether any constructor has ever rendered greater services to
+the navy of any country than those rendered by M. Dupuy to the French Navy
+during the thirty years 1840-70. Since the fall of the Empire his
+connection with the naval service has been terminated, but his
+professional and scientific standing has been fully maintained, and his
+energies have found scope in the conduct of the great and growing business
+of the _Forges et Chantiers_ Company. In him France has undoubtedly lost
+her greatest naval architect.
+
+The son of a naval officer, M. Dupuy was born in October, 1816, near
+L'Orient, and entered _L'Ecole Polytechnique_ when nineteen years of age.
+In that famous establishment he received the thorough preliminary training
+which France has so long and wisely provided for those who are to become
+the designers of her war-ships. After finishing his professional
+education, he came to England about 1842, and made a thorough study of
+iron shipbuilding and steam navigation, in both of which we then held a
+long lead of France. His report, subsequently published under the title of
+"Memoire sur la Construction des Batiments en Fer"--Paris, 1844--is
+probably the best account given to the world of the state of iron
+shipbuilding forty years ago: and its perusal not merely enables one to
+gauge the progress since made, but to form an estimate of the great
+ability and clear style of the writer. We may assume that this visit to
+England, coming after the thorough education received in Francem did much
+toward forming the views to which expression was soon given in designs and
+reports on new types of war ships.
+
+[Illustration: M. DUPUY DE LOME.]
+
+When the young constructor settled down to his work in the arsenal at
+Toulon, on his return from England, the only armed steamships in the
+French Navy were propelled by paddle-wheels, and there was great
+opposition to the introduction of steam power into line-of-battle ships.
+The paddle-wheel was seen to be unsuited to such large fighting vessels,
+and there was no confidence in the screw; while the great majority of
+naval officers in France, as well as in England, were averse to any
+decrease in sail spread. M. Dupuy had carefully studied the details of the
+Great Britain, which he had seen building at Bristol, and was convinced
+that full steam power should be given to line-of-battle ships. He grasped
+and held fast to this fundamental idea; and as early as the year 1845 he
+addressed a remarkable report to the Minister of Marine, suggesting the
+construction of a full-powered screw frigate, to be built with an iron
+hull, and protected by a belt of armor formed by several thicknesses of
+iron plating. This report alone would justify his claim to be considered
+the leading naval architect of that time; it did not bear fruit fully for
+some years, but its recommendations were ultimately realized.
+
+M. Dupuy did not stand alone in the feeling that radical changes in the
+construction and propulsion of ships were imminent. His colleagues in the
+"Genie Maritime" were impressed with the same idea: and in England, about
+this date, the earliest screw liners--the wonderful converted "block
+ships"--were ordered. This action on our part decided the French also to
+begin the conversion of their sailing line-of-battle ships into vessels
+with auxiliary steam power. But M. Dupuy conceived and carried out the
+bolder scheme of designing a full-powered screw liner, and in 1847 the
+Napoleon was ordered. Her success made the steam reconstruction of the
+fleets of the world a necessity. She was launched in 1850, tried in 1852,
+and attained a speed of nearly 14 knots an hour. During the Crimean War
+her performances attracted great attention, and the type she represented
+was largely increased in numbers. She was about 240 ft. in length, 55 ft.
+in breadth, and of 5,000 tons displacement, with two gun decks. In her
+design boldness and prudence were well combined. The good qualities of
+the sailing line-of-battle ships which had been secured by the genius of
+Sane and his colleagues were maintained; while the new conditions involved
+in the introduction of steam power and large coal supply were thoroughly
+fulfilled. The steam reconstruction had scarcely attained its full swing
+when the ironclad reconstructor became imperative. Here again M. Dupuy
+occupied a distinguished position, and realized his scheme of 1845 with
+certain modifications. His eminent services led to his appointment in 1857
+to the highest office in the Constructive Corps--Directeur du
+Materiel--and his design for the earliest seagoing ironclad, La Gloire,
+was approved in the same year. Once started, the French pressed on the
+construction of their ironclads with all haste, and in the autumn of 1863
+they had at sea a squadron of five ironclads, not including in this list
+La Gloire. It is unnecessary to trace further the progress of the race for
+maritime supremacy; but to the energy and great ability of M. Dupuy de
+Lome must be largely attributed the fact that France took, and for a long
+time kept, such a lead of us in ironclads. In the design of La Gloire, as
+is well known, he again followed the principle of utilizing known forms
+and dimensions as far as was consistent with modern conditions, and the
+Napoleon was nearly reproduced in La Gloire so far as under-water shape
+was concerned, but with one gun deck instead of two, and with a completely
+protected battery. So long as he retained office, M. Dupuy consistently
+adhered to this principle; but he at the same time showed himself ready to
+consider how best to meet the constantly growing demands for thicker
+armor, heavier guns, and higher speeds. It is singular, however,
+especially when his early enthusiasm for iron ships is remembered, to find
+how small a proportion of the ships added to the French Navy during his
+occupancy of office were built of anything but wood.
+
+Distinctions were showered upon him. In 1860 he was made a Councilor of
+State, and represented the French Admiralty in Parliament; from 1869 to
+1875 he was a Deputy, and in 1877 he was elected a Life Senator. He was a
+member of the Academy of Sciences and of other distinguished scientific
+bodies. Of late his name has been little connected with ship design; but
+his interest in the subject was unabated.
+
+In 1870 M. Dupuy devoted a large amount of time and thought to perfecting
+a system of navigable balloons, and the French Government gave him great
+assistance in carrying out the experiments. It does not seem, however,
+that any sufficient success was reached to justify further trials. The
+theoretical investigations on which the design was based, and the
+ingenuity displayed in carrying out the construction of the balloon, were
+worthy of M. Dupuy's high reputation. The fleet that he constructed for
+France has already disappeared to a great extent, and the vessels still
+remaining will soon fall out of service. But the name and reputation of
+their designer will live as long as the history of naval construction is
+studied.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE USE OF GAS IN THE WORKSHOP.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Manchester Association of Employers, Foremen,
+and Draughtsmen of the Mechanical Trades of Great Britain, an interesting
+lecture on "Gas for Light and Work in the Workshop" was delivered by Mr.
+T. Fletcher, F.C.S., of Warington.
+
+Mr. Fletcher illustrated his remarks with a number of interesting
+experiments, and spoke as follows:
+
+There are very few workshops where gas is used so profitably as it might
+be; and my object to-night is to make a few suggestions, which are the
+result of my own experience. In a large space, such as an erecting or
+moulder's shop, it is always desirable to have all the lights distributed
+about the center. Wall lights, except for bench work, are wasteful, as a
+large proportion of the light is absorbed by the walls, and lost. Unless
+the shop is draughty, it is by far the best policy to have a few large
+burners rather than a number of small ones. I will show you the difference
+in the light obtained by burning the same quantity of gas in one and in
+two flames. I do not need to tell you how much the difference is; you can
+easily see for yourselves. The additional light is not caused, as some of
+you may suppose, by a combined burner, as I have here a simple one,
+burning the same quantity of gas as the two smaller burners together; and
+the advantage of the simple large burner is quite as great. It is a
+well-known fact that the larger the gas consumption in a single flame, the
+higher the duty obtained for the gas burnt. There is a practical limit to
+this with ordinary simple burners; as when they are too large they are
+very sensitive to draught, and liable to unsteadiness and smoking. I have
+here a sample of a works' pendant or pillar light, which, not including
+the gas supply-pipe, can be made for about a shilling. For all practical
+purposes I believe this light (which carries five No. 6 Bray's union jets,
+and which we use as a portable light at repairs and breakdowns) is as
+efficient and economical a form as it is possible to make for ordinary
+rough work. The burners are in the best position, and the light is both
+powerful and quite shadowless; giving, in fact, the best light underneath
+the burners. It must, of course, be protected in a draughty shop; and on
+this protection something needs to be said.
+
+Regenerator burners for lighting are coming into use; and, where large
+lights are required for long periods, no doubt they are economical.
+Burners of the Bower or Wenham class would be worth adopting for main
+street or open space lighting in important positions; but when we consider
+that, with the fifty-four hours' system in workshops, artificial light is
+only wanted, on an average, for four hundred hours per annum, we may take
+it as certain that, at the present prices of regenerator burners, they are
+a bad investment for use in ordinary work. We must not forget that the
+distance of the burner from the work is a vital point of the cost
+question; and, for all except large spaces, requiring general
+illumination, a common cheap burner on a swivel joint has yet to meet with
+a competitor. Do not think I am old-fashioned or prejudiced in this
+matter. It is purely a question of figures; and my condemnation of
+regenerator burners applies only to the general requirements in ordinary
+engineering and other work shops where each man wants a light on one spot
+only.
+
+Some people think that clear glass does not stop any light. This is a
+great mistake, as you will find it quite easy to throw a distinct shadow
+of a sheet of perfect glass on a white paper, as I will show you. Opal and
+ground glass throw a very strong shadow, and practically waste half the
+light. It is better to have a white enameled or whitewashed sheet-iron
+reflecting hood, which will protect the sides from wind, if such an
+arrangement suits other requirements.
+
+I have endeavored in the engraving below to reproduce the shadows thrown
+by different samples of glass. This gives a fair idea of the actual loss
+of light involved by glass shades.
+
+When lights are suspended, it is a common and costly fashion to put them
+high up. When we consider that light decreases as the square of the
+distance, it will be readily understood that to light, for instance, the
+floor of a moulding shop, a burner 6 feet from the floor will do as much
+work as four burners, the same size, placed 12 feet from the floor. It is
+therefore a most important matter that all lights should be as low as
+possible, consistent with the necessities of the shop, as not only is the
+expense enormously increased by lofty lights, but the air becomes more
+vitiated and unpleasant, interfering with the men's power of working. Any
+lights suspended, and, in fact, all workshop lights, must have a
+ball-joint or universal swivel at the point where they branch from the
+main, as they are liable to be knocked in all directions, and must,
+therefore, be free to move to prevent accidents. It is better to have
+wind-screens, if necessary, rather than glass lanterns, as not only does
+the glass stop a considerable amount of light when clean, but it is in
+practice constantly dirty in almost every workshop or yard.
+
+[Illustration: PILLAR LIGHT OR PENDANT FOR WORKSHOPS.]
+
+For bench work and machine tools, each man must have his own light under
+his own control; and in this matter a little attention will make a
+considerable saving. The burners should be union jets--_i. e._, burners
+with two holes at an angle to each other--not slit or batswing, as the
+latter are extremely liable to partial stoppage with dust. Where batswing
+burners are used, I have often seen fully 90 per cent. more or less choked
+and unsatisfactory; whereas a union jet does not give any trouble. It is
+not generally known that any burner used at ordinary pressures of gas
+gives a much better light when it is turned over with the flat of the
+flame horizontal, until the flame becomes saucer-shaped, as I show you.
+You can see for yourselves the increase in light; and in addition to this
+the workman has the great advantage of a shadowless flame. In practice, a
+burner consuming 5 cubic feet of gas per hour with a horizontal flame is a
+better fitter's than an upright burner with 6 cubic feet per hour. I do
+not believe in the policy of giving a man a poor light to work by--it does
+not pay; and I never expect to get a man to work properly with smaller
+burners than these. We have a good governor on the main: and the lights
+are all worked with a low pressure of gas, to get the best possible duty.
+As a good practical light for a man at bench moulding, the one I have here
+may be taken as a fair sample. It is free to move, and the light is as
+near the perfect position as the necessities of the work will permit. When
+the light is not wanted, by simply pushing it away it turns itself down;
+the swivel being, in fact, a combined swivel and tap.
+
+[Illustration: LOSS OF LIGHT BY GLASS SHADES.]
+
+You will see on one of the lights I have here, a new swivel joint, which
+has been patented only within the last few days. The peculiarity of this
+swivel is that the body is made of two hemispheres revolving on each
+other in a ground joint. It will be made also with a universal movement;
+and its special advantage, either for gas, water, or steam, is that there
+is no obstruction whatever to a free passage--in fact, the way through the
+swivel body is larger than the way through the pipes with which it is
+connected. It can easily be made to stand any pressure, and if damaged by
+grit or dirt it can be reground with ease as often as necessary without
+deterioration, whereas an ordinary swivel, if damaged by grit, has to be
+thrown away as useless.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+For meals, where a steam-kettle is not used, it is the best policy to have
+a cistern holding about 11/2 pints for each man, and to boil this with a
+gas-burner. The lighting of the burner at a specified time may be deputed
+to a boy. If the men's dinners have to be heated, it is easy to purchase
+ovens which will do all the work required by gas at a much cheaper rate
+than by coal, if we consider the labor and attention necessary with any
+coal fire. Not that gas is cheaper than coal; but say we have 100 dinners
+to warm. This can be done in a gas-oven in about 20 minutes, at a cost for
+gas of less than 1d.; in fact, for one-fourth the cost of labor only in
+attending to a coal fire, without considering the cost of wood or coals.
+Gas, in many instances, is an apparently expensive fuel; but when the
+incidental saving in other matters is taken into consideration, I have
+found it exceedingly profitable for all except large or continuous work,
+and in many cases for this also. I only need instance wire card-making and
+the brazing shops of wire cable makers to show that a large and free use
+of gas is compatible with the strictest economy and profitable working.
+
+Of all the tools in a workshop, nothing saves more time and worry than two
+or three sizes of good blowpipes and an efficient blower. I have seen in
+one day more work spoilt, and time lost, for want of these than would have
+paid for the apparatus twice over; and in almost every shop emergencies
+are constantly happening in which a good blowpipe will render most
+efficient service. Small brazing work can often be done in less time than
+would be consumed in going to the smith's hearth and back again,
+independently of the policy of keeping a man in his own place, and to his
+own work. The shrinking on of collars, forging, hardening, and tempering
+of tools, melting lead or resin out of pipes which have been bent, and
+endless other odd matters, are constantly turning up; and on these, in the
+absence of a blowpipe, I have often seen men spend hours instead of
+minutes. Things which need a blowpipe are usually most awkward to do
+without one; and men will go fiddling about and tumbling over each other
+without seeing really what they intend to do. They are content, as it all
+counts in the day's work; that it comes off the profits is not their
+concern. It will, perhaps, be new to many of you that blowpipes can easily
+be made in a form which admits of any special shape of flame being
+produced. I have made for special work--such as heating up odd shapes of
+forgings, brands, etc.--blowpipes constructed of perforated tubes formed
+to almost every conceivable shape; these being supplied with gas from the
+ordinary main and a blast of air from a Root's or foot blower. I have here
+an example of a straight-line blowpipe made for heating wire passed along
+it at a high speed. The same flame, as you no doubt will readily
+understand, can be made of any power and of any shape, and will work any
+side up; in fact, as a rule, a downward vertical or nearly vertical
+position is usually the best for any blowpipe. As an example of this class
+of work, I may instance the shrinking on of collars and tires, which, with
+suitable ring-burner and a Root's blower, could be equally heated in five
+minutes for shrinking on; in fact, the work could be done in less time
+than it would usually take to find a laborer to light a fire. When the
+rings vary much in size, the burners can easily be made in segments of
+circles. But then they are not nearly so handy, as each needs to be
+connected up to the gas and air supply; and it is, in practice, usually
+cheaper to have separate ring burners of different sizes. Of course, you
+will understand that a 1/2-inch gas-pipe will not supply heat enough to make
+a locomotive tire red hot, and that for large work a large gas supply is
+necessary. Our own rule for burners of this class is that the holes in the
+tube should be 1/8 to 1/10 inch in diameter, from 1/4 to 1/2 inch pitch; and
+the area of the tube must be equal to the combined area of the holes. The
+gas supply-pipe must not be less than half the area of the burner-tube.
+Those of you who wish to study this matter further will, I think, find
+sufficient information in my paper on "The Construction of High-Power
+Burners for Heating by Gas," printed in the Transactions of the Gas
+Institute for 1883, and in the papers on the "Use and Construction of the
+Blowpipe" and "The Use of Gas as a Workshop Tool."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+No doubt many of you have been troubled with the twisting of some special
+light casting, and will, perhaps, spend hours in the risky operation of
+bending an iron pattern so as to get a straight casting. A ladleful of
+lead and tin, melted in a small gas-furnace, will, in a few minutes, give
+you a pattern which you can bend and adjust to any required shape. It
+enables you to make trials to any extent, and get castings with the utmost
+precision. There is also this advantage, that a soft metal pattern can be
+cut about and experimented with in a way which no other material admits
+of. Awkward patterns commence with us with plaster, wax, sheets of wet
+blotting paper pasted together on a shape or wood; but they almost
+invariably make their appearance in the foundry after being converted into
+soft metal by the aid of a gas-furnace. I refer, of course, to thin,
+awkward, and generally difficult castings, which, under ordinary
+treatment, are either turned out badly or require a great amount of
+fitting. As an illustration of the use of this system of pattern-making, I
+have here two castings of my own, from patterns which, under the ordinary
+engineer's system, would be excessively costly and difficult to make as
+well as these are made. The surface is a mass of intricate pattern work
+and perforations. To produce the flat original, as you see it, a small
+piece of the pattern is first cut, and from this a number of tin castings
+are made and soldered together. From this pattern, reproduced in iron for
+the sake of permanence, is cast the flat center plate you see. To produce
+the curved pattern I show you, nothing more is necessary than to bend the
+tin pattern on a block of the right shape, and we now get a pattern which
+would puzzle a good many pattern-makers of the old style.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+I will now show you by a practical utilization of the well known flameless
+combustion, how to light a coke furnace without either paper or wood, and
+without disturbing the fuel, by the use of a blowpipe which for the first
+minute is allowed to work in the ordinary way with a flame to ignite the
+coke. I then pinch the gas tube to extinguish the flame, allow the gas to
+pass as before, and so blow a mixture of unburnt air and gas into the
+fuel. The enormous heat generated by the combustion of the mixture in
+contact with the solid fuel will be appreciable to you all, and if this
+blast of mixed air and gas is continued, there is hardly any limit to the
+temperatures which can be obtained in a furnace. I shall be able to show
+you the difference in temperature obtained in a furnace by an ordinary air
+blast, by a blowpipe flame directed into the furnace, and by the same
+mixture of gas and air which I use in the blowpipe being blown in and
+burnt in contact with the ignited coke. In each case the air blast, both
+in quantity and pressure, is absolutely the same; but the roar and the
+intense, blinding glare produced by blowing the unburnt mixture into the
+furnace is unmistakable. The heat obtained in the coke furnace I am using,
+in less than ten minutes, is greater than any known crucible would stand.
+I am informed that this system of air and gas or air and petroleum vapor
+blast, first discovered and published by myself in a work on metallurgy
+issued in 1881, is now becoming largely used for commercial purposes on
+the Continent, not only on account of the enormous increase in the heat,
+and the consequent work got out of any specified furnace, but also because
+the coke or solid fuel used stands much longer, and the dropping, which is
+so great a nuisance in crucible furnaces, is almost entirely prevented; in
+fact, once the furnace is started, no solid fuel is necessary, and the
+coke as it burns away can be replaced with lumps of broken ganister or any
+infusible material. Few, if any, samples of firebrick will stand the heat
+of this blast, if the system is fully utilized. You will find it a matter
+of little difficulty, with this system of using gas, to melt a crucible of
+cast iron in an ordinary bed-room fire grate if the front bars are covered
+with sheet iron, with a hole (say) three inches in diameter, to admit the
+combined gas and air blast. The only care needed is to see that you do not
+melt down the firebars during the process. I will also show you how, on an
+ordinary table, with a small pan of broken coke and the same blowpipe,
+used in the way already described, you can get a good welding heat in a
+few minutes, starting all cold. In this case the blowpipe is simply fixed
+with the nozzle six inches above the coke, and the flame directed
+downward. As soon as the coke shows red, the gas pipe is pinched so as to
+blow the flame out, and the mixture of gas and air is blown from above
+into the coke as before. With this and a little practice, you can get a
+weld on a 7/8 inch round bar in 10 minutes.
+
+There is one use of gas which has already proved an immense service to
+those who, in the strictest sense, live by their wits. In a small private
+workshop, with the assistance of gas furnaces, blowpipes, and other gas
+heating appliances, it is a very easy matter to carry out important
+experiments privately on a practical scale. A man with an idea can readily
+carry out his idea without skilled assistance, and without it ever making
+its appearance in the works until it is an accomplished fact. How many of
+you have been blocked in important experiments by the tacit resistance of
+an old fashioned good workman, who cannot or will not see what you are
+driving at, and who persists in saying that what you want is not possible?
+The application of gas will often enable you to go over his head, and do
+what, if the workman had his own way, would be an impossibility. When a
+man is unable or unwilling to see a way out of a difficulty, a master or
+foreman has the power to take the law in his own hands; and when a workman
+has been met with this kind of a reply once or twice, he usually gives
+way, and does not in future attempt to dictate and teach his master his
+own business. In carrying out this matter, it is not necessary that a
+specimen of fine workmanship shall be produced. A man usually appreciates
+the wits which have produced what he has considered impossible. In purely
+experimental work I think I may fairly state that the use of gas as a fuel
+in the private workshop and laboratory has done incalculable service in
+the improvement of processes and trades, and has played an important part
+in insuring the success and fortunes of many hundreds of experimenters,
+who have brought their labors to a successful issue in cases where, in its
+absence, neither time nor patience would have been available. I need only
+to call to your mind the number of new alloys which, for almost endless
+different purposes, have come into use during the last eight or ten years.
+I think the use of small gas furnaces in private workshops and
+laboratories may fairly be said to have enabled the experiments on most,
+if not all, of these alloys to be carried out to a successful issue.
+
+I have been asked to say something regarding gas engines. The only thing I
+can say is that I know very little about them. In my own works we have
+about 300,000 cubic feet of space, all of which requires to be heated,
+more or less, during the greater part of the year. For this purpose we
+must have a steam boiler, and having this steam, it costs little to run it
+first through the engine, and so obtain our power for a good part of the
+year practically without any cost. It would not pay, under any
+circumstances, to have two separate sources of power for summer and
+winter; and therefore the use of gas for power has never been considered.
+
+For irregular work and comparatively small powers, gas-engines have
+special and great advantages; and in this respect they may, perhaps, class
+with gas melting furnaces. If I wanted 1, or 10, or 20 lb. of melted
+metal, I could melt and make the casting in less time and with less cost
+than would be required to light a coke fire. There is no possible
+comparison in the two, as to convenience and economy; but if I wanted to
+melt 3 or 4 cwt. or 3 or 4 tons every day, I should not dream of using gas
+for the purpose, as the extra cost of gas in such a case would not be
+compensated by the saving in time. In commercial matters we must always
+consider first what is the most profitable way of going about our work;
+and, so far as I myself am concerned, I have always found it advantageous
+to expend some money annually on proving this by direct experiment. It is
+almost always possible to learn something, even from a failure.
+
+I will now, with a blowpipe and small foot blower, heat a short length of
+locomotive boiler tube to a brazing heat on the table; and, in conclusion,
+will convert the table into a small foundry. I cannot cast you a flywheel
+for a factory engine; so will try at something smaller, and will reproduce
+a medallion portrait of Her Majesty, in cast iron, the original of which
+is silver, commonly valued at half a crown. From the time I light the
+furnace until I turn you out the finished casting I shall perhaps keep you
+eight or nine minutes. I can remember in the good old times 25 years ago,
+before I used gas furnaces, that it sometimes took about two hours to get
+a good wind furnace into condition to put the crucible in. My time in
+those days was not worth much; but if I valued it at 2s. 6d. per week, it
+would even then have been cheaper to use gas to do the same thing,
+irrespective of the cost of coke.
+
+The age of gaseous fuel is commencing; and I feel daily, from the
+correspondence I receive, that there is a growing impression that gas is
+going to perform miracles. We do not need to go mad about it; and my own
+precept and practice is to employ gas only where its use shows a profit,
+either in time or money. Many of those present know that I am as ready to
+totally condemn gaseous fuel where it does not pay as to advise its use
+where some advantage is to be gained. You will understand that my remarks
+apply to coal gas only. As to producer or furnace gases, I know
+practically nothing, except that sometimes it pays better to burn your
+candle as a candle than make it into gas, and burn it as a gas afterward.
+The use of producer gas no doubt pays on a large scale; and things on a
+large scale, so far as gas is concerned, are not matters with which I have
+time to concern myself. The commercial use of coal gas has yet to be
+developed. It is in its infancy; and there are very few, if any, who have
+any conception of its endless uses, both for domestic and manufacturing
+purposes. The more general the information which can be given about its
+uses, the sooner it will find its own level, and the sooner the gas
+companies will appreciate the fact that their best customers are to be
+found among those who can use coal gas as a fuel for special work in
+manufacturing industries because it is profitable to use, and saves
+expensive labor. My own experiments with alloys of the rarer metals, which
+have not been concluded without profit to myself, would certainly never
+have been undertaken except with the use of gas furnaces, which were both
+practically unlimited in power and admitted of the most absolute precision
+in use; and I may safely say, without violating any confidence, that many
+of the precious stories and so-called "natural" products make their
+appearance in the world first in a crucible in a gas furnace.
+
+At the conclusion of my lecture before the Institute at Leeds, on
+"Combustion and the Utilization of Waste Heat," Mr. Kitson, the Chairman,
+remarked that if he were a dreamer of dreams, he might look forward to the
+time when he would be growing cucumbers with the waste heat of his iron
+furnaces. Many wilder dreams than this have come true in the science of
+engineering; and the realization has brought honor and fortune to the
+dreamers, as you must all know. The history of engineering is full of the
+realization of "dreams," which have been denounced as absurdities by some
+of the best living authorities.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GAS METER
+
+
+The gas meter was invented by Clegg in 1816. Since that epoch no essential
+modification has been made of its structure. Fig. 1 shows the principle of
+the apparatus, _mnpq_ is a drum movable around a horizontal axis. This is
+divided by partitions of peculiar form into four vessels of equal
+capacity, and dips into a closed water reservoir, RR'. A tube, _t_, near
+the axis, and the orifice of which is above the level of the water, leads
+the gas to be measured. This latter enters under the partition, _l'm_, of
+one of the buckets, and exerts an upward thrust upon it that communicates
+a rotary motion to the drum. The bucket, _l'mi_, closed hydraulically,
+rises and fills with gas until the following one comes to occupy its place
+above the entrance tube and fills with gas in turn. Simultaneously, as
+soon as the edge of each bucket emerges at _e_, the gas flows out through
+the opening that the water ceases to close, and escapes from the reservoir
+through the exit aperture, S. The gas, in continuing to traverse the
+system, is thus filling one bucket while the preceding one is losing its
+contents; so that, if the capacity of each bucket is known, the volumes of
+the gas discharged will likewise be known when the number of revolutions
+made by the drum shall have been counted. The addition of a revolution
+counter to the drum, then, will solve the problem.
+
+[Illustration: THE GAS METER.]
+
+The instrument, as usually constructed, is shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
+
+The reservoir, RR' contains the measuring drum, _mmmm_, movable around the
+horizontal axis, _aa'_. The gas enters at E, passes at S into an opening
+that may be closed by a valve, and is distributed through the box, BB',
+which communicates with the reservoir through an orifice in the partition,
+_hh'_. This orifice is traversed by the axle, _aa'_. The box, like the
+reservoir, contains water up to a certain level, _r_. Through a U-shaped
+tube, _lnl'_, the gas passes from the box, BB', into the movable drum,
+sets the latter in motion, and makes its exit at S. In order to count the
+volume discharged, that is to say, the number of revolutions of the drum,
+the axle terminates at a in an endless screw which, by means of a cog
+wheel, moves a vertical rod that traverses the tube, _gg_, and projects
+from the box. As the tube, _gg_, dips into the water, it does not allow
+the gas to escape, and this permits of the revolution counter that the rod
+actuates being placed in an external case, CC'.
+
+The counter consists of toothed wheels and pinions so arranged that if the
+first wheel makes one complete revolution corresponding to a discharge of
+1,000 liters, the following wheel, which indicates cubic meters, shall
+advance one division, and that if this second wheel makes one complete
+revolution marked 10 cubic meters, the third, which indicates tenths,
+shall advance one division, and so on. Hands fixed to the axles of the
+wheels, and movable over dials, permit the volume of gas to be read that
+has traversed the counter.
+
+The object of the other parts of the instrument are to secure regularity
+in its operation by keeping the level of the liquid constant. It is
+evident, in fact, that if the level of the water gets below _r_, the
+capacity of the buckets will be increased, and the counter will indicate a
+discharge less than is really the case, and _vice versa_. If the level
+descends as far as to the orifice in the partition, _hh'_, the gas will
+flow out without causing the apparatus to move. The water is introduced
+into the counter through _f_, which is closed with a screw cap, and
+passes through the opening shown by dotted lines into the reservoir, RR',
+whence it flows to the box, BB', When it has reached the desired level, it
+gains the orifice, _r_, of a waste pipe, escapes through the siphon,
+_ruv_, and makes its exit through the aperture, _b'_, when the screw cap
+of the latter is removed. If, by accident, the level of the water should
+fall below a certain limit, a float, _f_, which follows its every
+movement, would close the valve, _s_, and stop the flow of the gas.
+Finally a tube, _tt'_ soldered to the lower part of the tube, _lnl'_, and
+dipping into the water of a compartment, P, serves to allow the surplus
+water to flow out at _b'_. To prevent the apparatus from being disarranged
+upon the drum being revolved in the opposite direction, there is fixed to
+the axle, _aa'_, a cam which lifts a click, _z_, when the rotation is
+regular, but which is arrested by it when the contrary is the
+case.--_Science et Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DOBSON AND BARLOW'S IMPROVEMENTS IN HEILMANN'S COMBERS.
+
+
+Next to the mule, there is no doubt that the most beautiful machine used
+in the cotton trade is Heilmann's comber. Although the details of this
+machine are hard to master, when once its action is understood it will be
+found to be really simple. The object of combing is to remove the short
+staples and the dirt left in after the carding of the cotton, such as is
+used in the spinning of fine and even coarse numbers. The operation is an
+extremely delicate one, and its successful realization is a good
+illustration of what is possible with machinery. Combing machines are
+usually made with six heads, and sometimes with eight. As the working of
+each head is identical, we only speak of one of them. By means of a pair
+of fluted feeding rollers a narrow lap, about 71/2 in. wide, is passed into
+the head, in which the following action takes place: Assuming that the
+stroke is finished, the lap is seized near its end by a pair of nippers,
+so as to leave about half the length of the staple projecting. These
+projecting fibers are combed by a revolving cylinder, partially covered
+with comb teeth. When the front or projecting ends of the fibers are thus
+combed, a straight comb in front of the nippers drops into them, the
+nippers open, and the fibers are drawn through the straight comb. This
+combs the tail ends, and at the same time the fibers, now completely
+combed, are placed on or pieced to the fibers that had been combed in the
+previous stroke, producing in this way a continuous fleece of combed
+cotton. In short, in this most striking operation, the fiber during the
+combing is completely detached from the ribbon lap, carried over, and
+pieced to the tail end of the combed fleece, for a moment having no
+connection with either. Since the expiry of the patent, Messrs. Bobson and
+Barlow, of Bolton, have constructed a great many of these machines, and
+have found that, as compared with the original make, it was possible to
+greatly increase their efficiency. They accordingly devoted much attention
+to this object, and have patents for several improvements. To describe
+these so as to be understood by everybody would be a most difficult task,
+and would take more space than we can afford. We simply wish to record
+what these improvements are, and will suppose we are writing for those
+who have a good acquaintance with Heilmann's comber.
+
+[Illustration: DOBSON AND BARLOW'S IMPROVEMENTS IN HEILMANN'S COMBERS.]
+
+We give herewith a perspective view of the improved machine. On
+examination it will be noticed that an alteration is made in the motion
+seen at the end of the machine for working the detached rollers. This
+alteration we believe to be a decided improvement over Heilmann's original
+arrangement. It dispenses with the large detaching cam, the cradle, the
+notch-wheel, the catch and its spring, the large spur wheel which drives
+the calender roller, and the internal wheels for the detaching
+roller-shaft, substituting in their stead a much simpler motion,
+consisting of a smaller cam, a quadrant, and a clutch. The arrangement,
+having fewer parts, is also much more compact than the old one, for with
+the driving pulleys in the best position it enables the machine outside
+the framing to be shortened 10 in., an important point in a room full of
+combers. The action of this detaching motion is positive, and enables the
+machine to be run at a high speed without danger of missing, as happens
+when the point of the catch for the old notch-wheel becomes broken or worn
+away. Another important feature of the new arrangement is that it allows
+the motion of the detaching-roller to be varied. By an adjustment, easily
+made in a few seconds, the delivery may be altered to suit different
+classes of cotton or kinds of work without the necessity of changing the
+cams or the notch-wheels.
+
+An improvement has been made in the construction of the nippers. In the
+ordinary Heilmann's comber, the upper blade has a groove in its nipping
+edge, and the cushion plate is covered with cloth and leather, the fibers
+being held by the grip between the leather of the cushion plate and the
+edges of the groove in the upper blade, or knife, as it is called. The
+objections to this mode of construction were that the leather on the
+cushion plate required frequent renewing, and unless the adjustment was
+more accurate than could always be relied on, the grip of the nippers was
+not perfect, for while at one end the nipper might be closed, at the other
+end it might be open wide enough to allow the cotton to be pulled through
+by the combing cylinder, and made into waste. In Messrs. Dobson and
+Barlow's nipper there is neither cloth nor leather on the cushion plate.
+Its edge is made into a blunt ^, upon which the narrow flat surface of a
+strip of India rubber or leather fixed in the knife falls to give the nip.
+By this plan the cushion is applied to the knife instead of to the plate,
+which of course makes the cushion plate, after it has once been set, a
+fixture; it also dispenses with the accurate setting, as is now necessary
+in the old arrangement. It further does away with the frequent and
+expensive covering of the cushion-plate with roller leather and cloth,
+thus effecting a considerable saving, not only in cost of material, but
+also in labor, inasmuch as the nipper knives can be taken off, recovered,
+and replaced in one-sixth the time required to cover the cushion plates
+and replace them on the old system. American cotton of 7/8" staple to silk
+of 21/2" staple can also be combed by this improved arrangement, an
+achievement which has been attempted by many, but hitherto without
+arriving at any success. Messrs. Dobson and Barlow have however overcome
+the difficulty by their improvements, which combine three important
+qualities, viz., simplicity, perfection, and cheapness. Many hundreds of
+other makers' machines have been altered to their new arrangements. The
+cam for working the nipper has also been altered to give a smoother motion
+than usual; one that moves the nipper quietly and without jerks when the
+machine runs from 80 to 95 strokes per minute. A very decided improvement
+has been made in the construction of the combing cylinder. The combs are
+always fixed on a piece called the "half-lap," which, in its turn, is
+secured to a barrel called the "comb-stock." Now it is very desirable and
+important that these half-laps should be perfectly true and exactly
+interchangeable. When one half-lap is taken off for repairs, another
+half-lap must be ready to take its place on the cylinder. The original
+mode in which the cylinders were made rendered it a matter of mechanical
+difficulty--almost an impossibility in the machine shop--to produce them
+exactly alike. To avoid this difficulty, Messrs. Dobson and Barlow have
+reconstructed the combing cylinder, and the parts being fitted together by
+simple turning or boring, accuracy and interchangeability can always be
+depended upon. The screws which fasten the cylinder to the shaft are also
+cased up with the cylinder tins, thus avoiding any accumulation of fly on
+the screw heads.
+
+The motion for working the top detaching, the leather, or the piecing
+roller, as it is variously called, has also been improved. The ends of
+this roller are always carried on the top of two levers that are
+oscillated by a connecting rod attached to their bottom ends. In the new
+motion the connecting rod is dispensed with, and one joint saved. The
+joint that remains is at the foot of the levers that carry the leather
+roller. This joint is constructed so that it may be easily altered, and by
+its means one of the most delicate settings of the combing machine, viz.,
+that of the leather roller, may be made with greater readiness than with
+the old system. Further, from the mode of mounting these rollers another
+advantage is gained in the facility of setting them. In setting with the
+old arrangement, only one end of the roller is adjusted at a time; in the
+new, the adjustment sets the ends of two rollers. With regard to the
+leather roller also, it was found that as the round brass tubes in which
+its ends revolved had very little wearing surface, they got worn into
+flats on the outside, and thus worked inaccurately. In the machine under
+notice this defect is remedied. The tubes are made square on the outside,
+and having ample bearing surface they keep their adjustment perfectly.
+
+On the top of the detaching roller is a large steel fluted roller carried
+at each end by a small arm called a "horse tail." In the original machine
+this roller simply kept its place upon the detaching roller by its weight,
+and when the machine came to be run at high speeds it was found that owing
+to its lightness the contact thus obtained was not reliable, the flutes or
+ribs of the roller slipping upon those of the detaching roller, which for
+good work is undesirable. This is remedied by placing a heavier top roller
+in the horse tails, which is made with a broader bearing so as to give
+greater solidity to the top roller. Another good idea we noticed in this
+machine was in the application of a treble brush carrier wheel, which
+permits of the brushes being driven at three different speeds as they
+become worn. For instance, when the brushes are new the bristles are long,
+and consequently they are not required to revolve as quickly as when the
+bristles are far worn. By this improvement the brush lasts considerably
+longer than in any other system of machine. Their speed can also be
+regulated according to the length of the bristles, and the change from one
+speed to the other can be effected in a very few minutes.
+
+A common defect in combing machines is the flocking that frequently
+happens. This is the filling up of the combs on the cylinder with dirt and
+cotton, which the brush fails to remove. Although in general appearance
+the cleaning apparatus is the same as the ordinary one, modifications are
+introduced which make its action always effective and reliable. We were
+informed by a mill manager, who has a great number of these combers, that
+he meets with no inconvenience from flocking from one week end to another.
+Altogether, it will be seen that Messrs. Dobson and Barlow have almost
+reconstructed the machine, strengthening and improving those parts which
+experience showed it was necessary to modify. As a result their improved
+machine works at a high speed (80 to 95 strokes per minute, according to
+the class of cotton), with great smoothness and without noise, and from
+the almost complete absense of vibration the risk of breakages is reduced
+to a minimum.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MUNICIPAL SCHOOL FOR INSTRUCTION IN WATCH-MAKING, AT GENEVA.
+
+
+When, in 1587, Charles Cusin, of Autun, settled at Geneva and introduced
+the manufacture of watches there, he had no idea of the extraordinary
+development that this new industry was to assume. At the end of the
+seventeenth century this city already contained a hundred master watch
+makers and eighty master jewelers, and the products of her manufactures
+soon became known and appreciated by the whole world.
+
+The French revolution arrested this impetus, but the entrance of the
+Canton of Geneva into the Confederation in 1814, rendered commerce, the
+arts, and the industries somewhat active, and watch-making soon saw a new
+era of prosperity dawning.
+
+On the 13th of Feb., 1824, at the instigation of a few devoted citizens,
+the industrial section of the Society of Arts adopted the resolution to
+form a watch-making school, which, having been created by private
+initiative, was only sustained through considerable sacrifices.
+
+[Illustration: CLASS IN ESCAPEMENTS AT THE WATCH MAKING SCHOOL, GENEVA.]
+
+In 1840 the school was transferred to the granary building belonging to
+the city. In 1842, when it contained about fifty pupils, it was made over
+to the administrative council of the city by the committee of the Society
+of Arts. From 1824 to 1842 the school had given instruction to about two
+hundred pupils. From 1843 to 1879 it was frequented by nearly eight
+hundred pupils, two-thirds of whom were Genevans, and the other third
+Swiss of other cantons and foreigners.
+
+The school, then, has furnished the watch-making industry with the
+respectable number of a thousand workmen, among whom large numbers have
+been, or are yet, distinguished artists.
+
+The rooms of the granary, where the school remained for nearly forty
+years, became inadequate, despite the successive additions that had been
+made to them, and it became necessary to completely transform them. The
+magnificent legacy that the city owes to the munificence of the Duke of
+Brunswick was partly employed in the reorganization, and the school is now
+located in a vast building designed to answer the requirements of
+instruction. This structure, which is located in Necker Street, presents
+an imposing and severe aspect. The main building embraces most of the
+workshops, the office, the library, and the classroom for instruction in
+mechanics, all of which receive a direct light. At right angles with the
+main building are two wings. The one to the north contains in its three
+upper stories workshops occupied by classes in escapements, bezil setting,
+compensating balances, and ruby working. On the ground floor are installed
+juvenile schools.
+
+The south wing contains halls for lectures on theory, and two workshops
+looking toward the north. The ground floor is used for the same purpose as
+that of the north wing.
+
+Finally, in the center of the main building is a wing parallel with its
+two mates. It is in this that is located the vast staircase that leads to
+spacious landings at which ends on every story a large corridor common to
+all the halls and workshops. It is in this part of the building that we
+find the amphitheater of physics and chemistry and the laboratories. Here
+also is located the museum in course of formation (gotten up in view of
+the historical study of watch-making), and the amphitheater designed for
+certain public lecture courses.
+
+In the way of heating and lighting all parts of the building nothing has
+been neglected, and special care has been taken to have the ventilation
+perfect.
+
+At present the instruction comprises a practical and a theoretical course.
+
+_Practical Instruction_.--This is divided into three sections: (1) an
+elementary one having in view the construction of the simple watch in its
+essential parts; (2) a higher section in which the pupils learn to
+recognize the complicated parts; and (3) a section of mechanics applied to
+watch-making and to the study of the construction of machines and tools
+for facilitating and improving the manufacture.
+
+1. _Elementary Section, First Year_.--The pupil must manufacture all the
+small tools necessary for making unfinished movements; that is, drills,
+reamers, punches, files, etc. He must then learn to file and turn, and to
+make use of the finishing lathe with the bow, or of the foot lathe.
+
+In general, the time taken by an apprentice to manufacture his tools is
+from two to three months, and he can scarcely go to work on the movements
+before this.
+
+In this class the regular pupils have to execute seven pieces of work in
+the rough, two for horizontal escapements with key and regulating wheel,
+and five for various other escapements. Among these there is one for
+simple repetition and one for minute piece. Aside from the work fixed by
+the programme, the pupils may manufacture all the other complicated pieces
+upon obtaining the authority for it from their masters and the director.
+
+The average time employed in performing the work imposed by the programme
+necessarily depends upon the capacity of the pupil, but we may say that in
+general ten months are necessary.
+
+_Second Year_.--After executing his last piece of work in a satisfactory
+manner, the apprentice passes into the class in regulators, where he
+begins to manufacture the small tools that he will require.
+
+In this work, as in the preceding, he must take all his pieces from the
+crude metal, and he must do the forging himself, as well as the roughing
+down, the turning, filing, and shaping, and finally the finishing, without
+the aid of any other machine than the dividing one.
+
+In general, after eighteen months of work, the apprentice goes to the
+finishing shop, where the delicate and minute work begins, pivoting,
+putting the wheels in place, and practical study of gearings. After
+learning how to divide a wheel correctly, he is set to work on pinions and
+wheels in the rough, which he must rivet, finish, and pivot according to
+the different planes of the pieces that have been calculated and executed
+by him under the direction of the master.
+
+The programme to be followed by the pupils of the class in finishing is,
+as regards number of pieces, the same as that of the preceding classes,
+that is to say, seven.
+
+In general, the pupil passes from the class in finishing to the class in
+dial-trains, where he makes two of these for his pieces--one a simple and
+the other a minute train. The teaching of this part is very important as
+regards the manufacture of escapements. In constructing the dial train,
+the pupil perfects his filing and learns to make the adjustments correct.
+
+The last class in the elementary instruction is the one in escapements
+(Fig. 1), the programme of which includes several distinct parts: (1) The
+tools that are strictly necessary; (2) escapement and cylinder adjustment;
+(3) making the compensating balances for the pupil's pieces; (4) pivoting,
+putting in place, and finishing the escapements in regulating pieces.
+Here, as in the preceding classes, the pupils must do all the work
+themselves. During their stay in the elementary classes the work done is
+submitted to the director, who examines it and sends it back to the
+instructors accompanied with a bulletin containing his estimate as to its
+value, and his observations if there is occasion to make any.
+
+Pupils who cannot or who do not wish to go over the entire field of the
+programme stop here, and are now capable of earning their living and of
+lightening the load that oppresses their parents.--_Science et Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MACHINE FOR POLISHING BOOTS AND SHOES.
+
+
+The principle of an apparatus for blackening boots and shoes dates back to
+1838, the epoch at which a machine of this kind was put into use at the
+Polytechnic School. Since then it seems that not many applications have
+been made of it, notwithstanding the services that a machine of this kind
+is capable of rendering in barracks, lyceums, hotels, etc. Mr. Audoye, an
+inventor, has recently taken up the question again, and has proposed to
+The Societe d'Encouragement a model that gives a practical solution of it.
+The use of this will allow a notable saving in time and trouble to be
+effected.
+
+This brush (see engraving) revolves around a horizontal axle supported by
+a cast iron frame similar to that of a sewing machine. Motion is
+communicated to it by a double pedal, which actuates a connecting rod and
+a system of pulleys. The external surface of the brush contains three
+channels in which the foot gear to be polished is successively placed. In
+the first of these the dust and mud are removed, in the second the
+blacking is spread on, and in the third the final polish is obtained.
+
+[Illustration: MACHINE FOR POLISHING BOOTS AND SHOES.]
+
+In order to guide the blacking to that part of the brush which is to
+receive it, Mr. Audoye protects the lower part of the latter by a
+half-cylinder of sheet iron. On this there is placed a vessel containing
+the blacking, and into which dips a copper cylinder having a grooved
+surface. The horizontal axis of this cylinder is movable; when at rest it
+is so placed that the cylinder is an inch or so below the brush, but when
+the operator pulls a button that is within reach of his left hand, the
+axis is lifted, a contact takes place between the brush and the cylinder,
+and the former is thus given a rotary motion. As the cylinder still
+continues to dip into the blacking, the latter is thus spread ever the
+brush.--_La Genie Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PERSONAL SAFETY WITH THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
+
+
+_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:
+
+In your paper of the 21st of February there is an article on personal
+safety with electric currents, by Prof. A.E. Dolbear. He says that a Holtz
+machine may give through a short wire a very strong current. For if E =
+50,000 volts, R = 0.001 ohm, then C = 50000/0.001 = 50,000,000 amperes.
+Now that is a very large quantity of electricity, and is equal to an
+enormous horse power. I think the person receiving that charge would not
+need another. According to Ohm's law, the strength of current is
+proportional to the electromotive force divided by the total resistance,
+external and internal. The last is a very important element in the Holtz
+machine, and will make a big difference in the current strength. Here are
+some of the results obtained from experiments made with the Holtz machine.
+A machine with a plate 46 in. in diameter, making 5 turns in 3 seconds,
+produced a constant current capable of decomposing 31/2 millionths of a
+milligram in a second. This is equal to the effect produced by a Grove's
+cell in a circuit of 45,000 ohms resistance. The current produced would be
+about 0.0000044 ampere. That is rather small compared with the Professor's
+result. Rossetti found that the current is nearly proportional to the
+velocity of rotation. It increases a little faster than the velocity.
+
+The electromotive force and resistance is constant if the velocity is
+constant. The electromotive force is independent of the velocity, but
+diminishes as the moisture increases, and is about equal to 52,000 Daniell
+cells. The resistance when making 120 revolutions per minute is 2,810
+million ohms. At 450 per minute, 646 million.
+
+Taking it at 450, C = 53950/64600000.001 = 0.0000835 ampere, against the
+Professor's 50,000,000, amperes, and it would be equal to about 0.006
+horse power, which I think would be the more correct of the two; calling E
+equal to 50,000 Daniell cells.
+
+Yours, Respectfully,
+
+E. ELLSWORTH.
+
+Portland, Me., March 5, 1885.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A VISIT TO CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES IN THE YEAR 1884.
+
+[Footnote: A lecture delivered before the Society of Telegraph Engineers
+and Electricians, London, Dec. 11, 1884.]
+
+By Mr. W.H. PREECE, F.R.S.
+
+
+I do not know what the sensations of a man can be who is about to undergo
+the painful operation of execution; but I am inclined to think his
+sensations must be somewhat similar to those of a lecturer, brimful of
+notes, who has to wait until the clock strikes before he is allowed to
+address his audience.
+
+The President has been kind enough to refer to the paper I propose to give
+you, as "Electricity in America in the year 1884;" but I would rather,
+after having thought more about it, that it be called "A Visit to Canada
+and the United States in the year 1884."
+
+It will be in the recollection of a good many who are present that in the
+year 1877 I visited America, in conjunction with Mr. H.C. Fischer, the
+Controller of our Central Telegraph Station, to officially inspect and
+report upon the telegraph arrangements of that country; and on the 9th
+February, 1878, I had the pleasure of communicating to the members of this
+Society my experiences of that visit.
+
+During the present year my visit was not an official one; I went for a
+holiday, and specially to accompany the members of the British
+Association, who, for the first time in the history of that association,
+held a meeting outside the limits of the United Kingdom.
+
+We sailed from Liverpool in a splendid steamship called the Parisian.
+There were nearly 200 B.A. members on board; and notwithstanding the fact
+that rude Boreas tried all he could to prevent us from reaching the other
+side of the Atlantic; notwithstanding the fact that the Atlantic expressed
+its anger in the most unmistakable terms at our audacity in turning from
+our native shore; notwithstanding the fact that Greenland's icy mountains
+blew chilly blasts upon us, and made us call out all the warm things we
+possessed--I say notwithstanding all this, we reached the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence in safety, and I do not think that a merrier or a happier crew
+ever crossed the Atlantic.
+
+There is one very interesting fact that is not generally known, and I
+certainly was unaware of it before I started, in connection with this
+particular route across the Atlantic, and that is, that by it the ship
+passes within only 200 miles of Greenland. The great circle that directs
+the shortest route from the north of Ireland to the Straits of Belle Isle
+passes within the cold region, and hence, while you were all sweltering in
+heat in London, we were compelled to bring out our ulsters and all our
+warm garments, to enable us to cross with any degree of comfort. The
+advantage of this particular route is supposed to be the fact that only
+five days are spent upon the ocean, and the remainder of the voyage is
+occupied in the calms and comforts of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. But
+I am inclined to think that the roughness of the ocean and the coolness of
+the weather at all seasons are quite sufficient to prevent anybody from
+repeating our experience.
+
+We arrived at Montreal in time to attend the opening meeting of the
+British Association; and at Montreal we were received with great
+hospitality, great attention, and great kindness from all our brethren in
+Canada, and we held there certainly a very successful and very pleasant
+gathering. There were 1,773 members of the British Association altogether
+present, and of that number there were 600 who had crossed the Atlantic;
+the remainder being made up of Canadians, and by at least 200 Americans,
+including all the most distinguished professors who adorn the rolls of
+science in the United States. As is invariably the rule in these British
+Association meetings, we had not only papers to enlighten us, but
+entertainments to cheer us; and excursions were arranged in every
+direction, to enable us to become acquainted with the beauties and
+peculiarities of the American continent. Some members went to Quebec, some
+to Ottawa, others to the Lakes, others to Toronto, many went to Niagara;
+and altogether the arrangements made for our comfort and pleasure were
+such, that I have not heard one single soul who attended this meeting at
+Montreal express the slightest regret that he crossed the Atlantic.
+
+The meeting at Montreal certainly cannot be called an electricians'
+meeting. The gathering of the British Association has often been
+distinguished by the first appearance of some new instrument or the
+divulgence of some new scientific secret; but there was nothing of any
+special interest brought forward on this occasion. The only real novelty
+or striking fact that I can recall as having taken place was a remarkable
+discussion that originated by Professor Oliver Lodge, upon the "Seat of
+the Electromotive Force in a Voltaic Cell."
+
+This was an experiment on the part of the British Association.
+Discussions, as a rule, have not been the case at our meetings. Papers
+have been read and papers have been discussed; but on this occasion three
+or four subjects were named as fit for discussion, and distinguished
+professors were selected to open the discussion.
+
+On this particular subject, Professor Oliver Lodge opened the discussion,
+and he did so in an original, an efficient, and in a chirpy kind of manner
+that took by storm not only the professors who knew him, but those who did
+not know him; and I am bound to say that I do not think we could possibly
+better spend an evening during the coming session, or more profitably,
+than by asking Professor Oliver Lodge to bring the subject before this
+Society, so as to allow us on this side of the water to discuss the same
+subject.
+
+Of course the prominent figure at our meetings was Lord Rayleigh; and I do
+not think that any person could possibly have been present at those
+meetings of the British Association without feeling an intense personal
+admiration for this man, and an affection for the way in which he
+maintained the position of an English gentleman and the credit of an
+English scientific body, to the astonishment and delight of every one
+present. Then, again, we had our past President, Sir William Thomson, who
+was not quite so ubiquitous as usual; he did not dance from section to
+section as he usually does, but remained as president of his own section,
+A. I think he only left his section for a day, and that was to attend the
+electrical day in Section G; but in his own section he brought down those
+words of wisdom that one always hears from him, and which make one always
+regret that there is not always present about him a shorthand writer to
+take down thoughts and ideas that never occur again, and are only heard by
+those who have the benefit of being present.
+
+The subjects brought forward were not of intense interest. We had a paper
+by Dr. Traill, describing the Portrush Railway, and there were various
+other papers; and I can pass over some of the other subjects, because I
+shall have to deal with them under another head. But while we were in
+Montreal, a deputation of American professors and members of the American
+Association came over, and invited a good many of those who were present
+at Montreal to visit the American Association at Philadelphia. I was one
+of those who went over to America simply and solely for a holiday, and I
+am bound to say that I set my face determinedly against going to
+Philadelphia. I traveled with two charming companions, and we all decided
+not to go to Philadelphia. But the compact was broken, and we capitulated,
+and went from the charming climate of Montreal into the most intense heat
+and into the greatest discomfort that I think poor members of the
+Telegraph Engineers' Society ever experienced. We entered a heat that was
+100 deg. by day and 98 deg. by night; and I do not think there is anybody in this
+room, unless he has been brought up in the furnace-room of an Atlantic
+steamer, who can fully appreciate the heat of Philadelphia in these summer
+months. The discomforts of the climate were, however, amply compensated
+for by the hospitality and kindness of the inhabitants. We spent, in spite
+of the heat, a very pleasant time.
+
+Before referring further to the meetings at Philadelphia, I may just
+mention the other journeys that I took. My holiday having been broken by
+the rupture of the union to which I have alluded, I had to devote it then
+to other purposes, and, in addition to Montreal and Philadelphia, I went
+to New York (to which I shall refer again), from New York to Buffalo, then
+to Lake Erie and Cleveland, and on to Chicago, where I spent a week or
+more. From Chicago I went to see the great artery of the West--the
+Mississippi. I stopped for a day or two at St. Louis. One remarkable fact
+came to my knowledge, and I dare say it is new to many present, and that
+is, that the Mississippi, unlike other rivers, runs uphill. It happens,
+rather curiously, that, owing to the earth being an oblate spheroid, the
+difference between the source of the Mississippi and the center of the
+earth is less than that of its mouth and the center of the earth, and you
+may see how this running up hill is accounted for.
+
+From St. Louis I went to Indianapolis, thence to Pittsburg, where they
+have struck most extraordinary wells of natural gas. Borings are made in
+the earth from the crust to a depth of 600 or 700 feet, when large
+reservoirs of natural gas are "struck." The town is lighted by this gas,
+and it is also employed for motive power. In Cleveland, also, this natural
+gas is found, and there is no doubt that it is going to economize the cost
+of production very much in that part of the country. From Pittsburg I went
+to Baltimore, where Sir William Thomson was occupied in delivering
+lectures to the students of the Johns Hopkins University. In all these
+American towns one very curious feature is that they all have great
+educational establishments, endowed and formed by private munificence. In
+Canada there is the McGill University, and in nearly every place one goes
+to there is a university, like the Johns Hopkins at Baltimore, where Johns
+Hopkins left 3,500,000 dollars to be devoted entirely to educational
+purposes; and that university is under the management of one of the most
+enlightened men in America, Professor Grillman, and he has as his
+lieutenants Professors Rowland, Mendenhall, and other well-known men, and
+each professor is in his own line particularly eminent. Sir William
+Thomson delivered there a really splendid course of lectures. From
+Baltimore I went through Philadelphia to Boston. I visited Long Branch,
+and I spent a long time in New York, so that from what I have said you
+will gather that I spent a good deal of my time in the States. Wherever I
+went I devoted all my leisure time to inquiry into the telegraphic,
+telephonic, and electric light arrangements in existence. I visited all
+the manufactories I could get to, and I did all I possibly could to enable
+me to return home and afford information, and perhaps amusement, to my
+fellow-members of this Society.
+
+As an illustration of the intense heat we experienced, I may mention that
+it was at one time perfectly impossible to make the thermometer budge. The
+temperature of the blood is about 97 or 98 degrees, and if the temperature
+of the air be below the temperature of the blood, of course when the hand
+is applied to the thermometer the mercury rises. In one of our journeys up
+the Pennsylvania Road we tried to make the thermometer budge as usual, but
+could not, which proved that the temperature of the air inside the Pullman
+car in which we traveled was the same as that of the blood.
+
+The American Association is of course based on the British Association.
+Its mode of administration is a little different. It is divided into
+sections, as is the British Association, but the sections are not called
+the same. For instance, in the British Association, Section A is devoted
+entirely to physics, but in the American Association, Section A is devoted
+to astronomy and Section B to physics. In the British Association, Section
+G is devoted to mechanics, but in America Section D is devoted to that
+subject. But with the exception of just a change in the names of some
+sections which are familiar as household words to members of the British
+Association, the proceedings of the American Association do not differ
+very much from ours. They have, however, one very sensible rule. The
+length of every paper is indicated upon the programme of the day's
+proceedings, and the continuation or the stopping of any discussion on
+that paper is in the hands of the section. For instance, if the President
+thinks that a man is speaking too long, he has only to say, "Does the
+meeting wish that this discussion shall be continued, or shall it be
+stopped?" A majority on the show of hands decides. Such a practice has a
+very wholesome effect in checking discussion, and I certainly think that
+some of our societies would do well to adopt a rule of the same character.
+
+The meeting of the American Association, again, was not distinguished by
+any particular electrical paper, or any new electrical subject. The main
+subject that was brought before us was the peculiar effect called "Hall's
+effect," that Professor Hall, now of Harvard College, and then assistant
+to Professor Rowland, discovered in the powerful field of a magnet when a
+current was passed through a conductor; and a description of that effect
+(which he at one time thought was an indication that electricity was
+something separate from matter) formed the subject of two debates that
+lasted for nearly the whole of two days. I am bound to say that in that
+prolonged discussion the members of this Society held their own. I see two
+very prominent members present who spoke on most of the electrical
+subjects dealt with--Professor G. Forbes, who knows what he says and says
+what he knows, and Professor Silvanus Thompson, who held his own under
+very trying circumstances.
+
+At the same time that this meeting of the American Association was being
+held at Philadelphia, where we were treated with marvelous
+hospitality,--excursions, soirees, dinners, parties, etc., etc.--and as
+though it were not quite sufficient to bring over humble Britishers from
+this side of the Atlantic to suffer the intense heat at one meeting of the
+Association, they held at the same time an Electrical Conference. There
+was a conference of electricians appointed by the United States
+Government, that was chiefly distinguished on the part of the American
+Government by selecting those who were not electricians. But many attended
+the Electrical Conference who stand high as electricians, one especially,
+who, though perhaps from want of experience he did not shine very
+brilliantly as a chairman, certainly stands as one of the ablest
+electricians of the day--I mean Professor Rowland. The Conference was held
+under Professor Rowland's presidency, and nearly all the well-known
+professors of the United States attended. The Conference was established
+by the United States Government to take into consideration the results and
+conclusions arrived at by the Congress of 1884, held in Paris. The Paris
+Congress decided upon adopting certain units of resistance of
+electromotive force, of current, and of quantity, and they determined the
+particular length of a column of mercury that should represent the ohm--a
+column of mercury 106 centimeters long and of one square millimeter in
+section. It was necessary that the United States should join this
+Conference, so a commission was appointed to consider the whole matter.
+All these units were brought before them, as well as the other conclusions
+of the Paris Congress, such as the proper mode of recording earth currents
+and atmospheric electricity. The Paris units were adopted in face of the
+fact that the length determined upon at Paris was not the length that
+Professor Rowland himself had found as that which should represent the
+ohm. It differed by about 0.2, as near as I can remember; but it was
+thought so necessary that uniformity and unanimity should exist all over
+the world in the adoption of a proper unit, that all differences were laid
+aside, and the Americans agreed to comply with the resolutions of the
+Paris Congress.
+
+There were two units that I had the temerity to bring forward, first, at
+the British Association, and secondly, before the Electrical Conference.
+It will be remembered, that at the meeting of the British Association at
+Southampton in 1882, the late Sir W. Siemens proposed that the unit of
+power should be the watt, and that the watt, which was derived from the
+C.G.S. system of absolute units, should in future, among electricians, be
+the unit of power. This was accepted by the British Association at
+Montreal, and it was also accepted by the American Electrical Conference
+at Philadelphia. But I also, at Montreal, suggested that as the watt was
+the unit of power, so we ought to make some multiple of that unit the
+higher unit of power, comparable to that which is now represented by the
+well-known term "horsepower." Horsepower, unfortunately, does not form
+itself directly into the C.G.S. system. The term horsepower is a
+meaningless quantity; it is not a horsepower at all. It was established by
+the great Watt, who determined that the average power exerted by a horse
+was equal to about 22,000 foot pounds raised per minute; but this was
+thought by him to be too little, so he increased it by 50 per cent., and
+so arrived at what is the present horsepower, 33,000 foot pounds raised
+per minute. Foot pounds bear no relation to our C.G.S. system of units,
+and it is most desirable that we should have some unit of power, somewhere
+about the horsepower, to enable us to convert at once watts into
+horsepower. For that purpose I proposed that 1,000 watts, or the kilowatt,
+should replace what is now called the horsepower, and suggested it for the
+consideration of engineers. It has been received with a great deal of
+consideration by those who understand the subject, and a considerable
+amount of ridicule by those who do not. It is rather a remarkable thing
+that, as a rule, one will always find ridicule and ignorance running side
+by side; and it is an almost invariable fact that when a new proposition
+is brought forward, it is laughed at. I am always very glad to see that,
+because it always succeeds in drawing attention to the matter. I remember
+a friend of mine, who had written a book, being in great glee because it
+was severely criticised by the _Athenaeum_, a fact which drew public
+attention to the book, and caused it to make a great stir. So when I
+proposed that the horsepower should be increased by 33 per cent., and made
+equivalent to 1,000 watts, I was not at all sorry to find that I had
+incurred the displeasure of the leader writers in nearly all our
+scientific papers, and I was quite sure that the attention of those who
+would not perhaps have thought of it would thereby be drawn to the matter.
+Some people object to the use of a name, this name "watt." When you have
+fresh ideas, you must have fresh words to express those ideas. The watt
+was a new unit, it must be called by some name, otherwise it could
+scarcely be conveyed to our minds. The foot, the gallon, the yard, were
+all new names once; and how do we know that they were not derived from
+some "John Foot," "William Gallon," or "Jack Yard," or some man whose name
+was connected with the measure when introduced? The poet says:
+
+"Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest--
+Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood:"
+
+so in these names some forgotten physicist or mute engineer may be
+buried. At any rate, we cannot do without names. The ohm, the ampere, the
+volt, are merely words that express ideas that we all understand; and so
+does the watt, and so will the 1,000 watts when you come to think over the
+matter as much as some of us have done.
+
+At this Conference several other subjects were brought up which attracted
+a good deal of attention. Professor Rowland brought forward a paper on the
+theory of dynamos that certainly startled a good many of us; and it led to
+a discussion that is admirably reported in our scientific papers. I think
+that the discussion evolved by Professor Rowland's paper on the theory of
+dynamos deserves the study of every electrician; it brought very strongly
+into prominence one or two English gentlemen who were present. Professor
+Fitzgerald, of Dublin, spoke with a considerable amount of power, and
+showed a mastery of the subject that was pleasant not only to his friends,
+but must have been gratifying to the Americans who heard him. On this
+particular subject of dynamos it was truly wonderful how the doctors
+disagreed. Two could not be found who held the same views on the theory
+and construction of the dynamo, and that shows that we still have a great
+deal to learn about the dynamo, and that the true principle of
+construction of it has yet to be brought out.
+
+It is a very curious thing, and I thought about it at the time, that when
+you consider the dynamos in use, you see how very little has been done to
+perfect the direct working dynamo in England. Although the principle of
+the dynamo originated with Faraday, yet all the early machines, Pacinotti,
+Gramme. Hefner von Alteneck, Shuckert, Brush, Edison, and several others
+who have improved the direct action machine, have not been found in
+England. But when we deal with alternate-current machines, then we find
+the Wilde, Ferranti, and various others; so that the tendency in England
+has been very much to improve and work upon the alternate-current
+machines. In other countries it is exactly the reverse; in fact, in
+America I never saw one single alternate-current machine. When Professor
+Forbes wanted an alternate-current machine to illustrate a lecture that he
+gave, it was with the greatest difficulty that one could be found, and, in
+fact, it was put together specially for him.
+
+The other subjects brought before this Conference were Earth Currents,
+Atmospheric Electricity, Accumulators or Secondary Batteries, and
+Telephones. There was an extremely able paper brought forward by Mr. T.D.
+Lockwood, the electrician of the American Bell Telephone Company, on
+Telephones, and the disturbances that influence their working. When that
+paper is published, it will well be worth your careful examination.
+
+Papers were also read on the Transmission of Energy, and there were papers
+on many other subjects.
+
+So much for the Electrical Conference.
+
+Now, the Americans at the present moment are suffering from a mania which
+we, happily, have passed through, that is, the mania of exhibitions.
+
+While we were at Philadelphia, there was an exceedingly interesting
+exhibition held. I do not intend to say much about that exhibition, for
+the simple reason that Professor G. Forbes has promised, during the
+forthcoming session, to give us a paper describing what he saw there, and
+his studies at Philadelphia; and I am quite sure that it will be a paper
+worthy of him, and of you. But, apart from this exhibition at
+Philadelphia, I could not go anywhere without finding an exhibition. There
+was one at Chicago, another at St. Louis, another at Boston; everybody was
+talking about one at Louisville, where I did not go; and there were rumors
+of great preparations for the "largest exhibition the world has ever
+seen," according to their own account, at New Orleans. However, I
+satisfied myself with seeing the exhibition at Philadelphia, which
+consisted strictly of American goods, and was not of the international
+nature general to such exhibitions. But it was a fine exhibition, and one
+that no other single nation could bring together.
+
+_Telegraphs_.--When I spoke to you in 1878, my remarks were almost
+entirely confined to telegraphs, for at that day the telephone was not, as
+a practical instrument, in existence. I brought from America on that
+occasion the first telephones that were brought to this country. Then the
+practical application of electricity was applied to telegraphs, and so
+telegraphs formed the subject of my theme. But while in 1877 I saw a great
+deal to learn, and picked up a great many wrinkles, and brought back from
+America a good many processes, I go back there now in 1884, seven years
+afterward, and I do not find one single advance made--I comeback with
+scarcely one single wrinkle; and, in fact, while we in England during
+those seven years have progressed with giant strides, in America, in
+telegraph matters, they have stood still. But their material progress has
+been marvelous. In 1877, the mileage of wire belonging to the Western
+Union Telegraph Company was 200,000 miles; in 1884, they have 433,726
+miles of wire; so that during the seven years their mileage of wire has
+more than doubled. During the same period their number of messages has
+increased from 28,000,000 to over 40,000,000; their offices from 11,660 to
+13,600; and the capital invested in their concern has increased from
+$40,000,000 to $80,000,000--in fact, there is no more gigantic telegraph
+organization in this world that this Western Union Telegraph Company. It
+is a remarkable undertaking, and I do not suppose there is an
+administration better managed. But for some reason or other that I cannot
+account for, their scientific progress has not marched with their material
+progress, and invention has to a certain extent there ceased. There really
+was only one telegraphic novelty to be found in the States, and that was
+an instrument by Delany--a multiplex instrument by which six messages
+could be sent in one or other direction at the same time. It is an
+instrument that is dependent upon the principle introduced by Meyer, where
+time is divided into a certain number of sections, and where synchronous
+action is maintained between two instruments. This system has been worked
+out with great perfection in France by Baudot. We had a paper by Colonel
+Webber on the subject, before the Society, in which the process was fully
+described. Delany, in the States, has carried the process a little
+further, by making it applicable to the ordinary Morse sending. On the
+Meyer and Baudot principle, the ordinary Morse sender has to wait for
+certain clicks, which indicate at which moment a letter may be sent; but
+on the Delany plan each of the six clerks can peg away as he chooses--he
+can send at any rate he likes, and he is not disturbed in any way by
+having any sound to guide or control his ear. The Delany is a very
+promising system. It may not work to long distances; but the apparatus is
+promised to be brought over to this country, to be exhibited at the
+Inventors' Exhibition next year, and I can safely say that the Post Office
+will give every possible facility to try the new invention upon its wires.
+
+One gratifying effect of my visit to the telegraph establishments in
+America was that, while hitherto we have never hesitated in England to
+adopt any process or invention that was a distinct advance, whether it
+came from America or anywhere else, they on the other hand have shown a
+disinclination to adopt anything British; but they have now adopted our
+Wheatstone automatic system. That system is at work between New Orleans
+and Chicago, and New York and New Orleans--1,600 miles. It has given them
+so much satisfaction that they are going to increase it very largely; so
+that we really have the proud satisfaction of finding a real, true British
+invention well established on the other side of the Atlantic.
+
+The next branch that I propose to bring to your notice is the question of
+the telephone.
+
+The telephone has passed through rather an awkward phase in the States. A
+very determined attempt has been made to upset the Bell patents in that
+country; and those who visited the Philadelphia Exhibition saw the
+instruments there exhibited upon which the advocates of the plaintiff
+relied. It is said that a very ingenious American, named Drawbaugh, had
+anticipated all the inventors of every part of the telephone system; that
+he had invented a receiver before Bell; that he had invented the
+compressed carbon arrangement before Edison; that he had invented the
+microphone before our friend Professor Hughes; and that, in fact, he had
+done everything on the face of the earth to establish the claims set
+forth. Some of his patents were shown, and I not only had to examine his
+patents, but I had to go through a great many depositions of the evidence
+given, and I am bound to confess that a more flimsy case I never saw
+brought before a court of law. I do not know whether I shall be libelous
+in expressing my opinion (I will refer to our solicitor before the notes
+are printed), but I should not hesitate to say that I never saw a more
+evident conspiracy concocted to try and disturb the position of a
+well-established patent. However, I have heard that the judgment has been
+given as the public generally supposed it would be given; because as soon
+as the case was over the shares of the Bell company, which were at 150,
+jumped up to 190, and now the decision is given I am told that they will
+probably reach 290.
+
+We cannot form a conception on this side of the Atlantic of the extent to
+which telephones are used on the other side of the Atlantic. It is said
+sometimes that the progress of the telephone on this side of the water has
+been checked very much by the restrictions brought to bear upon the
+telephone by the Government of this country. But whatever restrictions
+have been instituted by our Government upon the adoption of the telephone,
+they are not to be compared with the restrictions that the poor
+unfortunate telephone companies have to struggle against on the other side
+of the Atlantic. There is not a town that does not mulct them in taxes for
+every pole they erect, and for every wire they extend through the streets.
+There is not a State that does not exact from them a tax; and I was
+assured, and I know as a fact, that in one particular case there was one
+company--a flourishing company--that was mulcted is 75 per cent. of its
+receipts before it could possibly pay a dividend. Here we only ask the
+telephone companies to pay to the poor, impoverished British Government 10
+per cent.; and 10 per cent. by the side of 75 per cent. certainly cuts but
+a very sorry figure. But the truth is, the reason why the telephone is
+flourishing in America is that it is an absolute necessity there for the
+proper transaction of business. Where you exist in a sort of Turkish bath
+at from 90 deg. to 100 deg., you want to be saved every possible reason for
+leaving your office to conduct your business; and the telephone comes in
+as a means whereby you can do so, and can loll back in your arm chair,
+with your legs up in the air, with a cigar in your mouth, with a punkah
+waving over your head, and a bottle of iced water by your side. By the
+telephone, under such circumstances, business transactions can be carried
+on with comfort to yourself and to him with whom your business is
+transacted. We have not similar conditions here. We are always glad of an
+excuse to get out of our offices. In America, too, servants and messengers
+are the exception, a boy is not to be had, whereas in England we get an
+errand boy at half a crown a week. That which costs half a crown here
+costs 12s. to 15s. in America; and, that being so, it is much better to
+pay the telephone company a sum that will, at less cost, enable your
+business to be transacted without the engagement of such a boy.
+
+The Americans, again, adopt electrical contrivances for all sorts of
+domestic purposes. There is not a single house in New York, Chicago, or
+anywhere else that I went into, that has not in the hall a little
+instrument [producing one] which, by the turn of a pointer and the
+pressing of a handle, calls for a messenger, a carriage, a cab, express
+wagon (that is, the fellow who looks after your luggage), a doctor,
+policeman, fire-alarm, or anything else as may be arranged for. The little
+instrument communicates to a central office not far off, and in two
+minutes the doctor, or messenger, or whatever it may be, presents himself.
+
+For fire-alarms and for all sorts of purposes, domestic telegraphy is part
+and parcel of the nature of an American, and the result was that when the
+telephone was brought to him, he adopted it with avidity. On this side of
+the Atlantic domestic telegraphy is at a minimum, and I do not think any
+one would have a telephone in his house if he could help it.
+
+When you want a thing, you must pay for it. The Americans want the
+telephone, and they pay for it. In London people grumble very much at
+having to pay L20 to the Telephone Company for the use of a telephone. I
+question very much whether L20 a year is quite enough; at any rate, it is
+not enough if the American charge is taken as a standard. The charge in
+New York is of two classes--one for a system called the law system, which
+is applied almost exclusively for the use of lawyers, which is L44 a
+year; the other being the charge made to the ordinary public, and which
+will compare with the service rendered in London, which is charged for at
+L35 a year, against L20 a year in London. The charge in Chicago is L26 a
+year; in Boston, Philadelphia, and a great many other places it is L25 a
+year. At Buffalo a mode of charging by results is adopted; everybody pays
+for each oral message he sends--every time he uses the telephone he pays
+either four, five, or six cents, according to the number for which he
+guarantees. Supposing any one of us wanted a telephone at Buffalo, the
+company will supply it under a guarantee to pay for a minimum of 500
+messages per annum. If 1,000 messages are sent, the charge is less _pro
+rata_, being six cents, if I remember rightly, for each message under 500,
+and five cents up to 1,000 messages, four cents per message over 1,000
+messages; and so everybody pays for what work he does. It is payment by
+results. The people like the arrangement, the company like it because they
+make it pay, and the system works well. But I am bound to say that, up to
+the present moment, Buffalo is the only city in the United States where
+that method has been adopted.
+
+The instruments used in the States are no better--in fact, in many cases
+they are worse--than the instruments we use on this side of the Atlantic.
+I have heard telephones in this country speak infinitely better than
+anything that I have heard on the other side of the Atlantic. But they
+transact their business in America infinitely better than we do; and there
+is one great reason for this, which is, that in America the public itself
+falls into the mode of telephone working with the energy of the telegraph
+operator. They assist the telephone people in every way they can; they
+take disturbances with a humility that would be simply startling to
+English subscribers; and they help the workers of the system in every way
+they can. The result is, that all goes off with great smoothness and
+comfort. But the switch apparatus used in the American central offices is
+infinitely superior to anything that I have ever seen over here, excepting
+at Liverpool.
+
+A new system has just been brought out, called the "multiple" system,
+which has been very lately introduced. I saw it at many places, especially
+at Indianapolis, at Boston, and at New York, where three exchanges were
+worked by it with a rapidity that perfectly startled me. I took the times
+of a great many transactions, and found that, from the moment a subscriber
+called to the moment he was put through, only five seconds elapsed; and I
+am told at Milwaukee, where unfortunately I could not go, but where there
+is a friend of ours in charge, Mr. Charles Haskins, who is one of our
+members, and he says he has brought down the rate of working to such a
+pitch that they are able to arrange that subscribers shall be put through
+in four seconds.
+
+You will be surprised to learn that there are 986 exchanges at work in the
+United States. There are 97,423 circuits; there are nearly 90,000 miles of
+wire used for telephonic purposes; and the number of instruments that have
+been manufactured amounts to 517,749. Just compare those figures with our
+little experience on this side of the Atlantic. I have a return showing
+the number of subscribers in and about New York, comprising the New Jersey
+division, the Long Island division, Staten Island, Westchester, and New
+York City, and the total amounts to 10,600 subscribers who are put into
+communication with each other in the neighborhood of New York alone; and
+here in England we can only muster 11,000. There are just as many
+subscribers probably at this moment in New York and its neighborhood as we
+have in the whole of the United Kingdom.
+
+I am sorry to delay you so long. I have very few more points to bring
+before you. I spoke only last week so much about the electric light that I
+have very little to say on that point. High-tension currents are used for
+electric lighting in America, and all wires are carried overhead along the
+streets. A more hideous contrivance was probably never invented since the
+world was created than the system of carrying wires overhead through the
+magnificent streets and cities in America. They spend thousands upon
+thousands of pounds in beautifying their cities with very fine buildings,
+and then they disfigure them all by carrying down the pavements the most
+villainous-looking telegraph posts that ever were constructed. The
+practice is carried to such an extent, that down Broadway in New York
+there are no less than six distinct lines of poles; and through the city
+of New York there are no less than thirty-two separate and distinct
+companies carrying all their wires through the streets of the city. How
+the authorities have stood it so long I cannot make out. They object to
+underground wires--why, one cannot tell. It is something like taking a
+horse to the pond--you cannot make him drink. So it is with these
+telephone companies: the public of America and the Town Councils have been
+trying to force the telephone and telegraph companies to put their wires
+underground, but they are the horses that are led to the pool, and they
+will not drink. It is said that the Town Council of Philadelphia have
+issued most stringent orders that on the first of January next, men with
+axes and tools are to start out and cut down every pole in the city. It is
+all very well to threaten; but my impression is that any member of Town
+Council or any individual of Philadelphia who attempts to do such a thing
+will be lynched by the first telephone subscriber he meets.
+
+This practice of running overhead wires has great disadvantages when the
+wires are used for electric-lighting purposes as well as for ordinary
+telephone or telegraph purposes. No doubt the high-tension system can be
+carried out overhead with economy; but where overhead wires carrying these
+heavy currents exist in the neighborhood of telephone circuits, there is
+every possible liability to accident; and in my short trip I came across
+seven distinct cases of offices being destroyed by fire, of test boxes
+being utterly ruined, of a whole house being gutted, and of various
+accidents, all clearly traceable to contacts arising from the falling of
+overhead wires, charged with high-tension current, upon telegraph and
+telephone wires below. The danger is so great and damage so serious that,
+at Philadelphia, Mr. Plush, the electrician to the Telephone Company, has
+devised this exceedingly pretty cut-out. It is a little electro-magnetic
+cut-out that breaks the telephone circuit whenever a current passes into
+the circuit equal to or more than an ampere. The arrangement works with
+great ease. It is applied to every telephone circuit simply, to protect
+the telephone system from electric light wires, that ought never to be
+allowed anywhere near a telephone circuit.
+
+Fire-alarms are used in America; but in England, also, the fire systems of
+Edward Bright, Spagnoletti, and Higgins have been introduced, and in that
+respect we are in very near the same position as our friends on the other
+side of the Atlantic. Some members present may remember that, when I
+described my last visit to America, I mentioned how in Chicago the
+fire-alarm was worked by an electric method, and I told you a story then
+that you did not believe, and which I have told over and over again, but
+nobody has yet believed me, and I began to think that I must have made a
+mistake somewhere or other. So I meant, when at Chicago this time, to see
+whether I had been deceived myself. There was very little room for
+improvement, because, as I told you before, they had very near reached
+perfection. This is what they did: At the corner of the street where a
+fire-alarm box is fixed, a handle is pulled down, and the moment that
+handle is released a current goes to the fire-station; it sounds a gong to
+call the attention of the men, it unhitches the harness of the horses, the
+horses run to their allotted positions at the engine, it whips the clothes
+off every man who is in bed, it opens a trap at the bottom of the bed and
+the men slide down into their positions on the engine. The whole of that
+operation takes only six seconds. The perfection to which fire-alarm
+business has been brought in the States is one of the most interesting
+applications of electricity there.
+
+Of course during this visit I waited on Mr. Edison. Many of you know that
+a difference took place between Mr. Edison and myself, and I must confess
+that I felt a little anxiety as to how I should be received on the other
+side. It is impossible for any man to receive another with greater
+kindness and attention than Mr. Edison received me. He took me all over
+his place and showed me everything, and past differences were not referred
+to. Mr. Edison is doing an enormous amount of work in steadily plodding
+away at the electric light business. He has solved the question as far as
+New York is concerned and as far as central station lighting is concerned;
+and all we want on this side is to instill more confidence into our
+capitalists, to try and induce them to unbutton their pockets and give us
+money to carry out central lighting here.
+
+I met another very distinguished electrician--a man who has hid his light
+under a bushel--a man whose quiet modesty has kept him very much in the
+background, but who really has done as much work as any body on that side
+of the Atlantic, and few have done more on this--and that is Mr. Edward
+Weston. He is an Englishman who has established himself in New York. He
+has been working steadily for years at his laboratory, and works and
+produces plant with all the skill and exactitude that the electrician or
+mechanic could desire.
+
+Another large factory I went over was that of the Western Electric Company
+of Chicago, which is the largest manufactory in the States. That company
+has three large factories. While I was there, the manager, just as a
+matter of course, handed me over a message which contained an order for
+330 arc lamps and for twenty-four dynamo machines. He was very proud of
+such an order, but he tried to make me believe that it was an every-day
+occurrence.
+
+There are no less than 90,000 arc lamps burning in the States every day.
+
+The time has passed very rapidly. I have only just one or two more points
+to allude to. I think I ought not to conclude without referring to the
+more immediate things affecting travelers generally and electricians in
+particular. It is astounding to come across the different experiences
+narrated by different men who have been on the other side of the Atlantic.
+One charming companion that we had on board the Parisian has been
+interviewed, and his remarks appeared in the _Pall Mall Gazette_ of
+Tuesday last, December 9th. There he gave the most pessimist view of life
+in the United States. He said they were a miserable race--thin, pale faced
+and haggard, and rushed about as though they were utterly unhappy; and the
+account our friend gave of what he saw in the United States evidently
+shows that the heat that did not affect some of us so very much must have
+produced upon Mr. Capper a most severe bilious attack. Well, his
+experiences are not mine. Throughout the whole States I received
+kindnesses and attentions that I can never forget. I had the pleasure of
+staying in the houses of most charming people. I found that whenever you
+met an educated American gentleman there was no distinction to be drawn
+between him and an English gentleman. His ways of living, his modes of
+thought, his amusements, his entertainments, are the same as ours; there
+is no difference whatever to be found. In Mr. Capper's case I can readily
+imagine that he spent most of his time in the halls of hotels, and there
+you do see those wild fellows rushing about; they convert the hall of the
+hotel into a mere stock exchange, and look just as uncomfortable as our
+"stags" who run about Capel Court. You may just as well enter a
+betting-ring and come away with the impression that the members represent
+English society, or that that is the most refined manner in which English
+gentlemen enjoy themselves.
+
+Well, gentlemen, there are just as exceptional peculiarities here as on
+the other side of the water. The Americans are the most charming people on
+this earth. When we enter their houses and come to know them, they treat
+us in a way that cannot be forgotten. I noticed a very great change since
+I was in America before. Whether it is a greater acquaintance with them or
+not I cannot say, but there is an absence of that which we can only
+express by a certain word called "cockiness." It struck me at one time
+that there was a good deal of cockiness on that side of the Atlantic, that
+has entirely disappeared. Constant intercourse between the two countries
+is gradually bringing out a regular unanimity of feeling and the same mode
+of thought.
+
+But there are some things in which the Americans are a little lax,
+especially in their history. At one of their exhibitions that I visited,
+for instance, there was a placard put up--
+
+"The steed called Lightning, say the Fates,
+ Was tamed in the United States.
+ 'Twas Franklin's hand that caught the horse;
+ 'Twas harnessed by Professor Morse."
+
+Now, considering that Franklin made his discovery in 1752, and the United
+States were not formed till about thirty years afterward, it is rather
+"transmogrifying" history to say the lightning was tamed in the United
+States.
+
+Again, where the notice about Professor Morse was put, they say that the
+instrument was invented by Morse in 1846, while alongside it is shown the
+very slip which sent the message, dated 1844; so that the slip of the
+original message sent by Morse was sent by his instrument two years before
+it was invented.
+
+Again, that favorite old instrument of ours which we are so proud of, the
+hatchment telegraph of Cooke and Wheatstone, invented in 1837, was labeled
+"Whetstone and Cook, 1840," so while I am sorry to say they are loose in
+their history, they are tight in their friendships, and all the visitors
+receive the warmest possible welcome from them generally, and especially
+so from every member of our Society belonging to the States.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HOUSE OF A THOUSAND TERRORS, ROTTERDAM.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE HOUSE OF A THOUSAND TERRORS, ROTTERDAM.]
+
+This building, which is situated at the corner of the Groote Market and
+the Hang, is one of the oldest houses in Rotterdam, besides being one of
+the most interesting from a historical point of view. There is a tradition
+which states that when the city was invaded and pillaged by the Spaniards,
+who in accordance with their usual custom, proceeded to put the
+inhabitants to the sword, without regard to age or sex, a large number of
+the leading citizens took refuge within the building, and having secured
+and barricaded the entrance, they killed a kid and allowed the blood to
+flow beneath the door into the street; seeing which the soldiery concluded
+that those inside had already been massacred, and without troubling to
+force an entry passed on, leaving them unmolested. Here the unhappy
+citizens remained for three days without food, by which time the danger
+had passed away, and they were enabled to effect their escape. It is from
+this incident that the building takes its name. The house is built in a
+species of irregular bond with bricks of varying lengths, the strings,
+labels, copings, etc., being in stone. The upper portion remains in pretty
+much the same condition as it existed in the 16th century, but is much
+disfigured by modern paint, which has been laid over the whole of the
+exterior with no sparing hand. Within the last few years the present shop
+windows facing the Groote Market have been put up and various slight
+alterations made to the lower part of the building to suit the
+requirements of the present occupiers. The drawing has been prepared from
+detail sketches made on the spot.--_W.E. Pinkerton, in Building News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF COAL.
+
+
+The origin of coal, that combustible which is distributed over the earth
+in all latitudes, from the frozen regions of Greenland to Zambesi in the
+tropics, utilized by the Chinese from the remotest antiquity for the
+baking of pottery and porcelain, employed by the Greeks for working iron,
+and now the indispensable element of the largest as well of the smallest
+industries, is far from being sufficiently clear. The most varied
+hypotheses have been offered to explain its formation. To cite them all
+would not be an easy thing to do, and so we shall recall but three: (1) It
+has been considered as the result of eruptions of bitumen coming from the
+depths, and covering and penetrating masses of leaves, branches, bark,
+wood, roots, etc., of trees that had accumulated in shallow water, and
+whose most delicate relief and finest impressions have been preserved by
+this species of tar solidified by cooling. (2) It has also been considered
+as the result of the more or less complete decomposition of plants under
+the influence of heat and dampness, which has led them to pass
+successively through the following principal stages: _peat, lignite,
+bituminous coal, anthracite_. (3) Finally, while admitting that the
+decomposition of plants can cause organic matter to assume these different
+states, other scientists think that it is not necessary for such matter to
+have been peat and lignite in order to become coal, and that at the
+carboniferous epoch plants were capable of passing directly to the state
+of coal if the conditions were favorable; and, in the same way, in the
+secondary and tertiary epochs the alteration of vegetable tissues
+generally led to lignite, while now they give rise to peat. In other
+words, the nature of the combustible formed at every great epoch depended
+upon general climatic conditions and local chemical action. Anthracite and
+bituminous coal would have belonged especially to primary times, lignites
+to secondary and tertiary times, and peat to our own epoch, without the
+peat ever being able to become lignites or the latter coal.
+
+As for the accumulation of large masses of the combustible in certain
+regions and its entire absence in others belonging to the same formation,
+that is attributed, now to the presence of immense forests growing upon a
+low, damp soil, exposed to alternate rising and sinking, and whose debris
+kept on accumulating during the periods of upheaval, under the influence
+of a powerful vegetation, and now to the transportation of plants of all
+sorts, that had been uprooted in the riparian forests by torrents and
+rivers, to lakes of wide extent or to estuaries. Not being able to enter
+in this place into the details of the various hypotheses, or to thoroughly
+discuss them, we shall be content to make known a few facts that have been
+recently observed, and that will throw a little light upon certain still
+obscure points regarding the formation of coal.
+
+(1) According to the first theory, if the impressions which we often find
+in coal (such as the leaves of Cordaites, bark of Sigillarias and
+Lepidodendrons, wood of Cordaites, Calamodendrons, etc.) are but simple
+and superficial mouldings, executed by a peculiar bitumen, formerly fluid,
+now solidified, and resembling in its properties no other bitumen known,
+we ought not to find in the interior any trace of preservation or any
+evidence of structure. Now, upon making preparations that are sufficiently
+thin to be transparent, from coal apparently formed of impressions of the
+leaves of Cordaites, we succeed in distinguishing (in a section
+perpendicular to the limb) the cuticle and the first row of epidermic
+cells, the vascular bundles that correspond to the veins and the bands of
+hypodermic libers; but the loose, thin-walled cells of the mesophyllum are
+not seen, because they have been crushed by pressure, and their walls
+touch each other. The portions of coal that contain impressions of the
+bark of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron allow the elongated, suberose tissue
+characteristic of such bark to be still more clearly seen.
+
+Were we to admit that the bitumen was sufficiently fluid to penetrate all
+parts of the vegetable debris, as silica and carbonates of lime and iron
+have done in so many cases, we should meet with one great difficulty. In
+fact, the number of fragments of coal _isolated_ in schists and sandstone
+is very large, and _without any communication_ with veins of coal or of
+bitumen that could have penetrated the vegetable. We cannot, then, for an
+instant admit such a hypothesis. Neither can we admit that the penetration
+of the plants by bitumen was effected at a certain distance, and that they
+have been transported, after the operation, to the places where we now
+find them, since it is not rare to find at Commentry trunks of
+Calamodendrons, Anthropitus, and ferns which are still provided with roots
+from 15 to 30 feet in length, and the carbonized wood of which surrounds a
+pith that has been replaced by a stony mould. The fragile ligneous
+cylinder would certainly have been broken during such transportation.
+
+The carbonized specimens were never fluid or pasty, since there are some
+that have left their impressions with the finest details in the schists
+and sandstones, but none of the latter that has left its traces upon the
+coal. The surface of the isolated specimens is well defined, and their
+separation from the gangue (which has never been penetrated) is of the
+easiest character.
+
+The facts just pointed out are entirely contrary to the theory of the
+formation of coal by way of eruption of bitumen.
+
+(2) The place occupied by peats, lignites, and bituminous and anthracite
+coal in sedimentary grounds, and the organic structure that we find less
+and less distinct in measure as we pass from one of these combustibles to
+one more ancient, have given rise to the theory mentioned above, viz.,
+that vegetable matter having, under the prolonged action of heat and
+moisture, experienced a greater and greater alteration, passed
+successively through the different states whose composition is indicated
+in the following table:
+
+                H.    C.     O.     N.   Coke.  Ashes.  Density.
+Peat           5.63  57.03  29.67  2.09  ----   5.58     ----
+Lignite        5.59  70.49  17.2   1.73  49.1   4.99     1.2
+Bitumin. coal  5.14  87.45   4     1.63  68     1.78     1.29
+Anthracite     3.3   92.5    2.53  ----  89.5   1.58     1.3
+
+Aside from the fact that anthracite is not met with solely in the lower
+coal measures, but is found in the middle and upper ones, and that
+bituminous coal itself is met with quite abundantly in the secondary
+formations, and even in tertiary ones, it seems to result from recent
+observations that if vegetable matter, when once converted into lignites,
+coal, etc., be preserved against the action of air and mineral waters by
+sufficient thick and impermeable strata of earth, preserves the chemical
+composition that it possessed before burial. The coal measures of
+Commentry, as well as certain others, such as those of Bezenet, Swansea,
+etc., contain quite a large quantity of coal gravel in sandstone or
+argillaceous rocks. These fragments sometimes exhibit a fracture analogous
+to that of ordinary coal, with sharp angles that show that they have not
+been rolled; and the sandstone has taken their exact details, which are
+found in hollow form in the gangue. In other cases these fragments exhibit
+the aspect of genuine shingle or rolled pebbles. These pebbles of coal
+have not been misshapen under the pressure of the surrounding sandstone,
+nor have they shrunk since their burial and the solidification of the
+gangue, for their surface is in contact with the internal surface of their
+matrix. Everything leads to the belief that they were extracted from
+pre-existing coal deposits that already possessed a definite hardness and
+bulk, at the same time as were the gravels and sand in which they are
+imprisoned. It became of interest, then, to ascertain the age to which the
+formation of these fragments might be referred, they being evidently more
+ancient than those considered above, which, as we have seen, could not
+have been transported in this state on account of their dimensions and the
+fragility of made coal. Thanks to the kindness of Mr. Fayol, we have been
+enabled to make such researches upon numerous specimens that were still
+inclosed in their sandstone gangue and that had been collected in the coal
+strata of Commentry. In some of their physical properties they differ from
+the more recent isolated fragments and from the ordinary coal of this
+deposit. They are less compact, their density is less, and a thin film of
+water deposited upon their surface is promptly absorbed, thus indicating a
+certain amount of porosity. Their fracture is dull and they are striped
+with shining coal, and can be more easily sliced with a razor.
+
+From a fresh fracture, we find by the lens, or microscope, that some of
+them are formed of ordinary coal, that is, composed of plates of variable
+thickness, brilliant and dull, with or without traces of organization, and
+others of divers bits of wood whose structure is preserved. When reduced
+to thin, transparent plates, these latter show us the organization of the
+wood of _Arthropitus, Cordaites_, and _Calamodendron_, and of the petioles
+of _Aulacopteris_, that is to say, of the ligneous and arborescent plants
+that we most usually meet with in the coal measures of Commentry in the
+state of impression or of coal.
+
+In a certain number of specimens the diminution in volume of the tracheae
+is less than that that we have observed in the same organs of
+corresponding genera. The quantity of oxygen and hydrogen that they
+contain is greater, and seems to bring them near the lignites.
+
+We cannot attribute these differences to the nature of the plants
+converted into coal, since we have just seen that they are the same in the
+one case as in the other. Neither does time count for anything here,
+since, according to accepted ideas, the burial having been longer, the
+carbonization ought to have been more perfect, while the contrary is the
+case.
+
+If we admit (1) that vegetable remains alter more and more through
+maceration in ordinary water and in certain mineral waters; (2) that,
+beginning with their burial in sufficiently thick strata of clay and sand,
+their chemical composition scarcely varies any further; and (3) that these
+are important changes only as regards their physical properties, due to
+loss of water and compression, we succeed quite easily in learning what
+has occurred.
+
+In fact, when, as a consequence of the aforesaid alteration, the vegetable
+matter had taken the chemical composition that we find in the less
+advanced coal of the pebbles, it was in the first place covered with sand
+and protected against further destruction, and it gradually acquired the
+physical properties that we now find in it. At the period that channels
+were formed, the coal was torn from the beds in fragments, and these
+latter were rolled about for a time, sometimes being broken, and then
+covered anew, and this too at the same time as were the plants less
+advanced in composition that we meet with at the same level. These latter,
+being like them protected against ulterior alteration, we now find less
+advanced in carbonization (notwithstanding their more ancient origin) than
+the other vegetable fragments that were converted into coal after them,
+but that were more thoroughly altered at the time of burial.
+
+There are yet a few other important deductions to be made from the
+foregoing facts: (1) the same coal basin may, at the same level, contain
+fragments of coal of very different ages; (2) its contour may have been
+much modified owing to the ravines made by the water which transported the
+ancient parts into the lowest regions of the basin; and (3) finally, since
+the most recent sandstones and schists of the same basin may contain coal
+which is more ancient, but which is formed from the same species of plants
+that we find at this more recent level, we must admit that the conversion
+of the vegetable tissues into coal was relatively rapid, and far from
+requiring an enormous length of time, as we are generally led to believe.
+
+If, then, lignites have not become soft coal, and if the latter has not
+become anthracite, it is not that time was wanting, but climatic
+conditions and environment. Most analyses of specimens of coal have been
+made up to the present with fragments so selected as to give a mean
+composition of the mass; it is rare that trouble has been taken to select
+bits of wood, bark, etc., of the same plant, determined in advance by
+means of thin and transparent sections in order to assure the chemist of
+the sole origin and of the absolute purity of the coal submitted to
+analysis. This void has been partially fitted, and we give in the
+following table the results published by Mr. Carnot of analyses made of
+different portions of plants previously determined by us:
+
+                                  Carbon  Hydrogen  Oxygen Nitrogen
+1. Calamodendron (5 specimens)    82.95    4.78     11.89   0.48
+2. Cordaites     (4 specimens)    82.94    4.88     11.84   0.44
+3. Lepidodendron (3 specimens)    83.28    4.88     11.45   0.39
+4. Psaronius     (4 specimens)    81.64    4.80     13.11   0.44
+                                                    \----v----/
+5. Ptychopteris  (1 specimen)     80.62    4.85        14.53
+6. Megaphyton    (1 specimen)     83.37    4.40        12.23
+
+As seen from this table, the elementary composition of the various
+specimens is nearly the same, notwithstanding that the selection was made
+from among plants that are widely separated in the botanical scale, or
+from among very different parts of plants. In fact, with Numbers 1 and 2
+the analysis was made solely of the wood, and with No. 3 only of the
+prosenchymatous and suberose parts of the bark. Here we remark a slight
+increase in carbon, as should be the case. With No. 4 the analysis was of
+the roots and the parenchymatous tissue that descends along the stem, and
+with No. 6 of the bark and small roots. One will remark here again a
+slight increase in the proportion of carbon, as was to be foreseen. The
+elementary composition found nearly corresponds with that of the coal
+taken from the large Commentry deposit.
+
+            Carbon.  Hydrogen. Oxygen and
+                                Nitrogen.
+Regnault     82.92     5.39      11.78
+Mr Carnot    83.21     5.57      11.22
+
+Although the chemical composition is nearly the same, the manner in which
+the different species or fragments of vegetables behave under distillation
+is quite different.
+
+In fact, according to Mr. Carnot, the plants already cited furnish the
+following results on distillation:
+
+                     Volatile  Fixed      Coke.
+                     matters.  residue.
+Calamodendron           35.5   64.7       Well agglomerated.
+Cordaites               42.1   57.8       Quite porous.
+Lepidodendron           34.7   55.3       Well agglomerated.
+Psaronius               29.4   60.5       Slightly porous.
+Ptychopteris            39.4   60.5
+Megaphyton              35.5   64.5       Well agglomerated.
+Coal of the Great Bed   40.5   59.5       Slightly porous.
+
+These differences in the proportions of volatile substances, of fixed
+residua, and of density in the coke obtained seem to be in harmony with
+the primitive organic nature of the carbonized tissues. We know, in fact,
+that the wood of the Calamodendrons is composed of alternately radiating
+bands formed of ligneous and thick walled prosenchymatous tissue, while
+the wood of Cordaites, which is less dense, recalls that of certain
+coniferae of the present day (Araucariae).
+
+We have remarked above that the portions of Lepidodendron analyzed
+belonged to that part of the bark that was considerably thickened and
+lignefied. So too the portion of the Megaphyton that was submitted to
+distillation was the external part of the hard bark, formed of hypodermic
+fibers and traversed by small roots. The Psaronius, on the contrary, was
+represented by a mixture of roots and of parenchymatous tissue in which
+they descend along the trunk.
+
+It results from these remarks that we may admit that those parts of the
+vegetable that are ordinarily hard, compact, and profoundly lignefied
+furnish a compact coke and relatively less volatile matter, while the
+tissues that are usually not much lignefied, or are parenchymatous, give a
+bubbly, porous coke and a larger quantity of gas. The influence of the
+varied mode of grouping of the elements in the primitive tissues is again
+found, then, even after carbonization, and is shown by the notable
+differences in the quantities and physical properties of the products of
+distillation.
+
+The elementary chemical composition, which is perceptibly the same in the
+specimens isolated in the sandstones and in those taken from the great
+deposit, demonstrates that the difference in composition of the
+environment serving as gangue did not have a great influence upon the
+definitive state of the coal, a conclusion that we had already reached
+upon examining the structure and properties of the coal pebbles.
+
+We may get an idea of the nearly similar composition of the coal produced
+by very different plants or parts thereof, in remarking that as the cells,
+fibers, and vessels are formed of cellulose, and some of them isomeric,
+the difference in composition is especially connected with the contents of
+the cells, canals, etc., such as protoplasm, oils, resins, gums, sugars,
+and various acids, various incrustations, etc. After the prolonged action
+of water that was more or less mineralized and of multiple organisms,
+matters that were soluble, or that were rendered so by maceration, were
+removed, and the organic skeletons of the different plants were brought to
+a nearly similar centesimal composition representing the carbonized
+derivatives of the cellulose and its isomers. The vegetable debris thus
+transformed, but still resistant and elastic, were the ones that were
+petrified in the mineral waters or covered with sand and clay. Under the
+influence of gradual pressure, and of a desiccation brought about by it,
+and by a rising of the ground, the walls of the organic elements came into
+contact, and the physical properties that we now see gradually made their
+appearance.
+
+The waters derived from a prolonged steeping of vegetables, and charged
+with all the soluble principles extracted therefrom, have, after their
+sojourn in a proper medium, deposited the carbonized residua that have
+themselves become soluble, and have there formed masses of combustibles of
+a different composition from that resulting from the skeletons of plants,
+such as _cannel coal, pitch coal, boghead_, etc.
+
+A thin section of a piece of Commentry cannel coal shows that this
+substance consists of a yellowish-brown amorphous mass holding here and
+there in suspension very different plant organs, such as fragments of
+Cordaites, leaves, ferns, microspores, macrospores, pollen grains,
+rootlets, etc., exactly as would have done a gelatinous mass that upon
+coagulating in a liquid had carried along with it all the solid bodies
+that had accidentally fallen into it and that were in suspension.
+
+It is evident (as we have demonstrated) that other cannel coals may show
+different plant organs, or even contain none at all, their presence
+appearing to be accidental. The composition itself of cannel coal must be,
+in our theory, connected with the chemical nature of the materials from
+whence it is derived, and that were first dissolved and then became
+insoluble through carbonization. Several preparations made from Australian
+(New South Wales), Autun, etc., boghead have shown us merely a
+yellowish-brown amorphous mass holding in suspension lens-shaped or
+radiating floccose masses which it is scarcely possible to refer to any
+known vegetable organism.
+
+Among the theories that we have cited in the beginning, the one that best
+agrees with the facts that we have pointed out is the third, which would
+admit, then, two things in the formation of coal. The first would include
+the different chemical reactions which cannot yet be determined, but which
+would have brought the vegetable matter now to the state of soft coal
+(with its different varieties), and now to the state of anthracite. The
+second would comprehend the preservation, through burial, of the organic
+matter in the stage of carbonization that it had reached, and as the
+result of compression and gradual desiccation, the development of the
+physical properties that we now find in the different carbonized
+substances.
+
+We annex to this article a number of figures made from preparations of
+various coals. These preparations were obtained by making the fragments
+sufficiently thin without the aid of any chemical reagent, so as to avoid
+the reproach that things were made to appear that the coal did not
+contain. This slow and delicate method is not capable of revealing all the
+organisms That the carbonaceous substance contains, but, per contra, one
+is riot absolutely sure of the pre-existence of everything that resembles
+organs or fragments of such that he distinguishes therein by means of the
+microscope.
+
+Our researches, as we have above stated, have been confined to different
+cannel coals, anthracite, boghead, and coal plants isolated either in coal
+pebbles, or in schists and sandstones.
+
+[Illustration: 12a: FIG. 1.--Lancashire cannel coal; longitudinal section,
+X200.]
+
+[Illustration: 12b: FIG. 2.--Lancashire cannel coal; transverse section,
+X200.]
+
+Figs. 1 and 2 (magnified two hundred times) represent two sections, made
+in rectangular planes, of fragments of Lancashire cannel coal. In a
+certain measure, they remind one of Figs. 4 and 5, Pl 11, of Witham's
+"Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables," and which were drawn from
+specimens of cannel coal derived likewise from Lancashire, but which are
+not so highly magnified. There is an interesting fact to note in this
+coincidence, and that is that this structure, which is so difficult to
+explain in its details, is not accidental, but a consequence of the
+nature of the materials that served to produce the coal of this region.
+In the midst of a mass of blackish debris, _a_, organic and inorganic,
+and immersed in an amorphous and transparent gangue, we find a few
+recognizable fragments, such as thick-walled macrospores, _b_, of
+various sizes, bits of flattened petioles, _c_, pollen grains, _d_,
+debris of bark, etc. In Fig. 2 all these different remains are cut
+either obliquely or longitudinally, and are not very recognizable. It is
+not rare to meet with a sort of vacuity, _e_, filled with clearer matter
+of resinoid aspect, without organization.
+
+[Illustration: 12c: FIG. 3.--Commentry cannel coal, X200.]
+
+In Fig. 3, which represents a section made from Commentry cannel coal,
+the number of recognizable organs in the midst of the mass of debris is
+much larger. Thus, at _a_ we see a macrospore, at _b_ a fragment of the
+coat of a macrospore, at _c_ another macrospore having a silicified
+nucleus, such as has been found in no other case, at _d_ we have a
+transverse section of a vascular bundle, at _e_ a longitudinal section
+of a rootlet traversed by another one, at _f_ we have a transverse
+section of another rootlet, at _g_ an almost entire portion of the
+vascular bundle of a root, and at _h_ we see large pollen grains
+recalling those that we meet with in the silicified seeds from Saint
+Etienne.
+
+Cannel coal, then, shows that it is formed of a sort of dark brown gangue
+of resinoid aspect (when a thin section of it is examined) holding in
+suspension indeterminable black organic and inorganic debris, which are
+arranged in layers, and in the midst of which (according to the locality
+and the fragment studied) is found a varying number of easily recognized
+vegetable organs.
+
+[Illustration: 12d: FIG. 4.--Pennsylvania anthracite, X200.]
+
+It is very rare that anthracite offers any discernible trace of
+organization. Preparations made from fragments of Sable and Lamore coal
+could not be made sufficiently thin to be transparent; the mass remained
+very opaque, and the clearest parts exhibited merely amorphous,
+irregular granulations. Still, fragments of anthracite from Pennsylvania
+furnished, amid a dominant mass of dark, yellow-brown, structureless
+substance, a few organized vegetable debris, such as a fragment of a
+vascular bundle with radiating elements (Fig. 4, _a_), a macrospore,
+_b_, and a few pollen grains or microspores, _c_.
+
+[Illustration: 12e: FIG. 5.--Boghead from New South Wales, X500.]
+
+From what precedes it seems to result, then, that anthracite is in a much
+less appreciable state of preservation than cannel coal, and that it is
+only rarely, and according to locality, that we can discover vegetable
+organs in it. Soft coal comes nearer to amorphous carbon. Boghead appears
+to be of an entirely different character (Fig. 5, magnified X300). It is
+easily reduced to a thin transparent plate, and shows itself to be formed
+of a multitude of very small lenses, differing in size and shape, and much
+more transparent than the bands that separate them. In the interior of
+these lenses we distinguish very fine lines radiating from the center and
+afterward branching several times. The ramifications are lost in the
+periphery amid fine granulations that resemble spores. We might say that
+we here had to do with numerous mycelia moulded in a slightly colored
+resin. Preparations made from New South Wales and Autun boghead presented
+the same aspect.
+
+If boghead was derived from the carbonization of parts that were soluble,
+or that became so through maceration, and were made insoluble at a given
+moment by carbonization, we can understand the very peculiar aspect that
+this combustible presents when it is seen under the microscope.
+
+The following figures were made in order to show the details of anatomical
+structure that are still visible in coal, and to permit of estimating the
+shrinkage that the organic substance has undergone in becoming converted
+into coal.
+
+It is not rare in coal mines to find fragments of wood, of which a portion
+has been preserved by carbonates of iron and lime, and another portion
+converted into coal. This being the case, it was considered of interest to
+ascertain whether the carbonized portion had preserved a structure that
+was still recognizable, and, in such an event, to compare this structure
+with that of the portion of the specimen that was preserved in all its
+details by mineralization.
+
+[Illustration: 12f: FIG. 6.--_Arthropitus gallica_, St. Etienne; transverse
+section, X200.]
+
+Fig. 6 shows a transverse section of a specimen of _Arthropitus Gallica_
+found under such conditions. The region marked c is carbonized; the
+organic elements of the wood-cells, tracheae, etc., have undergone but
+little change in shape. Moreover, no change at all exists in the
+internal parts of another specimen (Fig. 8), where we easily distinguish
+by their form and dimensions the ligneous cells, _aa_, and the elements,
+_bb_, of the wood itself.
+
+[Illustration: 12h: FIG. 8.--_Arthropitus gallica_, St. Etienne; transverse
+section through the carbonized part.]
+
+In the region, _b_, of Fig. 6, the ligneous elements have undergone an
+evident change of form, and the walls have been broken. This region,
+already filled by petrifying salts, but not completely hardened, has not
+been able to resist, as the region, _a_, an external pressure, and has
+become more or less misshapened. As for the not yet mineralized external
+portion, _c_, it has completely given way under the pressure, the walls of
+the different organic elements have come into contact, the calcareous or
+other salts have been expressed, and this region exhibits the aspect of
+ordinary coal, while at the same time preserving a little more hardness on
+account of the small quantity of mineral salts that has remained in them
+despite the compression.
+
+From the standpoint of carbonization there seems to us but little
+difference between the organic elements that occupy the region, _a_, and
+those that occupy _b_. If the former had not been filled with hardened
+petrifying matter, they would have been compressed and flattened like
+those of region _c_, and would have given a compact and brilliant coal,
+having very likely before petrifaction reached the same degree of
+carbonization as the latter. The layer of coal in contact with the
+carbonized or silicified part of the specimens is due, then, to a
+compression of the organic elements already chemically carbonized, but in
+which the mineral matter was not yet hardened and was able to escape.
+
+[Illustration: 12g: FIG. 7.--_Arthropitus gallica_, St. Etienne; tangential
+longitudinal section.]
+
+If this be so, we ought to find the remains of organic structure in this
+region _c_. In fact, on referring to Fig. 7, which represents a
+tangential, longitudinal section of the same specimen, we perceive at _ab_
+a ligneous duct and some unchanged tracheae situated in the carbonized
+region, and then at _c_ the same elements, though flattened, in which,
+however, we still clearly distinguish the bands of the tracheae; at _d_ is
+found a trachea whose contents were already solidified, and which has not
+been flattened; then, near the surface, in the region, _e_, the pressure
+having been greater, it is no longer possible to recognize traces of
+organization in a tangential section. In a large number of cases, the fact
+that the coal does not seem to be organized must be due to the too great
+compression that the carbonized cells and vessels have undergone when yet
+soft and elastic, at the time this slow but continuous pressure was being
+exerted.
+
+It also became of interest to find out whether, through the very fact of
+carbonization, the dimensions of the organic elements had perceptibly
+varied--a sort of research that presents certain difficulties. At present
+we have no living plant that is comparable, even remotely, with those that
+grew during the coal epoch. Moreover, the organic elements have absolutely
+nothing constant in their dimensions.
+
+Still, if we limit ourselves to a comparison of the same carbonized wood,
+preserved on the one hand by petrifaction, and on the other hand
+non-mineralized, we find a very perceptible diminution in bulk. The
+elements have contracted in length, breadth, and thickness, but
+principally in the direction of the compression that they have undergone
+in the purely carbonized specimens.
+
+In the vicinity of the carbonized portions, those of the tracheae that have
+not done so have perceptibly preserved their primitive length, which has,
+so to speak, been maintained by their neighbors, but their other
+dimensions have become much smaller--a quarter in thickness and half in
+length.
+
+[Illustration: 12i: FIG. 9.--_Calamodendron,_ Commentry; prosenchymatous
+portion of the wood carbonized, X200.]
+
+If the two fragments of the same wood are, one of them silicified and the
+other simply carbonized and preserved in sandstone, the diminution in
+volume will have occurred in all directions in the latter of the two.
+
+[Illustration: 12j: FIG. 10.--_Calamodendron,_ fragment of the vascular
+portion of the wood carbonized.]
+
+Figs. 9 and 11, which represent a portion of the _fibrous_ region of
+Calamodendron wood, may give an idea of the shrinkage that has taken place
+therein. In Figs. 11 and 12, which show a few tracheae and medullary rays
+of the ligneous bands of the same plant, we observe the same phenomenon.
+We might cite a large number of analogous examples, but shall be content
+to give the following: Figs. 13 and 15 represent radial and tangential
+sections of the bark of _Syringodendron pes-caprae_. This is the first time
+that one has had before his eyes the anatomical structure of the bark of a
+_Syringodendron_, a plant which has not yet been found in a petrified
+state. It is coal, then, with its structure preserved, that allows of a
+verification of the theory advanced by several scientists that the often
+bulky trunks of _Syringodendron_ are bases of _Sigillariae_.
+
+[Illustration: 12k: FIG. 11.--_Calamodendron,_ from Autun; prosenchymatous
+portion of the wood silicified, X200.]
+
+[Illustration: 12l: FIG. 12.--_Calamodendron,_ from Autun; vascular portion
+of the wood silicified.]
+
+If we refer to Fig. 13, which represents a radial vertical section running
+through the center of one of the scars that permitted the specimen to be
+determined, we shall observe, in fact, a tissue formed of rectangular
+cells, longer than wide, arranged in horizontal series, and very analogous
+in their aspect to those that we have described in the suberose region of
+the bark of Sigillariae. Fig. 15 shows in tangential section the fibrous
+aspect of this tissue, which has been rendered denser through compression.
+Fig. 14 shows it restored. In Fig. 13, the external part of the bark is
+occupied by a thick layer of cellular tissue that exists over the entire
+surface of the trunk, but particularly thick near the scars, exactly as in
+the barks of the Sigillariae that we have formerly described. Finally, at
+_b_, we recognize the undoubted traces of a vascular bundle running to the
+leaves. If the bundle appears to be larger than that of the Sigillariae,
+this is due to the flattening that the trunk has undergone, the effect of
+this having been to spread the bundle out in a vertical plane, although
+its greatest width in the first place was in a horizontal one.
+
+[Illustration: 12m: FIG. 13.--_Syringodendron pes-caprae_; from Saarbruck;
+radial vertical section, X200.]
+
+[Illustration: 12n: FIG. 14.--Suberose cells restored.]
+
+In anatomical structure, the barks of the Syringodendrons are, then,
+analogous to those of the Sigillariae. If, now, we compare the dimensions
+of the tissues of these barks with the same silicified tissues of the
+barks of Sigillariae, we shall find that there was likewise a diminution in
+the dimensions, but yet a less pronounced one than in the woods that we
+have previously spoken of. The corky nature of this region of the bark was
+likely richer in carbonizable elements than the wood properly so called,
+and had, in consequence, to undergo much less shrinkage.--_Dr. B. Renault
+(of Paris Museum) in Le Genie Civil_.
+
+[Illustration: 12o: FIG. 15.--_Syringodendron pes-caprae;_ tangential
+vertical section in the corky part of the bark, X200.]
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES.--Fig. 1, Lancashire cannel coal; longitudinal
+section, X200. Fig. 2, Lancashire cannel coal; transverse section, X200.
+Fig. 3. Commentry cannel coal, X200. Fig. 4, Pennsylvania anthracite,
+X200. Fig. 5, Boghead from New South Wales, X500. Fig. 6, _Arthropitus
+gallica_, St. Etienne; transverse section, X200. Fig. 7, same; tangential
+longitudinal section. Fig. 8, same; transverse section through the
+carbonized part. Fig. 9. _Calamodendron_, Commentry; prosenchymatous
+portion of the wood carbonized, X200. Fig. 10, same; fragment of the
+vascular portion of the wood carbonized. Fig. 11, same, from Autun;
+prosenchymatous portion of the wood silicified, X200. Fig. 12, same,
+Autun; vascular portion of the wood silicified. Fig. 13, _Syringodendron
+pes-caprae_; from Saarbruck; radial vertical section, X200. Fig. 14,
+Suberose cells restored. Fig. 15. _Syringodendron pes-caprae_; tangential
+vertical section in the corky part of the bark, X200.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ICE BOAT RACES ON THE MUEGGELSEE, NEAR BERLIN.
+
+
+The interest in sports of different kinds is increasing considerably in
+the capital of the German Empire. Oarsmen and sailors show their ability
+in grand regattas; roller-skating rinks are very, popular; numerous
+bicycle clubs arrange grand tournaments; and training, starting, trotting,
+swimming, turning, fencing, walking, and running are practiced everywhere.
+As this winter has been quite severe in Germany, first class courses have
+been made for ice boats. Ice boat, races are well known in the United
+States, but are quite novel in Germany; at least, in the neighborhood of
+Berlin, as they have been known only on the coast of the Baltic Sea.
+
+[Illustration: ICE BOAT RACES ON THE MUEGGELSEE, NEAR BERLIN.]
+
+These vessels are quite simple in construction, the base consisting of an
+equilateral triangle made of beams and provided at the corners with
+runners. The two front runners are fixed, but the one at the apex of the
+triangle is pivoted, and serves as a rudder. The mast is on the front
+cross beam, and between the front cross beam and the side beams sufficient
+space is left for the helmsman.
+
+The annexed cut, taken from the _Illustrirte Zeitung_, shows a race of the
+above described ice boats on the Mueggelsee (Mueggel Lake), near Berlin.
+It will be seen from the clumsy construction of the boats that the Germans
+have not yet learned the art of building these vehicles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LABOR AND WAGES IN AMERICA.
+
+[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Arts, London.]
+
+By D. PIDGEON.
+
+
+The United States of America are, collectively, of such vast extent, and,
+singly, so individualized in character, that to speak of their labor
+conditions as a whole would be as impossible, in an hour's address, as to
+describe their physical geography or geology in a similar space of time. I
+shall, therefore, confine what I have to say this evening on the subject
+of labor and wages in America to a consideration of the industrial
+condition of certain Eastern States, which, being essentially
+manufacturing districts, offer the best instances for comparison with the
+labor conditions of our own country. That this field is of adequate extent
+and of typical character may be inferred from the fact that the three
+States composing it, viz.. New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut,
+contain together nearly one-half of the whole manufacturing population of
+America, while Connecticut and Massachusetts are the very cradle of
+American manufacture, and the home of the typical Yankee artisan. In
+addition, the State of Massachusetts is distinguished by possessing a
+Bureau of Statistics of Labor, whose sole business is to ventilate
+industrial questions, and to collect such facts as will afford the
+statesman a sound basis for industrial legislation. We shall find
+ourselves, in the sequel, indebted for spine of our chief conclusions to
+this excellent public institution.
+
+If we ask ourselves, at the outset of the inquiry, "Who and what are the
+operatives of manufacturing America?" the answer involves a distinction
+which cannot be too strongly insisted upon, or too carefully kept in mind.
+These people consist, first, of native-born, and, secondly, of alien
+workers. The United States census, reckoning every child born in the
+country as an American, even if both his parents be foreigners, I would
+make it appear that only six and a half millions out of its fifty millions
+are of alien birth, but, for our purpose, these figures are misleading.
+There is a vast difference, in many important respects, between
+"Americans" derived from a stock long settled in the States and
+"Americans" with two or even with one alien parent. In the former case,
+the hereditary sense of social equality, the teaching of the common
+school, and the influence of democratic institutions, produce a certain
+type of character which I distinguish by the epithet "American" because it
+is of truly national origin. In the latter case, the so-called "American"
+may really be a German, an Irishman, an Englishman, or a Swede, but the
+qualities which I would distinguish by the word "American" have not yet
+been developed in him, although they will probably be exhibited by his
+later descendants.
+
+Setting the census figures aside, therefore, we find, from the
+Registration Reports of Massachusetts, that fifty-four out of every
+hundred persons who die within the limits of this State are of foreign
+parentage. Now bearing in mind that Massachusetts is essentially a Yankee
+State, where comparatively few European emigrants settle, it seems
+probable that, going back several generations, the numbers, even of
+Massachusetts men, who may be truly called "Americans" would dwindle
+considerably. These men, however, the children of equality, of the common
+school, and of democratic institutions, may be considered as leaven,
+leavening the lump of European emigration, and shaping, so far as they
+can, the character of the American; people that is yet to be.
+
+Native American labor is best described by reference to a recent past,
+when it filled all the factories of the United States, and challenged, by
+its high tone, the admiration of Europe. At the beginning of this century,
+public opinion in America was most unfriendly to the establishment of
+manufactories, so great were the complaints of these made in Europe as
+seats of vice and disease. Thus, when Humphreysville, the first industrial
+village in America, was built, in 1804, by the Hon. David Humphreys, who
+wished to see the colony independent of the mother country for her
+supplies of manufactured goods, parents refused to place their children in
+his factories until legislation had first made the mill-owner responsible
+both for the education and morality of his operatives. Similarly, when the
+cotton mills of Lowell, and the silk mills of Hartford, began to rise,
+between 1832 and 1840, the American people held the capitalist responsible
+for the moral, mental, and physical health of the people whom he employed,
+with the result that all England wondered at the stories of factory
+operatives, and their so-called "refinements," which were given to this
+country by writers like Harriett Martineau and Charles Dickens.
+
+Lowell, between the years 1832 and 1850, was, perhaps, the most remarkable
+manufacturing town in the world. Help, in the new cotton mills, was in
+great demand, and what were then thought very high wages were freely
+offered, so that, in spite of the national prejudice against factory
+labor, operatives began to flow from many quarters into the mills. These
+people were, for the most part, the daughters of farmers, storekeepers,
+and mechanics; of Puritan antecedents, and religious training. In the mill
+they were treated kindly, and, although their hours were long, they were
+not overworked. A feeling of real, but respectful, equality existed
+between them and their employers, and the best hands were often guests at
+the houses of the mill owners or ministers of religion. They lived in
+great boarding-houses, kept by women selected for their high character,
+and it is of these industrial families, and of their refined life, that
+observers like Dickens, Lyell, and Miss Martineau spoke with enthusiasm.
+The last writer has made us acquainted, in her "Mind among the Spindles,"
+with the height to which intellectual life once rose in Lowell mills,
+before the wave of Irish emigration, following on the potato famine, swept
+native American labor away from the spindles. The morality of the early
+mill-girls, again, was practically stainless, and, strict as the rules of
+conduct were in the factories, these were really dead letters, so high was
+the standard of behavior set and sustained by the mill-hands themselves.
+
+Such was the character of native American labor, less than forty years
+ago, and such, almost, it still remains in those, now few, centers of
+industry where it has been little diluted with a foreign element. Nowhere
+is this so conspicuously the case as in Massachusetts and Connecticut, and
+especially in the western valleys of the former State, where important
+mill-streams, such as the Housatonic, the Naugatuck, and the Farmington,
+are lined with mills still largely manned by native Americans.
+
+Aside from wages, which will be separately considered, the housing,
+education, sobriety, and pauperism of any given industrial community form
+together the best possible test of its social condition. In regard to the
+housing of labor, there is no more important fact to be discovered than
+the proportion of an operative population who possess in fee simple the
+houses in which they dwell. This proportion among the wage-earners of
+Massachusetts is remarkably high, one working man in every four being the
+proprietor of the house in which he lives. Of the remaining three-fourths,
+45 per cent. rent their houses, and 30 per cent. are boarders. With regard
+to inhabitancy, the average number of persons living in one house in
+Massachusetts is rather more than six, while the average number of the
+Massachusetts family is four and three quarter persons. Hence, lodgers
+being excepted, almost every operative family in this State lives under
+its own roof, while one fourth of all such roofs are owned by the heads of
+families dwelling therein.
+
+I leave, for a moment, the agreeable task of describing one of these homes
+of native American labor, and pass on to the question of education, whose
+universality among native Americans is perhaps most vividly illustrated
+by the following facts. Of 1,200 persons born in Massachusetts, whether of
+native or foreign parents, only one is unable to read or write, while four
+Germans and Scotch, six English, twenty French Canadians, twenty-eight
+Irish, and thirty-four Italians, out of every 100 emigrants of these
+nationalities respectively are illiterate. The total number of public,
+elementary, and high schools in the United States is 225,800, or about one
+school for every 200 of the entire population, and one for, say, every
+fifty of the 10,000,000 pupils who attended school during the census year
+of 1880. Finally, referring once more to Massachusetts, there are nearly
+2,000 free libraries in this single State, or one to every 800
+inhabitants, and these, together, own 3,500,000 volumes, and circulate
+8,000,000 of volumes annually.
+
+With regard to sobriety, it is well known that local option succeeds in
+closing the liquor saloons in very many operative American towns, and with
+the happiest results. The county of Barnstaple in Massachusetts, for
+example, with a population of 32,000 souls, and having no licensed liquor
+saloons, yields a crop of only three convictions per annum for
+drunkenness. The county of Suffolk, on the other hand, with a population
+of nearly 400,000, and a license for every 175 of its inhabitants,
+acknowledges one drunkard for every 50 of its population. The labor in one
+case is nearly all native; in the other, largely foreign.
+
+It is almost, if not quite, impossible to obtain the statistics of
+pauperism in America. The "indoor" poor, as paupers in almshouses are
+called, can be found and counted with comparative ease, but how can the
+outdoor paupers be found? It is no use inquiring for them from door to
+door, and the poor-master's disbursements are so limited in amount that
+his bills for pauper relief become mixed up with other items, so that they
+cannot be separately stated. The total number of paupers resident in
+American almshouses is 67,000, or about one in every 70,000 of the whole
+population. In England, we have still one pauper in every fifty thousand
+of the population. Such being the more important aspects of native
+American labor, as displayed by the statistician, it is time for the
+social observer to give his account of a typical American artisan's home.
+
+We are at Ansonia, in the Naugatuck valley, one of the chief towns of
+"Clockland," where, within a radius of twenty miles, watches and clocks
+are made by millions and sold for a few shillings apiece. Our friend Mr.
+S. is an Ansonia mechanic who occupies a house with a basement of cut
+stone and a tasteful superstructure of wood, having a wide veranda,
+kitchen, parlor, and bed-room on the ground floor and three bedrooms
+above. The house is painted white, adorned with green jalousies, and
+surrounded by a well-tilled quarter acre lot. Its windows are aglow with
+geraniums, and from its veranda we glance upward to the wooded slopes of
+the Green Mountain range, and downward to the River Naugatuck, whose blue
+mill-ponds look like tiny Highland lakes surrounded by great factories.
+Within, a pleasant sitting-room is furnished with all the comforts and
+some of the luxuries of life, the tables are strewn with books, and the
+walls decorated with pretty photographs. Mr. S.'s wife and daughter are
+educated and agreeable women, who entertain us, during an hour's call,
+with intelligent conversation, which, turning for the most part on the
+events of the War of Independence, is characterized by ample historical
+knowledge, a logical habit of mind, and a remarkable readiness to welcome
+new ideas. No refreshments are offered us, for no one eats between meals,
+and, in private houses, as in the public refreshment rooms, where native
+labor usually takes its meals, nothing stronger than water is ever drunk.
+Such are the homes of men whom I would distinguish as "American" artisans,
+and such, also, are those of many foreign workmen who have been long under
+native influence.
+
+It is not in the valleys of Massachusetts, however, that the greatest
+manufacturing cities of the Union are to be found, the towns already
+referred to containing usually only a few thousand inhabitants, and being
+still, for the most part, rural in their surroundings. They are, indeed,
+the fastnesses, so to speak, to which the Yankee artisan has retired,
+after having been almost literally swept out of the great manufacturing
+cities by successive waves of emigrant labor, chiefly of Irish and
+French-Canadian nationality. To these great cities we must now turn for
+examples of a condition of operative society which contrasts most
+unfavorably with that which has already been sketched; it being,
+meanwhile, understood that a penumbral region, of more or less mixed
+conditions, graduates the brightness of the one into the darkness of the
+other picture.
+
+The city of Lowell, whose brilliant past is so well known, exemplifies, on
+that very account, better than any other manufacturing town in the States,
+the character of recent alterations in American labor conditions. The
+mill-hands, formerly such as I have described them, have been almost
+entirely replaced by Canadians and Irish, who have given a new character
+and aspect to the Lowell of forty years ago. "Little Canada," as the
+quarter inhabited by the former people is called, exhibits a congeries of
+narrow, unpaved lanes, lined with rickety wooden houses, which elbow one
+another closely, and possess neither gardens nor yards. They are let out
+in flats, and are crowded to overflowing with a dense population of
+lodgers. Peeps into their interiors reveal dirty, poorly furnished rooms,
+and large families, pigging squalidly together at meal times, while
+unkempt men and slatternly women lean from open windows, and scold in
+French, or chatter with crowds of ragged and bare-legged children, playing
+in the gutters.
+
+The Irish portion of the town has wider streets, and houses less crowded
+than those of "Little Canada," but is, altogether, of scarcely better
+aspect. Slatternly women gossip in groups about the doorways. Tawdrily
+dressed girls saunter along the sidewalks, or loll from the window-sills.
+Knots of shirt-sleeved men congregate about the frequent liquor-saloons,
+talking loudly and volubly. No signs of poverty are apparent, but
+everything wears an aspect of prosperous ignorance, satisfied to eat,
+drink, and idle away the hours not given to work. Such is the general
+aspect of operative Lowell to-day; but some of the old well-conducted
+boarding-houses remain, sheltering worthy sons and daughters of toil.
+Similarly, the outskirts of the city are adorned with many pretty white
+houses, where typical American families are growing up amid wholesome
+moral and physical surroundings, and enjoying all the advantages of
+schools, churches, libraries, and free institutions which the Great
+Republic puts everywhere, with lavish profuseness, at the service even of
+its least promising populations.
+
+Concerning the Lowell mill-hands of to-day, I prefer, before my own
+observations, to quote from an article entitled "Early Factory Labor in
+New England," written by a lady, herself one of the early mill-girls, and
+published in the "Massachusetts Labor Bureau Keport for 1883." She says:
+
+"Last winter, I was invited to speak to a company of the Lowell
+mill-girls, and tell them something of my early life as a member of their
+guild. When my address was over, some of them gathered round and asked me
+questions. In turn, I questioned them about their work, hours of labor,
+wages, and means of improvement. When I urged them to occupy their spare
+time in reading and study, they seemed to understand the need of it, but
+answered, sadly, 'We will try, but we work so hard, and are so tired.' It
+was plain that these operatives did not go to their labor with the
+jubilant feeling of the old mill-girls, that they worked without aim or
+purpose, and took no interest in anything beyond earning their daily
+bread. There was a tired hopelessness about them, such as was never seen
+among the early mill-girls. Yet they have more leisure, and earn more
+money than the operatives of fifty years ago, but they do not know how to
+improve the one or use the other. These American-born children of foreign
+parentage are, indeed, under the control neither of their church nor their
+parents, and they, consequently, adopt the vices and follies instead of
+the good habits of our people. It is vital to the interests of the whole
+community that they should be brought under good moral influence; that
+they should live in better homes, and breathe a better social atmosphere
+than is now to be found in our factory towns."
+
+The city of Holyoke, another great cotton center, having 23,000
+inhabitants, is in some respects the most remarkable town in the State of
+Massachusetts. It was brought into existence, 35 years ago, by the
+construction of a great dam across the Connecticut River; and, around the
+water power thus created, mills have sprung up so rapidly that the
+population, whose normal increase is eighteen per cent. every ten years in
+Massachusetts, has doubled, during the last decade, in Holyoke. But eighty
+out of every 100 persons in the city are of foreign extraction, the
+prevailing nationality being French-Canadian, a people who are so rapidly
+displacing other operatives, even the Irish themselves, in the
+manufacturing centers of New England that they must not be dismissed
+without remark.
+
+The Canadian-French were recently described in a grave State paper as a
+"horde of industrial invaders," and accused of caring nothing for American
+institutions, civil, political, or educational; having come to the States,
+not to make a home, but to get together a little money, and then to return
+whence they came. The parent of these immigrants is the Canadian
+_habitan,_ a peasant proprietor, farming a few acres, living
+parsimoniously, marrying early, and producing a large family, who must
+either clear the soils of the inclement north, or become factory
+operatives in the States. They are a simple, kindly, pious, and cheerful
+folk, with few wants, little energy, and no ambition; ignorant and
+credulous, Catholic by religion, and devoted to the priest, who is their
+oracle, friend, and guide in all the relations of life. Such are the
+people--a complete contrast with Americans--who began, some twelve years
+ago, to emigrate to the mills of New England. They came, not only
+intending to return to their own country with their savings, but enjoined
+by the Church to do so. Employers, however, soon found out the value of
+the new comers, and Yankee superintendents preferred them as operatives
+before any other nationality, not only on account of their tireless
+industry and docility, but because they accepted lower wages, and kept
+themselves clear of trade-union societies. Thus, finally, it has come
+about that nearly 70 per cent. of the cotton operatives at Holyoke are of
+French-Canadian origin, and the social condition of all these people is
+precisely similar to that which has already been described as
+characterizing the inhabitants of "Little Canada" in Lowell.
+
+It has already been said that the average rate of inhabitancy is six
+persons per house in the State of Massachusetts, but the presence of the
+French in Holyoke actually doubles the inhabitancy of the whole town, with
+what effect upon their own special quarter may easily be imagined.
+Probably nowhere in Europe could there be found more crowded houses, and
+worse physical conditions of life, than in the quarters inhabited by
+certain alien operatives in many manufacturing towns of the United States.
+
+Sharp contrasts as they are, these sketches fairly picture the heights and
+depths of industrial conditions in a region which, as I would again remind
+you, contains nearly one-half of all the factory operatives in America.
+More than this, while the States in question would yield to no others
+their claims to represent advanced civilization, Massachusetts, the
+creation of the Puritan refugees, and the cradle of American independence,
+stands confessedly at the head of all her sister States for enlightened
+philanthropy. There are no greater lovers of right, honorers of industry,
+and friends to education in the world than its people, yet the present
+social condition of Holyoke and of Lowell, as of many other manufacturing
+cities, would have shocked all America thirty years ago, and been
+impossible less than half a century back. It is time we should ask, How is
+America going to treat a problem, formerly the danger and still the
+perplexity of Europe, for which democratic institutions have failed to
+furnish the solution once confidently, but unfairly, expected from them?
+
+The State, the Church, and the School are all doing their best to prevent
+the lapse to lower conditions which seems to threaten labor in the States,
+each of them trying their utmost to "make Americans" of alien laborers, by
+means of the political, religious, and educational institutions of the
+country. How inadequate these unaided agencies are for the accomplishment
+of their gigantic task is nowhere so clearly realized as in the common, or
+free, schools of the States. These, in districts such as I have
+distinguished as "American," are filled with boys and girls, of all ages
+from five to eighteen, whose appearance and intelligence bespeak high
+social conditions. Whatever the occupation which these young people may
+ultimately adopt--and all of them are destined for work-a-day lives--an
+observer feels quite sure that they are more likely to raise the character
+of their several employments, than to be themselves degraded to lower
+social levels, on quitting school.
+
+But no similar confidence in the future of American labor is engendered by
+visits to the schools where sits the progeny of alien labor. In the case
+of the Canadians, indeed, parents and priests alike bend all their
+energies to the establishment of "parochial schools," which, if they
+forward the cause of the Church, do little for education in the American
+sense of requiring good citizens, even more than good scholars, at the
+hands of the national teachers.
+
+The primary schools of great industrial towns, such as Fall River, the
+Manchester of America, are filled, to quite as great an extent as similar
+schools in Europe, with ignorant, ragged, and bare-footed urchins. These
+children are, indeed, no less well cared for and taught than their Yankee
+fellows, and one cannot sufficiently admire the energy and enthusiasm with
+which school-teachers generally endeavor to "make Americans" of their
+stolid and ragged little alien charges. In these cases, however, where
+often the children have had no schooling at all before they are old enough
+to work, it is quite clear that the school cannot do all that is required
+to raise the labor of to-day up to the levels it occupied in the past.
+And, if the school itself is ineffective in this regard, how much more so
+must be the Church, to which immigrant youth is a comparative stranger; or
+those democratic institutions which are based, to quote the words of
+Washington himself, upon "the virtue and intelligence of the people."
+
+Whether the present condition of labor in America will ever again be
+lifted to the levels of the past depends, in truth, less upon the State,
+the Church, and the School, than upon the part which the American employer
+is taking or about to take in this question. It is impossible for any
+unprejudiced observer to be long in the States, and especially in the New
+England States, without coming to the conclusion that a large number of
+employers are very anxious about the character of the labor they employ,
+and willing to assist to the utmost of their power in improving it. In
+spite of the love of money and luxury which is so conspicuous a feature of
+certain sections of American society, a high ideal of the proper function
+of wealth has arisen in the States, where large fortunes are chiefly
+things of recent date, among large and influential classes having an
+enlightened regard for the best welfare of the country. This regard finds
+expression now in the establishment of a factory, managed with one eye on
+profits and another on the elevation of the artisan, and now in the
+endowment of free libraries or similar institutions, offering
+opportunities of improvement to all.
+
+To give only a few instances of the former movement: Mr. Pullman, the
+great car-builder, has recently established, on Lake Calumet, a vast
+system of workshops and workmen's homes, a description of which reads like
+a chapter from More's "Utopia." The Waterbury Watch Company has lately
+built a factory, employing 600 hands, on similar lines to those of Mr.
+Pullman. Cheney Brothers' silk mills at South Manchester remain now, after
+Irish labor has entirely taken the place of native hands, at almost the
+same high level as that which, in common with Lowell, they held forty
+years ago. Messrs. Fairbanks, of St. Johnsbury, in Vermont, conduct a
+large establishment, where every married _employe_ owns a house in the
+village, almost an Eden for beauty and order, which has grown up around
+these remote but remarkable scale works. Similarly, the Cranes at Dalton,
+in Massachusetts; Messrs. Brown, Sharpe and Co., at Providence, Rhode
+Island; Mr. Hazard at Peacedale, Narragansett; and last, not least, Col.
+Barrows, at Willimantic, in Connecticut, have all succeeded in restoring
+the past conditions of native American labor among operatives, now, for
+the most part, of alien origin.
+
+I wish that time permitted me to sketch, however briefly, the mills to
+which I have last alluded. It must suffice to say that the devoted labors
+of Col. Barrows, President of the Willimantic Thread Co., have succeeded
+in creating, out of Irish labor, social conditions of industrial life
+which approach ideal perfection as nearly as the work of imperfect man can
+possibly do. And, better still, the high morality and intelligence of Col.
+Barrow's 1,600 operatives, the comfort and seemliness of their homes, the
+cleanly and cheerful character of the mill work, even the refinements of
+the music and art schools attached to the mill, can be proved, by hard
+figures, to be paying factors in the undertaking, viewed from a purely
+commercial standpoint.
+
+So far, I have endeavored to show that a great contrast exists between
+what once was and now is the condition of factory labor in America. I
+have, further, described certain survivals of an earlier and happier state
+of things, and indicated the forces now at work tending to lift the
+Holyoke of to-day, for example, to the social levels of old Lowell. I have
+given my reasons for believing that the democratic institutions of America
+are incapable, unaided, of accomplishing such a task as this charge
+implies, and concluded that its accomplishment depends mainly on the
+action of the American employer. What this action as a whole, and what,
+therefore, the future of labor in America is likely to be, I confess
+myself in grave doubt--doubt from which I turn, with something like a
+sense of relief, to discuss those economical considerations affecting
+wage-earners which have hitherto been made to give place to social
+inquiries.
+
+We have now to ask what are the wages of labor in the States, their
+relation to the cost of subsistence, and to wages and cost of subsistence
+in our own country? Finally, I shall briefly consider certain propositions
+of the American political economist which are so inextricably mixed up
+with the question of labor and wages in the States that it is impossible
+to discuss the one without taking some note of the other.
+
+Until quite recently, no complete investigation, bringing the rates of
+wages paid in industries common to the United States and European
+countries, has ever been made, although the results of such an
+investigation have been constantly and earnestly called for both by the
+press and people of America. Permit me to remark, in passing, that we know
+little in this country of the desire for full, trustworthy, and accessible
+statistics, concerning all matters of national interest, which dominates
+the public mind of America; and as little of the willingness with which
+American citizens of all classes place the particulars of their private
+business at the service of the statistician. This desire for statistical
+bases whereon the statesman and economist may build, is vividly
+illustrated by that publication, perhaps the most wonderful in the whole
+world, entitled a "Compendium of the Census of the United States," issued
+with every decade. These volumes, accessible to everybody, and arranged
+with marvelous skill and lucidity, offer to the social observer a
+complete, accurate, and suggestive survey of every field comprised within
+the vast domain of the national interests. An evening's address would not
+more than suffice to indicate the scope and appraise the value of this
+work, which is a mine wherein, the ore ready dressed to his hand, the
+politico-economic or industrial essayist might work for years without
+exhausting its riches.
+
+But the United States Census does not treat specifically of wages and
+subsistence, and it is to the Massachusetts Labor Bureau that we must
+again turn for such information as we now require. Dr. Edward Young,
+indeed, the late chief of the United States Bureau of Statistics,
+published an elaborate work upon this subject in 1875, but his comparisons
+as to the relative cost of living in America and Europe, good in
+themselves, are rendered of little value by the absence of such statistics
+as would give the true percentage of difference between American and
+foreign wages. Several elaborate wages reports were also published between
+1879 and 1882, which, while they gave the American side of the question
+with great fullness, presented foreign wages very incompletely.
+
+Always, however, impressed with the importance of making an accurate
+comparison between wages and the cost of subsistence on the two sides of
+the Atlantic, but unable to undertake a very wide inquiry with the funds
+at its disposal, the Massachusetts Bureau determined, in the fall of 1883,
+upon reducing to narrower limits than heretofore the field of
+investigation. Instead of America and Europe, Massachusetts and Great
+Britain were selected for comparison, the former as the chief
+manufacturing State of America, the latter as her leading competitor.
+
+With this view, a number of agents were sent to gather personally, from
+the pay rolls of American and English manufactories, the rates of wages
+paid in twenty-four of the leading industries which are common to the two
+districts respectively. It was, at first, sought to extend the inquiry to
+thirty-five different industries, a number which would practically have
+covered the whole ground, but nine of these were finally abandoned for
+want of sufficient British information.
+
+It is a perfectly easy thing, as already indicated, to gather wage or
+other statistics in the counting-houses of Massachusetts manufactories,
+but quite a different matter when a collection of similar information is
+attempted in this country, where most proprietors are unwilling, and many
+altogether refuse, to give any information regarding their industries.
+
+The following table, of which an enlarged facsimile, marked A, appears on
+the wall, specifies the twenty-four industries from which the returns in
+question were made, and the number of establishments making such returns
+in each industry in either country:
+
+_Table A_.
+
+Industries.                      Massachusetts. Great Britain. Total
+
+Agricultural implements               4              1            5
+Artisans' tools                       3              4            7
+Boots and shoes                      18              2           20
+Brick                                 3              1            4
+Building trades                      32             24           56
+Carpetings                            1              1            2
+Carriages and Wagons                 11              3           14
+Clothing                             10              4           14
+Cotton goods                         10              9           19
+Flax and jute goods                   2              3            5
+Food preparations                     5              2            7
+Furniture                            11              1           12
+Glass                                 1              3            4
+Hats (fur wool and silk)              3              2            5
+Hosiery                               5              3            8
+Liquors (malt and distilled)         10              1           11
+Machines and machinery               12             15           27
+Metals and metallic goods            25             13           38
+Printing and publishing              12              7           19
+Printing, dyeing and bleaching etc    3              4            7
+Stone                                10              1           11
+Wooden goods                         12              1           13
+Woolen goods                          4              2            6
+Worsted goods                         3              3            6
+
+                                    210            110          320
+
+Thirty-two cities in Massachusetts, and twenty-six in Great Britain, were
+visited in search of returns, of which almost all our great industrial
+centers yield their quota.
+
+It being, of course, impossible to obtain wage returns for all the
+_employes_ of these various industries in either country, the
+investigation aimed at covering at least 10 per cent. of such totals, and,
+in the case of Massachusetts, succeeded in getting returns for 36,000
+hands, or 13 per cent. of the whole number of artisans employed in the
+twenty-four industries examined. Great Britain, on the other hand, made
+returns for about half that number of hands, but their proportion to the
+totals employed cannot be similarly stated, first, because we have here no
+specific industrial census, and, second, because many of the English
+returns were made for an indefinite number of _employes_.
+
+The comparison was made in the following way: For each of the twenty-four
+industries, a table, consisting of four sections, was constructed, viz.,
+"Occupation," "Aggregation," "Recapitulation," and "Comparison." The first
+gave the names of the various branches of each industry, classifying these
+as minutely as possible, because the names indicating subdivisions of
+labor are, generally, so different in the two countries that the actual
+"matching" of occupations, desirable for a perfect comparison, is
+impossible. The second, or "Aggregation" section, brings the various
+occupations in the same industry into juxtaposition, and supplies
+opportunities for direct comparison. The third, or "Recapitulation"
+section, is drawn from the "Occupation" section, and shows the number of
+men, women, young persons, and children for whom wages are given; whether
+these are paid by the day, or by piece; and whether the wage returns show
+the actual amounts paid to a definite number of _employes_, or an average
+wage for a definite or an indefinite number of _employes_. The fourth, or
+"Comparison" section, brings the highest, lowest, and general average
+weekly wages into final comparison.
+
+The first three sections of the table, being either simply enumerative or
+collective in character, are easily understood without illustration, but
+an example of the "Comparative" section, marked Table B, hangs on the
+wall, and shows all the final comparisons at a glance.
+
+_Table B_.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+                            |   1    |    2    |    3    |    4
+                            ---------------------------------------
+Classification.             |Massac- |  Great  | Massac- |  Great
+                            |husetts.| Britain.| husetts.| Britain.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+Average highest weekly      | dols.  |  dols.  |  dols.  |  dols.
+wage paid to--              |        |         |         |
+   Men                      |  37.00 |  13.39  |  25.41  |  11.36
+   Women                    |   5.50 |   ...   |   8.57  |   4.10
+   Young persons            |   7.00 |   3.65  |   6.94  |   3.04
+   Children                 |   5.70 |   ...   |   4.64  |   1.05
+                            |        |         |         |
+Average lowest weekly wage  |        |         |         |
+paid to--                   |        |         |         |
+   Men                      |   7.60 |   3.21  |   7.09  |   4.72
+   Women                    |   5.00 |   ...   |   4.62  |   2.27
+   Young women              |   4.50 |   1.46  |   4.26  |   1.66
+   Children                 |   3.00 |   ...   |   3.09  |    .60
+                            |        |         |         |
+Average weekly wages        |        |         |         |
+paid to--                   |        |         |         |
+   Men                      |  12.04 |   8.07  |  11.85  |   8.26
+   Women                    |   5.12 |   ...   |   6.09  |   3.37
+   Young persons            |   5.76 |   2.52  |   5.10  |   2.40
+   Children----             |   5.31 |   ...   |   3.81  |    .79
+                            ---------------------------------------
+General average weekly wage |        |         |         |
+paid to all _employes_ |  11.75 |   8.07  |  10.32  |   6.96
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+Result: General average     |                  |
+ weekly wages higher in     |  45.60           |  48.28
+ Massachusetts by per cent  | per cent.        | per cent.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The two first columns of the table are simply illustrative of the method
+applied to a single industry, exhibiting the highest average, lowest
+average, and average weekly wages, whether to men, women, young persons,
+or children, in the particular business of "machine-making," together with
+the general average wages paid to all the _employes_ in such industry. The
+general average weekly wages in this industry are thus shown to be 45.6
+per cent. higher in Massachusetts than in Great Britain.
+
+The 3d and 4th columns of the table consolidate all the twenty-four
+industries, and yield, in similar terms, as in the case of machine-making,
+an average comparison applying to the whole group of industries under
+examination, giving, as a grand result, that the general average weekly
+wages of Massachusetts are higher by 48.28 per cent. than those of Great
+Britain.
+
+It is, however, explained that the British wage returns were made in three
+different ways, viz., for a definite number of _employes_, by percentage
+returns, and by general returns; both of the latter being for an
+indefinite number of _employes_. Where more than one wage-basis was given,
+the highest figure was used in the calculations, and, this being the case
+in eighteen out of the twenty-four industries, its effects on the grand
+result are considerable; for, by crediting Great Britain with the
+_average_ instead of the _high_ weekly wage, the average percentage in
+favor of Massachusetts rises from 48.28 per cent. to 75.94 per cent.
+
+In order truly to indicate the higher percentage of average weekly wages
+in Massachusetts, we must, therefore, agree upon a figure somewhere
+between these two extremes, viz., that of 48.28 per cent., derived from
+tables in which Great Britain is credited with the high wage, and that of
+75.94 per cent., derived from those tables in which she is credited with
+the average of the returns made upon the different bases. The mean of
+these figures is 62.11 per cent., which is considered to be the result of
+the investigation, and may be formulated as follows: The general average
+weekly wages paid to _employes_ in twenty-four manufacturing industries
+common to Massachusetts and Great Britain is 62 per cent., higher in the
+former than the general average weekly wages paid in the same industries
+in the latter country.
+
+But the question of wages forms only one side of the working man's
+account; on the other stands the cost of living, and no comparisons of
+prosperity, in given industrial communities, are of any value which omit
+to take into consideration the relative ease with which such communities
+can procure the means of subsistence. Table C presents a summary of
+prices, gathered in 1883, of the chief items in a working man's
+expenditure, and their cost in Massachusetts and Great Britain.
+
+_Table C_.
+
+---------------------------------------------------------
+Articles.       |Percentage higher |  Percentage higher
+                |     in Mass.     |   in Great Britain
+---------------------------------------------------------
+Groceries       |         16.18    |        -
+Provisions      |           -      |      20.00
+Fuel            |        104.98    |        -
+Dry goods       |         13.26    |        -
+Boots and shoes |         42.75    |        -
+Clothing        |         45.06    |        -
+Rents           |         89.62    |        -
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+Having agreed that wages are probably 62 per cent. higher in
+Massachusetts than in Great Britain, it would be easy, if we could
+ascertain what proportion of a working man's income is spent respectively
+in groceries, provisions, clothing, etc., to determine what advantage an
+operative derives from the higher wages of the United States. Dr. Engel,
+the chief of the Prussian Bureau of Statistics, puts us in possession of
+this information, and, as the result of a laborious inquiry, has
+formulated a certain economic law which governs the relations between
+income and expenditure. From him we learn (see Table D) that:
+
+_Table D_.
+
+A working man with an income of L60 per annum
+spends as follows:
+
+                 Per cent.
+                 of income.                      Shillings.
+                                    / meat....       248
+1. On subsistence     62        or  \ groceries      496
+2. " clothing         16        "                    192
+3. " rent             12        "                    144
+4. " fuel              5        "                     60
+5. " sundries          5        "                     60
+                                                   ------
+                                   Total shillings 1,200
+                                               Or  L60
+
+Now, referring to Table C, it will be seen that the same man's expenditure
+in America would be:
+
+                               Shillings.            S.
+
+1. On subsistence    / meat....    248 -  20 p.c. = 198.4
+                     \ groceries   496 +  16  "   = 575.3
+2. " clothing                      192 +  45  "   = 278.4
+3. " rent                          144 +  89  "   = 272.1
+4. " fuel                           60 + 104  "   = 122.0
+5. " sundries                       60 +  50  "   =  90.0
+                                                  --------
+                                    Total         1,536.2
+                                    Or           L76 16s.
+
+In other words, a workman earning L60 per annum in Great Britain would
+receive L99, or 62 per cent. more wages in the States, but living there
+would cost him L77, or L17 more than here, giving him a net advantage of
+only 28 per cent., instead of 62 per cent., derived from living and
+working in America.
+
+But this result does not exhaust the question. The standard of life is
+very different among working men in the States and in Great Britain, and
+the almost inexhaustible statistics of the report, already so often
+quoted, enable us to gauge this difference with accuracy. It has been
+proved, by a recent investigation, whose details we need not follow, that
+the expenditure of working men's families, of similar size, in
+Massachusetts and in Great Britain, stand to each other in the ratio of 15
+to 10. By introducing this new factor into our calculations, we find that
+a man who spends L60 per annum in England would spend L90, instead of L77,
+per annum in the States, paying American prices for subsistence, and
+living up to American standards. In other words, he would be a gainer to
+the extent of only L9 per annum by living and working in the United
+States. Finally, if we presume that 48 or 50 per cent., rather than 62 per
+cent., measures the higher wages of Massachusetts, the same man's
+increased wages would be L90 instead of L99, and he would-neither lose nor
+gain in money by becoming an American citizen, and adopting American
+habits.
+
+That these conclusions agree with those rough and ready practical
+illustrations which, without being scientific, are generally trustworthy,
+let the following story evidence.
+
+Some years ago, a skillful moulder, in my then firm's employ, left us for
+the States, where he permanently settled. After a long absence, he
+returned for a few weeks' holiday, when I asked him whether he earned
+higher wages and found life more agreeable in America than in England.
+"Well, as to money" was his reply, "I think, taking all things into
+consideration, I did about as well in the old shop as I do now; but,
+socially speaking, I am somebody there, while here I am only a moulder."
+Social advantage, indeed, probably measures almost all the difference
+between the position of a skilled factory operative in the States and in
+England.
+
+Let me not seem, however, to undervalue that difference. Statistics, after
+all, do not dominate human nature; on the contrary, human nature
+determines the statistician's figures. Every artisan emigrant to America
+gains opportunities of advancement of which his European fellows know
+nothing. If he have brains, the way to success is open there, while it is
+practically barred to anything short of genius for men of his class in
+Europe. Our Australian colonies, where unskilled labor can earn 7s. 6d. a
+day, and live for a trifle, are, indeed, a paradise for the mere
+wage-earner, who can scarcely help becoming also a wage-saver; but America
+is the country which, with wage conditions such as I have attempted to
+portray, still offers the best possible opportunities of success, and even
+of great careers, to clever working men, and especially to clever
+mechanics. That man, however, is not worthy of a home in the great
+republic, who does not appreciate the higher social levels at which native
+labor desires to live, who is not anxious to make the most of the
+advantages which democratic institutions offer him, who does not, in
+short, ardently desire to become a "good American."
+
+There remains the question already alluded to as inextricably bound up
+with American labor problems: How does the American tariff affect wages?
+The idea that these are determinable by the tariff is the corner stone of
+protection in the States. The artisan has been so sedulously educated to
+believe that the chief object of import duties is to protect him from
+falling into a ruinous competition with what is called the "pauper labor
+of Europe," that no movement on the part of workmen in the direction of
+free trade is ever likely to arise in America. I am not now about to argue
+the question of protection, except in so far as it relates to labor; but
+it may be remarked, in passing, that internal competition, rather than the
+people, is the enemy from whom the tariff will probably receive its death
+blow in the future. Protection will ultimately break down by its own
+weight in the States. Production already exceeds demand, the cry for a
+"wider market" and for "raw materials free" is in every manufacturer's
+mouth; and if America upholds her protective legislation too long, the
+produce of her factories and mills will, by and by, force its way, in
+spite of the tariff, into the open markets of the world, but it will be
+through the gate of national suffering. Few people in this country are, I
+think, aware of the extraordinary fervor with which the doctrine that
+protection benefits labor is preached in the States. We are ourselves
+accustomed to hear the question of free trade argued only from the
+economic standpoint, but this is by no means so commonly the case in
+America. I shall try, by paraphrasing certain recent addresses of an able
+personal friend and enthusiastic protectionist, to illustrate the position
+taken by those persons who advocate the tariff, not upon economic grounds,
+but in the avowed interests of labor.
+
+Referring to the words "Free Trade," the speaker in question begins by
+asking, "What is the essential nature of that which we call trade?" And
+answers himself as follows:
+
+"The grim, ugly fact is that trade is a fight, the markets are battle
+fields, the traders are gladiators, carrying on a true war around
+questions of values, with no care whether the opposing party or the
+community at large can afford that the trade is made. This contest is
+always going on, whether a lady buys a pair of gloves, or a syndicate
+corners Erie. Antagonism is so fixed an element of trade, and so often
+defeats the object it blindly follows, as to make laws which seek to
+mitigate the ferocity of the struggle as welcome to the far-sighted man of
+business as they are to the foredoomed victims of this relentless
+warfare."
+
+On the other hand, competition is said to be a--
+
+"Wonder worker in developing energy in the strongest individuals, and
+massing wealth in masterful states; but, since competitive trading can
+never be wholly beneficent, it should be strictly controlled, in the
+interests of the toiling millions, who are too weak successfully to oppose
+its attacks. The results of forcing on the naturally weak, by means of
+competition, hard and unequal bargains which are evaded by the strong, are
+appalling in their magnitude, dividing whole peoples permanently into
+castes, rich and poor, injuring the former by excess, and the latter by
+deprivation, making a nation strong in the trading instinct, and rich in
+accumulated wealth, but weak and poor in all its other parts. This abuse
+is saddest of all when, failing to be recognized as an evil, the doctrines
+of free trade are wrought into the policy and social life of a people."
+
+Protective remedies for this state of things are introduced as follows:
+
+"Wherever the value of competition has been fully recognized, but
+supplemented by wise control of its energies, the results are excellent.
+This fact forms the foundation of our protective laws, whose very name
+'protective' implies assailants; those hard bargains, to wit, driven on
+the fighting side of trade, under the motto of 'let the fittest survive.'
+When a small army is attacked by a large one, it covers itself by
+earthworks. Similarly, where there are sheep, and wolves abound, the
+farmer puts up fences which effectually protect his flock; and, in the
+same way, tariffs are 'forts,' whence the artisan may hope successfully to
+defend himself against the attacks of his powerful and unscrupulous enemy,
+capital; or they may even be considered as a pistol, which a little fellow
+points at a big bully who threatens him with a thrashing."
+
+Such are the arguments which are urged with great fervor, and immense
+effect, upon the American artisan, who fully and firmly believes that
+protection is the only agent capable of lifting his lot above those,
+dreaded levels at which the "pauper labor of Europe" is universally
+believed to live.
+
+The simple answer to all this rhetoric appears to be that, while it might
+be valid as an indictment of the competitive system as a whole, it is
+valueless when directed against a part of that system only. Advocates who
+are not prepared to say that every bargain shall be controlled by
+beneficence, and who distinctly admire the chief results of competition,
+cannot logically demand that labor, alone of all salable commodities,
+shall be bought and sold on altruistic principles.
+
+In what immediately precedes, I have endeavored to indicate the character
+of the pleadings which make American artisans universally supporters of
+the tariff, and we must now return to the question, What, after all, is
+really the effect of protection on wages in America? I answer that no
+legislative schemes can add to, although they may injure, the material
+resources of a state. Capital can only support the labor for which the
+annual harvest of such resources pays, and all that legislation can do is
+artificially to divert labor and capital from directions which they would
+take under the influence of natural laws.
+
+America is selling, at the present time, about L160,000,000 worth of food
+and other raw products in Europe. These, together, represent her chief
+branch of business, in which nearly fifty per cent. of her population is
+engaged, and all this merchandise is sold in the free trade markets of the
+world. Wages in America, therefore, cannot possibly be regulated by the
+tariff, because, whatever wages can be earned by men engaged in the
+production of agricultural products--the prices of which are fixed in
+Liverpool--must be the rate of wages which will substantially be paid in
+other branches of business. Wages, like water, seek a level; if
+manufacture pays best, labor will quit agriculture; if agriculture pays
+best, manufactures will decline, and agriculture progress.
+
+A glance at the condition of industrial society in America vividly
+illustrates this conclusion. Any man, with a few dollars and a strong pair
+of arms, can win far greater rewards from the soil than he could possibly
+obtain by the same effort in Europe. His wages are high, because the grade
+of comfort to be obtained from the land by means of a little labor is
+high, and the artisans' wages must follow suit, if men are to be tempted
+from the field into the workshop. American politicians, however, would
+have us believe that American labor owes its prosperity to taxation; in
+other words, that what the immigrant seeks is not the rich prizes offered
+him by a free and fertile soil, but the blessings which flow from a tariff
+that adds an average 40 per cent. to the cost of everything he needs
+except food.
+
+One more illustration, and I have done. Upon the wall hangs a diagram
+which shows the movements of American wages, of English wages, and of the
+tariff from 1860 to 1883. I have already argued that a tariff cannot
+determine wages, and the diagram affords positive proof that it has not
+determined them in America, as between 1860 and the present time. On the
+contrary, their movements are evidently due to the same causes as have
+influenced wages here during this period, while it is certainly remarkable
+that they have fallen sooner, fallen lower, and recovered less completely
+in America, where industry is "protected," than in Great Britain, were it
+is "unprotected."
+
+Shortly to recapitulate all that has been advanced, I have endeavored to
+show:
+
+1st. That a great change has occurred in the social condition of labor in
+the United States during the last forty years, and that, spite of all the
+existing agencies of improvement, it is doubtful whether the working
+classes of America are not, at the present moment, falling still further
+from those high ideals of operative life which once so brilliantly
+distinguished the United States from European countries.
+
+2d. That, although wages are probably some 60 per cent. higher in the
+chief manufacturing districts of America than in Great Britain, yet an
+English artisan would find himself little richer there than at home, after
+paying the enhanced prices for subsistence, and conforming to the higher
+standard of life which prevails in the States. At the same time, his whole
+social position and opportunities of advancement would be immensely
+improved.
+
+3d. I have tried to demonstrate that the tariff, to which the higher wages
+of America are so confidently attributed, has really no influence whatever
+upon them, and that it is not therefore an engine, such as it is glowingly
+represented to the American artisan, constructed for the purpose of
+raising his lot above that of the so-called "pauper labor of Europe." Any
+inquiry into the character of the work really accomplished by the engine
+in question would lead me into regions of controversy forbidden in this
+room.
+
+Finally, if I am asked why, in a review of American labor and wages, I
+have said nothing of trade unionism on the one hand, and of co-operative
+production on the other, I can only answer that to have introduced these
+among so many other interesting, but subsidiary, subjects which crowd
+around questions of labor and wages, would have doubled the volume of this
+address, and more than halved the patience with which you have kindly
+listened to it.
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