diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/11734-h')
105 files changed, 5099 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/11734-h/11734-h.htm b/old/11734-h/11734-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..837a0b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/11734-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5099 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, OCTOBER 25, 1884</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +.note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} /* footnote */ +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 460, +October 25, 1884, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 460, October 25, 1884 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 28, 2004 [EBook #11734] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 460 *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 460</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, OCTOBER 25, 1884</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 460.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY. ETC.—Wolpert's Method of +Estimating the Amount of Carbonic Acid in the Air.—7 +Figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Japanese Camphor.—Its preparation, +experiments, and analysis of the camphor oil.—By H. +OISHI.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#3">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Links in the +History of the Locomotive.—With two engravings of the +Rocket.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">The Flow of Water through Turbines and Screw +Propellers.—By ARTHUR RIGG.—Experimental +researches.—Impact on level plate.—Impact and reaction +in confined channels.—4 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Improved Textile Machinery.—The Textile +Exhibition at Islington.—5 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">Endless Rope Haulage.—2 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#7">TECHNOLOGY.—A Reliable Water +Filter.—With engraving.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Simple Devices for Distilling Water.—4 +figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">Improved Fire Damp Detecter.—With full +description and engraving.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Camera Attachment for Paper Photo +Negatives.—2 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">Instantaneous Photo Shutter.—1 figure.</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">Sulphurous Acid.—Easy method of preparation +for photographic purposes.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#13">PHYSICS. ELECTRICITY, ETC.—Steps toward a +Kinetic Theory of Matter.—Address by Sir Wm. THOMSON at the +Montreal meeting of the British Association.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Application of Electricity to Tramways.—By +M. HOLROYD SMITH.—7 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">The Sunshine Recorder.—1 figure.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#16">ARCHITECTURE AND ART.—The National Monument +at Rome.—With full page engraving.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">On the Evolution of Forms of Art.—From a +paper by Prof. JACOBSTHAL.—Plant Forms the archetypes of +cashmere patterns.—Ornamental representations of plants of +two kinds.—Architectural forms of different ages.—20 +figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#18">NATURAL HISTORY.—The Latest Knowledge about +Gapes.—How to keep poultry free from them.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">The Voyage of the Vettor Pisani.—Shark +fishing In the Gulf of Panama.—Capture of Rhinodon typicus, +the largest fish in existence.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#20">HORTICULTURE, ETC.—The Proper Time for +Cutting Timber.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Raising Ferns from Spores.—1 figure.</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#22">The Life History of Vaucheria.—Growth of +alga vaucheria under the microscope.—4 figures.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#23">MISCELLANEOUS.—Fires in London and New +York.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#24">The Greely Arctic Expedition.—With +engraving.</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#25">The Nile Expedition.—1 figure.</a> </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>LINKS IN THE HISTORY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.</h2> + +<p>It is, perhaps, more difficult to write accurate history than +anything else, and this is true not only of nations, kings, +politicians, or wars, but of events and things witnessed or called +into existence in every-day life. In <i>The Engineer</i> for +September 17, 1880, we did our best to place a true statement of +the facts concerning the Rocket before our readers. In many +respects this was the most remarkable steam engine ever built, and +about it there ought to be no difficulty, one would imagine, in +arriving at the truth. It was for a considerable period the +cynosure of all eyes. Engineers all over the world were interested +in its performance. Drawings were made of it; accounts were written +of it, descriptions of it abounded. Little more than half a century +has elapsed since it startled the world by its performance at +Rainhill, and yet it is not too much to say that the +truth—the whole truth, that is to say—can never now be +written. We are, however, able to put some facts before our readers +now which have never before been published, which are sufficiently +startling, and while supplying a missing link in the history of the +locomotive, go far to show that much that has hitherto been held to +be true is not true at all.</p> + +<p>When the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened on the 15th +of September, 1830, among those present was James Nasmyth, +subsequently the inventor of the steam hammer. Mr. Nasmyth was a +good freehand draughtsman, and he sketched the Rocket as it stood +on the line. The sketch is still in existence. Mr. Nasmyth has +placed this sketch at our disposal, thus earning the gratitude of +our readers, and we have reproduced as nearly as possible, but to a +somewhat enlarged scale, this invaluable link in the history of the +locomotive. Mr. Nasmyth writes concerning it, July 26, 1884: "This +slight and hasty sketch of the Rocket was made the day before the +opening of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, September 12, +1830. I availed myself of the opportunity of a short pause in the +experimental runs with the Rocket, of three or four miles between +Liverpool and Rainhill, George Stephenson acting as engine driver +and his son Robert as stoker. The limited time I had for making my +sketch prevented me from making a more elaborate one, but such as +it is, all the important and characteristic details are given; but +the pencil lines, after the lapse of fifty-four years, have become +somewhat indistinct." The pencil drawing, more than fifty years +old, has become so faint that its reproduction has become a +difficult task. Enough remains, however, to show very clearly what +manner of engine this Rocket was. For the sake of comparison we +reproduce an engraving of the Rocket of 1829. A glance will show +that an astonishing transformation had taken place in the eleven +months which had elapsed between the Rainhill trials and the +opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. We may indicate a +few of the alterations. In 1829 the cylinders were set at a steep +angle; in 1830 they were nearly horizontal. In 1829 the driving +wheels were of wood; in 1830 they were of cast iron. In 1829 there +was no smoke-box proper, and a towering chimney; in 1830 there was +a smoke-box and a comparatively short chimney. In 1829 a cask and a +truck constituted the tender; in 1830 there was a neatly designed +tender, not very different in style from that still in use on the +Great Western broad gauge. All these things may perhaps be termed +concomitants, or changes in detail. But there is a radical +difference yet to be considered. In 1829 the fire-box was a kind of +separate chamber tacked on to the back of the barrel of the boiler, +and communicating with it by three tubes; one on each side united +the water spaces, and one at the top the steam spaces. In 1830 all +this had disappeared, and we find in Mr. Nasmyth's sketch a regular +fire-box, such as is used to this moment. In one word, the Rocket +of 1829 is different from the Rocket of 1830 in almost every +conceivable respect; and we are driven perforce to the conclusion +that the Rocket of 1829 <i>never worked at all on the Liverpool and +Manchester Railway; the engine of 1830 was an entirely new +engine</i>. We see no possible way of escaping from this +conclusion. The most that can be said against it is that the engine +underwent many alterations. The alterations must, however, have +been so numerous that they were tantamount to the construction of a +new engine. It is difficult, indeed, to see what part of the old +engine could exist in the new one; some plates of the boiler shell +might, perhaps, have been retained, but we doubt it. It may, +perhaps, disturb some hitherto well rooted beliefs to say so, but +it seems to us indisputable that the Rocket of 1829 and 1830 were +totally different engines.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 1. THE ROCKET, 1829. THE ROCKET, 1830."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. THE ROCKET, 1829. THE ROCKET, 1830.</p> + +<p>Our engraving, Fig. 1, is copied from a drawing made by Mr. +Phipps, M.I.C.E., who was employed by Messrs. Stephenson to compile +a drawing of the Rocket from such drawings and documents as could +be found. This gentleman had made the original drawings of the +Rocket of 1829, under Messrs. G. & R. Stephenson's direction. +Mr. Phipps is quite silent about the history of the engine during +the eleven months between the Rainhill trials and the opening of +the railway. In this respect he is like every one else. This period +is a perfect blank. It is assumed that from Rainhill the engine +went back to Messrs. Stephenson's works; but there is nothing on +the subject in print, so far as we are aware. Mr. G.R. Stephenson +lent us in 1880 a working model of the Rocket. An engraving of this +will be found in <i>The Engineer</i> for September 17, 1880. The +difference between it and the engraving below, prepared from Mr. +Phipps' drawing, is, it will be seen, very small—one of +proportions more than anything else. Mr. Stephenson says of his +model: "I can say that it is a very fair representation of what the +engine was before she was altered." Hitherto it has always been +taken for granted that the alteration consisted mainly in reducing +the angle at which the cylinders were set. The Nasmyth drawing +alters the whole aspect of the question, and we are now left to +speculate as to what became of the original Rocket. We are told +that after "it" left the railway it was employed by Lord Dundonald +to supply steam to a rotary engine; then it propelled a steamboat; +next it drove small machinery in a shop in Manchester; then it was +employed in a brickyard; eventually it was purchased as a curiosity +by Mr. Thomson, of Kirkhouse, near Carlisle, who sent it to Messrs. +Stephenson to take care of. With them it remained for years. Then +Messrs. Stephenson put it into something like its original shape, +and it went to South Kensington Museum, where "it" is now. The +question is, What engine is this? Was it the Rocket of 1829 or the +Rocket of 1830, or neither? It could not be the last, as will be +understood from Mr. Nasmyth's drawing; if we bear in mind that the +so-called fire-box on the South Kensington engine is only a sham +made of thin sheet iron without water space, while the fire-box +shown in Mr. Nasmyth's engine is an integral part of the whole, +which could not have been cut off. That is to say, Messrs. +Stephenson, in getting the engine put in order for the Patent +Office Museum, certainly did not cut off the fire-box shown in Mr. +Nasmyth's sketch, and replace it with the sham box now on the +boiler. If our readers will turn to our impression for the 30th of +June, 1876, they will find a very accurate engraving of the South +Kensington engine, which they can compare with Mr. Nasmyth's +sketch, and not fail to perceive that the differences are +radical.</p> + +<p>In "Wood on Railroads," second edition, 1832, page 377, we are +told that "after those experiments"—the Rainhill +trials—"were concluded, the Novelty underwent considerable +alterations;" and on page 399, "Mr. Stephenson had also improved +the working of the Rocket engine, and by applying the steam more +powerfully in the chimney to increase the draught, was enabled to +raise a much greater quantity of steam than before." Nothing is +said as to where the new experiments took place, nor their precise +date. But it seems that the Meteor and the Arrow—Stephenson +engines—were tried at the same time; and this is really the +only hint Wood gives as to what was done to the Rocket between the +6th of October, 1829, and the 15th of September, 1830.</p> + +<p>There are men still alive who no doubt could clear up the +question at issue, and it is much to be hoped that they will do so. +As the matter now stands, it will be seen that we do not so much +question that the Rocket in South Kensington Museum is, in part +perhaps, the original Rocket of Rainhill celebrity, as that it ever +ran in regular service on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. +Yet, if not, then we may ask, what became of the Rocket of 1830? It +is not at all improbable that the first Rocket was cast on one +side, until it was bought by Lord Dundonald, and that its history +is set out with fair accuracy above. But the Rocket of the +Manchester and Liverpool Railway is hardly less worthy of attention +than its immediate predecessor, and concerning it information is +needed. Any scrap of information, however apparently trifling, that +can be thrown on this subject by our readers will be highly valued, +and given an appropriate place in our pages.—<i>The +Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>The largest grain elevator in the world, says the <i>Nashville +American</i>, is that just constructed at Newport News under the +auspices of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Co. It is 90 ft. +wide, 386 ft. long, and about 164 ft. high, with engine and boiler +rooms 40 × 100 ft. and 40 ft. high. In its construction there +were used about 3,000 piles, 100,000 ft. of white-oak timber, +82,000 cu. ft. of stone, 800,000 brick, 6,000,000 ft. of pine and +spruce lumber, 4,500 kegs of nails, 6 large boilers, 2 large +engines, 200 tons of machinery, 20 large hopper-scales, and 17,200 +ft. of rubber belts, from 8 to 48 in. wide and 50 to 1,700 ft. +long; in addition, there were 8,000 elevator buckets, and other +material. The storage capacity is 1,600,000 bushels, with a +receiving capacity of 30,000, and a shipping capacity of 20,000 +bushels per hour.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH TURBINES AND SCREW PROPELLERS.<a +name="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Mr. ARTHUR RIGG, C.E.</h3> + +<p>Literature relating to turbines probably stands unrivaled among +all that concerns questions of hydraulic engineering, not so much +in its voluminous character as in the extent to which purely +theoretical writers have ignored facts, or practical writers have +relied upon empirical rules rather than upon any sound theory. In +relation to this view, it may suffice to note that theoretical +deductions have frequently been based upon a generalization that +"streams of water must enter the buckets of a turbine without +shock, and leave them without velocity." Both these assumed +conditions are misleading, and it is now well known that in every +good turbine both are carefully disobeyed. So-called practical +writers, as a rule, fail to give much useful information, and their +task seems rather in praise of one description of turbine above +another. But generally, it is of no consequence whatever how a +stream of water may be led through the buckets of any form of +turbine, so long as its velocity gradually becomes reduced to the +smallest amount that will carry it freely clear of the machine.</p> + +<p>The character of theoretical information imparted by some +<i>Chicago Journal of Commerce</i>, dated 20th February, 1884. +There we are informed that "the height of the fall is one of the +most important considerations, as the same stream of water will +furnish five times the horse power at ten ft. that it will at five +ft. fall." By general consent twice two are four, but it has been +reserved for this imaginative writer to make the useful discovery +that sometimes twice two are ten. Not until after the translation +of Captain Morris' work on turbines by Mr. E. Morris in 1844, was +attention in America directed to the advantages which these motors +possessed over the gravity wheels then in use. A duty of 75 per +cent. was then obtained, and a further study of the subject by a +most acute and practical engineer, Mr. Boyden, led to various +improvements upon Mr. Fauneyron's model, by which his experiments +indicated the high duty of 88 per cent. The most conspicuous +addition made by Mr. Boyden was the diffuser. The ingenious +contrivance had the effect of transforming part of whatever +velocity remained in the stream after passing out of a turbine into +an atmospheric pressure, by which the corresponding lost head +became effective, and added about 3 per cent. to the duty obtained. +It may be worth noticing that, by an accidental application of +these principles to some inward flow turbines, there is obtained +most, if not all, of whatever advantage they are supposed to +possess, but oddly enough this genuine advantage is never mentioned +by any of the writers who are interested in their introduction or +sale. The well-known experiments of Mr. James B. Francis in 1857, +and his elaborate report, gave to hydraulic engineers a vast store +of useful data, and since that period much progress has been made +in the construction of turbines, and literature on the subject has +become very complete.</p> + +<p>In the limits of a short paper it is impossible to do justice to +more than one aspect of the considerations relating to turbines, +and it is now proposed to bring before the Mechanical Section of +the British Association some conclusions drawn from the behavior of +jets of water discharged under pressure, more particularly in the +hope that, as water power is extremely abundant in Canada, any +remarks relating to the subject may not fail to prove +interesting.</p> + +<p>Between the action of turbines and that of screw propellers +exists an exact parallelism, although in one case water imparts +motion to the buckets of a turbine, while in the other case blades +of a screw give spiral movement to a column of water driven aft +from the vessel it propels forward. Turbines have been driven +sometimes by impact alone, sometimes by reaction above, though +generally by a combination of impact and reaction, and it is by the +last named system that the best results are now known to be +obtained.</p> + +<p>The ordinary paddles of a steamer impel a mass of water +horizontally backward by impact alone, but screw propellers use +reaction somewhat disguised, and only to a limited extent. The full +use and advantages of reaction for screw propellers were not +generally known until after the publication of papers by the +present writer in the "Proceedings" of the Institution of Naval +Architects for 1867 and 1868, and more fully in the "Transactions" +of the Society of Engineers for 1868. Since that time, by the +author of these investigations then described, by the English +Admiralty, and by private firms, further experiments have been +carried out, some on a considerable scale, and all corroborative of +the results published in 1868. But nothing further has been done in +utilizing these discoveries until the recent exigencies of modern +naval warfare have led foreign nations to place a high value upon +speed. Some makers of torpedo boats have thus been induced to +slacken the trammels of an older theory and to apply a somewhat +incomplete form of the author's reaction propeller for gaining some +portion of the notable performance of these hornets of the deep. +Just as in turbines a combination of impact and reaction produces +the maximum practical result, so in screw propellers does a +corresponding gain accompany the same construction.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2a.png" alt= +" FIG. 1."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2b.png" alt= +" FIG. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p> + +<p><i>Turbines</i>.—While studying those effects produced by +jets of water impinging upon plain or concave surfaces +corresponding to buckets of turbines, it simplifies matters to +separate these results due to impact from others due to reaction. +And it will be well at the outset to draw a distinction between the +nature of these two pressures, and to remind ourselves of the laws +which lie at the root and govern the whole question under present +consideration. Water obeys the laws of gravity, exactly like every +other body; and the velocity with which any quantity may be falling +is an expression of the full amount of work it contains. By a +sufficiently accurate practical rule this velocity is eight times +the square root of the head or vertical column measured in feet. +Velocity per second = 8 sqrt (head in feet), therefore, for a head +of 100 ft. as an example, V = 8 sqrt (100) = 80 ft. per second. The +graphic method of showing velocities or pressures has many +advantages, and is used in all the following diagrams. Beginning +with purely theoretical considerations, we must first recollect +that there is no such thing as absolute motion. All movements are +relative to something else, and what we have to do with a stream of +water in a turbine is to reduce its velocity relatively to the +earth, quite a different thing to its velocity in relation to the +turbine; for while the one may be zero, the other may be anything +we please. ABCD in Fig. 1 represents a parallelogram of velocities, +wherein AC gives the direction of a jet of water starting at A, and +arriving at C at the end of one second or any other division of +time. At a scale of 1/40 in. to 1 ft., AC represents 80 ft., the +fall due to 100 ft. head, or at a scale of 1 in. to 1 ft., AC gives +2 ft., or the distance traveled by the same stream in 1/40 of a +second. The velocity AC may be resolved into two others, namely, AB +and AD, or BC, which are found to be 69.28 ft. and 40 ft. +respectively, when the angle BAC—generally called <i>x</i> in +treatises on turbines—is 30 deg. If, however, AC is taken at +2 ft., then A B will be found = 20.78 in., and BC = 12 in. for a +time of 1/40 or 0.025 of a second. Supposing now a flat plate, BC = +12 in. wide move from DA to CB during 0.025 second, it will be +readily seen that a drop of water starting from A will have arrived +at C in 0.025 second, having been flowing along the surface BC from +B to C without either friction or loss of velocity. If now, instead +of a straight plate, BC, we substitute one having a concave +surface, such as BK in Fig. 2, it will be found necessary to move +it from A to L in 0.025 second, in order to allow a stream to +arrive at C, that is K, without, in transit, friction or loss of +velocity. This concave surface may represent one bucket of a +turbine. Supposing now a resistance to be applied to that it can +only move from A to B instead of to L. Then, as we have already +resolved the velocity A C into AB and BC, so far as the former (AB) +is concerned, no alteration occurs whether BK be straight or +curved. But the other portion, BC, pressing vertically against the +concave surface, BK, becomes gradually diminished in its velocity +in relation to the earth, and produces and effect known as +"reaction." A combined operation of impact and reaction occurs by +further diminishing the distance which the bucket is allowed to +travel, as, for examples, to EF. Here the jet is impelled against +the lower edge of the bucket, B, and gives a pressure by its +impact; then following the curve BK, with a diminishing velocity, +it is finally discharged at K, retaining only sufficient movement +to carry the water clear out of the machine. Thus far we have +considered the movement of jets and buckets along AB as straight +lines, but this can only occur, so far as buckets are concerned, +when their radius in infinite. In practice these latter movements +are always curves of more or less complicated form, which effect a +considerable modification in the forms of buckets, etc., but not in +the general principles, and it is the duty of the designer of any +form of turbine to give this consideration its due importance. +Having thus cleared away any ambiguity from the terms "impact," and +"reaction," and shown how they can act independently or together, +we shall be able to follow the course and behavior of streams in a +turbine, and by treating their effects as arising from two separate +causes, we shall be able to regard the problem without that +inevitable confusion which arises when they are considered as +acting conjointly. Turbines, though driven by vast volumes of +water, are in reality impelled by countless isolated jets, or +streams, all acting together, and a clear understanding of the +behavior of any one of these facilitates and concludes a solution +of the whole problem.</p> + +<p><i>Experimental researches</i>.—All experiments referred +to in this paper were made by jets of water under an actual +vertical head of 45 ft., but as the supply came through a +considerable length of ½ in. bore lead piping, and many +bends, a large and constant loss occurred through friction and +bends, so that the actual working head was only known by measuring +the velocity of discharge. This was easily done by allowing all the +water to flow into a tank of known capacity. The stop cock had a +clear circular passage through it, and two different jets were +used. One oblong measured 0.5 in. by 0.15 in., giving an area of +0.075 square inch. The other jet was circular, and just so much +larger than ¼ in. to be 0.05 of a square inch area, and the +stream flowed with a velocity of 40 ft. per second, corresponding +to a head of 25 ft. Either nozzle could be attached to the same +universal joint, and directed at any desired inclination upon the +horizontal surface of a special well-adjusted compound weighing +machine, or into various bent tubes and other attachments, so that +all pressures, whether vertical or horizontal, could be accurately +ascertained and reduced to the unit, which was the quarter of an +ounce. The vertical component <i>p</i> of any pressure P may be +ascertained by the formula—</p> + +<pre> +<i>p</i> = P sin alpha, +</pre> + +<p>where alpha is the angle made by a jet against a surface; and in +order to test the accuracy of the simple machinery employed for +these researches, the oblong jet which gave 71 unit when impinging +vertically upon a circular plate, was directed at 60 deg. and 45 +deg. thereon, with results shown in Table I., and these, it will be +observed, are sufficiently close to theory to warrant reliance +being placed on data obtained from the simple weighing machinery +used in the experiment.</p> + +<pre> + <i>Table I.—Impact on Level Plate.</i> +--------------+--------------------+----------+----------+---------- + | Inclination of jet | | | + Distance. | to the horizonal. | 90 deg. | 60 deg. | 45 deg. +--------------+--------------------+----------+----------+---------- + | | Pressure | Pressure | Pressure + | | | | + / | Experiment \ | / | 61.00 | 49.00 + 1½ in. < | > | 71.00 < | | + \ | Theory / | \ | 61.48 | 50.10 + | | | | + | | | | + / | Experiment \ | / | 55.00 | 45.00 + 1 in. < | > | 63.00 < | | + \ | Theory / | \ | 54.00 | 45.00 + | | | | +--------------+--------------------+----------+----------+---------- + In each case the unit of pressure is ¼ oz. +</pre> + +<p>In the first trial there was a distance of 1½ in. between +the jet and point of its contact with the plate, while in the +second trial this space was diminished to ½ in. It will be +noticed that as this distance increases we have augmented +pressures, and these are not due, as might be supposed, to increase +of head, which is practically nothing, but they are due to the +recoil of a portion of the stream, which occurs increasingly as it +becomes more and more broken up. These alterations in pressure can +only be eliminated when care is taken to measure that only due to +impact, without at the same time adding the effect of an imperfect +reaction. Any stream that can run off at all points from a smooth +surface gives the minimum of pressure thereon, for then the least +resistance is offered to the destruction of the vertical element of +its velocity, but this freedom becomes lost when a stream is +diverted into a confined channel. As pressure is an indication and +measure of lost velocity, we may then reasonably look for greater +pressure on the scale when a stream is confined after impact than +when it discharges freely in every direction. Experimentally this +is shown to be the case, for when the same oblong jet, discharged +under the same conditions, impinged vertically upon a smooth plate, +and gave a pressure of 71 units, gave 87 units when discharged into +a confined right-angled channel. This result emphasizes the +necessity for confining streams of water whenever it is desired to +receive the greatest pressure by arresting their velocity. Such +streams will always endeavor to escape in the directions of least +resistance, and, therefore, in a turbine means should be provided +to prevent any lateral deviation of the streams while passing +through their buckets. So with screw propellers the great mass of +surrounding water may be regarded as acting like a channel with +elastic sides, which permits the area enlarging as the velocity of +a current passing diminishes. The experiments thus far described +have been made with jets of an oblong shape, and they give results +differing in some degree from those obtained with circular jets. +Yet as the general conclusions from both are found the same, it +will avoid unnecessary prolixity by using the data from experiments +made with a circular jet of 0.05 square inch area, discharging a +stream at the rate of 40 ft. per second. This amounts to 52 lb. of +water per minute with an available head of 25 ft., or 1,300 +foot-pounds per minute. The tubes which received and directed the +course of this jet were generally of lead, having a perfectly +smooth internal surface, for it was found that with a rougher +surface the flow of water is retarded, and changes occur in the +data obtained. Any stream having its course changed presses against +the body causing such change, this pressure increasing in +proportion to the angle through which the change is made, and also +according to the radius of a curve around which it flows. This fact +has long been known to hydraulic engineers, and formulæ exist +by which such pressures can be determined; nevertheless, it will be +useful to study these relations from a somewhat different point of +view than has been hitherto adopted, more particularly as they bear +upon the construction of screw propellers and turbines; and by +directing the stream, AB, Fig. 3, vertically into a tube 3/8 in. +internal diameter and bent so as to turn the jet horizontally, and +placing the whole arrangement upon a compound weighing machine, it +is easy to ascertain the downward pressure, AB, due to impact, and +the horizontal pressures, CB, due to reaction. In theoretical +investigations it may be convenient to assume both these pressures +exactly equal, and this has been done in the paper "On Screw +Propellers" already referred to; but this brings in an error of no +importance so far as general principles are involved, but one which +destroys much of the value such researches might, otherwise possess +for those who are engaged in the practical construction of screw +propellers or turbines. The downward impact pressure, AB, is always +somewhat greater than the horizontal reaction, BC, and any +proportions between these two can only be accurately ascertained by +trials. In these particular experiments the jet of water flowed 40 +ft. per second through an orifice of 0.05 square inch area, and in +every case its course was bent to a right angle. The pressures for +impact and reaction were weighed coincidently, with results given +by columns 1 and 2, Table II.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/2c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/2c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/2d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/2d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 4"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<pre> +<i>Table II.—Impact and Reaction in Confined Channels.</i> + +-----------------------------+-------+---------+----------+------- +Number of column. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 +-----------------------------+-------+---------+----------+------- +Description of experiments. |Impact.|Reaction.|Resultant.| Angles + | | | | ABS. +-----------------------------+-------+---------+----------+------- +Smooth London tube, 1¾ in. | 71 | 62 | 94.25 | 49° + mean radius. | | | | + | | | | +Rough wrought iron tube, | 78 | 52 | 98.75 | 56.5° + 1¾ in. | | | | + | | | | +Smooth leaden tube bent to a | 71 | 40 | 81.5 | 60 + sharp right angle. | | | | +-----------------------------+-------+---------+----------+------ +</pre> + +<p>The third column is obtained by constructing a parallelogram of +forces, where impact and reaction form the measures of opposing +sides, and it furnishes the resultant due to both forces. The +fourth column gives the inclination ABS, at which the line of +impact must incline toward a plane surface RS, Fig. 3, so as to +produce this maximum resultant perpendicularly upon it; as the +resultant given in column 3 indicates the full practical effect of +impact and reaction. When a stream has its direction changed to one +at right angles to its original course, and as such a changed +direction is all that can be hoped for by ordinary screw +propellers, the figures in column 3 should bear some relationship +to such cases. Therefore, it becomes an inquiry of some interest as +to what angle of impact has been found best in those screw +propellers which have given the best results in practical work. +Taking one of the most improved propellers made by the late Mr. +Robert Griffiths, its blades do not conform to the lines of a true +screw, but it is an oblique paddle, where the acting portions of +its blades were set at 48 deg. to the keel of the ship or 42 deg. +to the plane of rotation. Again, taking a screw tug boat on the +river Thames, with blades of a totally different form to those used +by Mr. Griffiths, we still find them set at the same angle, namely, +48 deg. to the keel or 42 deg. to the plane of rotation. An +examination of other screws tends only to confirm these figures, +and they justify the conclusion that the inclinations of blades +found out by practice ought to be arrived at, or at any rate +approached, by any sound and reliable theory; and that blades of +whatever form must not transgress far from this inclination if they +are to develop any considerable efficiency. Indeed, many favorable +results obtained by propellers are not due to their peculiarities, +but only to the fact that they have been made with an inclination +of blade not far from 42 deg. to the plan of rotation. Referring to +column 4, and accepting the case of water flowing through a smooth +tube as analogous to that of a current flowing within a large body +of water, it appears that the inclination necessary to give the +highest resultant pressure is an angle of 49 deg., and this +corresponds closely enough with the angle which practical +constructors of screw propellers have found to give the best +results. Until, therefore, we can deal with currents after they +have been discharged from the blades of a propeller, it seems +unlikely that anything can be done by alterations in the pitch of a +propeller. So far as concerns theory, the older turbines were +restricted to such imperfect results of impact and reaction as +might be obtained by turning a stream at right angles to its +original course; and the more scientific of modern turbine +constructors may fairly claim credit for an innovation by which +practice gave better results than theory seemed to warrant; and the +consideration of this aspect of the question will form the +concluding subject of the present paper. Referring again to Fig. 3, +when a current passes round such a curve as the quadrant of a +circle, its horizontal reaction appears as a pressure along +<i>c</i> B, which is the result of the natural integration of all +the horizontal components of pressures, all of which act +perpendicularly to each element of the concave surface along which +the current flows. If, now, we add another quadrant of a circle to +the curve, and so turn the stream through two right angles, or 180 +deg., as shown by Fig. 4, then such a complete reversal of the +original direction represents the carrying of it back again to the +highest point; it means the entire destruction of its velocity, and +it gives the maximum pressure obtainable from a jet of water +impinging upon a surface of any form whatsoever. The reaction +noticed in Fig. 3 as acting along <i>c</i> B is now confronted by +an impact of the now horizontal stream as it is turned round the +second 90 deg. of curvature, and reacts also vertically downward. +It would almost seem as if the first reaction from B to F should be +exactly neutralized by the second impact from F to D. But such is +not the case, as experiment shows an excess of the second impact +over the first reaction amounting to six units, and shows also that +the behavior of the stream through its second quadrant is precisely +similar in kind to the first, only less in degree. Also the impact +takes place vertically in one case and horizontally in the other. +The total downward pressure given by the stream when turned 180 +deg. is found by experiment thus: Total impact and reaction from +180 deg. change in direction of current = 132 units; and by +deducting the impact 71 units, as previously measured, the new +reaction corresponds with an increase of 61 units above the first +impact. It also shows an increase of 37.75 units above the greatest +resultant obtained by the same stream turned through 90 deg. only. +Therefore, in designing a screw propeller or turbine, it would seem +from these experiments desirable to aim at changing the direction +of the stream, so far as possible, into one at 180 deg. to its +original course, and it is by carrying out this view, so far as the +necessities of construction will permit, that the scientifically +designed modern turbine has attained to that prominence which it +holds at present over all hydraulic motors. Much more might be +written to extend and amplify the conclusions that can be drawn +from the experiments described in the present paper, and from many +others made by the writer, but the exigencies of time and your +patience alike preclude further consideration of this interesting +and important subject.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">Paper read before the British Association at +Montreal.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED TEXTILE MACHINERY.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt= +" THE TEXTILE EXHIBITION, ISLINGTON."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE TEXTILE EXHIBITION, ISLINGTON.</p> + +<p>In the recent textile exhibition at Islington, one of the most +extensive exhibits was that, of Messrs. James Farmer and Sons, of +Salford. The exhibit consists of a Universal calender, drying +machines, patent creasing, measuring, and marking machines, and +apparatus for bleaching, washing, chloring, scouring, soaping, +dunging, and dyeing woven fabrics. The purpose of the Universal +calender is, says the <i>Engineer</i>, to enable limited quantities +of goods to be finished in various ways without requiring different +machines. The machine consists of suitable framing, to which is +attached all the requisite stave rails, batching apparatus, +compound levers, top and bottom adjusting screws, and level setting +down gear, also Stanley roller with all its adjustments. It is +furthermore supplied with chasing arrangement and four bowls; the +bottom one is of cast iron, with wrought iron center; the next is +of paper or cotton; the third of chilled iron fitted for heating by +steam or gas, and the top of paper or cotton. By this machine are +given such finishes as are known as "chasing finish" when the +thready surface is wanted; "frictioning," or what is termed +"glazing finish," "swigging finish," and "embossing finish;" the +later is done by substituting a steel or copper engraved roller in +place of the friction bowl. This machine is also made to I produce +the "Moire luster" finish. The drying machine consists of nineteen +cylinders, arranged with stave rails and plaiting down apparatus. +These cylinders are driven by bevel wheels, so that each one is +independent of its neighbor, and should any accident occur to one +or more of the cylinders or wheels, the remaining ones can be run +until a favorable opportunity arrives to repair the damage. A small +separate double cylinder diagonal engine is fitted to this machine, +the speed of which can be adjusted for any texture of cloth, and +being of the design it is, will start at once on steam being turned +one. The machine cylinders are rolled by a special machine for that +purpose, and are perfectly true on the face. Their insides are +fitted with patent buckets, which remove all the condensed water. +In the machine exhibited, which is designed for the bleaching, +washing, chloring, and dyeing, the cloth is supported by hollow +metallic cylinders perforated with holes and corrugated to allow +the liquor used to pass freely through as much of the cloth as +possible; the open ends of the cylinders are so arranged that +nearly all of their area is open to the action of the pump. The +liquor, which is drawn through the cloth into the inside of the +cylinders by the centrifugal pumps, is discharged back into the +cistern by a specially constructed discharge pipe, so devised that +the liquor, which is sent into it with great force by the pump, is +diverted so as to pour straight down in order to prevent any eddies +which could cause the cloth to wander from its course. The cloth is +supported to and from the cylinders by flat perforated plates in +such a manner that the force of the liquor cannot bag or displace +the threads of the cloth, and by this means also the liquor has a +further tendency to penetrate the fibers of the cloth. Means are +provided for readily and expeditiously cleansing the entire +machine. The next machine which we have to notice in this exhibit +is Farmer's patent marking and measuring machine, the purpose of +which is to stamp on the cloths the lengths of the same at regular +distances. It is very desirable that drapers should have some +simple means of discovering at a glance what amount of material +they have in stock without the necessity of unrolling their cloth +to measure it, and this machine seems to perfectly meet the demands +of the case. The arrangement for effecting the printing and inking +is shown in our engraving at A. It is contained within a small +disk, which can be moved at will, so that it can be adapted to +various widths of cloth or other material. A measuring roller runs +beside the printing disk, and on this is stamped the required +figures by a simple contrivance at the desired distances, say every +five yards. The types are linked together into a roller chain which +is carried by the disk, A, and they ink themselves automatically +from a flannel pad. The machine works in this way: The end of the +piece to be measured is brought down until it touches the surface +of the table, the marker is turned to zero, and also the finger of +the dial on the end of the measuring roller. The machine is then +started, and the lengths are printed at the required distances +until it becomes necessary to cut out the first piecing or joint in +the fabric. The dial registers the total length of the piece.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>ENDLESS ROPE HAULAGE.</h2> + +<p>In the North of England Report, the endless rope systems are +classified as No. 1 and No 2 systems. No. 1, which has the rope +under the tubs, is said to be in operation in the Midland counties. +To give motion to the rope a single wheel is used, and friction for +driving the rope is supplied either by clip pulleys or by taking +the rope over several wheels. The diagram shows an arrangement for +a tightening arrangement. One driving wheel is used, says <i>The +Colliery Guardian</i>, and the rope is kept constantly tight by +passing it round a pulley fixed upon a tram to which a heavy weight +is attached. Either one or two lines of rails are used. When a +single line is adopted the rope works backward and forward, only +one part being on the wagon way and the other running by the side +of the way. When two lines are used the ropes move always in one +direction, the full tubs coming out on one line and the empties +going in on the other. The rope passes under the tubs, and the +connection is made by means of a clamp or by sockets in the rope, +to which the set is attached by a short chain. The rope runs at a +moderately high speed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3b_th.jpg" alt= +" TIGHTENING ARRANGEMENT—ENDLESS ROPE HAULAGE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">TIGHTENING ARRANGEMENT—ENDLESS ROPE +HAULAGE.</p> + +<p>No. 2 system was peculiar to Wigan. A double line of rails is +always used. The rope rests upon the tubs, which are attached to +the rope either singly or in sets varying in number from two to +twelve. The other engraving shows a mode of connection between the +tubs and the rope by a rope loop as shown.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3c_th.jpg" alt= +" ATTACHMENT TO ENDLESS ROPE "OVER.""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ATTACHMENT TO ENDLESS ROPE "OVER."</p> + +<p>The tubs are placed at a regular distance apart, and the rope +works slowly. Motion is given to the rope by large driving pulleys, +and friction is obtained by taking the rope several times round the +driving pulley.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>A RELIABLE WATER FILTER.</h2> + +<p>Opinions are so firmly fixed at present that water is capable of +carrying the germs of disease that, in cases of epidemics, the +recommendation is made to drink natural mineral waters, or to boil +ordinary water. This is a wise measure, assuredly; but mineral +waters are expensive, and, moreover, many persons cannot get used +to them. As for boiled water, that is a beverage which has no +longer a normal composition; a portion of its salts has become +precipitated, and its dissolved gases have been given off. In spite +of the aeration that it is afterward made to undergo, it preserves +an insipid taste, and I believe that it is not very digestible. I +have thought, then, that it would be important, from a hygienic +standpoint, to have a filter that should effectually rid water of +all the microbes or germs that it contains, while at the same time +preserving the salts or gases that it holds in solution. I have +reached such a result, and, although it is always delicate to speak +of things that one has himself done, I think the question is too +important to allow me to hold back my opinion in regard to the +apparatus. It is a question of general hygiene before which my own +personality must disappear completely.</p> + +<p>In Mr. Pasteur's laboratory, we filter the liquids in which +microbes have been cultivated, so as to separate them from the +medium in which they exist. For this purpose we employ a small +unglazed porcelain tube that we have had especially constructed +therefor. The liquid traverses the porous sides of this under the +influence of atmospheric pressure, since we cause a vacuum around +the tube by means of an air-pump. We collect in this way, after +several hours, a few cubic inches of a liquid which is absolutely +pure, since animals may be inoculated with it without danger to +them, while the smallest quantity of the same liquid, when not +filtered, infallibly causes death.</p> + +<p>This is the process that I have applied to the filtration of +water. I have introduced into it merely such modifications as are +necessary to render the apparatus entirely practical. My apparatus +consists of an unglazed porcelain tube inverted upon a ring of +enameled porcelain, forming a part thereof, and provided with an +aperture for the outflow of the liquid. This tube is placed within +a metallic one, which is directly attached to a cock that is +soldered to the service pipe. A nut at the base that can be +maneuvered by hand permits, through the intermedium of a rubber +washer resting upon the enameled ring, of the tube being +hermetically closed.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, when the cock is turned on, the water +fills the space between the two tubes and slowly filters, under the +influence of pressure, through the sides of the porous one, and is +freed from all solid matter, including the microbes and germs, that +it contains. It flows out thoroughly purified, through the lower +aperture, into a vessel placed there to receive it.</p> + +<p>I have directly ascertained that water thus filtered is deprived +of all its germs. For this purpose I have added some of it (with +the necessary precautions against introducing foreign organisms) to +very changeable liquids, such as veal broth, blood, and milk, and +have found that there was no alteration. Such water, then, is +incapable of transmitting the germs of disease.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4a_th.jpg" alt=" CHAMBERLAND'S WATER FILTER."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">CHAMBERLAND'S WATER FILTER.</p> + +<p>With an apparatus like the one here figured, and in which the +filtering tube is eight inches in length by about one inch in +diameter, about four and a half gallons of water per day may be +obtained when the pressure is two atmospheres—the mean +pressure in Mr. Pasteur's laboratory, where my experiments were +made. Naturally, the discharge is greater or less according to the +pressure. A discharge of three and a half to four and a half +gallons of water seems to me to be sufficient for the needs of an +ordinary household. For schools, hospitals, barracks, etc., it is +easy to obtain the necessary volume of water by associating the +tubes in series. The discharge will be multiplied by the number of +tubes.</p> + +<p>In the country, or in towns that have no water mains, it will be +easy to devise an arrangement for giving the necessary pressure. An +increase in the porosity of the filtering tube is not to be thought +of, as this would allow very small germs to pass. This filter being +a perfect one, we must expect to see it soil quickly. Filters that +do not get foul are just the ones that do not filter. But with the +arrangement that I have adopted the solid matters deposit upon the +external surface of the filter, while the inner surface always +remains perfectly clean. In order to clean the tube, it is only +necessary to take it out and wash it vigorously. As the tube is +entirely of porcelain, it may likewise be plunged into boiling +water so as to destroy the germs that may have entered the sides +or, better yet, it may be heated over a gas burner or in an +ordinary oven. In this way all the organic matter will be burned, +and the tube will resume its former porosity.—<i>M. +Chamberland, La Nature.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>SIMPLE DEVICES FOR DISTILLING WATER.</h2> + +<p>The alchemists dreamed and talked of that universal solvent +which they so long and vainly endeavored to discover; still, for +all this, not only the alchemist of old, but his more immediate +successor, the chemist of to-day, has found no solvent so universal +as water. No liquid has nearly so wide a range of dissolving +powers, and, taking things all round, no liquid exercises so slight +an action upon the bodies dissolved—evaporate the water away, +and the dissolved substance is obtained in an unchanged condition; +at any rate, this is the general rule.</p> + +<p>The function of water in nature is essentially that of a solvent +or a medium of circulation; it is not, in any sense, a food, yet +without it no food can be assimilated by an animal. Without water +the solid materials of the globe would be unable to come together +so closely as to interchange their elements; and unless the +temperatures were sufficiently high to establish an igneous +fluidity, such as undoubtedly exists in the sun, there would be no +circulation of matter to speak of, and the earth would be, as it +were, locked up or dead.</p> + +<p>When we look upon water as the nearest approach to a universal +solvent that even the astute scientist of to-day has been able to +discover, who can wonder that it is never found absolutely pure in +nature? For wherever it accumulates it dissolves something from its +surroundings. Still, in a rain-drop just formed we have very nearly +pure water; but even this contains dissolved air to the extent of +about one-fiftieth of its volume, and as the drop falls downward it +takes up such impurities as may be floating in the atmosphere; so +that if our rain-drop is falling immediately after a long drought, +it becomes charged with nitrate or nitrite of ammonia and various +organic matters—perhaps also the spores or germs of disease. +Thus it will be seen that rain tends to wonderfully clear or wash +the atmosphere, and we all know how much a first rain is +appreciated as an air purifier, and how it carries down with it +valuable food for plants. The rain-water, in percolating through or +over the land, flows mainly toward the rivers, and in doing so it +becomes more or less charged with mineral matter, lime salts and +common salt being the chief of them; while some of that water which +has penetrated more deeply into the earth takes up far more solid +matter than is ordinarily found in river water. The bulk of this +more or less impure water tends toward the ocean, taking with it +its load of salt and lime. Constant evaporation, of course, takes +place from the surface of the sea, so that the salt and lime +accumulate, this latter being, however, ultimately deposited as +shells, coral, and chalk, while nearly pure or naturally distilled +water once more condenses in the form of clouds. This process, by +which a constant supply of purified water is kept up in the natural +economy, is imitated on a small scale when water is converted into +steam by the action of heat, and this vapor is cooled so as to +reproduce liquid water, the operation in question being known as +distillation.</p> + +<p>For this purpose an apparatus known as a still is required; and +although by law one must pay an annual license fee for the right to +use a still, it is not usual for the government authorities to +enforce the law when a still is merely used for purifying +water.</p> + +<p>One of the best forms of still for the photographer to employ +consists of a tin can or bottle in which the water is boiled, and +to this a tin tube is adapted by means of a cork, one end of this +tin tube terminating in a coil passing through a tub or other +vessel of cold water. A gas burner, as shown, is a convenient +source of heat, and in order to insure a complete condensation of +the vapor, the water in the cooling tub must be changed now and +again.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>Sometimes the vapor is condensed by being allowed to play +against the inside of a conical cover which is adapted to a +saucepan, and is kept cool by the external application of cold +water; and in this case the still takes the form represented by the +subjoined diagrams; such compact and portable stills being largely +employed in Ireland for the private manufacture of whisky.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4c_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>It is scarcely necessary to say that the condensed water +trickles down on the inside of the cone, and flows out at the +spout.</p> + +<p>An extemporized arrangement of a similar character may be made +by passing a tobacco pipe through the side of a tin saucepan as +shown below, and inverting the lid of the saucepan; if the lid is +now kept cool by frequent changes of water inside it, and the pipe +is properly adjusted so as to catch the drippings from the convex +side of the lid, a considerable quantity of distilled water may be +collected in an hour or so.</p> + +<p>The proportion of solid impurities present in water as +ordinarily met with is extremely variable: rain water which has +been collected toward the end of a storm contains only a minute +fraction of a grain per gallon, while river or spring water may +contain from less than thirty grains per gallon or so and upward. +Ordinary sea water generally contains from three to four per cent. +of saline matter, but that of the Dead Sea contains nearly +one-fourth of its weight of salts.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4d_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>The three impurities of water which most interest the +photographer are lime or magnesia salts, which give the so-called +hardness; chlorides (as, for example, chloride of sodium or common +salt), which throw down silver salts; and organic matter, which may +overturn the balance of photographic operations by causing +premature reduction of the sensitive silver compounds. To test for +them is easy. Hardness is easily recognizable by washing one's +hands in the water, the soap being curdled; but in many cases one +must rather seek for a hard water than avoid it, as the tendency of +gelatine plates to frill is far less in hard water than in soft +water. It is, indeed, a common and useful practice to harden the +water used for washing by adding half an ounce or an ounce of Epsom +salts (sulphate of magnesia) to each bucket of water. +Chlorides—chloride of sodium or common salt being that +usually met with—may be detected by adding a drop or two of +nitrate of silver to half a wineglassful of the water, a few drops +of nitric acid being then added. A slight cloudiness indicates a +trace of chlorides, and a decided milkiness shows the presence of a +larger quantity. If it is wished to get a somewhat more definite +idea of the amount, it is easy to make up a series of standards for +comparison, by dissolving known weights of common salt in distilled +or rain water, and testing samples of them side by side with the +water to be examined.</p> + +<p>Organic matters may be detected by adding a little nitrate of +silver to the water, filtering off from any precipitate of chloride +of silver, and exposing the clear liquid to sunlight; a clean +stoppered bottle being the most convenient vessel to use. The +extent to which a blackening takes place may be regarded as +approximately proportionate to the amount of organic matter +present.</p> + +<p>Filtration on a small scale is not altogether a satisfactory +mode of purifying water, as organic impurities often accumulate in +the filter, and enter into active putrefaction when hot weather +sets in.—<i>Photo. News.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED FIRE-DAMP DETECTER.</h2> + +<p>According to the London <i>Mining Journal</i>, Mr. W.E. +Garforth, of Normanton, has introduced an ingenious invention, the +object of which is to detect fire-damp in collieries with the least +possible degree of risk to those engaged in the work. Mr. +Garforth's invention, which is illustrated in the diagram given +below, consists in the use of a small India rubber hand ball, +without a valve of any description; but by the ordinary action of +compressing the ball, and then allowing it to expand, a sample of +the suspected atmosphere is drawn from the roof, or any part of the +mine, without the great risk which now attends the operation of +testing for gas should the gauze of the lamp be defective. The +sample thus obtained is then forced through a small protected tube +on to the flame, when if gas is present it is shown by the +well-known blue cap and elongated flame. From this description, and +from the fact that the ball is so small that it can be carried in +the coat pocket, or, if necessary, in the waistcoat pocket, it will +be apparent what a valuable adjunct Mr. Garforth's invention will +prove to the safety-lamp. It has been supposed by some persons that +explosions have been caused by the fire-trier himself, but owing to +his own death in most cases the cause has remained undiscovered. +This danger will now be altogether avoided. It is well known that +the favorite form of lamp with the firemen is the Davy, because it +shows more readily the presence of small quantities of gas; but the +Davy was some years ago condemned, and is now strictly prohibited +in all Belgian and many English mines. Recent experience, gained by +repeated experiments with costly apparatus, has resulted in not +only proving the Davy and some other descriptions of lamps to be +unsafe, but some of our Government Inspectors and our most +experienced mining engineers go so far as to say that "no lamp in a +strong current of explosive gas is safe unless protected by a tin +shield."</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4e.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4e_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>If such is the case, Mr. Garforth seems to have struck the +key-note when, in the recent paper read before the Midland +Institute of Mining and Civil Engineers, and which we have now +before us, he says: "It would seem from the foregoing remarks that +in any existing safety-lamp where one qualification is increased +another is proportionately reduced; so it is doubtful whether all +the necessary requirements of sensitiveness, resistance to strong +currents, satisfactory light, self-extinction, perfect combustion, +etc., can ever be combined in one lamp."</p> + +<p>The nearest approach to Mr. Garforth's invention which we have +ever heard of is that of a workman at a colliery in the north of +England, who, more than twenty years ago, to avoid the trouble of +getting to the highest part of the roof, used a kind of air pump, +seven or eight feet long, to extract the gas from the breaks; and +some five years ago Mr. Jones, of Ebbw Vale, had a similar idea. It +appears that these appliances were so cumbersome, besides requiring +too great length or height for most mines, and necessitating the +use of both hands, that they did not come into general use. The +ideas, however, are totally different, and the causes which have +most likely led to the invention of the ball and protected tube +were probably never thought of until recently; indeed, Mr. Garforth +writes that he has only learned about them since his paper was read +before the Midland Institute, and some weeks after his patent was +taken out.</p> + +<p>No one, says Mr. Garforth, in his paper read before the Midland +Institute, will, I presume, deny that the Davy is more sensitive +than the tin shield lamp, inasmuch as in the former the surrounding +atmosphere or explosive mixture has only one thickness of gauze to +pass through, and that on a level with the flame; while the latter +has a number of small holes and two or three thicknesses of gauze +(according to the construction of the lamp), which the gas must +penetrate before it reaches the flame. Moreover, the tin shield +lamp, when inclined to one side, is extinguished (though not so +easily as the Mueseler); and as the inlet holes are 6 inches from +the top, it does not show a thin stratum of fire-damp near the roof +as perceptibly as the Davy, which admits of being put in almost a +horizontal position. Although the Davy lamp was, nearly fifty years +ago, pronounced unsafe, by reason of its inability to resist an +ordinary velocity of eight feet per second, yet it is still kept in +use on account of its sensitiveness. Its advocates maintain that a +mine can be kept safer by using the Davy, which detects small +quantities of gas, and thereby shows the real state of the mine, +than by a lamp which, though able to resist a greater velocity, is +not so sensitive, and consequently is apt to deceive. Assuming the +Davy lamp to be condemned (as it has already been in Belgium and in +some English mines), the Stephenson and some of the more recently +invented lamps pronounced unsafe, then if greater shielding is +recommended the question is, what means have we for detecting small +quantities of fire-damp?</p> + +<p>It would seem from the foregoing remarks that in any existing +safety-lamp, where one qualification is increased another is +proportionately reduced; so it is doubtful whether all the +necessary requirements of sensitiveness, resistance to strong +currents, satisfactory light, self-extinction, perfect combustion, +etc., can ever be combined in one lamp. The object of the present +paper is to show that with the assistance of the fire-damp +detecter, the tin shield, or any other description of lamp, is made +as sensitive as the Davy, while its other advantages of resisting +velocity, etc., are not in any way interfered with. As a proof of +this I may mention that a deputy of experience recently visited a +working place to make his inspection. He reported the stall to be +free from gas, but when the manager and steward visited it with the +detecter, which they applied to the roof (where it would have been +difficult to put even a small Davy), it drew a sample of the +atmosphere which, on being put to the test tube in the tin-shield +lamp, at once showed the presence of fire-damp. Out of twenty-eight +tests in a mine working a long-wall face the Davy showed gas only +eleven times, while the detecter showed it in every case. The +detecter, as will be perceived from the one exhibited, and the +accompanying sectional drawing, consists simply of an oval-shaped +India rubber ball, fitted with a mouthpiece. The diameter is about +2¼ inches by 3 inches, its weight is two ounces, and it is +so small that it can be carried without any inconvenience in the +coat or even in the waistcoat pocket. Its capacity is such that all +the air within it may be expelled by the compression of one +hand.</p> + +<p>The mouthpiece is made to fit a tube in the bottom of the lamp, +and when pressed against the India rubber ring on the ball-flange, +a perfectly tight joint is made, which prevents the admission of +any external air. The tube in the bottom of the lamp is carried +within a short distance of the height of the wick-holder. It is +covered at the upper end with gauze, besides being fitted with +other thicknesses of gauze at certain distances within the tube; +and if it be found desirable to further protect the flame against +strong currents of air, a small valve may be placed at the inlet, +as shown in the drawing. This valve is made of sufficient weight to +resist the force of a strong current, and is only lifted from its +seat by the pressure of the hand on the mouthpiece. It will be +apparent from the small size and elasticity of the detecter that +the test can easily be made with one hand, and when the ball is +allowed to expand a vacuum is formed within it, and a sample of the +atmosphere drawn from the breaks, cavities, or highest parts of the +roof, or, of course, any portion of the mine. When the sample is +forced through the tube near the flame, gas if present at once +reveals itself by the elongation of the flame in the usual way, at +the same time giving an additional proof by burning with a blue +flame on the top of the test tube. If gas is not present, the +distinction is easily seen by the flame keeping the same size, but +burning with somewhat greater brightness, owing to the increased +quality of oxygen forced upon it.</p> + +<p>I venture to claim for this method of detecting fire-damp among +other advantages: 1. The detecter, on account of its size, can be +placed in a break in the roof where an ordinary lamp—even a +small Davy—could not be put, and a purer sample of the +suspected atmosphere is obtained than would be the case even a few +inches below the level of the roof, 2. The obtaining and testing of +a sample in the manner above described takes away the possibility +of an explosion, which might be the result if a lamp with a +defective gauze were placed in an explosive atmosphere. No one +knows how many explosions have not been caused by the fire-trier +himself. This will now be avoided. (Although lamps fitted with a +tin shield will be subjected to the same strict examination as +hitherto, still they do not admit of the same frequent inspection +as those without shields, for in the latter case each workman can +examine his own lamp as an extra precaution; whereas the +examination of the tin shield lamps will rest entirely with the +lamp man.) 3. The lamp can be kept in a pure atmosphere while the +sample is obtained by the detecter, and at a greater height than +the flame in a safety-lamp could be properly distinguished. The +test can afterward be made in a safe place, at some distance from +the explosive atmosphere; and, owing to the vacuum formed, the ball +(without closing the mouthpiece) has been carried a mile or more +without the gas escaping. 4. The detecter supplies a better +knowledge of the condition of the working places, especially in +breaks and cavities in the roof; which latter, with the help of a +nozzle and staff, may be reached to a height of ten feet or more, +by the detecter being pressed against the roof and sides, or by the +use of a special form of detecter. 5. Being able at will to force +the contents of the detecter on to the flame, the effects of an +explosion inside the lamp need not be feared. (This danger being +removed, admits, I think, of the glass cylinder being made of a +larger diameter, whereby a better light is obtained; it may also be +considered quite as strong, when used with the detecter, as a lamp +with a small diameter, when the latter is placed in an explosive +atmosphere.) 6. The use of the detecter will permit the further +protection of the present tin shield lamp, by an extra thickness of +gauze, if such addition is found advantageous in resisting an +increased velocity. 7. In the Mueseler, Stephenson, and other +lamps, where the flame is surrounded by glass, there is no means of +using the wire for shot firing. The detecter tube, although +protected by two thicknesses of gauze, admits of this being done by +the use of a special form of valve turned by the mouthpiece of the +detecter. The system of firing shots or using open lamps in the +same pit where safety lamps are used is exceedingly objectionable; +still, under certain conditions shots may be fired without danger. +Whether safety lamps or candles are used, it is thought the use of +the detecter will afford such a ready means of testing that more +examinations will be made before firing a shot, thereby insuring +greater safety. 8. In testing for gas with a safety lamp there is a +fear of the light being extinguished, when the lamp is suddenly +placed in a quantity of gas, or in endeavoring to get a very small +light; this is especially the case with some kinds of lamps. With +the detecter this is avoided, as a large flame can be used, which +is considered by some a preferable means of testing for small +quantities; and the test can be made without risk. Where gas is +present in large quantities, the blue flame at the end of the test +tube will be found a further proof. This latter result is produced +by the slightest compression of the ball. (I need not point out the +inconvenience and loss of time in having to travel a mile or more +to relight.) As regards the use of the detecter with open lights, +several of the foregoing advantages or modifications of them will +apply. Instead of having to use the safety lamp as at present, it +is thought that the working place will be more frequently examined, +for a sample of the suspected atmosphere can be carried to a safe +place and forced on to the naked light, when, if gas be present, it +simply burns at the end of the mouthpiece like an ordinary gas jet. +There are other advantages, such as examining the return airways +without exposing the lamp, etc., which will be apparent, and become +of more or less importance according to the conditions under which +the tests are made.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I wish to paint out that the practice adopted at +some collieries, of having all the men supplied with the most +approved lamp (such as the Mueseler or tin shield lamp) is not a +safe one. If the strength of a chain is only equal to the weakest +link, it may be argued that the safety of a mine is only equal to +that of the most careless man or most unsafe lamp in it. If, +therefore, the deputies, whose duty it is to look for gas and +travel the most dangerous parts of the mine, are obliged to use the +Davy on account of its sensitiveness, may it not be said that, as +their lamps are exposed equally with the workmen's to the high +velocities of air, they are the weak links in the safety of the +mine? For the reasons given, I venture to submit that the +difficulties and dangers I have mentioned will be largely reduced, +if not wholly overcome, by the use of the fire-damp detecter.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>CAMERA ATTACHMENT FOR PAPER PHOTO NEGATIVES.</h2> + +<p>In computing the weight of the various items for a photographic +tour, the glass almost invariably comes out at the head of the +list, and the farther or longer the journey, so much more does the +weight of the plates stand out pre-eminent; indeed, if one goes out +on a trip with only three dozen half-plates, the glass will +probably weigh nearly as much as camera, backs, and tripod, in +spite of the stipulation with the maker to supply plates on "thin +glass."</p> + +<p>Next in importance to glass as a support comes paper, and it is +quite easy to understand that the tourist in out of the way parts +might be able to take an apparatus containing a roll of sensitive +paper, when it would be altogether impracticable for him to take an +equivalent surface of coated glass, and in such a case the roller +slide becomes of especial value.</p> + +<p>The roller slide of Melhuish is tolerably well known, and is, we +believe, now obtainable as an article of commerce. The slide is +fitted up with two rollers, <i>a a</i>, and the sensitive sheets, +<i>b b</i>, are gummed together, making one long band, the ends of +which are gummed to pieces of paper always kept on the rollers. The +sensitive sheets are wound off the left or reserve roller on to the +right or exposed roller, until all are exposed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>The rollers are supported on springs, <i>a¹ a¹</i>, to +render their motion equal; they are turned by the milled heads, +<i>m m</i>, and clamped when each fresh sheet is brought into +position by the nuts, <i>a² a²</i>. <i>c</i>, is a board +which is pressed forward by springs, <i>c¹ c¹</i>, so as +to hold the sheet to be exposed, and keep it smooth against the +plate of glass, <i>d</i>; when the sheet has been exposed, the +board is drawn back from the glass in order to release the exposed +sheet, and allow it to be rolled on the exposed roller; the board +is kept back while this is being done by turning the square rod, +<i>c²</i>, half round, so that the angles of the square will +not pass back through the square opening until again turned +opposite to it; <i>e e</i> are doors, by opening which the operator +can see (through the yellow glass, <i>y y</i>) to adjust the +position of the sensitive sheets when changing them.</p> + +<p>The remarkable similarity of such a slide to the automatic +printing-frame described last week will strike the reader; and, +like the printing-frame, it possesses the advantage of speed in +working—no small consideration to the photographer in a +distant, and possibly hostile, country.</p> + +<p>Fine paper well sized with an insoluble size and coated with a +sensitive emulsion is, we believe, the very best material to use in +the roller slide; and such a paper might be made in long lengths at +a very low price, a coating machine similar to that constructed for +use in making carbon tissue being employed. We have used such paper +with success, and hope that some manufacturer will introduce it +into commerce before long. But the question suggests itself, how +are the paper negatives to be rendered transparent, and how is the +grain of the paper to be obliterated? Simply by pressure, as +extremely heavy rolling will render such paper almost as +transparent as glass, a fact abundantly demonstrated by Mr. +Woodbury in his experiments on the Photo-Filigrane process, and +confirmed by some trials which we have made.</p> + +<p>It must be confessed that roller slide experiments which we have +made with sensitive films supported on gelatine sheets, or on such +composite sheets as the alternate rubber and collodion pellicle of +Mr. Warnerke, have been hardly satisfactory—possibly, +however, from our own want of skill; while no form of the Calotype +process which we have tried has proved so satisfactory as +gelatino-bromide paper.—<i>Photo. News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>INSTANTANEOUS PHOTO SHUTTER.</h2> + +<p>M. Audra, in the name of M. Braun, of Angoulême, has +presented to the Photo Society of France a new instantaneous +shutter. The shutter is formed by a revolving metallic disk out of +which a segment has been taken. This disk is placed in the center +of the diaphragms, in order to obtain the greatest rapidity +combined with the least possible distance to travel. On the axis to +which this circular disk is fixed is a small wheel, to which is +attached a piece of string, and when the disk is turned round for +the exposure the string is wound round the wheel. If the string be +pulled, naturally the disk will revolve back to its former position +so much the more quickly the more violently the string is pulled. +M. Braun has replaced the hand by a steel spring attached to the +drum of the lens (Fig. 2) By shortening or lengthening the string, +more or less rapid exposures may be obtained.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5b_th.jpg" alt= +" AAA, lens; B, aperture of lens; C, metallic disk; D,"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">AAA, lens; B, aperture of lens; C, metallic disk; D, +wheel on the axis; E, cord or string; E¹E¹E¹E¹, +knots in string; G, steel spring; H, catch; K, socket for +catch.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>SULPHUROUS ACID.—EASY METHOD OF PREPARATION FOR +PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES.</h2> + +<p>Within a short period sulphurous acid has become an important +element in the preparation of an excellent pyro developer for +gelatine plates; and as it is more or less unstable in its keeping +qualities, some easy method of preparing a small quantity which +shall have a uniform strength is desirable. A method recently +described in the <i>Photographic News</i> will afford the amateur +photographer a ready way of preparing a small quantity of the +acid.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5c_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>In the illustration given above, A and B are two bottles, both +of which can be closed tightly with corks. A hole is made in the +cork in the bottle, A, a little smaller than the glass tube which +connects A and B. It is filed out with a rat-tail file until it is +large enough to admit the tube very tightly. The tube may be bent +easily, by being heated over a common fish-tail gas burner or over +the top of the chimney of a kerosene lamp, so as to form two right +angles, one end extending close to the bottom of the bottle B as +shown.</p> + +<p>Having fitted up the apparatus, about two ounces of hyposulphite +of soda are placed in the bottle A, while the bottle B is about +three-fourths filled with water—distilled or melted ice water +is to be preferred; some sulphuric acid—about two +ounces—is now diluted with about twice its bulk of water, by +first putting the water into a dish and pouring in the acid in a +steady stream, stirring meanwhile. It is well to set the dish in a +sink, to avoid any damage which might occur through the breaking of +the dish by the heat produced; when cool, the solution is ready for +use and may be kept in a bottle.</p> + +<p>The cork which serves to adapt the bent tube to the bottle A is +now just removed for an instant, the other end remaining in the +water in bottle B, and about two or three ounces of the dilute acid +are poured in upon the hyposulphite, after which the cork is +immediately replaced.</p> + +<p>Sulphurous acid is now evolved by the action of the acid on the +hypo, and as the gas is generated it is led as a series of bubbles +through the water in the bottle B as shown. The air space above the +water in bottle B soon becomes filled by displacement with +sulphurous acid gas, which is a little over twice as heavy as air; +so in order to expedite the complete saturation of the water, it is +convenient to remove the bottle A with its tube from bottle B, and +after having closed the latter by its cork or stopper, to agitate +it thoroughly by turning the bottle upside down. As the sulphurous +acid gas accumulated in the air space over the water is absorbed by +the water, a partial vacuum is created, and when the stopper is +eased an inrush of air may be noted. When, after passing fresh gas +through the liquid for some minutes, no further inrush of air is +noted on easing the stopper as before described after agitating the +bottle, it may be concluded that the water is thoroughly saturated +with sulphurous acid and is strong enough for immediate use. More +gas can be generated by adding more dilute sulphuric acid to the +hypo until the latter is decomposed; then it should be thrown +aside, and a fresh charge put in the bottle. On preparing the +solution it is well to set the bottles on the outside ledge of the +window, or in some other open situation where no inconvenience will +result from the escape of the excess of sulphurous gas as it +bubbles through the water.</p> + +<p>The solution of sulphurous acid, if preserved at all, ought to +be kept in small bottles, completely filled and perfectly closed; +but as it is very easy to saturate a considerable quantity of water +with sulphurous acid gas in a short time, there is but little +inducement to use a solution which may possibly have become +weakened by keeping.</p> + +<p>Care should be taken not to add too much dilute acid to the hypo +at a time, else excessive effervescence will occur, and the +solution will froth over the top of the bottle.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>THE NATIONAL MONUMENT AT ROME.</h2> + +<p>About three years ago the Italian Government invited the +architects and artists of the world to furnish competitive designs +for a national monument to be erected to the memory of King Victor +Emanuel II. at Rome. More than $1,800,000 were appropriated for the +monument exclusive of the foundation. It is very seldom that an +artist has occasion to carry out as grand and interesting a work as +this was to be: the representation of the creator of the Italian +union in the new capitol of the new state surrounded by the ruins +and mementos of a proud and mighty past. Prizes of $10,000, $6,000, +and $4,000 were donated for the first, second, and third prize +designs respectively. Designs were entered, not only from Italy, +but also from Germany, France, Norway, Sweden, England, and +America, and even from Caucasus and Japan.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6a_th.jpg" alt= +" THE UNION OF ITALY. SACCONI'S PRIZE DESIGN FOR THE"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE UNION OF ITALY. SACCONI'S PRIZE DESIGN FOR THE +NATIONAL MONUMENT, ROME, ITALY.</p> + +<p>The height and size of the monument were not determined on, nor +was the exact location, and the competitors had full liberty in +relation to the artistic character of the monument, and it was left +for them to decide whether it should be a triumphal arch, a column, +a temple, a mausoleum, or any other elaborate design. This great +liberty given to the competitors was of great value and service to +the monument commission, as it enabled them to decide readily what +the character of the monument should be but it was a dangerous +point for the artists, at which most of them foundered. The +competition was resultless. Two prizes were given, but new designs +had to be called for, which were governed more or less by a certain +programme issued by the committee.</p> + +<p>In place of the Piazza de Termini, a square extending from the +church of St. Maria degli Angeli to the new Via Nazionale, to which +preference was given by the competitors, the heights of Aracoeli +were chosen. The monument was to be erected at this historic place +in front of the side wall of the church, with the center toward the +Corso, high above the surrounding buildings. The programme called +for an equestrian statue of the King located in front of an +architectural background which was to cover the old church walls, +and was to be reached by a grand staircase.</p> + +<p>Even the result of this second competition was not definite, but +as the designers were guided by the programme, the results obtained +were much more satisfactory. The commission decided not to award +the first prize, but honored the Italian architects Giuseppi +Sacconi and Manfredo Manfredi, and the German Bruno Schmitz, with a +prize of $2,000 each; and requested them to enter into another +competition and deliver their models within four months, so as to +enable the commission to come to a final decision. On June 18, the +commission decided to accept Sacconi's design for execution, and +awarded a second prize of $2,000 to Manfredi.</p> + +<p>Sacconi's design, shown opposite page, cut taken from the +<i>Illustrirte Zeitung</i>, needs but little explanation. An +elegant gallery of sixteen Corinthian columns on a high, prominent +base is crowned by a high attica and flanked by pavilions. It forms +the architectural background for the equestrian statue, and is +reached by an elaborately ornamented staircase.</p> + +<p>Manfredi's design shows a handsomely decorated wall in place of +the gallery, and in front of the wall an amphitheater is arranged, +in the center of which the equestrian statue is placed. Bruno +Schmitz' design shows a rich mosaic base supporting an Ionic +portico, from the middle of which a six column Corinthian "pronaos" +projects, which no doubt would have produced a magnificent effect +in the streets of Rome.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE EVOLUTION OF FORMS OF ORNAMENT. <a name= +"FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<p>The statement that modern culture can be understood only through +a study of all its stages of development is equally true of its +several branches.</p> + +<p>Let us assume that decorative art is one of these. It contains +in itself, like language and writing, elements of ancient and even +of prehistoric forms, but it must, like these other expressions of +culture, which are forever undergoing changes, adapt itself to the +new demands which are made upon it, not excepting the very +arbitrary ones of fashion; and it is owing to this cause that, +sometimes even in the early stages of its development, little or +nothing of its original form is recognizable. Investigations the +object of which is to clear up this process of development as far +as possible are likely to be of some service; a person is more +likely to recognize the beauties in the details of ornamental works +of art if he has an acquaintance with the leading styles, and the +artist who is freed from the bondage of absolute tradition will be +put into a better position to discriminate between accidental and +arbitrary and organic and legitimate forms, and will thus have his +work in the creation of new ones made more easy for him.</p> + +<p>Hence I venture to claim some measure of indulgence in +communicating the results of the following somewhat theoretical +investigations, as they are not altogether without a practical +importance. I must ask the reader to follow me into a modern +drawing-room, not into one that will dazzle us with its cold +elegance, but into one whose comfort invites us to remain in +it.</p> + +<p>The simple stucco ceiling presents a central rosette, which +passes over by light conventional floral forms into the general +pattern of the ceiling. The frieze also, which is made of the same +material, presents a similar but somewhat more compact floral +pattern as its chief motive. Neither of these, though they belong +to an old and never extinct species, has as yet attained the +dignity of a special name.</p> + +<p>The walls are covered with a paper the ornamentation of which is +based upon the designs of the splendid textile fabrics of the +middle ages, and represents a floral pattern of spirals and +climbing plants, and bears evident traces of the influence of +Eastern culture. It is called a pomegranate or pine-apple pattern, +although in this case neither pomegranates nor pine-apples are +recognizable.</p> + +<p>Similarly with respect to the pattern of the coverings of the +chairs and sofas and of the stove-tiles; these, however, show the +influence of Eastern culture more distinctly.</p> + +<p>The carpet also, which is not a true Oriental one, fails to +rivet the attention, but gives a quiet satisfaction to the eye, +which, as it were, casually glances over it, by its simple pattern, +which is derived from Persian-Indian archetypes (Cashmere pattern, +Indian palmettas), and which is ever rhythmically repeating itself +(see Fig. 1).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 1."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.</p> + +<p>The floral pattern on the dressing-gown of the master of the +house, as well as on the light woolen shawl that is thrown round +the shoulders of his wife, and even the brightly colored glass +knicknacks on the mantel-piece, manufactured in Silesia after the +Indian patterns of the Reuleaux collection, again show the same +motive; in the one case in the more geometrical linear arrangement, +in the other in the more freely entwined spirals.</p> + +<p>Now you will perhaps permit me to denominate these three groups +of patterns that occur in our new home fabrics as modern patterns. +Whether we shall in the next season be able, in the widest sense of +the word, to call these patterns modern naturally depends on the +ruling fashion of the day, which of course cannot be calculated +upon (Fig. 2).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>I beg to be allowed to postpone the nearer definition of the +forms that occur in the three groups, which, however, on a closer +examination all present a good deal that they have in common. +Taking them in a general way, they all show a leaf-form inclosing +an inflorescence in the form of an ear or thistle; or at other +times a fruit or a fruit-form. In the same way with the stucco +ornaments and the wall-paper pattern.</p> + +<p>The Cashmere pattern also essentially consists of a leaf with +its apex laterally expanded; it closes an ear-shaped flower-stem, +set with small florets, which in exceptional cases protrude beyond +the outline of the leaf; the whole is treated rigorously as an +absolute flat ornament, and hence its recognition is rendered +somewhat more difficult. The blank expansion of the leaf is not +quite unrelieved by ornament, but is set off with small points, +spots, and blossoms. This will be thought less strange if we +reflect on the Eastern representations of animals, in the portrayal +of which the flat expanses produced by the muscle-layers are often +treated from a purely decorative point of view, which strikes us as +an exaggeration of convention.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>One cannot go wrong in taking for granted that plant-forms were +the archetypes of all these patterns. Now we know that it holds +good, as a general principle in the history of civilization, that +the tiller of the ground supplants the shepherd, as the shepherd +supplants the hunter; and the like holds also in the history of the +branch of art we are discussing—representations of animals +are the first to make their appearance, and they are at this period +remarkable for a wonderful sharpness of characterization. At a +later stage man first begins to exhibit a preference for +plant-forms as subjects for representation, and above all for such +as can in any way be useful or hurtful to him. We, however, meet +such plant-forms used in ornament in the oldest extant monuments of +art in Egypt, side by side with representations of animals; but the +previous history of this very developed culture is unknown. In such +cases as afford us an opportunity of studying more primitive though +not equally ancient stages of culture, as for instance among the +Greeks, we find the above dictum confirmed, at any rate in cases +where we have to deal with the representation of the indigenous +flora as contradistinguished from such representations of plants as +were imported from foreign civilizations. In the case that is now +to occupy us, we have not to go back so very far in the history of +the world.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 4."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.</p> + +<p>The ornamental representations of plants are of two kinds. Where +we have to deal with a simple pictorial reproduction of plants as +symbols (laurel branches, boughs of olive and fir, and branches of +ivy), <i>i. e</i>., with a mere characteristic decoration of a +technical structure, stress is laid upon the most faithful +reproduction of the object possible—the artist is again and +again referred to the study of Nature in order to imitate her. +Hence, as a general rule, there is less difficulty in the +explanation of these forms, because even the minute details of the +natural object now and then offer points that one can fasten upon. +It is quite another thing when we have to deal with actual +decoration which does not aim at anything further than at employing +the structural laws of organisms in order to organize the unwieldy +substance, to endow the stone with a higher vitality. These latter +forms depart, even at the time when they originate, very +considerably from the natural objects. The successors of the +originators soon still further modify them by adapting them to +particular purposes, combining and fusing them with other forms so +as to produce particular individual forms which have each their own +history (<i>e.g</i>., the acanthus ornament, which, in its +developed form, differs very greatly from the acanthus plant +itself); and in a wider sense we may here enumerate all such forms +as have been raised by art to the dignity of perfectly viable +beings, <i>e.g</i>., griffins, sphinxes, dragons, and angels.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7e.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7e_th.jpg" alt=" Fig. 5."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 5.</p> + +<p>The deciphering and derivation of such forms as these is +naturally enough more difficult; in the case of most of them we are +not even in possession of the most necessary preliminaries to the +investigation, and in the case of others there are very important +links missing (<i>e.g</i>., for the well-known Greek palmettas). In +proportion as the representation of the plant was a secondary +object, the travesty has been more and more complete. As in the +case of language, where the root is hardly recognizable in the +later word, so in decorative art the original form is +indistinguishable in the ornament. The migration of races and the +early commercial intercourse between distant lands have done much +to bring about the fusion of types; but again in contrast to this +we find, in the case of extensive tracts of country, notably in the +Asiatic continent, a fixity, throughout centuries, of forms that +have once been introduced, which occasions a confusion between +ancient and modern works of art, and renders investigations much +more difficult. An old French traveler writes: "J'ai vu dans le +trésor d'Ispahan les vetements de Tamerlan; ils ne different +en rien de ceux d'aujourd'hui." Ethnology, the natural sciences, +and last, but not least, the history of technical art are here set +face to face with great problems.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.</p> + +<p>In the case in point, the study of the first group of artistic +forms that have been elaborated by Western art leads to definite +results, because the execution of the forms in stone can be +followed on monuments that are relatively not very old, that are +dated, and of which the remains are still extant. In order to +follow the development, I ask your permission to go back at once to +the very oldest of the known forms. They come down to us from the +golden era of Greek decorative art—from the fourth or fifth +century B.C.—when the older simple styles of architecture +were supplanted by styles characterized by a greater richness of +structure and more developed ornament. A number of flowers from +capitals in Priene, Miletus, Eleusis, Athens (monument of +Lysicrates), and Pergamon; also flowers from the calathos of a +Greek caryatid in the Villa Albani near Rome, upon many Greek +sepulchral wreaths, upon the magnificent gold helmet of a Grecian +warrior (in the Museum of St. Petersburg)—these show us the +simplest type of the pattern in question, a folded leaf, that has +been bulged out, inclosing a knob or a little blossom (see Figs. 3 +and 4). This is an example from the Temple of Apollo at Miletus, +one that was constructed about ten years ago, for educational +purposes. Here is the specimen of the flower of the monument to +Lysicrates at Athens, of which the central part consists of a small +flower or fruits (Figs. 5 and 6).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7g.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7g_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.</p> + +<p>The form passes over into Roman art. The larger scale of the +buildings, and the pretensions to a greater richness in details, +lead to a further splitting up of the leaf into acanthus-like +forms. Instead of a fruit-form a fir-cone appears, or a pine-apple +or other fruit in an almost naturalistic form.</p> + +<p>In a still larger scale we have the club-shaped knob developing +into a plant-stem branching off something after the fashion of a +candelabrum, and the lower part of the leaf, where it is folded +together in a somewhat bell-shaped fashion, becomes in the true +sense of the word a campanulum, out of which an absolute +vessel-shaped form, as <i>e.g</i>. is to be seen in the frieze of +the Basilica Ulpia in Rome, becomes developed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7h.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7h_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 8."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 8.</p> + +<p>Such remains of pictorial representation as are still extant +present us with an equally perfect series of developments. The +splendid Græco-Italian vessels, the richly ornamented Apulian +vases, show flowers in the spirals of the ornaments, and even in +the foreground of the pictorial representations, which correspond +exactly to the above mentioned Greek relief representations. [The +lecturer sent round, among other illustrations, a small photograph +of a celebrated vase in Naples (representing the funeral rites of +Patroclus), in which the flower in question appears in the +foreground, and is perhaps also employed as ornament.] (Figs. 7 and +8.)</p> + +<p>The Pompeian paintings and mosaics, and the Roman paintings, of +which unfortunately very few specimens have come down to us, show +that the further developments of this form were most manifold, and +indeed they form in conjunction with the Roman achievements in +plastic art the highest point that this form reached in its +development, a point that the Renaissance, which followed hard upon +it, did not get beyond.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 9."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 9.</p> + +<p>Thus the work of Raphael from the loggias follows in unbroken +succession upon the forms from the Thermæ of Titus. It is +only afterward that a freer handling of the traditional pattern +arose, characterized by the substitution of, for instance, maple or +whitethorn for the acanthus-like forms. Often even the central part +falls away completely, or is replaced by overlapping leaves. In the +forms of this century we have the same process repeated. Schinkel +and Botticher began with the Greek form, and have put it to various +uses; Stuler, Strack, Gropius, and others followed in their wake +until the more close resemblance to the forms of the period of the +Renaissance in regard to Roman art which characterizes the present +day was attained (Fig. 9).</p> + +<p>Now, what plant suggested this almost indispensable form of +ornament, which ranks along with the acanthus and palmetta, and +which has also become so important by a certain fusion with the +structural laws of both?</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 10."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 10.</p> + +<p>We meet with organism of the form in the family of the +Araceæ, or aroid plants. An enveloping leaf (bract), called +the spathe, which is often brilliantly colored, surrounds the +florets, or fruits, that are disposed upon a spadix. Even the older +writers—Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Galen, and +Pliny—devote a considerable amount of attention to several +species of this interesting family, especially to the value of +their swollen stems as a food-stuff, to their uses in medicine, +etc. Some species of Arum were eaten, and even nowadays the value +of the swollen stems of some species of the family causes them to +be cultivated, as, for instance, in Egypt and India, etc. (the +so-called Portland sago, Portland Island arrowroot, is prepared +from the swollen stems of <i>Arum maculatum</i>). In contrast with +the smooth or softly undulating outlines of the spathe of +Mediterranean Araceæ, one species stands out in relief, in +which the sharply-marked fold of the spathe almost corresponds to +the forms of the ornaments which we are discussing. It is +<i>Dracunculus vulgaris</i>, and derives its name from its stem, +which is spotted like a snake. This plant, which is pretty widely +distributed in olive woods and in the river valleys of the +countries bordering on the Mediterranean, was employed to a +considerable extent in medicine by the ancients (and is so still +nowadays, according to Von Heldreich, in Greece). It was, besides, +the object of particular regard, because it was said not only to +heal snake-bite, but the mere fact of having it about one was +supposed to keep away snakes, who were said altogether to avoid the +places where it grew. But, apart from this, the striking appearance +of this plant, which often grows to an enormous size, would be +sufficient to suggest its employment in art. According to +measurements of Dr. Julius Schmidt, who is not long since dead, and +was the director of the Observatory at Athens, a number of these +plants grow in the Valley of Cephisus, and attain a height of as +much as two meters, the spathe alone measuring nearly one meter. +[The lecturer here exhibited a drawing (natural size) of this +species, drawn to the measurements above referred to.]</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 11."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 11.</p> + +<p>Dr. Sintenis, the botanist, who last year traveled through Asia +Minor and Greece, tells me that he saw beautiful specimens of the +plant in many places, <i>e.g</i>., in Assos, in the neighborhood of +the Dardanelles, under the cypresses of the Turkish cemeteries.</p> + +<p>The inflorescence corresponds almost exactly to the ornament, +but the multipartite leaf has also had a particular influence upon +its development and upon that of several collateral forms which I +cannot now discuss. The shape of the leaf accounts for several as +yet unexplained extraordinary forms in the ancient plane-ornament, +and in the Renaissance forms that have been thence developed. It +first suggested the idea to me of studying the plant attentively +after having had the opportunity five years ago of seeing the +leaves in the Botanic Gardens at Pisa. It was only afterward that I +succeeded in growing some flowers which fully confirmed the +expectations that I had of them (Figs. 10 and 11).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 12."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 12.</p> + +<p>The leaf in dracunculus has a very peculiar shape; it consists +of a number of lobes which are disposed upon a stalk which is more +or less forked (tends more or less to dichotomize). If you call to +your minds some of the Pompeian wall decorations, you will perceive +that similar forms occur there in all possible variations. Stems +are regularly seen in decorations that run perpendicularly, +surrounded by leaves of this description. Before this, these +suggested the idea of a misunderstood (or very conventional) +perspective representation of a circular flower. Now the form also +occurs in this fashion, and thus negatives the idea of a +perspective representation of a closed flower. It is out of this +form in combination with the flower-form that the series of +patterns was developed which we have become acquainted with in +Roman art, especially in the ornament of Titus' Thermæ and in +the Renaissance period in Raphael's work. [The lecturer here +explained a series of illustrations of the ornaments referred to +(Figs. 12, 13, 14).]</p> + +<p>The attempt to determine the course of the first group of forms +has been to a certain extent successful, but we meet greater +difficulties in the study of the second.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8e.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 13."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 13.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to obtain a firm basis on which to conduct our +investigations from the historical or geographical point of view +into this form of art, which was introduced into the West by +Arabico-Moorish culture, and which has since been further developed +here. There is only one method open to us in the determination of +the form, which is to pass gradually from the richly developed and +strongly differentiated forms to the smaller and simpler ones, even +if these latter should have appeared contemporaneously or even +later than the former. Here we have again to refer to the fact that +has already been mentioned, to wit, that Oriental art remained +stationary throughout long periods of time. In point of fact, the +simpler forms are invariably characterized by a nearer and nearer +approach to the more ancient patterns and also to the natural +flower-forms of the Araceæ. We find the spathe, again, +sometimes drawn like an acanthus leaf, more often, however, bulged +out, coming to be more and more of a mere outline figure, and +becoming converted into a sort of background; then the spadix, +generally conical in shape, sometimes, however, altogether replaced +by a perfect thistle, at other times again by a pomegranate. +Auberville, in his magnificent work "L'Ornement des Tissus," is +astonished to find the term pomegranate-pattern almost confined to +these forms, since their central part is generally formed of a +thistle-form. As far as I can discover in the literature that is at +my disposal, this question has not had any particular attention +devoted to it except in the large work upon Ottoman architecture +published in Constantinople under the patronage of Edhem Pasha. The +pomegranate that has served as the original of the pattern in +question is in this work surrounded with leaves till it gives some +sort of an approach to the pattern. (There are important +suggestions in the book as to the employment of melon-forms.) +Whoever has picked the fruit from the tender twigs of the +pomegranate tree, which are close set with small altered leaves, +will never dream of attributing the derivation of the thorny leaves +that appear in the pattern to pomegranate leaves at any stage of +their development.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 14"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 14</p> + +<p>It does not require much penetration to see that the outline of +the whole form corresponds to the spathe of the Araceæ, even +although in later times the jagged contour is all that has remained +of it, and it appears to have been provided with ornamental forms +quite independently of the rest of the pattern. The inner +thistle-form cannot be derived from the common thistle, because the +surrounding leaves negative any such idea. The artichoke theory +also has not enough in its favor, although the artichoke, as well +as the thistle, was probably at a later time directly pressed into +service. Prof. Ascherson first called my attention to the extremely +anciently cultivated plant, the safflor (<i>Carthamus +tinctoris</i>, Fig. 15), a thistle plant whose flowers were +employed by the ancients as a dye. Some drawings and dried +specimens, as well as the literature of the subject, first gave me +a hope to find that this plant was the archetype of this ornament, +a hope that was borne out by the study of the actual plant, +although I was unable to grow it to any great perfection.</p> + +<p>In the days of the Egyptian King Sargo (according to Ascherson +and Schweinfurth) this plant was already well known as a plant of +cultivation; in a wild state it is not known (De Candolle, +"Originel des Plantes cultivées"). In Asia its cultivation +stretches to Japan. Semper cites a passage from an Indian drama to +the effect that over the doorway there was stretched an arch of +ivory, and about it were bannerets on which wild safran +(<i>Saflor</i>) was painted.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8g.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8g_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 15"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 15</p> + +<p>The importance of the plant as a dye began steadily to decrease, +and it has now ceased to have any value as such in the face of the +introduction of newer coloring matters (a question that was treated +of in a paper read a short time ago by Dr. Reimann before this +Society). Perhaps its only use nowadays is in the preparation of +rouge (<i>rouge végétale</i>).</p> + +<p>But at a time when dyeing, spinning, and weaving were, if not in +the one hand, yet at any rate intimately connected with one another +in the narrow circle of a home industry, the appearance of this +beautiful gold-yellow plant, heaped up in large masses, would be +very likely to suggest its immortalization in textile art, because +the drawing is very faithful to nature in regard to the thorny +involucre. Drawings from nature of the plant in the old botanical +works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries look very like +ornamental patterns. Now after the general form had been +introduced, pomegranates or other fruits—for instance, +pine-apples—were introduced within the nest of leaves.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8h.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8h_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 16."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 16.</p> + +<p>Into the detailed study of the intricacies of this subject I +cannot here enter; the East-Asian influences are not to be +neglected, which had probably even in early times an effect upon +the form that was assumed, and have fused the correct style of +compound flowers for flat ornament with the above-mentioned forms, +so as to produce peculiar patterns; we meet them often in the +so-called Persian textures and flat ornaments (Fig. 16).</p> + +<p>We now come to the third group of forms—the so-called +Cashmere pattern, or Indian palmetta. The developed forms, which, +when they have attained their highest development, often show us +outlines that are merely fanciful, and represent quite a bouquet of +flowers leaning over to one side, and springing from a vessel (the +whole corresponding to the Roman form with the vessel), must be +thrown to one side, while we follow up the simpler forms, because +in this case also we have no information as to either the where or +the when the forms originated. (Figs. 17, 18, 19.)</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8i.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8i_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 17."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 17.</p> + +<p>Here again we are struck by resemblances to the forms that were +the subjects of our previous study, we even come across direct +transitional forms, which differ from the others only by the +lateral curve of the apex of the leaf; sometimes it is the central +part, the spadix, that is bent outward, and the very details show a +striking agreement with the structure of the aroid inflorescence, +so much so that one might regard them as actually copied from +them.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8j.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8j_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 18."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 18.</p> + +<p>This form of ornament has been introduced into Europe since the +French expedition to Egypt, owing to the importation of genuine +Cashmere shawls. (When it cropped up in isolated forms, as in +Venice in the fifteenth century, it appears not to have exerted any +influence; its introduction is perhaps rather to be attributed to +calico-printing.) Soon afterward the European shawl-manufacture, +which is still in a flourishing state, was introduced. Falcot +informs us that designs of a celebrated French artist, Couder, for +shawl-patterns, a subject that he studied in India itself, were +exported back to that country and used there (Fig. 20).</p> + +<p>In these shawl-patterns the original simple form meets us in a +highly developed, magnificent, and splendidly colored +differentiation and elaboration. This we can have no scruples in +ranking along with the mediæval plane-patterns, which we have +referred to above, among the highest achievements of decorative +art.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8k.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8k_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 19."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 19.</p> + +<p>It is evident that it, at any rate in this high stage of +development, resisted fusion with Western forms of art. It is all +the more incumbent upon us to investigate the laws of its +existence, in order to make it less alien to us, or perhaps to +assimilate it to ourselves by attaining to an understanding of +those laws. A great step has been made when criticism has, by a +more painstaking study, put itself into a position to characterize +as worthless ignorantly imitated, or even original, miscreations +such as are eternally cropping up. If we look at our modern +manufactures immediately after studying patterns which enchant us +with their classical repose, or after it such others as captivate +the eye by their beautiful coloring, or the elaborative working out +of their details, we recognize that the beautifully balanced form +is often cut up, choked over with others, or mangled (the flower +springing up side down from the leaves), the whole being traversed +at random by spirals, which are utterly foreign to the spirit of +such a style, and all this at the caprice of uncultured, boorish +designers. Once we see that the original of the form was a plant, +we shall ever in the developed, artistic form cling, in a general +way at least, to the laws of its organization, and we shall at any +rate be in a position to avoid violent incongruities.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8l.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8l_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 20."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 20.</p> + +<p>I had resort, a few years ago, to the young botanist Ruhmer, +assistant at the Botanical Museum at Schöneberg, who has +unfortunately since died of some chest-disease, in order to get +some sort of a groundwork for direct investigations. I asked him to +look up the literature of the subject, with respect to the +employment of the Indian Araceæ for domestic uses or in +medicine. A detailed work on the subject was produced, and +establishes that, quite irrespective of species of Alocasia and +Colocasia that have been referred to, a large number of +Araceæ were employed for all sorts of domestic purposes. +Scindapsus, which was used as a medicine, has actually retained a +Sanskrit name, "vustiva." I cannot here go further into the details +of this investigation, but must remark that even the incomplete and +imperfect drawings of these plants, which, owing to the difficulty +of preserving them, are so difficult to collect through travelers, +exhibit such a wealth of shape, that it is quite natural that +Indian and Persian flower-loving artists should be quite taken with +them, and employ them enthusiastically in decorative art. Let me +also mention that Haeckel, in his '"Letters of an Indian Traveler," +very often bears witness to the effect of the Araceæ upon the +general appearance of the vegetation, both in the full and enormous +development of species of Caladia and in the species of Pothos +which form such impenetrable mazes of interlooping stems.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, allow me to remark that the results of my +investigation, of which but a succinct account has been given here, +negative certain derivations, which have been believed in, though +they have never been proved; such as that of the form I have last +discussed from the Assyrian palmetta, or from a cypress bent down +by the wind. To say the least the laws of formation here laid down +have a more intimate connection with the forms as they have come +down to us, and give us a better handle for future use and +development. The object of the investigation was, in general words, +to prepare for an explanation of the questions raised; and even if +the results had turned out other than they have, it would have +sufficed me to have given an impulse to labors which will testify +to the truth of the dead master's words:</p> + +<pre> + "Was Du ererbt von deinen Vätern hast, + Erwirb es, um es zu besitzen." +</pre> + +<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">From a paper by Prof. Jacobsthal in the +<i>Transactions</i> of the Archæological Society of +Berlin.—<i>Nature</i></div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>STEPS TOWARD A KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER.<a name= +"FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Sir WILLIAM THOMSON.</h3> + +<p>The now well known kinetic theory of gases is a step so +important in the way of explaining seemingly static properties of +matter by motion, that it is scarcely possible to help anticipating +in idea the arrival at a complete theory of matter, in which all +its properties will be seen to be merely attributes of motion. If +we are to look for the origin of this idea we must go back to +Democritus, Epicurus, and Lucretius. We may then, I believe, +without missing a single step, skip 1800 years. Early last century +we find in Malebranche's "Recherche de la Verite," the statement +that "la durete de corps" depends on "petits tourbillons."<a name= +"FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>2</sup></a> These +words, embedded in a hopeless mass of unintelligible statements of +the physical, metaphysical, and theological philosophies of the +day, and unsupported by any explanation, elucidation, or +illustration throughout the rest of the three volumes, and only +marred by any other single sentence or word to be found in the +great book, still do express a distinct conception which forms a +most remarkable step toward the kinetic theory of matter. A little +later we have Daniel Bernoulli's promulgation of what we now accept +as a surest article of scientific faith—the kinetic theory of +gases. He, so far as I know, thought only of Boyle's and Mariotte's +law of the "spring of air," as Boyle called it, without reference +to change of temperature or the augmentation of its pressure if not +allowed to expand for elevation of temperature, a phenomenon which +perhaps he scarcely knew, still less the elevation of temperature +produced by compression, and the lowering of temperature by +dilatation, and the consequent necessity of waiting for a fraction +of a second or a few seconds of time (with apparatus of ordinary +experimental magnitude), to see a subsidence from a larger change +of pressure down to the amount of change that verifies Boyle's law. +The consideration of these phenomena forty years ago by Joule, in +connection with Bernoulli's original conception, formed the +foundation of the kinetic theory of gases as we now have it. But +what a splendid and useful building has been placed on this +foundation by Clausius and Maxwell, and what a beautiful ornament +we see on the top of it in the radiometer of Crookes, securely +attached to it by the happy discovery of Tait and Dewar,<a name= +"FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>3</sup></a> that the +length of the free path of the residual molecules of air in a good +modern vacuum may amount to several inches! Clausius' and Maxwell's +explanations of the diffusion of gases, and of thermal conduction +in gases, their charmingly intelligible conclusion that in gases +the diffusion of heat is just a little more rapid than the +diffusion of molecules, because of the interchange of energy in +collisions between molecules,<a name="FNanchor_6"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_6"><sup>4</sup></a> while the chief transference of heat +is by actual transport of the molecules themselves, and Maxwell's +explanation of the viscosity of gases, with the absolute numerical +relations which the work of those two great discoverers found among +the three properties of diffusion, thermal conduction, and +viscosity, have annexed to the domain of science a vast and ever +growing province.</p> + +<p>Rich as it is in practical results, the kinetic theory of gases, +as hitherto developed, stops absolutely short at the atom or +molecule, and gives not even a suggestion toward explaining the +properties in virtue of which the atoms or molecules mutually +influence one another. For some guidance toward a deeper and more +comprehensive theory of matter, we may look back with advantage to +the end of last century and beginning of this century, and find +Rumford's conclusion regarding the heat generated in boring a brass +gun: "It appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite +impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being +excited and communicated in the manner the heat was excited and +communicated in these experiments, except it be MOTION;" and Davy's +still more suggestive statements: "The phenomena of repulsion are +not dependent on a peculiar elastic fluid for their existence." ... +"Heat may be defined as a peculiar motion, probably a vibration, of +the corpuscles of bodies, tending to separate them." ... "To +distinguish this motion from others, and to signify the causes of +our sensations of heat, etc., the name <i>repulsive</i> motion has +been adopted." Here we have a most important idea. It would be +somewhat a bold figure of speech to say the earth and moon are kept +apart by a repulsive motion; and yet, after all, what is +centrifugal force but a repulsive motion, and may it not be that +there is no such thing as repulsion, and that it is solely by +inertia that what seems to be repulsion is produced? Two bodies fly +together, and, accelerated by mutual attraction, if they do not +precisely hit one another, they cannot but separate in virtue of +the inertia of their masses. So, after dashing past one another in +sharply concave curves round their common center of gravity, they +fly asunder again. A careless onlooker might imagine they had +repelled one another, and might not notice the difference between +what he actually sees and what he would see if the two bodies had +been projected with great velocity toward one another, and either +colliding and rebounding, or repelling one another into sharply +convex continuous curves, fly asunder again.</p> + +<p>Joule, Clausius, and Maxwell, and no doubt Daniel Bernoulli +himself, and I believe every one who has hitherto written or done +anything very explicit in the kinetic theory of gases, has taken +the mutual action of molecules in collision as repulsive. May it +not after all be attractive? This idea has never left my mind since +I first read Davy's "Repulsive Motion," about thirty-five years +ago, and I never made anything of it, at all events have not done +so until to-day (June 16, 1884)—if this can be said to be +making anything of it—when, in endeavoring to prepare the +present address, I notice that Joule's and my own old experiments<a +name="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>5</sup></a> on the +thermal effect of gases expanding from a high-pressure vessel +through a porous plug, proves the less dense gas to have greater +intrinsic <i>potential</i> energy than the denser gas, if we assume +the ordinary hypothesis regarding the temperature of a gas, +according to which two gases are of equal temperatures<a name= +"FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>6</sup></a> when the +kinetic energies of their constituent molecules are of equal +average amounts per molecule.</p> + +<p>Think of the thing thus. Imagine a great multitude of particles +inclosed by a boundary which may be pushed inward in any part all +round at pleasure. Now station an engineer corps of Maxwell's army +of sorting demons all round the inclosure, with orders to push in +the boundary diligently everywhere, when none of the besieged +troops are near, and to do nothing when any of them are seen +approaching, and until after they have turned again inward. The +result will be that, with exactly the same sum of kinetic and +potential energies of the same inclosed multitude of particles, the +throng has been caused to be denser. Now Joule's and my own old +experiments on the efflux of air prove that if the crowd be common +air, or oxygen, or nitrogen, or carbonic acid, the temperature is a +little higher in the denser than in the rarer condition when the +energies are the same. By the hypothesis, equality of temperature +between two different gases or two portions of the same gas at +different densities means equality of kinetic energies in the same +number of molecules of the two. From our observations proving the +temperature to be higher, it therefore follows that the potential +energy is smaller in the condensed crowd. This—always, +however, under protest as to the temperature +hypothesis—proves some degree of attraction among the +molecules, but it does not prove ultimate attraction between two +molecules in collision, or at distances much less than the average +mutual distance of nearest neighbors in the multitude. The +collisional force might be repulsive, as generally supposed +hitherto, and yet attraction might predominate in the whole +reckoning of difference between the intrinsic potential energies of +the more dense and less dense multitudes.</p> + +<p>It is however remarkable that the explanation of the propagation +of sound through gases, and even of the positive fluid pressure of +a gas against the sides of the containing vessel, according to the +kinetic theory of gases, is quite independent of the question +whether the ultimate collisional force is attractive or repulsive. +Of course it must be understood that, if it is attractive, the +particles must, be so small that they hardly ever meet—they +would have to be infinitely small to <i>never</i> meet—that, +in fact, they meet so seldom, in comparison with the number of +times their courses—are turned through large angles by +attraction, that the influence of these surely attractive +collisions is preponderant over that of the comparatively very rare +impacts from actual contact. Thus, after all, the train of +speculation suggested by Davy's "Repulsive Motion" does not allow +us to escape from the idea of true repulsion, does not do more than +let us say it is of no consequence, nor even say this with truth, +because, if there are impacts at all, the nature of the force +during the impact and the effects of the mutual impacts, however +rare, cannot be evaded in any attempt to realize a conception of +the kinetic theory of gases. And in fact, unless we are satisfied +to imagine the atoms of a gas as mathematical points endowed with +inertia, and as, according to Boscovich, endowed with forces of +mutual, positive, and negative attraction, varying according to +some definite function of the distance, we cannot avoid the +question of impacts, and of vibrations and rotations of the +molecules resulting from impacts, and we must look distinctly on +each molecule as being either a little elastic solid or a +configuration of motion in a continuous all-pervading liquid. I do +not myself see how we can ever permanently rest anywhere short of +this last view; but it would be a very pleasant temporary +resting-place on the way to it if we could, as it were, make a +mechanical model of a gas out of little pieces of round, perfectly +elastic solid matter, flying about through the space occupied by +the gas, and colliding with one another and against the sides of +the containing vessel.</p> + +<p>This is, in fact, all we have of the kinetic theory of gases up +to the present time, and this has done for us, in the hands of +Clausius and Maxwell, the great things which constitute our first +step toward a molecular theory of matter. Of course from it we +should have to go on to find an explanation of the elasticity and +all the other properties of the molecules themselves, a subject +vastly more complex and difficult than the gaseous properties, for +the explanation of which we assume the elastic molecule; but +without any explanation of the properties of the molecule itself, +with merely the assumption that the molecule has the requisite +properties, we might rest happy for a while in the contemplation of +the kinetic theory of gases, and its explanation of the gaseous +properties, which is not only stupendously important as a step +toward a more thoroughgoing theory of matter, but is undoubtedly +the expression of a perfectly intelligible and definite set of +facts in Nature.</p> + +<p>But alas for our mechanical model consisting of the cloud of +little elastic solids flying about among one another. Though each +particle have absolutely perfect elasticity, the end must be pretty +much the same as if it were but imperfectly elastic. The average +effect of repeated and repeated mutual collisions must be to +gradually convert all the translational energy into energy of +shriller and shriller vibrations of the molecule. It seems certain +that each collision must have something more of energy in +vibrations of very finely divided nodal parts than there was of +energy in such vibrations before the impact. The more minute this +nodal subdivision, the less must be the tendency to give up part of +the vibrational energy into the shape of translational energy in +the course of a collision; and I think it is rigorously +demonstrable that the whole translational energy must ultimately +become transformed into vibrational energy of higher and higher +nodal subdivisions if each molecule is a continuous elastic solid. +Let us, then, leave the kinetic theory of gases for a time with +this difficulty unsolved, in the hope that we or others after us +may return to it, armed with more knowledge of the properties of +matter, and with sharper mathematical weapons to cut through the +barrier which at present hides from us any view of the molecule +itself, and of the effects other than mere change of translational +motion which it experiences in collision.</p> + +<p>To explain the elasticity of a gas was the primary object of the +kinetic theory of gases. This object is only attainable by the +assumption of an elasticity more complex in character, and more +difficult of explanation, than the elasticity of gases—the +elasticity of a solid. Thus, even if the fatal fault in the theory, +to which I have alluded, did not exist, and if we could be +perfectly satisfied with the kinetic theory of gases founded on the +collisions of elastic solid molecules, there would still be beyond +it a grander theory which need not be considered a chimerical +object of scientific ambition—to explain the elasticity of +solids. But we may be stopped when we commence to look in the +direction of such a theory with the cynical question, What do you +mean by explaining a property of matter? As to being stopped by any +such question, all I can say is that if engineering were to be all +and to end all physical science, we should perforce be content with +merely finding properties of matter by observation, and using them +for practical purposes. But I am sure very few, if any, engineers +are practically satisfied with so narrow a view of their noble +profession. They must and do patiently observe, and discover by +observation, properties of matter and results of material +combinations. But deeper questions are always present, and always +fraught with interest to the true engineer, and he will be the last +to give weight to any other objection to any attempt to see below +the surface of things than the practical question, Is it likely to +prove wholly futile? But now, instead of imagining the question, +What do you mean by explaining a property of matter? to be put +cynically, and letting ourselves be irritated by it, suppose we +give to the questioner credit for being sympathetic, and condescend +to try and answer his question. We find it not very easy to do so. +All the properties of matter are so connected that we can scarcely +imagine one <i>thoroughly explained</i> without our seeing its +relation to all the others, without in fact having the explanation +of all; and till we have this we cannot tell what we mean by +"explaining a property" or "explaining the properties" of matter. +But though this consummation may never be reached by man, the +progress of science may be, I believe will be, step by step toward +it, on many different roads converging toward it from all sides. +The kinetic theory of gases is, as I have said, a true step on one +of the roads. On the very distinct road of chemical science, St. +Claire Deville arrived at his grand theory of dissociation without +the slightest aid from the kinetic theory of gases. The fact that +he worked it out solely from chemical observation and experiment, +and expounded it to the world without any hypothesis whatever, and +seemingly even without consciousness of the beautiful explanation +it has in the kinetic theory of gases, secured for it immediately +an independent solidity and importance as a chemical theory when he +first promulgated it, to which it might even by this time scarcely +have attained if it had first been suggested as a probability +indicated by the kinetic theory of gases, and been only afterward +confirmed by observation. Now, however, guided by the views which +Clausius and Williamson have given us of the continuous interchange +of partners between the compound molecules constituting chemical +compounds in the gaseous state, we see in Deville's theory of +dissociation a point of contact of the most transcendent interest +between the chemical and physical lines of scientific progress.</p> + +<p>To return to elasticity: if we could make out of matter devoid +of elasticity a combined system of relatively moving parts which, +in virtue of motion, has the essential characteristics of an +elastic body, this would surely be, if not positively a step in the +kinetic theory of matter, at least a fingerpost pointing a way +which we may hope will lead to a kinetic theory of matter. Now +this, as I have already shown,<a name="FNanchor_9"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_9"><sup>7</sup></a> we can do in several ways. In the +case of the last of the communications referred to, of which only +the title has hitherto been published, I showed that, from the +mathematical investigation of a gyrostatically dominated +combination contained in the passage of Thomson and Tait's "Natural +Philosophy" referred to, it follows that any ideal system of +material particles, acting on one another mutually through massless +connecting springs, may be perfectly imitated in a model consisting +of rigid links jointed together, and having rapidly rotating fly +wheels pivoted on some or on all of the links. The imitation is not +confined to cases of equilibrium. It holds also for vibration +produced by disturbing the system infinitesimally from a position +of stable equilibrium and leaving it to itself. Thus we may make a +gyrostatic system such that it is in equilibrium under the +influence of certain positive forces applied to different points of +this system; all the forces being precisely the same as, and the +points of application similarly situated to, those of the stable +system with springs. Then, provided proper masses (that is to say, +proper amounts and distributions of inertia) be attributed to the +links, we may remove the external forces from each system, and the +consequent vibration of the points of application of the forces +will be identical. Or we may act upon the systems of material +points and springs with any given forces for any given time, and +leave it to itself, and do the same thing for the gyrostatic +system; the consequent motion will be the same in the two cases. If +in the one case the springs are made more and more stiff, and in +the other case the angular velocities of the fly wheels are made +greater and greater, the periods of the vibrational constituents of +the motion will become shorter and shorter, and the amplitudes +smaller and smaller, and the motions will approach more and more +nearly those of two perfectly rigid groups of material points +moving through space and rotating according to the well known mode +of rotation of a rigid body having unequal moments of inertia about +its three principal axes. In one case the ideal nearly rigid +connection between the particles is produced by massless, +exceedingly stiff springs; in the other case it is produced by the +exceedingly rapid rotation of the fly wheels in a system which, +when the fly wheels are deprived of their rotation, is perfectly +limp.</p> + +<p>The drawings (Figs. 1 and 2) before you illustrate two such +material systems.<a name="FNanchor_10"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_10"><sup>8</sup></a> The directions of rotation of the +fly-wheels in the gyrostatic system (Fig. 2) are indicated by +directional ellipses, which show in perspective the direction of +rotation of the fly-wheel of each gyrostat. The gyrostatic system +(Fig. 2) might have been constituted of two gyrostatic members, but +four are shown for symmetry. The inclosing circle represents in +each case in section an inclosing spherical shell to prevent the +interior from being seen. In the inside of one there are +fly-wheels, in the inside of the other a massless spring. The +projecting hooked rods seem as if they are connected by a spring in +each case. If we hang any one of the systems up by the hook on one +of its projecting rods, and hang a weight to the hook of the other +projecting rod, the weight, when first put on, will oscillate up +and down, and will go on doing so for ever if the system be +absolutely unfrictional. If we check the vibration by hand, the +weight will hang down at rest, the pin drawn out to a certain +degree; and the distance drawn out will be simply proportional to +the weight hung on, as in an ordinary spring balance.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/10a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/10a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 1"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/10b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/10b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p> + +<p>Here, then, out of matter possessing rigidity, but absolutely +devoid of elasticity, we have made a perfect model of a spring in +the form of a spring balance. Connect millions of millions of +particles by pairs of rods such as these of this spring balance, +and we have a group of particles constituting an elastic solid; +exactly fulfilling the mathematical ideal worked out by Navier, +Poisson, and Cauchy, and many other mathematicians, who, following +their example, have endeavored to found a theory of the elasticity +of solids on mutual attraction and repulsion between a group of +material particles. All that can possibly be done by this theory, +with its assumption of forces acting according to any assumed law +of relation to distance, is done by the gyrostatic system. But the +gyrostatic system does, besides, what the system of naturally +acting material particles cannot do—it constitutes an elastic +solid which can have the Faraday magneto-optic rotation of the +plane of polarization of light; supposing the application of our +solid to be a model of the luminiferous ether for illustrating the +undulatory theory of light. The gyrostatic model spring balance is +arranged to have zero moment of momentum as a whole, and therefore +to contribute nothing to the Faraday rotation; with this +arrangement the model illustrates the luminiferous ether in a field +unaffected by magnetic force. But now let there be a different +rotational velocity imparted to the jointed square round the axis +of the two projecting hooked rods, such as to give a resultant +moment of momentum round any given line through the center of +inertia of the system; and let pairs of the hooked rods in the +model thus altered, which is no longer a model of a mere spring +balance, be applied as connections between millions of pairs of +particles as before, with the lines of resultant moment of momentum +all similarly directed. We now have a model elastic solid which +will have the property that the direction of vibration in waves of +rectilinear vibrations propagated through it shall turn round the +line of propagation of the waves, just as Faraday's observation +proves to be done by the line of vibration of light in a dense +medium between the poles of a powerful magnet. The case of wave +front perpendicular to the lines of resultant moment of momentum +(that is to say, the direction of propagation being parallel to +these lines) corresponds, in our mechanical model, to the case of +light traveling in the direction of the lines of force in a +magnetic field.</p> + +<p>In these illustrations and models we have different portions of +ideal rigid matter acting upon one another, by normal pressure at +mathematical points of contact—of course no forces of +friction are supposed. It is exceedingly interesting to see how +thus, with no other postulates than inertia, rigidity, and mutual +impenetrability, we can thoroughly model not only an elastic solid, +and any combination of elastic solids, but so complex and recondite +a phenomenon as the passage of polarized light through a magnetic +field. But now, with the view of ultimately discarding the +postulate of rigidity from all our materials, let us suppose some +to be absolutely destitute of rigidity, and to possess merely +inertia and incompressibility, and mutual impenetrability with +reference to the still remaining rigid matter. With these +postulates we can produce a perfect model of mutual action at a +distance between solid particles, fulfilling the condition, so +keenly desired by Newton and Faraday, of being explained by +continuous action through an intervening medium. The law of the +mutual force in our model, however, is not the simple Newtonian +law, but the much more complex law of the mutual action between +electro magnets—with this difference, that in the +hydro-kinetic model in every case the force is opposite in +direction to the corresponding force in the electro-magnetic +analogue. Imagine a solid bored through with a hole, and placed in +our ideal perfect liquid. For a moment let the hole be stopped by a +diaphragm, and let an impulsure pressure be applied for an instant +uniformly over the whole membrane, and then instantly let the +membrane be dissolved into liquid. This action originates a motion +of the liquid relatively to the solid, of a kind to which I have +given the name of "irrotational circulation," which remains +absolutely constant however the solid be moved through the liquid. +Thus, at any time the actual motion of the liquid at any point in +the neighborhood of the solid will be the resultant of the motion +it would have in virtue of the circulation alone, were the solid at +rest, and the motion it would have in virtue of the motion of the +solid itself, had there been no circulation established through the +aperture. It is interesting and important to remark in passing that +the whole kinetic energy of the liquid is the sum of the kinetic +energies which it would have in the two cases separately. Now, +imagine the whole liquid to be inclosed in an infinitely large, +rigid, containing vessel, and in the liquid, at an infinite +distance from any part of the containing vessel, let two perforated +solids, with irrotational circulation through each, be placed at +rest near one another. The resultant fluid motion due to the two +circulations, will give rise to fluid pressure on the two bodies, +which, if unbalanced, will cause them to move. The force +systems—force-and-torques, or pairs of forces—required +to prevent them from moving will be mutual and opposite, and will +be the same as, but opposite in direction to, the mutual force +systems required to hold at rest two electromagnets fulfilling the +following specification: The two electro magnets are to be of the +same shape and size as the two bodies, and to be placed in the same +relative positions, and to consist of infinitely thin layers of +electric currents in the surfaces of solids possessing extreme +diamagnetic quality—in other words, infinitely small +permeability. The distribution of electric current on each body may +be any whatever which fulfills the condition that the total current +across any closed line drawn on the surface once through the +aperture is equal to ¼ π of the circulation<a name= +"FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11"><sup>9</sup></a> through +the aperture in the hydro-kinetic analogue.</p> + +<p>It might be imagined that the action at a distance thus provided +for by fluid motion could serve as a foundation for a theory of the +equilibrium, and the vibrations, of elastic solids, and the +transmission of waves like those of light through an extended +quasi-elastic solid medium. But unfortunately for this idea the +equilibrium is essentially unstable, both in the case of magnets +and, notwithstanding the fact that the forces are oppositely +directed, in the hydro-kinetic analogue also, when the several +movable bodies (two or any greater number) are so placed relatively +as to be in equilibrium. If, however, we connect the perforated +bodies with circulation through them in the hydro-kinetic system, +by jointed rigid connecting links, we may arrange for +configurations of stable equilibrium. Thus, without fly-wheels, but +with fluid circulations through apertures, we may make a model +spring balance or a model luminiferous ether, either without or +with the rotational quality corresponding to that of the true +luminiferous ether in the magnetic fluid—in short, do all by +the perforated solids with circulations through them that we saw we +could do by means of linked gyrostats. But something that we cannot +do by linked gyrostats we can do by the perforated bodies with +fluid circulation: we can make a model gas. The mutual action at a +distance, repulsive or attractive according to the mutual aspect of +the two bodies when passing within collisional distance<a name= +"FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12"><sup>10</sup></a> of one +another, suffices to produce the change of direction of motion in +collision, which essentially constitutes the foundation of the +kinetic theory of gases, and which, as we have seen before, may as +well be due to attraction as to repulsion, so far as we know from +any investigation hitherto made in this theory.</p> + +<p>There remains, however, as we have seen before, the difficulty +of providing for the case of actual impacts between the solids, +which must be done by giving them massless spring buffers or, which +amounts to the same thing, attributing to them repulsive forces +sufficiently powerful at very short distances to absolutely prevent +impacts between solid and solid; unless we adopt the equally +repugnant idea of infinitely small perforated solids, with +infinitely great fluid circulations through them. Were it not for +this fundamental difficulty, the hydro-kinetic model gas would be +exceedingly interesting; and, though we could scarcely adopt it as +conceivably a true representation of what gases really are, it +might still have some importance as a model configuration of solid +and liquid matter, by which without elasticity the elasticity of +true gas might be represented.</p> + +<p>But lastly, since the hydro-kinetic model gas with perforated +solids and fluid circulations through them fails because of the +impacts between the solids, let us annul the solids and leave the +liquid performing irrotational circulation round vacancy,<a name= +"FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13"><sup>11</sup></a> in the +place of the solid cores which we have hitherto supposed; or let us +annul the rigidity of the solid cores of the rings, and give them +molecular rotation according to Helmholtz's theory of vortex +motion. For stability the molecular rotation must be such as to +give the same velocity at the boundary of the rotational fluid core +as that of the irrotationally circulating liquid in contact with +it, because, as I have proved, frictional slip between two portions +of liquid in contact is inconsistent with stability. There is a +further condition, upon which I cannot enter into detail just now, +but which may be understood in a general way when I say that it is +a condition of either uniform or of increasing molecular rotation +from the surface inward, analogous to the condition that the +density of a liquid, resting for example under the influence of +gravity, must either be uniform or must be greater below than above +for stability of equilibrium. All that I have said in favor of the +model vortex gas composed of perforated solids with fluid +circulations through them holds without modification for the purely +hydro-kinetic model, composed of either Helmholtz cored vortex +rings or of coreless vortices, and we are now troubled with no such +difficulty as that of the impacts between solids. Whether, however, +when the vortex theory of gases is thoroughly worked out, it will +or will not be found to fail in a manner analogous to the failure +which I have already pointed out in connection with the kinetic +theory of gases composed of little elastic solid molecules, I +cannot at present undertake to speak with certainty. It seems to me +most probable that the vortex theory cannot fail in any such way, +because all I have been able to find out hitherto regarding the +vibration of vortices,<a name="FNanchor_14"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_14"><sup>12</sup></a> whether cored or coreless, does +not seem to imply the liability of translational or impulsive +energies of the individual vortices becoming lost in energy of +smaller and smaller vibrations.</p> + +<p>As a step toward kinetic theory of matter, it is certainly most +interesting to remark that in the quasi-elasticity, elasticity +looking like that of an India-rubber band, which we see in a +vibrating smoke-ring launched from an elliptic aperture, or in two +smoke-rings which were circular, but which have become deformed +from circularity by mutual collision, we have in reality a virtual +elasticity in matter devoid of elasticity, and even devoid of +rigidity, the virtual elasticity being due to motion, and generated +by the generation of motion.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">Meeting of the British Association, Montreal. +1884. Section A. Mathematical and Physical science. Opening Address +by Prof. Sir William Thomson, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.SS.L. and +E., F.R.A.S., President of the Section.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[2]</a> + +<div class="note">"Preuve de la supposition que j'ay faite: Que la +matiere subtile ou etheree est necessairement composee de PETITS +TOURBILLONS; et qu'ils sont les causes naturelles de tous les +changements qui arrivent a la matiere; ce que je confirme par +i'explication des effets les plus generaux de la Physique, tels que +sont la durete des corps, leur fluidite, leur pesanteur, legerete, +la lumiere et la refraction et reflexion de ses +rayons."—Malebranche, "Recherche de la Verite," 1712.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[3]</a> + +<div class="note">Proc. R.S.E., March 2, 1874, and July 5, +1875.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[4]</a> + +<div class="note">On the other hand, in liquids, on account of the +crowdedness of the molecules, the diffusion of heat must be chiefly +by interchange of energies between the molecules, and should be, as +experiment proves it is, enormously more rapid than the diffusion +of the molecules themselves, and this again ought to be much less +rapid than either the material or thermal diffusivities of gases. +Thus the diffusivity of common salt through water was found by Fick +to be as small as 0.0000112 square centimeter per second; nearly +200 times as great as this is the diffusivity of heat through +water, which was found by J.T. Bottomley to be about 0.002 square +centimeter per second. The material diffusivities of gases, +according to Loschmidt's experiments, range from 0.98 (the +interdiffusivity of carbonic acid and nitrous oxide) to 0.642 (the +interdiffusivity of carbonic oxide and hydrogen), while the thermal +diffusivities of gases, calculated according to Clausius' and +Maxwell's kinetic theory of gases, are 0.089 for carbonic acid, +0.16 for common air of other gases of nearly the same density, and +1.12 for hydrogen (all, both material and thermal, being reckoned +in square centimeters per second).</div> + +<a name="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[5]</a> + +<div class="note">Republished in Sir W. Thomson's "Mathematical and +Physical Papers," vol. i., article xlix., p. 381.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[6]</a> + +<div class="note">That this is a mere hypothesis has been scarcely +remarked by the founders themselves, nor by almost any writer on +the kinetic theory of gases. No one has yet examined the question, +What is the condition as regards average distribution of kinetic +energy, which is ultimately fulfilled by two portions of gaseous +matter, separated by a thin elastic septum which absolutely +prevents interdiffusion of matter, while it allows interchange of +kinetic energy by collisions against itself? Indeed, I do not know +but, that the present is the very first statement which has ever +been published of this condition of the problem of equal +temperatures between two gaseous masses.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[7]</a> + +<div class="note">Paper on "Vortex Atoms," <i>Proc</i>. R.S.E. +February. 1867: abstract of a lecture before the Royal Institution +of Great Britain, March 4, 1881, on "Elasticity Viewed as possibly +a Mode of Motion"; Thomson and Tait's "Natural Philosophy," second +edition, part 1, §§ 345 viii. to 345 xxxvii.; "On +Oscillation and Waves in an Adynamic Gyrostatic System" (title +only), <i>Proc</i>. R.S.E. March, 1883.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[8]</a> + +<div class="note">In Fig. 1 the two hooked rods seen projecting +from the sphere are connected by an elastic coach-spring. In Fig. 2 +the hooked rods are connected one to each of two opposite corners +of a four-sided jointed frame, each member of which carries a +gyrostat so that the axis of rotation of the fly-wheel is in the +axis of the member of the frame which bears it. Each of the hooked +rods in Fig. 2 is connected to the framework through a swivel +joint, so that the whole gyrostatic framework may be rotated about +the axis of the hooked rods in order to annul the moment of +momentum of the framework about this axis due to rotation of the +fly-wheels in the gyrostat.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[9]</a> + +<div class="note">The integral of tangential component velocity all +round any closed curve, passing once through the aperture, is +defined as the "cyclic-constant" or the "circulation" ("Vortex +Motion," § 60 (a), <i>Trans</i>. R.S.E., April 29, 1867). It +has the same value for all closed curves passing just once through +the aperture, and it remains constant through all time, whether the +solid body be in motion or at rest.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[10]</a> + +<div class="note">According to this view, there is no precise +distance, or definite condition respecting the distance, between +two molecules, at which apparently they come to be in collision, or +when receding from one another they cease to be in collision. It is +convenient, however, in the kinetic theory of gases, to adopt +arbitrarily a precise definition of collision, according to which +two bodies or particles mutually acting at a distance may be said +to be in collision when their mutual action exceeds some definite +arbitrarily assigned limit, as, for example, when the radius of +curvature of the path of either body is less than a stated fraction +(one one-hundredth, for instance) of the distance between +them.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[11]</a> + +<div class="note">Investigations respecting coreless vortices will +be found in a paper by the author, "Vibrations of a Columnar +Vortex," <i>Proc</i>. R.S.E., March 1, 1880; and a paper by Hicks, +recently read before the Royal Society.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14">[12]</a> + +<div class="note">See papers by the author "On Vortex Motion." +<i>Trans</i>. R.S.E. April, 1867, and "Vortex Statics," +<i>Proc</i>. R.S.E. December, 1875; also a paper by J.J. Thomson, +B.A., "On the Vibrations of a Vortex Ring," <i>Trans</i>. R.S. +December, 1881, and his valuable book on "Vortex Motion."</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO TRAMWAYS.</h2> + +<h3>By M. HOLROYD SMITH.</h3> + +<p>Last year, when I had the pleasure of reading a paper before you +on my new system of electric tramways, I ventured to express the +hope that before twelve months had passed, "to be able to report +progress," and I am happy to say that notwithstanding the wearisome +delay and time lost in fruitless negotiations, and the hundred and +one difficulties within and without that have beset me, I am able +to appear before you again and tell you of advance.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 1"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p> + +<p>Practical men know well that there is a wide difference between +a model and a full sized machine; and when I decided to construct a +full sized tramcar and lay out a full sized track, I found it +necessary to make many alterations of detail, my chief difficulty +being so to design my work as to facilitate construction and allow +of compensation for that inaccuracy of workmanship which I have +come to regard as inevitable.</p> + +<p>In order to satisfy the directors of a tramway company of the +practical nature of my system before disturbing their lines, I have +laid, in a field near the works of Messrs. Smith, Baker & Co., +Manchester, a track 110 yards long, 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge, and +I have constructed a full sized street tramcar to run thereon. My +negotiations being with a company in a town where there are no +steep gradients, and where the coefficient of friction of ordinary +wheels would be sufficient for all tractive purposes, I thought it +better to avoid the complication involved in employing a large +central wheel with a broad surface specially designed for hilly +districts, and with which I had mounted a gradient of one in +sixteen.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p> + +<p>But as the line in question was laid with all the curves +unnecessarily quick, even those in the "pass-bies," I thought it +expedient to employ differential gear, as illustrated at D, Fig. 1, +which is a sketch plan showing the mechanism employed. M is a +Siemens electric motor running at 650 revolutions per minute; E is +a combination of box gearing, frictional clutch, and chain pinion, +and from this pinion a steel chain passes around the chain-wheel, +H, which is free to revolve upon the axle, and carries within it +the differential pinion, gearing with the bevel-wheel, B², +keyed upon the sleeve of the loose tram-wheel, T², and with +the bevel-wheel, B¹, keyed upon the axle, to which the other +tram-wheel, T¹, is attached. To the other tram-wheels no gear +is connected; one of them is fast to the axle, and the other runs +loose, but to them the brake is applied in the usual manner.</p> + +<p>The electric current from the collector passes, by means of a +copper wire, and a switch upon the dashboard of the car, and +resistance coils placed under the seats, to the motor, and from the +motor by means of an adjustable clip (illustrated in diagram, Fig. +2) to the axles, and by them through the four wheels to the rails, +which form the return circuit.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3</p> + +<p>I have designed many modifications of the track, but it is, +perhaps, best at present to describe only that which I have in +actual use, and it is illustrated in diagram, Fig. 3, which is a +sectional and perspective view of the central channel. L is the +surface of the road, and SS are the sleepers, CC are the chairs +which hold the angle iron, AA forming the longitudinally slotted +center rail and the electric lead, which consists of two half-tubes +of copper insulated from the chairs by the blocks, I, I. A special +brass clamp, free to slide upon the tube, is employed for this +purpose, and the same form of clamp serves to join the two ends of +the copper tubes together and to make electric contact. Two +half-tubes instead of one slotted tube have been employed, in order +to leave a free passage for dirt or wet to fall through the slot in +the center rail to the drain space, G. Between chair and chair hewn +granite or artificial stone is employed, formed, as shown in the +drawing, to complete the surface of the road and to form a +continuous channel or drain. In order that this drain may not +become choked, at suitable intervals, in the length of the track, +sump holes are formed as illustrated in diagram, Fig. 4 These sump +holes have a well for the accumulation of mud, and are also +connected with the main street drain, so that water can freely pass +away. The hand holes afford facility for easily removing the +dirt.</p> + +<p>In a complete track these hand holes would occasionally be wider +than shown here, for the purpose of removing or fixing the +collector, Fig. 5, which consists of two sets of spirally fluted +rollers free to revolve upon spindles, which are held by +knuckle-joints drawn together by spiral springs; by this means the +pressure of the rollers against the inside of the tube is +constantly maintained, and should any obstruction occur in the tube +the spiral flute causes it to revolve, thus automatically cleansing +the tubes.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11d.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 4"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p>The collector is provided with two steel plates, which pass +through the slit in the center rail; the lower ends of these plates +are clamped by the upper frame of the collector, insulating +material being interposed, and the upper ends are held in two iron +cheeks. Between these steel plates insulated copper strips are +held, electrically connected with the collector and with the +adjustable clip mounted upon the iron cheeks; this clip holds the +terminal on the end of the wire (leading to the motor) firmly +enough for use, the cheeks being also provided with studs for the +attachment of leather straps hooked on to the framework of the car, +one for the forward and one for backward movement of the collector. +These straps are strong enough for the ordinary haulage of the +collector, and for the removal of pebbles and dirt that may get +into the slit; but should any absolute block occur then they break +and the terminal is withdrawn from the clip; the electric contact +being thereby broken the car stops, the obstruction can then be +removed and the collector reconnected without damage and with +little delay.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11e.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 5"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5</p> + +<p>In order to secure continuity of the center rail throughout the +length of the track, and still provide for the removal of the +collector at frequent intervals, the framework of the collector is +so made that, by slackening the side-bolts, the steel plates can be +drawn upward and the collector itself withdrawn sideways through +the hand holes, one of the half-tubes being removed for the +purpose.</p> + +<p>Fig. 6 illustrates another arrangement that I have constructed, +both of collector and method of collecting.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 6</p> + +<p>As before mentioned, the arrangement now described has been +carried out in a field near the works of Messrs. Smith, Baker & +Co., Cornbrook Telegraph Works, Manchester, and its working +efficiency has been most satisfactory. After a week of rain and +during drenching showers the car ran with the same speed and under +the same control as when the ground was dry.</p> + +<p>This I account for by the theory that when the rails are wet and +the tubes moist the better contact made compensates for the slight +leakage that may occur.</p> + +<p>At the commencement of my paper I promised to confine myself to +work done; I therefore abstain from describing various +modifications of detail for the same purpose. But one method of +supporting and insulating the conductor in the channel may be +suggested by an illustration of the plan I adopted for a little +pleasure line in the Winter Gardens, Blackpool.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.</p> + +<p>Fig. 7. There the track being exclusively for the electric +railway, it was not necessary to provide a center channel; the +conductor has therefore been placed in the center of the track, and +consists of bar iron 1¼ in. by ½ in., and is held +vertically by means of studs riveted into the side; these studs +pass through porcelain insulators, and by means of wooden clamps +and wedges are held in the iron chairs which rest upon the +sleepers. The iron conductors were placed vertically to facilitate +bending round the sharp curves which were unavoidable on this +line.</p> + +<p>The collector consists of two metal slippers held together by +springs, attached to the car by straps and electrically connected +to the motor by clips in the same manner as the one employed in +Manchester.</p> + +<p>I am glad to say that, notwithstanding the curves with a radius +of 55 feet and gradients of 1 in 57, this line is also a practical +success.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>FIRES IN LONDON AND NEW YORK.</h2> + +<p>When the chief of the London Fire Brigade visited the United +States in 1882, he was, as is the general rule on the other side of +the Atlantic, "interviewed"—a custom, it may be remarked, +which appears to be gaining ground also in this country. The +inferences drawn from these interviews seem to be that the absence +of large fires in London was chiefly due to the superiority of our +fire brigade, and that the greater frequency of conflagrations in +American cities, and particularly in New York, was due to the +inferiority of their fire departments. How unjust such a comparison +would be is shown in a paper presented by Mr. Edward B. Dorsey, a +member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, to that +association, in which the author discusses the comparative +liability to and danger from conflagrations in London and in +American cities. He found from an investigation which he conducted +with much care during a visit to London that it is undoubtedly true +that large fires are much less frequent in the metropolis than in +American cities; but it is equally true that the circumstances +existing in London and New York are quite different. As it is a +well-known fact that the promptness, efficiency, and bravery of +American firemen cannot be surpassed, we gladly give prominence to +the result of the author's investigations into the true causes of +the great liability of American cities to large fires. In a highly +interesting comparison the writer has selected New York and London +as typical cities, although his observations will apply to most +American and English towns, if, perhaps, with not quite the same +force. In the first place, the efforts of the London Fire Brigade +receive much aid from our peculiarly damp climate. From the average +of eleven years (1871-1881) of the meteorological observations made +at the Greenwich Observatory, it appears that in London it rains, +on the average, more than three days in the week, that the sun +shines only one-fourth of the time he is above the horizon, and +that the atmosphere only lacks 18 per cent. of complete saturation, +and is cloudy seven-tenths of the time. Moreover, the humidity of +the atmosphere in London is very uniform, varying but little in the +different months. Under these circumstances, wood will not be +ignited very easily by sparks or by contact with a weak flame. This +is very different from the condition of wood in the long, hot, dry +seasons of the American continent. The average temperature for the +three winter months in London is 38.24 degrees Fahr.; in New York +it is 31.56 degrees, or 6.68 degrees lower. This lower range of +temperature must be the cause of many conflagrations, for, to make +up for the deficiency in the natural temperature, there must be in +New York many more and larger domestic fires. The following +statistics, taken from the records of the New York Fire Department, +show this. In the three winter months of 1881, January, February, +and December, there were 522 fire alarms in New York, or an average +per month of 174; in the remaining nine months 1,263, or an average +per month of 140. In the corresponding three winter months of 1882 +there were 602 fire alarms, or an average per month of 201; in the +remaining nine months 1,401, or an average per month of 155. In +round numbers there were in 1881 one-fourth, and in 1882 one-third +more fire alarms in the three winter months than in the nine warmer +months. We are not aware that similar statistics have ever been +compiled for London, and are consequently unable to draw +comparison; but, speaking from recollection, fires appear to be +more frequent also in London during the winter months.</p> + +<p>Another cause of the greater frequency of fires in New York and +their more destructive nature is the greater density of population +in that city. The London Metropolitan Police District covers 690 +square miles, extending 12 to 15 miles in every direction from +Charing Cross, and contained in 1881 a population of 4,764,312; but +what is generally known as London covers 122 square miles, +containing, in 1881, 528,794 houses, and a population of 3,814,574, +averaging 7.21 persons per house, 49 per acre, and 31,267 per +square mile. Now let us look at New York. South of Fortieth Street +between the Hudson and East Rivers, New York has an area of 3,905 +acres, a fraction over six square miles, exclusive of piers, and +contained, according to the census of 1880, a population of +813,076. This gives 208 persons per acre. The census of 1880 +reports the total number of dwellings in New York at 73,684; total +population, 1,206,299; average per dwelling, 16.37. Selecting for +comparison an area about equal from the fifteen most densely +populated districts or parishes of London, of an aggregate area of +3,896 acres, and with a total population of 746,305, we obtain +191.5 persons per acre. Thus briefly New York averaged 208 persons +per acre, and 16.37 per dwelling; London, for the same area, 191.5 +persons per acre, and 7.21 per house. But this comparison is +scarcely fair, as in London only the most populous and poorest +districts are included, corresponding to the entirely tenement +districts of New York, while in the latter city it includes the +richest and most fashionable sections, as well as the poorest. If +tenement districts were taken alone, the population would be found +much more dense, and New York proportionately much more densely +populated. Taking four of the most thickly populated of the London +districts (East London, Strand, Old Street, St. Luke's, St. +Giles-in-the-Fields, and St. George, Bloomsbury), we find on a +total area of 792 acres a population of 197,285, or an average of +249 persons per acre. In four of the most densely populated wards +of New York (10th, 11th, 13th, and 17th), we have on an area of 735 +acres a population of 258,966, or 352 persons per acre. This is 40 +per cent. higher than in London, the districts being about the same +size, each containing about 1-1/5 square miles. Apart from the +greater crowding which takes place in New York, and the different +style of buildings, another very fertile cause of the spreading of +fires is the freer use of wood in their construction. It is +asserted that in New York there is more than double the quantity of +wood used in buildings per acre than in London. From a house census +undertaken in 1882 by the New York Fire Department, moreover, it +appears that there were 106,885 buildings including sheds, of which +28,798 houses were built of wood or other inflammable materials, +besides 3,803 wooden sheds, giving a total of 32,601 wooden +buildings.</p> + +<p>We are not aware that there are any wooden houses left in +London. There are other minor causes which act as checks upon the +spreading of fires in London. London houses are mostly small in +size, and fires are thus confined to a limited space between brick +walls. Their walls are generally low and well braced, which enable +the firemen to approach them without danger. About 60 per cent. of +London houses are less than 22 feet high from the pavement to the +eaves; more than half of the remainder are less than 40 feet high, +very few being over 50 feet high. This, of course, excludes the +newer buildings in the City. St. James's Palace does not exceed 40 +feet, the Bank of England not over 30 feet in height; but these are +exceptional structures. Fireproof roofings and projecting party +walls also retard the spreading of conflagrations. The houses being +comparatively low and small, the firemen are enabled to throw water +easily over them, and to reach their roofs with short ladders. +There is in London an almost universal absence of wooden additions +and outbuildings, and the New York ash barrel or box kept in the +house is also unknown. The local authorities in London keep a +strict watch over the manufacture or storage of combustible +materials in populous parts of the city. Although overhead +telegraph wires are multiplying to an alarming extent in London, +their number is nothing to be compared to their bewildering +multitude in New York, where their presence is not only a +hinderance to the operations of the firemen, but a positive danger +to their lives. Finally—and this has already been partly +dealt with in speaking of the comparative density of population of +the two cities—a look at the map of London will show us how +the River Thames and the numerous parks, squares, private grounds, +wide streets, as well as the railways running into London, all act +as effectual barriers to the extension of fires.</p> + +<p>The recent great conflagrations in the city vividly illustrate +to Londoners what fire could do if their metropolis were built on +the New York plan. The City, however, as we have remarked, is an +exceptional part of London, and, taking the British metropolis as +it is, with its hundreds of square miles of suburbs, and +contrasting its condition with that of New York, we are led to +adopt the opinion that London, with its excellent fire brigade, is +safe from a destructive conflagration. It was stated above, and it +is repeated here, that the fire brigade of New York is unsurpassed +for promptness, skill, and heroic intrepidity, but their task, by +contrast, is a heavy one in a city like New York, with its numerous +wooden buildings, wooden or asphalt roofs, buildings from four to +ten stories high, with long unbraced walls, weakened by many large +windows, containing more than ten times the timber an average +London house does, and that very inflammable, owing to the dry and +hot American climate. But this is not all. In New York we find the +five and six story tenement houses with two or three families on +each floor, each with their private ash barrel or box kept handy in +their rooms, all striving to keep warm during the severe winters of +North America. We also find narrow streets and high buildings, with +nothing to arrest the extension of a fire except a few small parks, +not even projecting or effectual fire-walls between the several +buildings. And to all this must be added the perfect freedom with +which the city authorities of New York allow in its most populous +portions large stables, timber yards, carpenters' shops, and the +manufacture and storage of inflammable materials. Personal liberty +could not be carried to a more dangerous extent. We ought to be +thankful that in such matters individual freedom is somewhat +hampered in our old-fashioned and quieter-going +country.—<i>London Morning Post</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>THE LATEST KNOWLEDGE ABOUT GAPES.</h2> + +<p>The gape worm may be termed the <i>bete noir</i> of the +poultry-keeper—his greatest enemy—whether he be farmer +or fancier. It is true there are some who declare that it is +unknown in their poultry-yards—that they have never been +troubled with it at all. These are apt to lay it down, as I saw a +correspondent did in a recent number of the <i>Country +Gentleman</i>, that the cause is want of cleanliness or neglect in +some way. But I can vouch that that is not so. I have been in yards +where everything was first-rate, where the cleanliness was almost +painfully complete, where no fault in the way of neglect could be +found, and yet the gapes were there; and on the other hand, I have +known places where every condition seemed favorable to the +development of such a disease, and there it was absent—this +not in isolated cases, but in many. No, we must look elsewhere for +the cause.</p> + +<p>Observations lead me to the belief that gapes are more than +usually troublesome during a wet spring or summer following a mild +winter. This would tend to show that the egg from which the worm +(that is in itself the disease) emerges is communicated from the +ground, from the food eaten, or the water drunk, in the first +instance, but it is more than possible that the insects themselves +may pass from one fowl to another. All this we can accept as a +settled fact, and also any description of the way in which the +parasitic worms attach themselves to the throats of the birds, and +cause the peculiar gaping of the mouth which gives the name to the +disease.</p> + +<p>Many remedies have been suggested, and my object now is to +communicate some of the later ones—thus to give a variety of +methods, so that in case of the failure of one, another will be at +hand ready to be tried. It is a mistake always to pin the faith to +one remedy, for the varying conditions found in fowls compel a +different treatment. The old plan of dislodging the worms with a +feather is well known, and need not be described again. But I may +mention that in this country some have found the use of an +ointment, first suggested by Mr. Lewis Wright, I believe, most +valuable. This is made of mercurial ointment, two parts; pure lard, +two parts; flour of sulphur, one part; crude petroleum, one +part—and when mixed together is applied to the heads of the +chicks as soon as they are dry after hatching. Many have testified +that they have never found this to fail as a preventive, and if the +success is to be attributed to the ointment, it would seem as if +the insects are driven off by its presence, for the application to +the heads merely would not kill the eggs.</p> + +<p>Some time ago Lord Walsingham offered, through the Entomological +Society of London, a prize for the best life history of the gapes +disease, and this has been won by the eminent French scientist M. +Pierre Mégnin, whose essay has been published by the noble +donor. His offer was in the interest of pheasant breeders, but the +benefit is not confined to that variety of game alone, for it is +equally applicable to all gallinaceous birds troubled with this +disease. The pamphlet in question is a very valuable work, and +gives very clearly the methods by which the parasite develops. But +for our purpose it will be sufficient to narrate what M. +Mégnin recommends for the cure of it. These are various, as +will be seen, and comprise the experience of other inquirers as +well as himself.</p> + +<p>He states that Montague obtained great success by a combination +of the following methods: Removal from infested runs; a thorough +change of food, hemp seed and green vegetables figuring largely in +the diet; and for drinking, instead of plain water, an infusion of +rue and garlic. And Mégnin himself mentions an instance of +the value of garlic. In the years 1877 and 1878, the pheasant +preserves of Fontainebleau were ravaged by gapes. The disease was +there arrested and totally cured, when a mixture, consisting of +yolks of eggs, boiled bullock's heart, stale bread crumbs, and +leaves of nettle, well mixed and pounded together with garlic, was +given, in the proportion of one clove to ten young pheasants. The +birds were found to be very fond of this mixture, but great care +was taken to see that the drinking vessels were properly cleaned +out and refilled with clean, pure water twice a day. This treatment +has met with the same success in other places, and if any of your +readers are troubled with gapes and will try it, I shall be pleased +to see the results narrated in the columns of the <i>Country +Gentleman</i>. Garlic in this case is undoubtedly the active +ingredient, and as it is volatile, when taken into the stomach the +breath is charged with it, and in this way (for garlic is a +powerful vermifuge) the worms are destroyed.</p> + +<p>Another remedy recommended by M. Mégnin was the strong +smelling vermifuge assafoetida, known sometimes by the suggestive +name of "devil's dung." It has one of the most disgusting oders +possible, and is not very pleasant to be near. The assafoetida was +mixed with an equal part of powdered yellow gentian, and this was +given to the extent of about 8 grains a day in the food. As an +assistance to the treatment, with the object of killing any embryos +in the drinking water, fifteen grains of salicylate of soda was +mixed with a pint and three-quarters of water. So successful was +this, that on M. De Rothschild's preserves at Rambouillet, where a +few days before gapes were so virulent that 1,200 pheasants were +found dead every morning, it succeeded in stopping the epidemic in +a few days. But to complete the matter, M. Mégnin adds that +it is always advisable to disinfect the soil of preserves. For this +purpose, the best means of destroying any eggs or embryos it may +contain is to water the ground with a solution of sulphuric acid, +in the proportion of a pennyweight to three pints of water, and +also birds that die of the disease should be deeply buried in +lime.</p> + +<p>Fumigation with carbolic acid is an undoubted cure, but then it +is a dangerous one, and unless very great care is taken in killing +the worms, the bird is killed also. Thus many find this a risky +method, and prefer some other. Lime is found to be a valuable +remedy. In some districts of England, where lime-kilns abound, it +is a common thing to take children troubled with whooping-cough +there. Standing in the smoke arising from the kilns, they are +compelled to breathe it. This dislodges the phlegm in the throat, +and they are enabled to get rid of it. Except near lime-kilns, this +cannot be done to chickens, but fine slaked lime can be used, +either alone or mixed with powdered sulphur, two parts of the +former to one of the latter. The air is charged with this fine +powder, and the birds, breathing it, cough, and thus get rid of the +worms, which are stupefied by the lime, and do not retain so firm a +hold on the throat. An apparatus has recently been introduced to +spread this lime powder. It is in the form of an air-fan, with a +pointed nozzle, which is put just within the coop at night, when +the birds are all within. The powder is already in a compartment +made for it, and by the turning of a handle, it is driven through +the nozzle, and the air within the coop charged with it. There is +no waste of powder, nor any fear that it will not be properly +distributed. Experienced pheasant and poultry breeders state that +by the use of this once a week, gapes are effectually prevented. In +this case, also, I shall be glad to learn the result if tried.</p> + +<p>STEPHEN BEALE.</p> + +<p>H——, Eng., Aug. 1.</p> + +<p>—<i>Country Gentleman</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>WOLPERT'S METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE AMOUNT OF CARBONIC ACID IN +THE AIR</h2> + +. + +<p>There is a large number of processes and apparatus for +estimating the amount of carbonic acid in the air. Some of them, +such as those of Regnault, Reiset, the Montsouris observers (Fig. +1), and Brand, are accurate analytical instruments, and +consequently quite delicate, and not easily manipulated by +hygienists of middling experience. Others are less complicated, and +also less exact, but still require quite a troublesome +manipulation—such, for example, as the process of +Pettenkofer, as modified by Fodor, that of Hesse, etc.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/13a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/13a_th.jpg" alt= +" APPARATUS FOR ESTIMATING THE CARBONIC ACID OF THE AIR."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR ESTIMATING THE CARBONIC ACID OF THE +AIR. 3.—Bertin-Sans Apparatus. FIG. 4.—Bubbling Glass. +FIG. 5.—Pipette. FIG. 6.—Arrangement of the U-shaped +Tube. FIG. 7.—Wolpert's Apparatus.</p> + +<p>Hygienists have for some years striven to obtain some very +simple apparatus (rather as an indicator than an analytical +instrument) that should permit it to be quickly ascertained whether +the degree of impurity of a place was incompatible with health, and +in what proportion it was so. It is from such efforts that have +resulted the processes of Messrs. Smith. Lunge, Bertin-Sans, and +the apparatus of Prof. Wolpert (Fig. 7).</p> + +<p>It is of the highest interest to ascertain the proportion of +carbonic acid in the air, and especially in that of inhabited +places, since up to the present this is the best means of finding +out how much the air that we are breathing is polluted, and whether +there is sufficient ventilation or not. Experiment has, in fact, +demonstrated that carbonic acid increases in the air of inhabited +rooms in the same way as do those organic matters which are +difficult of direct estimation. Although a few ten-thousandths more +of carbonic acid in our air cannot of themselves endanger us, yet +they have on another hand a baneful significance, and, indeed, the +majority of hygienists will not tolerate more than six +ten-millionths of this element in the air of dwellings, and some of +them not more than five ten-millionths.</p> + +<p>Carbonic acid readily betrays its presence through solutions of +the alkaline earths such as baryta and chalk, in which its passage +produces an insoluble carbonate, and consequently makes the liquid +turbid. If, then, one has prepared a solution of baryta or lime, of +which a certain volume is made turbid by the passage of a likewise +known volume of CO<sub>2</sub>, it will be easy to ascertain how +much CO<sub>2</sub> a certain air contains, from the volume of the +latter that it will be necessary to pass through the basic solution +in order to obtain the amount of turbidity that has been taken as a +standard. The problem consists in determining the minimum of air +required to make the known solution turbid. Hence the name +"minimetric estimation," that has been given to this process. Prof. +Lescoeur has had the goodness to construct for me a Smith's +minimetric apparatus (Fig. 2) with the ingenious improvements that +have been made in it by Mr. Fischli, assistant to Prof. Weil, of +Zurich. I have employed it frequently, and I use it every year in +my lectures. I find it very practical, provided one has got +accustomed to using it. It is, at all events, of much simpler +manipulation than that of Bertin-Sans, although the accuracy of the +latter may be greater (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6). But it certainly has +more than one defect, and some of the faults that have been found +with it are quite serious. The worst of these consists in the +difficulty of catching the exact moment at which the turbidity of +the basic liquid is at the proper point for arresting the +operation. In addition to this capital defect, it is regrettable +that it is necessary to shake the flask that contains the solution +after every insufflation of air, and also that the play of the +valves soon becomes imperfect. Finally, Mr. Wolpert rightly sees +one serious drawback to the use of baryta in an apparatus that has +to be employed in schools, among children, and that is that this +substance is poisonous. This gentleman therefore replaces the +solution of baryta by water saturated with lime, which costs almost +nothing, and the preparation of which is exceedingly simple. +Moreover, it is a harmless agent.</p> + +<p>The apparatus consists of two parts. The first of these is a +glass tube closed at one end, and 12 cm. in length by 12 mm. in +diameter. Its bottom is of porcelain, and bears on its inner +surface the date 1882 in black characters. Above, and at the level +that corresponds to a volume of three cubic centimeters, there is a +black line which serves as an invariable datum point. A rubber bulb +of twenty-eight cubic centimeters capacity is fixed to a tube which +reaches its bottom, and is flanged at the other extremity (Fig. +7).</p> + +<p>The operation is as follows:</p> + +<p>The saturated, but limpid, solution of lime is poured into the +first tube up to the black mark, the tube of the air bulb is +introduced into the lime water in such a way that its orifice shall +be in perfect contact with the bottom of the other tube, and then, +while the bulb is held between the fore and middle fingers of the +upturned hand, one presses slowly with the thumb upon its bottom so +as to expel all the air that it contains. This air enters the +lime-water bubble by bubble. After this the tube is removed from +the water, and the bulb is allowed to fill with air, and the same +maneuver is again gone through with. This is repeated until the +figures 1882, looked at from above, cease to be clearly visible, +and disappear entirely after the contents of the tube have been +vigorously shaken.</p> + +<p>The measures are such that the turbidity supervenes at once if +the air in the bulb contains twenty thousandths of CO<sub>2</sub>. +If it becomes necessary to inject the contents of the bulb into the +water twice, it is clear that the proportion is only ten +thousandths; and if it requires ten injections the air contains ten +times less CO<sub>2</sub> than that having twenty thousandths, or +only two per cent. A table that accompanies the apparatus has been +constructed upon this basis, and does away with the necessity of +making calculations.</p> + +<p>An air that contained ten thousandths of CO<sub>2</sub>, or even +five, would be almost as deleterious, in my opinion, as one of two +per cent. It is of no account, then, to know the proportions +intermediate to these round numbers. Yet it is possible, if the +case requires it, to obtain an indication between two consecutive +figures of the scale by means of another bulb whose capacity is +only half that of the preceding. Thus, two injections of the large +bulb, followed by one of the small, or two and a half injections, +correspond to a richness of 8 thousandths of CO<sub>2</sub>; and +5½ to 3.6 thousandths. This half-bulb serves likewise for +another purpose. From the moment that the large bulb makes the +lime-water turbid with an air containing two per cent. of +CO<sub>2</sub>, it is clear that the small one can cause the same +turbidity only with air twice richer in CO<sub>2</sub>, +<i>i.e</i>., of four per cent.</p> + +<p>This apparatus, although it makes no pretensions to extreme +accuracy, is capable of giving valuable information. The table that +accompanies it is arranged for a temperature of 17° and a +pressure of 740 mm. But different meteorological conditions do not +materially alter the results. Thus, with 10° less it would +require thirty-one injections instead of thirty, and CO<sub>2</sub> +would be 0.64 per 1,000 instead of 0.66; and with 10° more, +thirty injections instead of thirty one.</p> + +<p>The apparatus is contained in a box that likewise holds a bottle +of lime-water sufficient for a dozen analyses, the table of +proportions of CO<sub>2</sub>, and the apparatus for cleaning the +tubes. The entire affair is small enough to be carried in the +pocket.—<i>J. Arnould, in Science et Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[NATURE.]</p> + +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>THE VOYAGE OF THE VETTOR PISANI.</h2> + +<p>Knowing how much <i>Nature</i> is read by all the naturalists of +the world, I send these few lines, which I hope will be of some +interest.</p> + +<p>The Italian R.N. corvette Vettor Pisani left Italy in April, +1882, for a voyage round the world with the ordinary commission of +a man-of-war. The Minister of Marine, wishing to obtain scientific +results, gave orders to form, when possible, a marine zoological +collection, and to carry on surveying, deep-sea soundings, and +abyssal thermometrical measurements. The officers of the ship +received their different scientific charges, and Prof. Dohrn, +director of the Zoological Station at Naples, gave to the writer +necessary instructions for collecting and preserving sea +animals.</p> + +<p>At the end of 1882 the Vettor Pisani visited the Straits of +Magellan, the Patagonian Channels, and Chonos and Chiloe islands; +we surveyed the Darwin Channel, and following Dr. Cuningham's work +(who visited these places on board H.M.S. Nassau), we made a +numerous collection of sea animals by dredging and fishing along +the coasts.</p> + +<p>While fishing for a big shark in the Gulf of Panama during the +stay of our ship in Taboga Island, one day in February, with a dead +clam, we saw several great sharks some miles from our anchorage. In +a short time several boats with natives went to sea, accompanied by +two of the Vettor Pisani's boats.</p> + +<p>Having wounded one of these animals in the lateral part of the +belly, we held him with lines fixed to the spears; he then began to +describe a very narrow curve, and irritated by the cries of the +people that were in the boats, ran off with a moderate velocity. To +the first boat, which held the lines just mentioned, the other +boats were fastened, and it was a rather strange emotion to feel +ourselves towed by the monster for more than three hours with a +velocity that proved to be two miles per hour. One of the boats was +filled with water. At last the animal was tired by the great loss +of blood, and the boats assembled to haul in the lines and tow the +shark on shore.</p> + +<p>With much difficulty the nine boats towed the animal alongside +the Vettor Pisani to have him hoisted on board, but it was +impossible on account of his colossal dimensions. But as it was +high water we went toward a sand beach with the animal, and we had +him safely stranded at night.</p> + +<p>With much care were inspected the mouth, the nostrils, the ears, +and all the body, but no parasite was found. The eyes were taken +out and prepared for histological study. The set of teeth was all +covered by a membrane that surrounded internally the lips; the +teeth are very little, and almost in a rudimental state. The mouth, +instead of opening in the inferior part of the head, as in common +sharks, was at the extremity of the head; the jaws having the same +bend.</p> + +<p>Cutting the animal on one side of the backbone we met (1) a +compact layer of white fat 20 centimeters deep; (2) the +cartilaginous ribs covered with blood vessels; (3) a stratum of +flabby, stringy, white muscle, 60 centimeters high, apparently in +adipose degeneracy; (4) the stomach.</p> + +<p>By each side of the backbone he had three chamferings, or +flutings, that were distinguished by inflected interstices. The +color of the back was brown with yellow spots that became close and +small toward the head, so as to be like marble spots. The length of +the shark was 8.90 m. from the mouth to the <i>pinna caudalis</i> +extremity, the greatest circumference 6.50 m., and 2.50 m. the main +diameter (the outline of the two projections is made for giving +other dimensions).</p> + +<p>The natives call the species <i>Tintoreva</i>, and the most aged +of the village had only once before fished such an animal, but +smaller. While the animal was on board we saw several <i>Remora</i> +about a foot long drop from his mouth; it was proved that these +fish lived fixed to the palate, and one of them was pulled off and +kept in the zoological collection of the ship.</p> + +<p>The Vettor Pisani has up the present visited Gibraltar, Cape +Verde Islands, Pernambuco, Rio Janeiro, Monte Video, Valparaiso, +many ports of Peru, Guayaquil, Panama, Galapagos Islands, and all +the collections were up to this sent to the Zoological Station at +Naples to be studied by the naturalists. By this time the ship left +Callao for Honolulu, Manila, Hong Kong, and, as the Challenger had +not crossed the Pacific Ocean in these directions, we made several +soundings and deep-sea thermometrical measurements from Callao to +Honolulu. Soundings are made with a steel wire (Thompson system) +and a sounding-rod invented by J. Palumbo, captain of the ship. The +thermometer employed is a Negretti and Zambra deep-sea thermometer, +improved by Captain Maguaghi (director of the Italian R.N. +Hydrographic Office).</p> + +<p>With the thermometer wire has always been sent down a tow-net +which opens and closes automatically, also invented by Captain +Palumbo. This tow-net has brought up some little animals that I +think are unknown.</p> + +<p>G. CHIERCHIA.</p> + +<p>Honolulu July 1.</p> + +<p>The shark captured by the Vettor Pisani in the Gulf of Panama is +<i>Rhinodon typicus</i>, probably the most gigantic fish in +existence. Mr. Swinburne Ward, formerly commissioner of the +Seychelles, has informed me that it attains to a length of 50 feet +or more, which statement was afterward confirmed by Prof. E.P. +Wright. Originally described by Sir A. Smith from a single specimen +which was killed in the neighborhood of Cape Town, this species +proved to be of not uncommon occurrence in the Seychelles +Archipelago, where it is known by the name of "Chagrin." Quite +recently Mr. Haly reported the capture of a specimen on the coast +of Ceylon. Like other large sharks (<i>Carcharodon rondeletii, +Selache maxima</i>, etc.), Rhinodon has a wide geographical range, +and the fact of its occurrence on the Pacific coast of America, +previously indicated by two sources, appears now to be fully +established. T. Gill in 1865 described a large shark known in the +Gulf of California by the name of "Tiburon ballenas" or +whale-shark, as a distinct genus—<i>Micristodus +punctatus</i>—which, in my opinion, is the same fish. And +finally, Prof. W. Nation examined in 1878 a specimen captured at +Callao. Of this specimen we possess in the British Museum a portion +of the dental plate. The teeth differ in no respect from those of a +Seychelles Chagrin; they are conical, sharply pointed, recurved, +with the base of attachment swollen. Making no more than due +allowance for such variations in the descriptions by different +observers as are unavoidable in accounts of huge creatures examined +by some in a fresh, by others in a preserved, state, we find the +principal characteristics identical in all these accounts, viz.: +the form of the body, head, and snout, relative measurements, +position of mouth, nostrils, and eyes, dentition, peculiar ridges +on the side of the trunk and tail, coloration, etc. I have only to +add that this shark is stated to be of mild disposition and quite +harmless. Indeed, the minute size of its teeth has led to the +belief in the Seychelles that it is a herbivorous fish, which, +however, is not probable.</p> + +<p>ALBERT GUNTHER.</p> + +<p>Natural History Museum, <i>July 30</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>THE GREELY ARCTIC EXPEDITION.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14a_th.jpg" alt= +" THE GREELY ARCTIC EXPEDITION.—THE FARTHEST POINT"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE GREELY ARCTIC EXPEDITION.—THE FARTHEST +POINT NORTH.</p> + +<p>Some account has been given of the American Meteorological +Expedition, commanded by Lieutenant, now Major, Greely, of the +United States Army, in the farthest north channels, beyond Smith +Sound, that part of the Arctic regions where the British Polar +expedition, in May, 1876, penetrated to within four hundred +geographical miles of the North Pole. The American expedition, in +1883, succeeded in getting four miles beyond, this being effected +by a sledge party traveling over the snow from Fort Conger, the +name they had given to their huts erected on the western shore near +Discovery Cove, in Lady Franklin Sound. The farthest point reached, +on May 18, was in latitude 83 deg. 24 min. N.; longitude 40 deg. 46 +min. W., on the Greenland coast. The sledge party was commanded by +Lieutenant Lockwood, and the following particulars are supplied by +Sergeant Brainerd, who accompanied Lieutenant Lockwood on the +expedition. During their sojourn in the Arctic regions the men were +allowed to grow the full beard, except under the mouth, where it +was clipped short. They wore knitted mittens, and over these heavy +seal-skin mittens were drawn, connected by a tanned seal-skin +string that passed over the neck, to hold them when the hands were +slipped out. Large tanned leather pockets were fastened outside the +jackets, and in very severe weather jerseys were sometimes worn +over the jackets for greater protection against the intense cold. +On the sledge journeys the dogs were harnessed in a fan-shaped +group to the traces, and were never run tandem. In traveling, the +men were accustomed to hold on to the back of the sledge, never +going in front of the team, and often took off their heavy +overcoats and threw them on the load. When taking observations with +the sextant, Lieutenant Lockwood generally reclined on the snow, +while Sergeant Brainerd called time and made notes, as shown in our +illustration. When further progress northward was barred by open +water, and the party almost miraculously escaped drifting into the +Polar sea, Lieutenant Lockwood erected, at the highest point of +latitude reached by civilized man, a pyramidal-shaped cache of +stones, six feet square at the base, and eight or nine feet high. +In a little chamber about a foot square half-way to the apex, and +extending to the center of the pile, he placed a self-recording +spirit thermometer, a small tin cylinder containing records of the +expedition, and then sealed up the aperture with a closely fitting +stone. The cache was surmounted with a small American flag made by +Mrs. Greely, but there were only thirteen stars, the number of the +old revolutionary flag. From the summit of Lockwood Island, the +scene presented in our illustration, 2,000 feet above the sea, +Lieutenant Lockwood was unable to make out any land to the north or +the northwest. "The awful panorama of the Arctic which their +elevation spread out before them made a profound impression upon +the explorers. The exultation which was natural to the achievement +which they found they had accomplished was tempered by the +reflections inspired by the sublime desolation of that stern and +silent coast and the menace of its unbroken solitude. Beyond to the +eastward was the interminable defiance of the unexplored +coast—black, cold, and repellent. Below them lay the Arctic +Ocean, buried beneath frozen chaos. No words can describe the +confusion of this sea of ice—the hopeless asperity of it, the +weariness of its torn and tortured surface. Only at the remote +horizon did distance and the fallen snow mitigate its roughness and +soften its outlines; and beyond it, in the yet unattainable +recesses of the great circle, they looked toward the Pole itself. +It was a wonderful sight, never to be forgotten, and in some degree +a realization of the picture that astronomers conjure to themselves +when the moon is nearly full, and they look down into the great +plain which is called the Ocean of Storms, and watch the shadows of +sterile and airless peaks follow a slow procession across its +silver surface."—<i>Illustrated London News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>THE NILE EXPEDITION.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14b_th.jpg" alt=" WHALER GIG FOR THE NILE."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">WHALER GIG FOR THE NILE.</p> + +<p>As soon as the authorities had finally made up their minds to +send a flotilla of boats to Cairo for the relief of Khartoum, not a +moment was lost in issuing orders to the different shipbuilding +contractors for the completion, with the utmost dispatch, of the +400 "whaler-gigs" for service on the Nile. They are light-looking +boats, built of white pine, and weigh each about 920 lb., that is +without the gear, and are supposed to carry four tons of +provisions, ammunition, and camp appliances, the food being +sufficient for 100 days. The crew will number twelve men, soldiers +and sailors, the former rowing, while the latter (two) will attend +the helm. Each boat will be fitted with two lug sails, which can be +worked reefed, so as to permit an awning to be fitted underneath +for protection to the men from the sun. As is well known, the wind +blows for two or three months alternately up and down the Nile, and +the authorities expect the flotilla will have the advantage of a +fair wind astern for four or five days at the least. On approaching +the Cataracts, the boats will be transported on wooden rollers over +the sand to the next level for relaunching.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>THE PROPER TIME FOR CUTTING TIMBER.</h2> + +<h3><i>To the Editor of the Oregonian:</i></h3> + +<p>Believing that any ideas relating to this matter will be of some +interest to your readers in this heavily-timbered region, I +therefore propose giving you my opinion and conclusions arrived at +after having experimented upon the cutting and use of timber for +various purposes for a number of years here upon the Pacific +coast.</p> + +<p>This, we are all well aware, is a very important question, and +one very difficult to answer, since it requires observation and +experiment through a course of many years to arrive at any definite +conclusion; and it is a question too upon which even at the present +day there exists a great difference of opinion among men who, being +engaged in the lumber business, are thereby the better qualified to +form an opinion.</p> + +<p>Many articles have been published in the various papers of the +country upon this question for the past thirty years, but in all +cases an opinion only has been given, which, at the present day, +such is the advance and higher development of the intellectual +faculties of man, that a mere opinion upon any question without +sufficient and substantial reasons to back it is of little +value.</p> + +<p>My object in writing this is not simply to give an opinion, but +how and the methods used by which I adopted such conclusions, as +well also as the reasons why timber is more durable and better when +cut at a certain season of the year than when cut at any other.</p> + +<p>In the course of my investigations of this question for the past +thirty years, I have asked the opinion of a great many persons who +have been engaged in the lumber business in various States of the +Union, from Maine to Wisconsin, and they all agree upon one point, +viz., that the winter time is the proper time for cutting timber, +although none has ever been able to give a reason why, only the +fact that such was the case, and therefore drawing the inference +that it was the proper time when timber should be cut; and so it +is, for one reason only, however, and that is the convenience for +handling or moving timber upon the snow and ice.</p> + +<p>It was while engaged in the business of mining in the mountains +of California in early days, and having occasion to work often +among timber, in removing stumps, etc., it was while so engaged +that I noticed one peculiar fact, which was this—that the +stumps of some trees which had been cut but two or three years had +decayed, while others of the same size and variety of pine which +had been cut the same year were as sound and firm as when first +cut. This seemed strange to me, and I found upon inquiry of old +lumbermen who had worked among timber all their lives, that it was +strange to them also, and they could offer no explanation; and it +was the investigation of this singular fact that led me to +experiment further upon the problem of cutting timber.</p> + +<p>It was not, however, until many years after, and when engaged in +clearing land for farming purposes, that I made the discovery why +some stumps should decay sooner than others of the same size and +variety, even when cut a few months afterward.</p> + +<p>I had occasion to clear several acres of land which was covered +with a very dense growth of young pines from two to six inches in +diameter (this work for certain reasons is usually done in the +winter). The young trees, not being suitable for fuel, are thrown +into piles and burned upon the ground. Such land, therefore, on +account of the stumps is very difficult to plow, as the stumps do +not decay for three or four years, while most of the larger ones +remain sound even longer.</p> + +<p>But, for the purpose of experimenting, I cleaned a few acres of +ground in the spring, cutting them in May and June. I trimmed the +poles, leaving them upon the ground, and when seasoned hauled them +to the house for fuel, and found that for cooking or heating +purposes they were almost equal to oak; and it was my practice for +many years afterward to cut these young pines in May or June for +winter fuel.</p> + +<p>I found also that the stumps, instead of remaining sound for any +length of time, decayed so quickly that they could all be plowed up +the following spring.</p> + +<p>From which facts I draw these conclusions: that if in the +cutting of timber the main object is to preserve the stumps, cut +your trees in the fall or winter; but if the value of the timber is +any consideration, cut your trees in the spring after the sap has +ascended the tree, but before any growth has taken place or new +wood has been formed.</p> + +<p>I experimented for many years also in the cutting of timber for +fencing, fence posts, etc., and with the same results. Those which +were cut in the spring and set after being seasoned were the most +durable, such timber being much lighter, tougher, and in all +respects better for all variety of purposes.</p> + +<p>Having given some little idea of the manner in which I +experimented, and the conclusions arrived at as to the proper time +when timber should be cut, I now propose to give what are, in my +opinion, the reasons why timber cut in early summer is much better, +being lighter, tougher and more durable than if cut at any other +time. Therefore, in order to do this it is necessary first to +explain the nature and value of the sap and the growth of a +tree.</p> + +<p>We find it to be the general opinion at present, as it perhaps +has always been among lumbermen and those who work among timber, +that the sap of a tree is an evil which must be avoided if +possible, for it is this which causes decay and destroys the life +and good qualities of all wood when allowed to remain in it for an +unusual length of time, but that this is a mistaken idea I will +endeavor to show, not that the decay is due to the sap, but to the +time when the tree was felled.</p> + +<p>We find by experiment in evaporating a quantity of sap of the +pine, that it is water holding in solution a substance of a gummy +nature, being composed of albumen and other elementary matters, +which is deposited within the pores of the wood from the new growth +of the tree; that these substances in solution, which constitute +the sap, and which promote the growth of the tree, should have a +tendency to cause decay of the wood is an impossibility. The injury +results from the water only, and the improper time of felling the +tree.</p> + +<p>Of the process in which the sap promotes the growth of the tree, +the scientist informs us that it is extracted from the soil, and +flows up through the pores of the wood of the tree, where it is +deposited upon the fiber, and by a peculiar process of nature the +albumen forms new cells, which in process of formation crowd and +push out from the center, thus constituting the growth of the tree +in all directions from center to circumference. Consequently this +new growth of wood, being composed principally of albumen, is of a +soft, spongy nature, and under the proper conditions will decay +very rapidly, which can be easily demonstrated by experiment.</p> + +<p>Hence, we must infer that the proper time for felling the tree +is when the conditions are such that the rapid decay of a new +growth of wood is impossible; and this I have found by experiment +to be in early summer, after the sap has ascended the tree, but +before any new growth of wood has been formed. The new growth of +the previous season is now well matured, has become hard and firm, +and will not decay. On the contrary, the tree being cut when such +new growth has not well matured, decay soon takes place, and the +value of the timber is destroyed. The effect of this cutting and +use of timber under the wrong conditions can be seen all around us. +In the timbers of the bridges, in the trestlework and ties of +railroads and in the piling of the wharves will be found portions +showing rapid decay, while other portions are yet firm and in sound +condition.</p> + +<p>Much more might be said in the explanation of this subject, but +not wishing to extend the subject to an improper length, I will +close. I would, however, say in conclusion that persons who have +the opportunities and the inclination can verify the truth of a +portion, at least, of what I have stated, in a simple manner and in +a short time; for instance, by cutting two or three young fir or +spruce saplings, say about six inches in diameter, mark them when +cut, and also mark the stumps by driving pegs marked to correspond +with the trees. Continue this monthly for the space of about one +year, and note the difference in the wood, which should be left out +and exposed to the weather until seasoned.</p> + +<p>C.W. HASKINS.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>RAISING FERNS FROM SPORES.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/15a_th.jpg" alt= +" 1, PAN; 2, BELL GLASS; 3, SMALL POTS AND LABELS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">1, PAN; 2, BELL GLASS; 3, SMALL POTS AND LABELS.</p> + +<p>This plan, of which I give a sketch, has been in use by myself +for many years, and most successfully. I have at various times +given it to growers, but still I hear of difficulties. Procure a +good sized bell-glass and an earthenware pan without any holes for +drainage. Prepare a number of small pots, all filled for sowing, +place them inside the pan, and fit the glass over them, so that it +takes all in easily. Take these filled small pots out of the pan, +place them on the ground, and well water them with boiling water to +destroy all animal and vegetable life, and allow them to get +perfectly cold; use a fine rose. Then taking each small pot +separately, sow the spores on the surface and label them; do this +with the whole number, and then place them in the pan under the +bell-glass. This had better be done in a room, so that nothing +foreign can grow inside. Having arranged the pots and placed the +glass over them, and which should fit down upon the pan with ease, +take a clean sponge, and tearing it up pack the pieces round the +outside of the glass, and touching the inner side of the pan all +round. Water this with cold water, so that the sponge is saturated. +Do this whenever required, and always use water that has been +boiled. At the end of six weeks or so the prothallus will perhaps +appear, certainly in a week or two more; perhaps from unforeseen +circumstances not for three months. Slowly these will begin to show +themselves as young ferns, and most interesting it is to watch the +results. As the ferns are gradually increasing in size pass a small +piece of slate under the edge of the bell-glass to admit air, and +do this by very careful degrees, allowing more and more air to +reach them. Never water overhead until the seedlings are acclimated +and have perfect form as ferns, and even then water at the edges of +the pots. In due time carefully prick out, and the task so +interesting to watch is performed.—<i>The Garden</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>THE LIFE HISTORY OF VAUCHERIA.<a name="FNanchor_15"></a><a +href="#Footnote_15"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By A.H. BRECKENFELD.</h3> + +<p>Nearly a century ago, Vaucher, the celebrated Genevan botanist, +described a fresh water filamentous alga which he named +<i>Ectosperma geminata</i>, with a correctness that appears truly +remarkable when the imperfect means of observation at his command +are taken into consideration. His pupil, De Candolle, who afterward +became so eminent a worker in the same field, when preparing his +"Flora of France," in 1805, proposed the name of <i>Vaucheria</i> +for the genus, in commemoration of the meritorious work of its +first investigator. On March 12, 1826, Unger made the first +recorded observation of the formation and liberation of the +terminal or non-sexual spores of this plant. Hassall, the able +English botanist, made it the subject of extended study while +preparing his fine work entitled "A History of the British Fresh +Water Algæ," published in 1845. He has given us a very +graphic description of the phenomenon first observed by Unger. In +1856 Pringsheim described the true sexual propagation by oospores, +with such minuteness and accuracy that our knowledge of the plant +can scarcely be said to have essentially increased since that +time.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/15b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/15b_th.jpg" alt= +" GROWTH OF THE ALGA, VAUCHERIA, UNDER THE MICROSCOPE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GROWTH OF THE ALGA, VAUCHERIA, UNDER THE +MICROSCOPE.</p> + +<p><i>Vaucheria</i> has two or three rather doubtful marine species +assigned to it by Harvey, but the fresh water forms are by far the +more numerous, and it is to some of these I would call your +attention for a few moments this evening. The plant grows in +densely interwoven tufts, these being of a vivid green color, while +the plant is in the actively vegetative condition, changing to a +duller tint as it advances to maturity. Its habitat (with the +exceptions above noted) is in freshwater—usually in ditches +or slowly running streams. I have found it at pretty much all +seasons of the year, in the stretch of boggy ground in the +Presidio, bordering the road to Fort Point. The filaments attain a +length of several inches when fully developed, and are of an +average diameter of 1/250 (0.004) inch. They branch but sparingly, +or not at all, and are characterized by consisting of a single long +tube or cell, not divided by septa, as in the case of the great +majority of the filamentous algæ. These tubular filaments are +composed of a nearly transparent cellulose wall, including an inner +layer thickly studded with bright green granules of chlorophyl. +This inner layer is ordinarily not noticeable, but it retracts from +the outer envelope when subjected to the action of certain +reagents, or when immersed in a fluid differing in density from +water, and it then becomes distinctly visible, as may be seen in +the engraving (Fig. 1). The plant grows rapidly and is endowed with +much vitality, for it resists changes of temperature to a +remarkable degree. <i>Vaucheria</i> affords a choice hunting ground +to the microscopist, for its tangled masses are the home of +numberless infusoria, rotifers, and the minuter crustacea, while +the filaments more advanced in age are usually thickly incrusted +with diatoms. Here, too, is a favorite haunt of the beautiful +zoophytes, <i>Hydra vividis</i> and <i>H. vulgaris</i>, whose +delicate tentacles may be seen gracefully waving in nearly every +gathering.</p> + +<h3>REPRODUCTION IN VAUCHERIA.</h3> + +<p>After the plant has attained a certain stage in its growth, if +it be attentively watched, a marked change will be observed near +the ends of the filaments. The chlorophyl appears to assume a +darker hue, and the granules become more densely crowded. This +appearance increases until the extremity of the tube appears almost +swollen. Soon the densely congregated granules at the extreme end +will be seen to separate from the endochrome of the filament, a +clear space sometimes, but not always, marking the point of +division. Here a septum or membrane appears, thus forming a cell +whose length is about three or four times its width, and whose +walls completely inclose the dark green mass of crowded granules +(Fig. 1, b). These contents are now gradually forming themselves +into the spore or "gonidium," as Carpenter calls it, in distinction +from the true sexual spores, which he terms "oospores." At the +extreme end of the filament (which is obtusely conical in shape) +the chlorophyl grains retract from the old cellulose wall, leaving +a very evident clear space. In a less noticeable degree, this is +also the case in the other parts of the circumference of the cell, +and, apparently, the granular contents have secreted a separate +envelope entirely distinct from the parent filament. The grand +climax is now rapidly approaching. The contents of the cell near +its base are now so densely clustered as to appear nearly black +(Fig. 1, c), while the upper half is of a much lighter hue and the +separate granules are there easily distinguished, and, if very +closely watched, show an almost imperceptible motion. The old +cellulose wall shows signs of great tension, its conical extremity +rounding out under the slowly increasing pressure from within. +Suddenly it gives way at the apex. At the same instant, the +inclosed gonidium (for it is now seen to be fully formed) acquires +a rotary motion, at first slow, but gradually increasing until it +has gained considerable velocity. Its upper portion is slowly +twisted through the opening in the apex of the parent wall, the +granular contents of the lower end flowing into the extruded +portion in a manner reminding one of the flow of protoplasm in a +living amoeba. The old cell wall seems to offer considerable +resistance to the escape of the gonidium, for the latter, which +displays remarkable elasticity, is pinched nearly in two while +forcing its way through, assuming an hour glass shape when about +half out. The rapid rotation of the spore continues during the +process of emerging, and after about a minute it has fully freed +itself (Fig 1, a). It immediately assumes the form of an ellipse or +oval, and darts off with great speed, revolving on its major axis +as it does so. Its contents are nearly all massed in the posterior +half, the comparatively clear portion invariably pointing in +advance. When it meets an obstacle, it partially flattens itself +against it, then turns aside and spins off in a new direction. This +erratic motion is continued for usually seven or eight minutes. The +longest duration I have yet observed was a little over nine and +one-half minutes. Hassall records a case where it continued for +nineteen minutes. The time, however, varies greatly, as in some +cases the motion ceases almost as soon as the spore is liberated, +while in open water, unretarded by the cover glass or other +obstacles, its movements have been seen to continue for over two +hours.</p> + +<p>The motile force is imparted to the gonidium by dense rows of +waving cilia with which it is completely surrounded. Owing to their +rapid vibration, it is almost impossible to distinguish them while +the spore is in active motion, but their effect is very plainly +seen on adding colored pigment particles to the water. By +subjecting the cilia to the action of iodine, their motion is +arrested, they are stained brown, and become very plainly +visible.</p> + +<p>After the gonidium comes gradually to a rest its cilia soon +disappear, it becomes perfectly globular in shape, the inclosed +granules distribute themselves evenly throughout its interior, and +after a few hours it germinates by throwing out one, two, or +sometimes three tubular prolongations, which become precisely like +the parent filament (Fig 2).</p> + +<p>Eminent English authorities have advanced the theory that the +ciliated gonidium of <i>Vaucheria</i> is in reality a densely +crowded aggregation of biciliated zoospores, similar to those found +in many other confervoid algæ. Although this has by no means +been proved, yet I cannot help calling the attention of the members +of this society to a fact which I think strongly bears out the said +theory: While watching a gathering of <i>Vaucheria</i> one morning +when the plant was in the gonidia-forming condition (which is +usually assumed a few hours after daybreak), I observed one +filament, near the end of which a septum had formed precisely as in +the case of ordinary filaments about to develop a spore. But, +instead of the terminal cell being filled with the usual densely +crowded cluster of dark green granules constituting the rapidly +forming spore, it contained hundreds of actively moving, nearly +transparent zoospores, <i>and nothing else</i>. Not a single +chlorophyl granule was to be seen. It is also to be noted as a +significant fact, that the cellulose wall was <i>intact</i> at the +apex, instead of showing the opening through which in ordinary +cases the gonidium escapes. It would seem to be a reasonable +inference, I think, based upon the theory above stated, that in +this case the newly formed gonidium, unable to escape from its +prison by reason of the abnormal strength of the cell wall, became +after a while resolved into its component zoospores.</p> + +<h3>WONDERS OF REPRODUCTION.</h3> + +<p>I very much regret that my descriptive powers are not equal to +conveying a sufficient idea of the intensely absorbing interest +possessed by this wonderful process of spore formation. I shall +never forget the bright sunny morning when for the first time I +witnessed the entire process under the microscope, and for over +four hours scarcely moved my eyes from the tube. To a thoughtful +observer I doubt if there is anything in the whole range of +microscopy to exceed this phenomenon in point of startling +interest. No wonder that its first observer published his +researches under the caption of "The Plant at the Moment of +becoming an Animal."</p> + +<h3>FORMATION OF OTHER SPORES.</h3> + +<p>The process of spore formation just described, it will be seen, +is entirely non-sexual, being simply a vegetative process, +analogous to the budding of higher plants, and the fission of some +of the lower plants and animals. <i>Vaucheria</i> has, however, a +second and far higher mode of reproduction, viz., by means of +fertilized cells, the true oospores, which, lying dormant as +resting spores during the winter, are endowed with new life by the +rejuvenating influences of spring. Their formation may be briefly +described as follows:</p> + +<p>When <i>Vaucheria</i> has reached the proper stage in its life +cycle, slight swellings appear here and there on the sides of the +filament. Each of these slowly develops into a shape resembling a +strongly curved horn. This becomes the organ termed the +<i>antheridium</i>, from its analogy in function to the anther of +flowering plants. While this is in process of growth, peculiar oval +capsules or sporangia (usually 2 to 5 in number) are formed in +close proximity to the antheridium. In some species both these +organs are sessile on the main filament, in others they appear on a +short pedicel (Figs. 3 and 4). The upper part of the antheridium +becomes separated from the parent stem by a septum, and its +contents are converted into ciliated motile antherozoids. The +adjacent sporangia also become cut off by septa, and the investing +membrane, when mature, opens: it a beak-like prolongation, thus +permitting the inclosed densely congregated green granules to be +penetrated by the antherozoids which swarm from the antheridium at +the same time. After being thus fertilized the contents of the +sporangium acquire a peculiar oily appearance, of a beautiful +emerald color, an exceedingly tough but transparent envelope is +secreted, and thus is constituted the fully developed oospore, the +beginner of a new generation of the plant. After the production of +this oospore the parent filament gradually loses its vitality and +slowly decays.</p> + +<p>The spore being thus liberated, sinks to the bottom. Its +brilliant hue has faded and changed to a reddish brown, but after a +rest of about three months (according to Pringsheim, who seems to +be the only one who has ever followed the process of oospore +formation entirely through), the spore suddenly assumes its +original vivid hue and germinates into a young +<i>Vaucheria</i>.</p> + +<h3>CHARM OF MICROSCOPICAL STUDY.</h3> + +<p>This concludes the account of my very imperfect attempt to trace +the life history of a lowly plant. Its study has been to me a +source of ever increasing pleasure, and has again demonstrated how +our favorite instrument reveals phenomena of most absorbing +interest in directions where the unaided eye finds but little +promise. In walking along the banks of the little stream, where, +half concealed by more pretentious plants, our humble +<i>Vaucheria</i> grows, the average passer by, if he notices it at +all, sees but a tangled tuft of dark green "scum." Yet, when this +is examined under the magic tube, a crystal cylinder, closely set +with sparkling emeralds, is revealed. And although so transparent, +so apparently simple in structure that it does not seem possible +for even the finest details to escape our search, yet almost as we +watch it mystic changes appear. We see the bright green granules, +impelled by an unseen force, separate and rearrange themselves in +new formations. Strange outgrowths from the parent filament appear. +The strange power we call "life," doubly mysterious when manifested +in an organism so simple as this, so open to our search, seems to +challenge us to discover its secret, and, armed with our glittering +lenses and our flashing stands of exquisite workmanship, we search +intently, but in vain. And yet <i>not</i> in vain, for we are more +than recompensed by the wondrous revelations beheld and the +unalloyed pleasures enjoyed, through the study of even the +unpretentious <i>Vaucheria</i>.</p> + +<p>The amplification of the objects in the engravings is about 80 +diameters.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">Read before the San Francisco Microscopical +Society, August 13, and furnished for publication in the +<i>Press</i>.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>JAPANESE CAMPHOR—ITS PREPARATION, EXPERIMENTS, AND +ANALYSIS OF THE CAMPHOR OIL.<a name="FNanchor_16"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_16"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By H. OISHI. (Communicated by Kakamatsa.)</h3> + +<p>LAURUS CAMPHORA, or "kusunoki," as it is called in Japan, grows +mainly in those provinces in the islands Shikobu and Kinshin, which +have the southern sea coast. It also grows abundantly in the +province of Kishu.</p> + +<p>The amount of camphor varies according to the age of the tree. +That of a hundred years old is tolerably rich in camphor. In order +to extract the camphor, such a tree is selected; the trunk and +large stems are cut into small pieces, and subjected to +distillation with steam.</p> + +<p>An iron boiler of 3 feet in diameter is placed over a small +furnace, the boiler being provided with an iron flange at the top. +Over this flange a wooden tub is placed, which is somewhat narrowed +at the top, being 1 foot 6 inches in the upper, and 2 feet 10 +inches in the lower diameter, and 4 feet in height. The tub has a +false bottom for the passage of steam from the boiler beneath. The +upper part of the tub is connected with a condensing apparatus by +means of a wooden or bamboo pipe. The condenser is a flat +rectangular wooden vessel, which is surrounded with another one +containing cold water. Over the first is placed still another +trough of the same dimensions, into which water is supplied to cool +the vessel at the top. After the first trough has been filled with +water, the latter flows into the next by means of a small pipe +attached to it. In order to expose a large surface to the vapors, +the condensing trough is fitted internally with a number of +vertical partitions, which are open at alternate ends, so that the +vapors may travel along the partitions in the trough from one end +to the other. The boiler is filled with water, and 120 kilogrammes +of chopped pieces of wood are introduced into the tub, which is +then closed with a cover, cemented with clay, so as to make it +air-tight. Firing is then begun; the steam passes into the tub, and +thus carries the vapors of camphor and oil into the condenser, in +which the camphor solidifies, and is mixed with the oil and +condensed water. After twenty-four hours the charge is taken out +from the tub, and new pieces of the wood are introduced, and +distillation is conducted as before. The water in the boiler must +be supplied from time to time. The exhausted wood is dried and used +as fuel. The camphor and oil accumulated in the trough are taken +out in five or ten days, and they are separated from each other by +filtration. The yield of the camphor and oil varies greatly in +different seasons. Thus much more solid camphor is obtained in +winter than in summer, while the reverse is the case with the oil. +In summer, from 120 kilogrammes of the wood 2.4 kilogrammes, or 2 +per cent. of the solid camphor are obtained in one day, while in +winter, from the same amount of the wood, 3 kilogrammes, or 2.5 per +cent., of camphor are obtainable at the same time.</p> + +<p>The amount of the oil obtained in ten days, <i>i.e</i>., from 10 +charges or 1,200 kilogrammes of the wood, in summer is about 18 +liters, while in winter it amounts only to 5-7 liters. The price of +the solid camphor is at present about 1s. 1d. per kilo.</p> + +<p>The oil contains a considerable amount of camphor in solution, +which is separated by a simple distillation and cooling. By this +means about 20 per cent. of the camphor can be obtained from the +oil. The author subjected the original oil to fractioned +distillation, and examined different fractions separately. That +part of the oil which distilled between 180°-185° O. was +analyzed after repeated distillations. The following is the +result:</p> + +<table summary="result"> +<tr> +<th align="center">Found.</th> +<th align="center"></th> +<th align="center">Calculated as<br> +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>O.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center">C = 78.87</td> +<td align="center"></td> +<td align="center">78.95</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center">H = 10.73</td> +<td align="center"></td> +<td align="center">10.52</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center">O = 10.40</td> +<td align="center">(by difference)</td> +<td align="center">10.52</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The composition thus nearly agrees with that of the ordinary +camphor.</p> + +<p>The fraction between 178°-180° C., after three +distillations, gave the following analytical result:</p> + +<pre> +C = 86.95 +H = 12.28 + ————— + 99.23 +</pre> + +<p>It appears from this result that the body is a hydrocarbon. The +vapor density was then determined by V. Meyer's apparatus, and was +found to be 5.7 (air=1). The molecular weight of the compound is +therefore 5.7 × 14.42 × 2 = 164.4, which gives</p> + +<table summary="C_{12} H_{20}"> +<tr> +<td>H = (164.4 × 12.28)/100 = 20.18</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>or C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>C = (164.4 × 86.95)/100 = 11.81</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Hence it is a hydrocarbon of the terpene series, having the +general formula C<sup>n</sup>H<sup>2n-4</sup>. From the above +experiments it seems to be probable that the camphor oil is a +complicated mixture, consisting of hydrocarbons of terpene series, +oxy-hydrocarbons isomeric with camphor, and other oxidized +hydrocarbons.</p> + +<h3><i>Application of the Camphor Oil</i>.</h3> + +<p>The distinguishing property of the camphor oil, that it +dissolves many resins, and mixes with drying oils, finds its +application for the preparation of varnish. The author has +succeeded in preparing various varnishes with the camphor oil, +mixed with different resins and oils. Lampblack was also prepared +by the author, by subjecting the camphor oil to incomplete +combustion. In this way from 100 c.c. of the oil, about 13 grammes +of soot of a very good quality were obtained. Soot or lampblack is +a very important material in Japan for making inks, paints, etc. If +the manufacture of lampblack from the cheap camphor oil is +conducted on a large scale, it would no doubt be profitable. The +following is the report on the amount of the annual production of +camphor in the province of Tosa up to 1880:</p> + +<pre> + Amount of Camphor produced. Total Cost. + +1877.......... 504,000 kins.... 65,520 yen. +1878.......... 519,000 " .... 72,660 " +1879.......... 292,890 " .... 74,481 " +1880.......... 192,837 " .... 58,302 " + +(1 yen = 2<i>s</i>. 9<i>d</i>.) +(1 kin = 1-1/3lb.) +</pre> + +<a name="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16">[1]</a> + +<div class="note">From the Journal of the Society of Chemical +Industry.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SUNSHINE RECORDER.</h2> + +<p>McLeod's sunshine recorder consists of a camera fixed with its +axis parallel to that of the earth, and with the lens northward. +Opposite to the lens there is placed a round-bottomed flask, +silvered inside. The solar rays reflected from this sphere pass +through the lens, and act on the sensitive surface.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/16a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/16a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p>The construction of the instrument is illustrated by the +subjoined cut, A being a camera supported at an inclination of 56 +degrees with the horizon, and B the spherical flask silvered +inside, while at D is placed the ferro-prussiate paper destined to +receive the solar impression. The dotted line, C, may represent the +direction of the central solar ray at one particular time, and it +is easy to see how the sunlight reflected from the flask always +passes through the lens. As the sun moves (apparently) in a circle +round the flask, the image formed by the lens moves round on the +sensitive paper, forming an arc of a circle.</p> + +<p>Although it is obvious that any sensitive surface might be used +in the McLeod sunshine recorder, the inventor prefers at present to +use the ordinary ferro-prussiate paper as employed by engineers for +copying tracings, as this paper can be kept for a considerable +length of time without change, and the blue image is fixed by mere +washing in water; another advantage is the circumstance that a +scale or set of datum lines can be readily printed on the paper +from an engraved block, and if the printed papers be made to +register properly in the camera, the records obtained will show at +a glance the time at which sunshine commenced and ceased.</p> + +<p>Instead of specially silvering a flask inside, it will be found +convenient to make use of one of the silvered globes which are sold +as Christmas tree ornaments.</p> + +<p>The sensitive fluid for preparing the ferro-prussiate paper is +made as follows: One part by weight of ferricyanide of potassium +(red prussiate) is dissolved in eight parts of water, and one part +of ammonia-citrate of iron is added. This last addition must be +made in the dark-room. A smooth-faced paper is now floated on the +liquid and allowed to dry.—<i>Photo. News.</i></p> + +<hr> +<h2>BREAKING OF A WATER MAIN.</h2> + +<p>In Boston, Mass., recently, at a point where two iron bridges, +with stone abutments, are being built over the Boston and Albany +Railroad tracks at Brookline Avenue, the main water pipe, which +partially supplies the city with water, had to be raised, and while +in that position a large stone which was being raised slipped upon +the pipe and broke it. Immediately a stream of water fifteen feet +high spurted out. Before the water could be shut off it had made a +breach thirty feet long in the main line of track, so that the +entire four tracks, sleepers, and roadbed at that point were washed +completely away.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES—One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one +copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, +$7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +39 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, +public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and +sales or introduction often easily effected.</p> + +<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can +ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be +obtained, by writing to MUNN & Co.</p> + +<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for +procuring advances on inventions. Address</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.</p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +460, October 25, 1884, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 460 *** + +***** This file should be named 11734-h.htm or 11734-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/1/7/3/11734/ + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the DP Team + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. For example: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/etext06 + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/10a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b56344 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/10a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9cf0dc1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/10b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8516f90 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/10b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8d813e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/10b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ab8314e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ba62c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b8d2d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d5b8ef5 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11c.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f5eda6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11c.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11c_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..77c2f15 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11c_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11d.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dee65c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11d.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11d_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11d_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f13a8b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11d_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11e.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11e.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7be156a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11e.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11e_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11e_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f0b6616 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11e_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11f.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11f.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d805fa1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11f.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/11f_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11f_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dae0ae8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/11f_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/12a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/12a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8511503 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/12a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/12a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/12a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef95674 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/12a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/13a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/13a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..783448b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/13a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/13a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/13a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..030259f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/13a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/14a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5e58214 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/14a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..354cf26 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/14b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b01c437 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/14b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7549566 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/14b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/15a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa7e5a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/15a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..be7eb9f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/15b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d0d8c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/15b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a806738 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/15b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/16a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/16a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..51aa146 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/16a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/16a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/16a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d03a686 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/16a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/1a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..88db185 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/1a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2565d32 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/1b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..12a9069 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/1b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..de68ddb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/1b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/2a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3cffca3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/2b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f08239c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/2c.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b9e01 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2c.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/2c_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d5b4baf --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2c_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/2d.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bbe8cc0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2d.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/2d_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2d_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..06ab79a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/2d_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/3a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3fdfc33 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/3a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..defee65 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/3b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fc90275 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/3b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..54e1c6b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/3c.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4899417 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3c.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/3c_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e201f46 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/3c_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8647e3d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0150a06 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c951a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9541fec --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4c.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e659bdc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4c.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4c_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df66f41 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4c_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4d.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1278606 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4d.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4d_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4d_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6e254b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4d_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4e.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4e.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aea338a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4e.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/4e_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4e_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c081d59 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/4e_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/5a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b281acc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/5a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..efb001d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/5b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..49c117b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/5b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..02c465c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/5c.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0debd83 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5c.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/5c_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca8baf7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/5c_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/6a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/6a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c46a66c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/6a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/6a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/6a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..95be0b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/6a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0100d27 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..55f20e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6104a39 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d791e9e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7c.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..14c95a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7c.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7c_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..06d3c44 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7c_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7d.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b19c392 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7d.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7d_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7d_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f3101e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7d_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7e.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7e.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..adc0457 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7e.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7e_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7e_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0aabbb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7e_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7f.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7f.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bd72153 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7f.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7f_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7f_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a68022d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7f_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7g.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7g.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..710eea2 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7g.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7g_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7g_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d93ce41 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7g_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7h.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7h.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c54e43b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7h.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/7h_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7h_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..15ff768 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/7h_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8a.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..da88c5b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8a.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8a_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af033ca --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8a_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8b.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e84fa0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8b.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8b_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..400d0d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8b_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8c.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..35d0127 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8c.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8c_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..80db8df --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8c_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8d.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..885089e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8d.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8d_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8d_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..db9bf30 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8d_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8e.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8e.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f095c2c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8e.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8e_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8e_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b2995e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8e_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8f.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8f.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eea0224 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8f.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8f_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8f_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a57abb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8f_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8g.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8g.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..44e8d84 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8g.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8g_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8g_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1591247 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8g_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8h.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8h.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ed5fab --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8h.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8h_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8h_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c662153 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8h_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8i.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8i.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1209127 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8i.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8i_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8i_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c3e847 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8i_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8j.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8j.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a39987d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8j.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8j_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8j_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fdf8260 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8j_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8k.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8k.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..52fdb26 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8k.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8k_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8k_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4400a5f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8k_th.jpg diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8l.png b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8l.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4eb4cb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8l.png diff --git a/old/11734-h/illustrations/8l_th.jpg b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8l_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bbc7cc0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11734-h/illustrations/8l_th.jpg |
