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diff --git a/old/1173.txt b/old/1173.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8904035 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/1173.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4872 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Economist, by Xenophon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Economist + +Author: Xenophon + +Translator: H. G. Dakyns + +Posting Date: August 20, 2008 [EBook #1173] +Release Date: January, 1998 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ECONOMIST *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers + + + + + +THE ECONOMIST + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + + + The Economist records Socrates and Critobulus in + a talk about profitable estate management, and a + lengthy recollection by Socrates of Ischomachus' + discussion of the same topic. + + + +PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + + + + +The Economist + +by Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + +THE ECONOMIST [1] + +A Treatise on the Science of the Household in the form of a Dialogue + + + +INTERLOCUTORS + +Socrates and Critobulus + +At Chapter VII. a prior discussion held between Socrates and Ischomachus +is introduced: On the life of a "beautiful and good" man. + +In these chapters (vii.-xxi.) Socrates is represented by the author +as repeating for the benefit of Critobulus and the rest certain +conversations which he had once held with the beautiful and good +Ischomachus on the essentials of economy. It was a tete-a-tete +discussion, and in the original Greek the remarks of the two speakers +are denoted by such phrases as {ephe o 'Iskhomakhos--ephen egio}--"said +(he) Ischomachus," "said I." (Socrates) To save the repetition of +expressions tedious in English, I have, whenever it seemed help to do +so, ventured to throw parts of the reported conversations into dramatic +form, inserting "Isch." "Soc." in the customary way to designate the +speakers; but these, it must be borne in mind, are merely "asides" +to the reader, who will not forget that Socrates is the narrator +throughout--speaking of himself as "I," and of Ischomachus as "he," or +by his name.--Translator's note, addressed to the English reader. + + + + +I + +I once heard him [2] discuss the topic of economy [3] after the +following manner. Addressing Critobulus, [4] he said: Tell me, +Critobulus, is "economy," like the words "medicine," "carpentry," +"building," "smithying," "metal-working," and so forth, the name of a +particular kind of knowledge or science? + + [1] By "economist" we now generally understand "political economist," + but the use of the word as referring to domestic economy, the + subject matter of the treatise, would seem to be legitimate. + + [2] "The master." + + [3] Lit. "the management of a household and estate." See Plat. "Rep." + 407 B; Aristot. "Eth. N." v. 6; "Pol." i. 3. + + [4] See "Mem." I. iii. 8; "Symp." p. 292. + +Crit. Yes, I think so. + +Soc. And as, in the case of the arts just named, we can state the proper +work or function of each, can we (similarly) state the proper work and +function of economy? + +Crit. It must, I should think, be the business of the good economist [5] +at any rate to manage his own house or estate well. + + [5] Or, "manager of a house or estate." + +Soc. And supposing another man's house to be entrusted to him, he would +be able, if he chose, to manage it as skilfully as his own, would +he not? since a man who is skilled in carpentry can work as well for +another as for himself: and this ought to be equally true of the good +economist? + +Crit. Yes, I think so, Socrates. + +Soc. Then there is no reason why a proficient in this art, even if +he does not happen to possess wealth of his own, should not be paid a +salary for managing a house, just as he might be paid for building one? + +Crit. None at all: and a large salary he would be entitled to earn if, +after paying the necessary expenses of the estate entrusted to him, he +can create a surplus and improve the property. + +Soc. Well! and this word "house," what are we to understand by it? the +domicile merely? or are we to include all a man's possessions outside +the actual dwelling-place? [6] + + [6] Lit. "is it synonymous with dwelling-place, or is all that a man + possesses outside his dwelling-place part of his house or estate?" + +Crit. Certainly, in my opinion at any rate, everything which a man has +got, even though some portion of it may lie in another part of the world +from that in which he lives, [7] forms part of his estate. + + [7] Lit. "not even in the same state or city." + +Soc. "Has got"? but he may have got enemies? + +Crit. Yes, I am afraid some people have got a great many. + +Soc. Then shall we say that a man's enemies form part of his +possessions? + +Crit. A comic notion indeed! that some one should be good enough to add +to my stock of enemies, and that in addition he should be paid for his +kind services. + +Soc. Because, you know, we agreed that a man's estate was identical with +his possessions? + +Crit. Yes, certainly! the good part of his possessions; but the +evil portion! no, I thank you, that I do not call part of a man's +possessions. + +Soc. As I understand, you would limit the term to what we may call a +man's useful or advantageous possessions? + +Crit. Precisely; if he has things that injure him, I should regard these +rather as a loss than as wealth. + +Soc. It follows apparently that if a man purchases a horse and does +not know how to handle him, but each time he mounts he is thrown and +sustains injuries, the horse is not part of his wealth? + +Crit. Not, if wealth implies weal, certainly. + +Soc. And by the same token land itself is no wealth to a man who so +works it that his tillage only brings him loss? + +Crit. True; mother earth herself is not a source of wealth to us if, +instead of helping us to live, she helps us to starve. + +Soc. And by a parity of reasoning, sheep and cattle may fail of being +wealth if, through want of knowledge how to treat them, their owner +loses by them; to him at any rate the sheep and the cattle are not +wealth? + +Crit. That is the conclusion I draw. + +Soc. It appears, you hold to the position that wealth consists of things +which benefit, while things which injure are not wealth? + +Crit. Just so. + +Soc. The same things, in fact, are wealth or not wealth, according as a +man knows or does not know the use to make of them? To take an instance, +a flute may be wealth to him who is sufficiently skilled to play upon +it, but the same instrument is no better than the stones we tread under +our feet to him who is not so skilled... unless indeed he chose to sell +it? + +Crit. That is precisely the conclusion we should come to. [8] To +persons ignorant of their use [9] flutes are wealth as saleable, but as +possessions not for sale they are no wealth at all; and see, Socrates, +how smoothly and consistently the argument proceeds, [10] since it is +admitted that things which benefit are wealth. The flutes in question +unsold are not wealth, being good for nothing: to become wealth they +must be sold. + + [8] Reading {tout auto}, or if {tout au} with Sauppe, transl. "Yes, + that is another position we may fairly subscribe to." + + [9] i.e. "without knowledge of how to use them." + + [10] Or, "our discussion marches on all-fours, as it were." + +Yes! (rejoined Socrates), presuming the owner knows how to sell them; +since, supposing again he were to sell them for something which he does +not know how to use, [11] the mere selling will not transform them into +wealth, according to your argument. + + [11] Reading {pros touto o}, or if {pros touton, os}, transl. "to a + man who did not know how to use them." + +Crit. You seem to say, Socrates, that money itself in the pockets of a +man who does not know how to use it is not wealth? + +Soc. And I understand you to concur in the truth of our proposition +so far: wealth is that, and that only, whereby a man may be benefited. +Obviously, if a man used his money to buy himself a mistress, to the +grave detriment of his body and soul and whole estate, how is that +particular money going to benefit him now? What good will he extract +from it? + +Crit. None whatever, unless we are prepared to admit that hyoscyamus, +[12] as they call it, is wealth, a poison the property of which is to +drive those who take it mad. + + [12] "A dose of henbane, 'hogs'-bean,' so called." Diosc. 4. 69; 6. + 15; Plut. "Demetr." xx. (Clough, v. 114). + +Soc. Let money then, Critobulus, if a man does not know how to use it +aright--let money, I say, be banished to the remote corners of the earth +rather than be reckoned as wealth. [13] But now, what shall we say of +friends? If a man knows how to use his friends so as to be benefited by +them, what of these? + + [13] Or, "then let it be relegated... and there let it lie in the + category of non-wealth." + +Crit. They are wealth indisputably, and in a deeper sense than cattle +are, if, as may be supposed, they are likely to prove of more benefit to +a man than wealth of cattle. + +Soc. It would seem, according to your argument, that the foes of a man's +own household after all may be wealth to him, if he knows how to turn +them to good account? [14] + + [14] Vide supra. + +Crit. That is my opinion, at any rate. + +Soc. It would seem, it is the part of a good economist [15] to know how +to deal with his own or his employer's foes so as to get profit out of +them? + + [15] "A good administrator of an estate." + +Crit. Most emphatically so. + +Soc. In fact, you need but use your eyes to see how many private +persons, not to say crowned heads, do owe the increase of their estates +to war. + +Crit. Well, Socrates, I do not think, so far, the argument could be +improved on; [16] but now comes a puzzle. What of people who have got +the knowledge and the capital [17] required to enhance their fortunes, +if only they will put their shoulders to the wheel; and yet, if we are +to believe our senses, that is just the one thing they will not do, and +so their knowledge and accomplishments are of no profit to them? Surely +in their case also there is but one conclusion to be drawn, which is, +that neither their knowledge nor their possessions are wealth. + + [16] Or, "Thanks, Socrates. Thus far the statement of the case would + seem to be conclusive--but what are we to make of this? Some + people..." + + [17] Lit. "the right kinds of knowledge and the right starting-points." + +Soc. Ah! I see, Critobulus, you wish to direct the discussion to the +topic of slaves? + +Crit. No indeed, I have no such intention--quite the reverse. I want to +talk about persons of high degree, of right noble family [18] some of +them, to do them justice. These are the people I have in my mind's eye, +gifted with, it may be, martial or, it may be, civil accomplishments, +which, however, they refuse to exercise, for the very reason, as I take +it, that they have no masters over them. + + [18] "Eupatrids." + +Soc. No masters over them! but how can that be if, in spite of their +prayers for prosperity and their desire to do what will bring them good, +they are still so sorely hindered in the exercise of their wills by +those that lord it over them? + +Crit. And who, pray, are these lords that rule them and yet remain +unseen? + +Soc. Nay, not unseen; on the contrary, they are very visible. And what +is more, they are the basest of the base, as you can hardly fail to +note, if at least you believe idleness and effeminacy and reckless +negligence to be baseness. Then, too, there are other treacherous +beldames giving themselves out to be innocent pleasures, to wit, dicings +and profitless associations among men. [19] These in the fulness of time +appear in all their nakedness even to them that are deceived, showing +themselves that they are after all but pains tricked out and decked with +pleasures. These are they who have the dominion over those you speak of +and quite hinder them from every good and useful work. + + [19] Or, "frivolous society." + +Crit. But there are others, Socrates, who are not hindered by these +indolences--on the contrary, they have the most ardent disposition to +exert themselves, and by every means to increase their revenues; but in +spite of all, they wear out their substance and are involved in endless +difficulties. [20] + + [20] Or, "become involved for want of means." + +Soc. Yes, for they too are slaves, and harsh enough are their +taskmasters; slaves are they to luxury and lechery, intemperance and the +wine-cup along with many a fond and ruinous ambition. These passions +so cruelly belord it over the poor soul whom they have got under their +thrall, that so long as he is in the heyday of health and strong to +labour, they compel him to fetch and carry and lay at their feet the +fruit of his toils, and to spend it on their own heart's lusts; but as +soon as he is seen to be incapable of further labour through old age, +they leave him to his gray hairs and misery, and turn to seize on other +victims. [21] Ah! Critobulus, against these must we wage ceaseless +war, for very freedom's sake, no less than if they were armed warriors +endeavouring to make us their slaves. Nay, foemen in war, it must be +granted, especially when of fair and noble type, have many times ere now +proved benefactors to those they have enslaved. By dint of chastening, +they have forced the vanquished to become better men and to lead more +tranquil lives in future. [22] But these despotic queens never cease to +plague and torment their victims in body and soul and substance until +their sway is ended. + + [21] "To use others as their slaves." + + [22] Lit. "Enemies for the matter of that, when, being beautiful and + good, they chance to have enslaved some other, have ere now in + many an instance chastened and compelled the vanquished to be + better and to live more easily for the rest of time." + + + +II + +The conversation was resumed by Critobulus, and on this wise. He said: I +think I take your meaning fully, Socrates, about these matters; and for +myself, examining my heart, I am further satisfied, I have sufficient +continence and self-command in those respects. So that if you will only +advise me on what I am to do to improve my estate, I flatter myself I +shall not be hindered by those despotic dames, as you call them. Come, +do not hesitate; only tender me what good advice you can, and trust me I +will follow it. But perhaps, Socrates, you have already passed sentence +on us--we are rich enough already, and not in need of any further +wealth? + +Soc. It is to myself rather, if I may be included in your plural "we," +that I should apply the remark. I am not in need of any further wealth, +if you like. I am rich enough already, to be sure. But you, Critobulus, +I look upon as singularly poor, and at times, upon my soul, I feel a +downright compassion for you. + +At this view of the case, Critobulus fell to laughing outright, +retorting: And pray, Socrates, what in the name of fortune do you +suppose our respective properties would fetch in the market, yours and +mine? + +If I could find a good purchaser (he answered), I suppose the whole +of my effects, including the house in which I live, might very fairly +realise five minae [1] (say twenty guineas). Yours, I am positively +certain, would fetch at the lowest more than a hundred times that sum. + + [1] 5 x L4:1:3. See Boeckh, "P. E. A." [Bk. i. ch. xx.], p. 109 f. + (Eng. ed.) + +Crit. And with this estimate of our respective fortunes, can you still +maintain that you have no need of further wealth, but it is I who am to +be pitied for my poverty? + +Soc. Yes, for my property is amply sufficient to meet my wants, +whereas you, considering the parade you are fenced about with, and the +reputation you must needs live up to, would be barely well off, I take +it, if what you have already were multiplied by three. + +Pray, how may that be? Critobulus asked. + +Why, first and foremost (Socrates explained), I see you are called upon +to offer many costly sacrifices, failing which, I take it, neither gods +nor men would tolerate you; and, in the next place, you are bound to +welcome numerous foreigners as guests, and to entertain them handsomely; +thirdly, you must feast your fellow-citizens and ply them with all +sorts of kindness, or else be cut adrift from your supporters. [2] +Furthermore, I perceive that even at present the state enjoins upon +you various large contributions, such as the rearing of studs, [3] +the training of choruses, the superintendence of gymnastic schools, or +consular duties, [4] as patron of resident aliens, and so forth; while +in the event of war you will, I am aware, have further obligations laid +upon you in the shape of pay [5] to carry on the triearchy, ship money, +and war taxes [6] so onerous, you will find difficulty in supporting +them. Remissness in respect of any of these charges will be visited upon +you by the good citizens of Athens no less strictly than if they caught +you stealing their own property. But worse than all, I see you fondling +the notion that you are rich. Without a thought or care how to increase +your revenue, your fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love, [7] as if +you had some special license to amuse yourself.... That is why I pity +and compassionate you, fearing lest some irremediable mischief overtake +you, and you find yourself in desperate straits. As for me, if I ever +stood in need of anything, I am sure you know I have friends who would +assist me. They would make some trifling contribution--trifling to +themselves, I mean--and deluge my humble living with a flood of plenty. +But your friends, albeit far better off than yourself, considering your +respective styles of living, persist in looking to you for assistance. + + [2] See Dr. Holden ad loc., Boeckh [Bk. iii. ch. xxiii.], p. 465 f. + + [3] Cf. Lycurg. "c. Leocr." 139. + + [4] Al. "presidential duties." + + [5] {trierarkhias [misthous]}. The commentators in general "suspect" + {misthous}. See Boeckh, "P. E. A." p. 579. + + [6] See Boeckh, p. 470 f.; "Revenues," iii. 9, iv. 40. + + [7] Or, "to childish matters," "frivolous affairs"; but for the full + import of the phrase {paidikois pragmasi} see "Ages." viii. 2. + +Then Critobulus: I cannot gainsay what you have spoken, Socrates, it +is indeed high time that you were constituted my patronus, or I shall +become in very truth a pitiable object. + +To which appeal Socrates made answer: Why, you yourself must surely be +astonished at the part you are now playing. Just now, when I said that +I was rich, you laughed at me as if I had no idea what riches were, +and you were not happy till you had cross-examined me and forced me to +confess that I do not possess the hundredth part of what you have; and +now you are imploring me to be your patron, and to stint no pains to +save you from becoming absolutely and in very truth a pauper. [8] + + [8] Or, "literally beggared." + +Crit. Yes, Socrates, for I see that you are skilled in one lucrative +operation at all events--the art of creating a surplus. I hope, +therefore, that a man who can make so much out of so little will not +have the slightest difficulty in creating an ample surplus out of an +abundance. + +Soc. But do not you recollect how just now in the discussion you would +hardly let me utter a syllable [9] while you laid down the law: if a man +did not know how to handle horses, horses were not wealth to him at any +rate; nor land, nor sheep, nor money, nor anything else, if he did not +know how to use them? And yet these are the very sources of revenue from +which incomes are derived; and how do you expect me to know the use of +any of them who never possessed a single one of them since I was born? + + [9] Cf. Aristoph. "Clouds," 945; "Plut." 17; Dem. 353; and Holden ad + loc. + +Crit. Yes, but we agreed that, however little a man may be blest with +wealth himself, a science of economy exists; and that being so, what +hinders you from being its professor? + +Soc. Nothing, to be sure, [10] except what would hinder a man from +knowing how to play the flute, supposing he had never had a flute of his +own and no one had supplied the defect by lending him one to practise +on: which is just my case with regard to economy, [11] seeing I never +myself possessed the instrument of the science which is wealth, so as to +go through the pupil stage, nor hitherto has any one proposed to hand +me over his to manage. You, in fact, are the first person to make so +generous an offer. You will bear in mind, I hope, that a learner of the +harp is apt to break and spoil the instrument; it is therefore probable, +if I take in hand to learn the art of economy on your estate, I shall +ruin it outright. + + [10] Lit. "The very thing, God help me! which would hinder..." + + [11] Lit. "the art of administering an estate." + +Critobulus retorted: I see, Socrates, you are doing your very best +to escape an irksome task: you would rather not, if you can help +it, stretch out so much as your little finger to help me to bear my +necessary burthens more easily. + +Soc. No, upon my word, I am not trying to escape: on the contrary, I +shall be ready, as far as I can, to expound the matter to you. [12] ... +Still it strikes me, if you had come to me for fire, and I had none in +my house, you would not blame me for sending you where you might get it; +or if you had asked me for water, and I, having none to give, had led +you elsewhere to the object of your search, you would not, I am sure, +have disapproved; or did you desire to be taught music by me, and I were +to point out to you a far more skilful teacher than myself, who would +perhaps be grateful to you moreover for becoming his pupil, what kind of +exception could you take to my behaviour? + + [12] Or, "to play the part of {exegetes}, 'legal adviser,' or + 'spiritual director,' to be in fact your 'guide, philosopher, and + friend.'" + +Crit. None, with any show of justice, Socrates. + +Soc. Well, then, my business now is, Critobulus, to point out [13] to +you some others cleverer than myself about those matters which you are +so anxious to be taught by me. I do confess to you, I have made it long +my study to discover who among our fellow-citizens in this city are the +greatest adepts in the various branches of knowledge. [14] I had been +struck with amazement, I remember, to observe on some occasion that +where a set of people are engaged in identical operations, half of them +are in absolute indigence and the other half roll in wealth. I bethought +me, the history of the matter was worth investigation. Accordingly I set +to work investigating, and I found that it all happened very naturally. +Those who carried on their affairs in a haphazard manner I saw were +punished by their losses; whilst those who kept their wits upon the +stretch and paid attention I soon perceived to be rewarded by the +greater ease and profit of their undertakings. [15] It is to these I +would recommend you to betake yourself. What say you? Learn of them: and +unless the will of God oppose, [16] I venture to say you will become as +clever a man of business as one might hope to see. + + [13] Al. "to show you that there are others." + + [14] Or, "who are gifted with the highest knowledge in their + respective concerns." Cf. "Mem." IV. vii. 1. + + [15] Lit. "got on quicker, easier, and more profitably." + + [16] Or, "short of some divine interposition." + + + +III + +Critobulus, on hearing that, exclaimed: Be sure, Socrates, I will not +let you go now until you give the proofs which, in the presence of our +friends, you undertook just now to give me. + +Well then, [1] Critobulus (Socrates replied), what if I begin by showing +[2] you two sorts of people, the one expending large sums on money in +building useless houses, the other at far less cost erecting dwellings +replete with all they need; will you admit that I have laid my finger +here on one of the essentials of economy? + + [1] Lincke [brackets as an editorial interpolation iii. 1, {ti oun, + ephe}--vi. 11, {poiomen}]. See his edition "Xenophons Dialog. + {peri oikonomias} in seiner ursprunglichen Gestalt"; and for a + criticism of his views, an article by Charles D. Morris, + "Xenophon's Oeconomicus," in the "American Journal of Philology," + vol. i. p. 169 foll. + + [2] As a demonstrator. + +Crit. An essential point most certainly. + +Soc. And suppose in connection with the same, I next point out to you +[3] two other sets of persons:--The first possessors of furniture of +various kinds, which they cannot, however, lay their hands on when the +need arises; indeed they hardly know if they have got all safe and sound +or not: whereby they put themselves and their domestics to much mental +torture. The others are perhaps less amply, or at any rate not more +amply supplied, but they have everything ready at the instant for +immediate use. + + [3] "As in a mirror, or a picture." + +Crit. Yes, Socrates, and is not the reason simply that in the first case +everything is thrown down where it chanced, whereas those others have +everything arranged, each in its appointed place? + +Quite right (he answered), and the phrase implies that everything is +orderly arranged, not in the first chance place, but in that to which it +naturally belongs. + +Crit. Yes, the case is to the point, I think, and does involve another +economic principle. + +Soc. What, then, if I exhibit to you a third contrast, which bears on +the condition of domestic slaves? On the one side you shall see them +fettered hard and fast, as I may say, and yet for ever breaking their +chains and running away. On the other side the slaves are loosed, and +free to move, but for all that, they choose to work, it seems; they are +constant to their masters. I think you will admit that I here point out +another function of economy [4] worth noting. + + [4] Or, "economical result." + +Crit. I do indeed--a feature most noteworthy. + +Soc. Or take, again, the instance of two farmers engaged in cultivating +farms [5] as like as possible. The one had never done asserting that +agriculture has been his ruin, and is in the depth of despair; the other +has all he needs in abundance and of the best, and how acquired?--by +this same agriculture. + + [5] {georgias}. See Hartman, "An. Xen." p. 193. Hold. cf. Plat. + "Laws," 806 E. Isocr. "Areop." 32. + +Yes (Critobulus answered), to be sure; perhaps [6] the former spends +both toil and money not simply on what he needs, but on things which +cause an injury to house alike and owner. + + [6] Or, "like enough in the one case the money and pains are spent," + etc. + +Soc. That is a possible case, no doubt, but it is not the one that I +refer to; I mean people pretending they are farmers, and yet they have +not a penny to expend on the real needs of their business. + +Crit. And pray, what may be the reason of that, Socrates? + +Soc. You shall come with me, and see these people also; and as you +contemplate the scene, I presume you will lay to heart the lesson. + +Crit. I will, if possibly I can, I promise you. + +Soc. Yes, and while you contemplate, you must make trial of yourself and +see if you have wit to understand. At present, I will bear you witness +that if it is to go and see a party of players performing in a comedy, +you will get up at cock-crow, and come trudging a long way, and ply me +volubly with reasons why I should accompany you to see the play. But you +have never once invited me to come and witness such an incident as those +we were speaking of just now. + +Crit. And so I seem to you ridiculous? [7] + + [7] Or, "a comic character in the performance." Soc. "Not so comic as + you must appear to yourself (i.e. with your keen sense of the + ludicrous)." + +Soc. Far more ridiculous to yourself, I warrant. But now let me point +out to you another contrast: between certain people whose dealing with +horses has brought them to the brink of poverty, and certain others who +have found in the same pursuit the road to affluence, [8] and have a +right besides to plume themselves upon their gains. [9] + + [8] Or, "who have not only attained to affluence by the same pursuit, + but can hold their heads high, and may well pride themselves on + their thrift." + + [9] Cf. Hom. "Il." xii. 114, {ippoisin kai okhesphin agallomenos}, et + passim; "Hiero," viii. 5; "Anab." II. vi. 26. + +Crit. Well, then, I may tell you, I see and know both characters as well +as you do; but I do not find myself a whit the more included among those +who gain. + +Soc. Because you look at them just as you might at the actors in a +tragedy or comedy, and with the same intent--your object being to +delight the ear and charm the eye, but not, I take it, to become +yourself a poet. And there you are right enough, no doubt, since you +have no desire to become a playright. But, when circumstances compel you +to concern yourself with horsemanship, does it not seem to you a little +foolish not to consider how you are to escape being a mere amateur in +the matter, especially as the same creatures which are good for use are +profitable for sale? + +Crit. So you wish me to set up as a breeder of young horses, [10] do +you, Socrates? + + [10] See "Horsemanship," ii. 1. + +Soc. Not so, no more than I would recommend you to purchase lads and +train them up from boyhood as farm-labourers. But in my opinion there is +a certain happy moment of growth which must be seized, alike in man +and horse, rich in present service and in future promise. In further +illustration, I can show you how some men treat their wedded wives in +such a way that they find in them true helpmates to the joint increase +of their estate, while others treat them in a way to bring upon +themselves wholesale disaster. [11] + + [11] Reading {e os pleista}, al. {e oi pleistoi} = "to bring about + disaster in most cases." + +Crit. Ought the husband or the wife to bear the blame of that? + +Soc. If it goes ill with the sheep we blame the shepherd, as a rule, or +if a horse shows vice we throw the blame in general upon the rider. But +in the case of women, supposing the wife to have received instruction +from her husband and yet she delights in wrong-doing, [12] it may be +that the wife is justly held to blame; but supposing he has never tried +to teach her the first principles of "fair and noble" conduct, [13] and +finds her quite an ignoramus [14] in these matters, surely the husband +will be justly held to blame. But come now (he added), we are all +friends here; make a clean breast of it, and tell us, Critobulus, the +plain unvarnished truth: Is there an one to whom you are more in the +habit of entrusting matters of importance than to your wife? + + [12] Cf. "Horsemanship," vi. 5, of a horse "to show vice." + + [13] Or, "things beautiful and of good report." + + [14] Al. "has treated her as a dunce, devoid of this high knowledge." + +Crit. There is no one. + +Soc. And is there any one with whom you are less in the habit of +conversing than with your wife? + +Crit. Not many, I am forced to admit. + +Soc. And when you married her she was quite young, a mere girl--at +an age when, as far as seeing and hearing go, she had the smallest +acquaintance with the outer world? + +Crit. Certainly. + +Soc. Then would it not be more astonishing that she should have real +knowledge how to speak and act than that she should go altogether +astray? + +Crit. But let me ask you a question, Socrates: have those happy +husbands, you tell us of, who are blessed with good wives educated them +themselves? + +Soc. There is nothing like investigation. I will introduce you to +Aspasia, [15] who will explain these matters to you in a far more +scientific way than I can. My belief is that a good wife, being as +she is the partner in a common estate, must needs be her husband's +counterpoise and counterpart for good; since, if it is through the +transactions of the husband, as a rule, that goods of all sorts find +their way into the house, yet it is by means of the wife's economy and +thrift that the greater part of the expenditure is checked, and on the +successful issue or the mishandling of the same depends the increase or +impoverishment of a whole estate. And so with regard to the remaining +arts and sciences, I think I can point out to you the ablest performers +in each case, if you feel you have any further need of help. [16] + + [15] Aspasia. See "Mem." II. vi. 36. + + [16] Al. "there are successful performers in each who will be happy to + illustrate any point in which you think you need," etc. + + + +IV + +But why need you illustrate all the sciences, Socrates? (Critobulus +asked): it would not be very easy to discover efficient craftsmen of all +the arts, and quite impossible to become skilled in all one's self. +So, please, confine yourself to the nobler branches of knowledge as men +regard them, such as it will best befit me to pursue with devotion; be +so good as to point me out these and their performers, and, above +all, contribute as far as in you lies the aid of your own personal +instruction. + +Soc. A good suggestion, Critobulus, for the base mechanic arts, so +called, have got a bad name; and what is more, are held in ill repute by +civilised communities, and not unreasonably; seeing they are the ruin +of the bodies of all concerned in them, workers and overseers alike, who +are forced to remain in sitting postures and to hug the loom, or else +to crouch whole days confronting a furnace. Hand in hand with physical +enervation follows apace enfeeblement of soul: while the demand which +these base mechanic arts makes on the time of those employed in them +leaves them no leisure to devote to the claims of friendship and the +state. How can such folk be other than sorry friends and ill defenders +of the fatherland? So much so that in some states, especially those +reputed to be warlike, no citizen [1] is allowed to exercise any +mechanical craft at all. + + [1] "In the strict sense," e.g. the Spartiates in Sparta. See "Pol. + Lac." vii.; Newman, op. cit. i. 99, 103 foll. + +Crit. Then which are the arts you would counsel us to engage in? + +Soc. Well, we shall not be ashamed, I hope, to imitate the kings of +Persia? [2] That monarch, it is said, regards amongst the noblest +and most necessary pursuits two in particular, which are the arts of +husbandry and war, and in these two he takes the strongest interest. + + [2] "It won't make us blush actually to take a leaf out of the great + king's book." As to the Greek text at this point see the + commentators, and also a note by Mr. H. Richers in the "Classical + Review," x. 102. + +What! (Critobulus exclaimed); do you, Socrates, really believe that the +king of Persia pays a personal regard to husbandry, along with all his +other cares? + +Soc. We have only to investigate the matter, Critobulus, and I daresay +we shall discover whether this is so or not. We are agreed that he +takes strong interest in military matters; since, however numerous the +tributary nations, there is a governor to each, and every governor +has orders from the king what number of cavalry, archers, slingers and +targeteers [3] it is his business to support, as adequate to control the +subject population, or in case of hostile attack to defend the country. +Apart from these the king keeps garrisons in all the citadels. The +actual support of these devolves upon the governor, to whom the duty is +assigned. The king himself meanwhile conducts the annual inspection and +review of troops, both mercenary and other, that have orders to be under +arms. These all are simultaneously assembled (with the exception of +the garrisons of citadels) at the mustering ground, [4] so named. +That portion of the army within access of the royal residence the king +reviews in person; the remainder, living in remoter districts of the +empire, he inspects by proxy, sending certain trusty representatives. +[5] Wherever the commandants of garrisons, the captains of thousands, +and the satraps [6] are seen to have their appointed members complete, +and at the same time shall present their troops equipped with horse and +arms in thorough efficiency, these officers the king delights to honour, +and showers gifts upon them largely. But as to those officers whom he +finds either to have neglected their garrisons, or to have made private +gain of their position, these he heavily chastises, deposing them from +office, and appointing other superintendents [7] in their stead. Such +conduct, I think we may say, indisputably proves the interest which he +takes in matters military. + + [3] Or, Gerrophoroi, "wicker-shield bearers." + + [4] Or, "rendezvous"; "the 'Champ de Mars' for the nonce." Cf. + "Cyrop." VI. ii. 11. + + [5] Lit. "he sends some of the faithful to inspect." Cf. our "trusty + and well-beloved." + + [6] See, for the system, Herod. iii. 89 foll.; "Cyrop." VIII. vi. 11. + + [7] Or, as we say, "inspecting officers." Cf. "Cyrop." VIII. i. 9. + +Further than this, by means of a royal progress through the country, +he has an opportunity of inspecting personally some portion of his +territory, and again of visiting the remainder in proxy as above by +trusty representatives; and wheresoever he perceives that any of his +governors can present to him a district thickly populated, and the soil +in a state of active cultivation, full of trees and fruits, its natural +products, to such officers he adds other territory, adorning them with +gifts and distinguishing them by seats of honour. But those officers +whose land he sees lying idle and with but few inhabitants, owing either +to the harshness of their government, their insolence, or their neglect, +he punishes, and making them to cease from their office he appoints +other rulers in their place.... Does not this conduct indicate at least +as great an anxiety to promote the active cultivation of the land by its +inhabitants as to provide for its defence by military occupation? [8] + + [8] Lit. "by those who guard and garrison it." + +Moreover, the governors appointed to preside over these two departments +of state are not one and the same. But one class governs the inhabitants +proper including the workers of the soil, and collects the tribute from +them, another is in command of the armed garrisons. If the commandant +[9] protects the country insufficiently, the civil governor of the +population, who is in charge also of the productive works, lodges +accusation against the commandant to the effect that the inhabitants +are prevented working through deficiency of protection. Or if again, in +spite of peace being secured to the works of the land by the military +governor, the civil authority still presents a territory sparse in +population and untilled, it is the commandant's turn to accuse the +civil ruler. For you may take it as a rule, a population tilling their +territory badly will fail to support their garrisons and be quite +unequal to paying their tribute. Where a satrap is appointed he has +charge of both departments. [10] + + [9] Or, "garrison commandant." Lit. "Phrourarch." + + [10] The passage reads like a gloss. See about the Satrap, "Hell." + III. i. 10; "Cyrop." VIII. vi. 1; "Anab." I. ix. 29 foll. + +Thereupon Critobulus: Well, Socrates (said he), if such is his conduct, +I admit that the great king does pay attention to agriculture no less +than to military affairs. + +And besides all this (proceeded Socrates), nowhere among the various +countries which he inhabits or visits does he fail to make it his first +care that there shall be orchards and gardens, parks and "paradises," +as they are called, full of all fair and noble products which the earth +brings forth; and within these chiefly he spends his days, when the +season of the year permits. + +Crit. To be sure, Socrates, it is a natural and necessary conclusion +that when the king himself spends so large a portion of his time there, +his paradises should be furnished to perfection with trees and all else +beautiful that earth brings forth. + +Soc. And some say, Critobulus, that when the king gives gifts, he +summons in the first place those who have shown themselves brave +warriors, since all the ploughing in the world were but small gain in +the absence of those who should protect the fields; and next to these +he summons those who have stocked their countries best and rendered them +productive, on the principle that but for the tillers of the soil the +warriors themselves could scarcely live. And there is a tale told of +Cyrus, the most famous prince, I need not tell you, who ever wore a +crown, [11] how on one occasion he said to those who had been called +to receive the gifts, "it were no injustice, if he himself received the +gifts due to warriors and tillers of the soil alike," for "did he not +carry off the palm in stocking the country and also in protecting the +goods with which it had been stocked?" + + [11] Lit. "the most glorious king that ever lived." The remark would + seem to apply better to Cyrus the Great. Nitsche and others regard + these SS. 18, 19 as interpolated. See Schenkl ad loc. + +Crit. Which clearly shows, Socrates, if the tale be true, that this same +Cyrus took as great a pride in fostering the productive energies of +his country and stocking it with good things, as in his reputation as a +warrior. + +Soc. Why, yes indeed, had Cyrus lived, I have no doubt he would have +proved the best of rulers, and in support of this belief, apart from +other testimony amply furnished by his life, witness what happened when +he marched to do battle for the sovereignty of Persia with his brother. +Not one man, it is said, [12] deserted from Cyrus to the king, but +from the king to Cyrus tens of thousands. And this also I deem a great +testimony to a ruler's worth, that his followers follow him of their own +free will, and when the moment of danger comes refuse to part from him. +[13] Now this was the case with Cyrus. His friends not only fought their +battles side by side with him while he lived, but when he died they too +died battling around his dead body, one and all, excepting only Ariaeus, +who was absent at his post on the left wing of the army. [14] But there +is another tale of this same Cyrus in connection with Lysander, who +himself narrated it on one occasion to a friend of his in Megara. [15] + + [12] Cf. "Anab." I. ix. 29 foll. + + [13] Cf. "Hiero," xi. 12, and our author passim. + + [14] See "Anab." ib. 31. + + [15] Possibly to Xenophon himself {who may have met Lysander on his + way back after the events of the "Anabasis," and implying this + dialogue is concocted, since Socrates died before Xenophon + returned to Athens, if he did return at that period.} + +Lysander, it seems, had gone with presents sent by the Allies to Cyrus, +who entertained him, and amongst other marks of courtesy showed him his +"paradise" at Sardis. [16] Lysander was astonished at the beauty of the +trees within, all planted [17] at equal intervals, the long straight +rows of waving branches, the perfect regularity, the rectangular [18] +symmetry of the whole, and the many sweet scents which hung about them +as they paced the park. In admiration he exclaimed to Cyrus: "All this +beauty is marvellous enough, but what astonishes me still more is the +talent of the artificer who mapped out and arranged for you the several +parts of this fair scene." [19] Cyrus was pleased by the remark, and +said: "Know then, Lysander, it is I who measured and arranged it all. +Some of the trees," he added, "I planted with my own hands." Then +Lysander, regarding earnestly the speaker, when he saw the beauty of +his apparel and perceived its fragrance, the splendour [20] also of the +necklaces and armlets, and other ornaments which he wore, exclaimed: +"What say you, Cyrus? did you with your own hands plant some of these +trees?" whereat the other: "Does that surprise you, Lysander? I swear +to you by Mithres, [21] when in ordinary health I never dream of +sitting down to supper without first practising some exercise of war or +husbandry in the sweat of my brow, or venturing some strife of honour, +as suits my mood." "On hearing this," said Lysander to his friend, "I +could not help seizing him by the hand and exclaiming, 'Cyrus, you have +indeed good right to be a happy man, [22] since you are happy in being a +good man.'" [23] + + [16] See "Hell." I. v. 1. + + [17] Reading {oi' isou pephuteumena}, or if {ta pephuteumena}, transl. + "the various plants ranged." + + [18] Cf. Dion. Hal. "de Comp." p. 170; Cic. "de Senect." S. 59. + + [19] Lit. "of these" {deiktikos}, i.e. pointing to the various + beauties of the scenery. + + [20] Reading {to kallos}. + + [21] The Persian "Sun-God." See "Cyrop." VII. v. 53; Strab. xv. 3. 13. + + [22] Or, "fortunate." + + [23] Or, "you are a good man, and thereby fortunate." + + + +V + +All this I relate to you (continued Socrates) to show you that quite +high and mighty [1] people find it hard to hold aloof from agriculture, +devotion to which art would seem to be thrice blest, combining as it +does a certain sense of luxury with the satisfaction of an improved +estate, and such a training of physical energies as shall fit a man to +play a free man's part. [2] Earth, in the first place, freely offers to +those that labour all things necessary to the life of man; and, as if +that were not enough, makes further contribution of a thousand luxuries. +[3] It is she who supplies with sweetest scent and fairest show all +things wherewith to adorn the altars and statues of the gods, or deck +man's person. It is to her we owe our many delicacies of flesh or fowl +or vegetable growth; [4] since with the tillage of the soil is closely +linked the art of breeding sheep and cattle, whereby we mortals may +offer sacrifices well pleasing to the gods, and satisfy our personal +needs withal. + + [1] Lit. "Not even the most blessed of mankind can abstain from." See + Plat. "Rep." 344 B, "The superlatively best and well-to-do." + + [2] Lit. "Devotion to it would seem to be at once a kind of luxury, an + increase of estate, a training of the bodily parts, so that a man + is able to perform all that a free man should." + + [3] Al. "and further, to the maintenance of life she adds the sources + of pleasure in life." + + [4] Lit. "she bears these and rears those." + +And albeit she, good cateress, pours out her blessings upon us in +abundance, yet she suffers not her gifts to be received effeminately, +but inures her pensioners to suffer glady summer's heat and winter's +cold. Those that labour with their hands, the actual delvers of the +soil, she trains in a wrestling school of her own, adding strength +to strength; whilst those others whose devotion is confined to the +overseeing eye and to studious thought, she makes more manly, rousing +them with cock-crow, and compelling them to be up and doing in many +a long day's march. [5] Since, whether in city or afield, with the +shifting seasons each necessary labour has its hour of performance. [6] + + [5] See "Hellenica Essays," p. 341. + + [6] Lit. "each most necessary operation must ever be in season." + +Or to turn to another side. Suppose it to be a man's ambition to aid his +city as a trooper mounted on a charger of his own: why not combine the +rearing of horses with other stock? it is the farmer's chance. [7] Or +would your citizen serve on foot? It is husbandry that shall give him +robustness of body. Or if we turn to the toil-loving fascination of the +chase, [8] here once more earth adds incitement, as well as furnishing +facility of sustenance for the dogs as by nurturing a foster brood of +wild animals. And if horses and dogs derive benefit from this art of +husbandry, they in turn requite the boon through service rendered to the +farm. The horse carries his best of friends, the careful master, betimes +to the scene of labour and devotion, and enables him to leave it late. +The dog keeps off the depredations of wild animals from fruits and +flocks, and creates security in the solitary place. + + [7] Lit. "farming is best adapted to rearing horses along with other + produce." + + [8] Lit. "to labour willingly and earnestly at hunting earth helps to + incite us somewhat." + +Earth, too, adds stimulus in war-time to earth's tillers; she pricks +them on to aid the country under arms, and this she does by fostering +her fruits in open field, the prize of valour for the mightiest. [9] +For this also is the art athletic, this of husbandry; as thereby men are +fitted to run, and hurl the spear, and leap with the best. [10] + + [9] Cf. "Hipparch," viii. 8. + + [10] Cf. "Hunting," xii. 1 foll. + +This, too, is that kindliest of arts which makes requital tenfold in +kind for every work of the labourer. [11] She is the sweet mistress who, +with smile of welcome and outstretched hand, greets the approach of her +devoted one, seeming to say, Take from me all thy heart's desire. She +is the generous hostess; she keeps open house for the stranger. [12] For +where else, save in some happy rural seat of her devising, shall a man +more cheerily cherish content in winter, with bubbling bath and blazing +fire? or where, save afield, in summer rest more sweetly, lulled by +babbling streams, soft airs, and tender shades? [13] + + [11] Lit. "What art makes an ampler return for their labour to those + who work for her? What art more sweetly welcomes him that is + devoted to her?" + + [12] Lit. "What art welcomes the stranger with greater prodigality?" + + [13] See "Hellenica Essays," p. 380; and as still more to the point, + Cowley's Essays: "Of Agriculture," passim. + +Her high prerogative it is to offer fitting first-fruits to high heaven, +hers to furnish forth the overflowing festal board. [14] Hers is a +kindly presence in the household. She is the good wife's favourite, +the children long for her, she waves her hand winningly to the master's +friends. + + [14] Or, "to appoint the festal board most bounteously." + +For myself, I marvel greatly if it has ever fallen to the lot of +freeborn man to own a choicer possession, or to discover an occupation +more seductive, or of wider usefulness in life than this. + +But, furthermore, earth of her own will [15] gives lessons in justice +and uprightness to all who can understand her meaning, since the +nobler the service of devotion rendered, the ampler the riches of +her recompense. [16] One day, perchance, these pupils of hers, whose +conversation in past times was in husbandry, [17] shall, by reason of +the multitude of invading armies, be ousted from their labours. The work +of their hands may indeed be snatched from them, but they were brought +up in stout and manly fashion. They stand, each one of them, in body and +soul equipped; and, save God himself shall hinder them, they will march +into the territory of those their human hinderers, and take from them +the wherewithal to support their lives. Since often enough in war it is +surer and safer to quest for food with sword and buckler than with all +the instruments of husbandry. + + [15] Reading {thelousa}, vulg., or if after Cobet, {theos ousa}, + transl. "by sanction of her divinity." With {thelousa} Holden + aptly compares Virgil's "volentia rura," "Georg." ii. 500. + + [16] "That is, her 'lex talionis.'" + + [17] "Engaged long time in husbandry." + +But there is yet another lesson to be learnt in the public shool of +husbandry [18]--the lesson of mutual assistance. "Shoulder to shoulder" +must we march to meet the invader; [19] "shoulder to shoulder" stand to +compass the tillage of the soil. Therefore it is that the husbandman, +who means to win in his avocation, must see that he creates enthusiasm +in his workpeople and a spirit of ready obedience; which is just what a +general attacking an enemy will scheme to bring about, when he deals out +gifts to the brave and castigation [20] to those who are disorderly. + + [18] Lit. "But again, husbandry trains up her scholars side by side in + lessons of..." + + [19] {sun anthropois}, "man with his fellow-man," is the "mot d'order" + (cf. the author's favourite {sun theois}); "united human effort." + + [20] "Lashes," "punishment." Cf. "Anab." II. vi. 10, of Clearchus. + +Nor will there be lacking seasons of exhortation, the general haranguing +his troops and the husbandman his labourers; nor because they are slaves +do they less than free men need the lure of hope and happy expectation, +[21] that they may willingly stand to their posts. + + [21] "The lure of happy prospects." See "Horsemanship," iii. 1. + +It was an excellent saying of his who named husbandry "the mother and +nurse of all the arts," for while agriculture prospers all other arts +like are vigorous and strong, but where the land is forced to remain +desert, [22] the spring that feeds the other arts is dried up; they +dwindle, I had almost said, one and all, by land and sea. + + [22] Or, "lie waste and barren as the blown sea-sand." + +These utterances drew from Critobulus a comment: + +Socrates (he said), for my part I agree with all you say; only, one must +face the fact that in agriculture nine matters out of ten are beyond +man's calculation. Since at one time hailstones and another frost, at +another drought or a deluge of rain, or mildew, or other pest, will +obliterate all the fair creations and designs of men; or behold, his +fleecy flocks most fairly nurtured, then comes murrain, and the end most +foul destruction. [23] + + [23] See Virg. "Georg." iii. 441 foll.: "Turpis oves tentat scabies, + ubi frigidus imber." + +To which Socrates: Nay, I thought, Critobulus, you full surely were +aware that the operations of husbandry, no less than those of war, lie +in the hands of the gods. I am sure you will have noted the behaviour of +men engaged in war; how on the verge of military operations they strive +to win the acceptance of the divine powers; [24] how eagerly they assail +the ears of heaven, and by dint of sacrifices and omens seek to discover +what they should and what they should not do. So likewise as regards +the processes of husbandry, think you the propitiation of heaven is less +needed here? Be well assured (he added) the wise and prudent will pay +service to the gods on behalf of moist fruits and dry, [25] on behalf +of cattle and horses, sheep and goats; nay, on behalf of all their +possessions, great and small, without exception. + + [24] See "Hell." III. i. 16 foll., of Dercylidas. + + [25] "Every kind of produce, succulent (like the grape and olive) or + dry (like wheat and barley, etc.)" + + + +VI + +Your words (Critobulus answered) command my entire sympathy, when you +bid us endeavour to begin each work with heaven's help, [1] seeing that +the gods hold in their hands the issues alike of peace and war. So +at any rate will we endeavour to act at all times; but will you now +endeavour on your side to continue the discussion of economy from +the point at which you broke off, and bring it point by point to its +conclusion? What you have said so far has not been thrown away on me. +I seem to discern already more clearly, what sort of behaviour is +necessary to anything like real living. [2] + + [1] Lit. "with the gods," and for the sentiment see below, x. 10; + "Cyrop." III. i. 15; "Hipparch," ix. 3. + + [2] For {bioteuein} cf. Pind. "Nem." iv. 11, and see Holden ad loc. + +Socrates replied: What say you then? Shall we first survey the ground +already traversed, and retrace the steps on which we were agreed, so +that, if possible we may conduct the remaining portion of the argument +to its issue with like unanimity? [3] + + [3] Lit. "try whether we can go through the remaining steps with + like..." + +Crit. Why, yes! If it is agreeable for two partners in a business to +run through their accounts without dispute, so now as partners in +an argument it will be no less agreeable to sum up the points under +discussion, as you say, with unanimity. + +Soc. Well, then, we agreed that economy was the proper title of a branch +of knowledge, and this branch of knowledge appeared to be that whereby +men are enabled to enhance the value of their houses or estates; and +by this word "house or estate" we understood the whole of a man's +possessions; and "possessions" again we defined to include those things +which the possessor should find advantageous for the purposes of his +life; and things advantageous finally were discovered to mean all that +a man knows how to use and turn to good account. Further, for a man to +learn all branches of knowledge not only seemed to us an impossibility, +but we thought we might well follow the example of civil communities +in rejecting the base mechanic arts so called, on the ground that they +destroy the bodies of the artisans, as far as we can see, and crush +their spirits. + +The clearest proof of this, we said, [4] could be discovered if, on the +occasion of a hostile inroad, one were to seat the husbandmen and the +artisans apart in two divisions, and then proceed to put this question +to each group in turn: "Do you think it better to defend our country +districts or to retire from the fields [5] and guard the walls?" And we +anticipated that those concerned with the soil would vote to defend +the soil; while the artisans would vote not to fight, but, in docile +obedience to their training, to sit with folded hands, neither expending +toil nor venturing their lives. + + [4] This S. 6 has no parallel supra. See Breit. and Schenkl ad loc. + for attempts to cure the text. + + [5] See Cobet, "N. L." 580, reading {uphemenous}, or if {aphemenous} + transl. "to abandon." + +Next we held it as proved that there was no better employment for a +gentleman--we described him as a man beautiful and good--than this of +husbandry, by which human beings procure to themselves the necessaries +of life. This same employment, moreover, was, as we agreed, at once the +easiest to learn [6] and the pleasantest to follow, since it gives +to the limbs beauty and hardihood, whilst permitting [7] to the soul +leisure to satisfy the claims of friendship and of civic duty. + + [6] {raste mathein}. Vide infra, not supra. + + [7] Lit. "least allowing the soul no leisure to care for friends and + state withal." + +Again it seemed to us that husbandry acts as a spur to bravery in the +hearts of those that till the fields, [8] inasmuch as the necessaries of +life, vegetable and animal, under her auspices spring up and are reared +outside the fortified defences of the city. For which reason also this +way of life stood in the highest repute in the eyes of statesmen and +commonwealths, as furnishing the best citizens and those best disposed +to the common weal. [9] + + [8] Cf. Aristot. "Oec." I. ii. 1343 B, {pros toutois k.t.l.} + + [9] Cf. Aristoph. "Archarnians." + +Crit. I think I am fully persuaded as to the propriety of making +agriculture the basis of life. I see it is altogether noblest, best, and +pleasantest to do so. But I should like to revert to your remark that +you understood the reason why the tillage of one man brings him in an +abundance of all he needs, while the operations of another fail to +make husbandry a profitable employment. I would gladly hear from you +an explanation of both these points, so that I may adopt the right and +avoid the harmful course. [10] + + [10] Lincke conceives the editor's interpolation as ending here. + +Soc. Well, Critobulus, suppose I narrate to you from the beginning how +I cam in contact with a man who of all men I ever met seemed to me to +deserve the appellation of a gentleman. He was indeed a "beautiful and +good" man. [11] + + [11] Or, "a man 'beautiful and good,' as the phrase goes." + +Crit. There is nothing I should better like to hear, since of all titles +this is the one I covet most the right to bear. + +Soc. Well, then, I will tell you how I came to subject him to my +inquiry. It did not take me long to go the round of various good +carpenters, good bronze-workers, painters, sculptors, and so forth. A +brief period was sufficient for the contemplation of themselves and of +their most admired works of art. But when it came to examining those who +bore the high-sounding title "beautiful and good," in order to find out +what conduct on their part justified their adoption of this title, I +found my soul eager with desire for intercourse with one of them; and +first of all, seeing that the epithet "beautiful" was conjoined with +that of "good," every beautiful person I saw, I must needs approach +in my endeavour to discover, [12] if haply I might somewhere see the +quality of good adhering to the quality of beauty. But, after all, it +was otherwise ordained. I soon enough seemed to discover [13] that some +of those who in their outward form were beautiful were in their inmost +selves the veriest knaves. Accordingly I made up my mind to let go +beauty which appeals to the eye, and address myself to one of +those "beautiful and good" people so entitled. And since I heard of +Ischomachus [14] as one who was so called by all the world, both men and +women, strangers and citizens alike, I set myself to make acquaintance +with him. + + [12] Or, "and try to understand." + + [13] Or, "understand." + + [14] See Cobet, "Pros. Xen." s.n. + + + +VII + +It chanced, one day I saw him seated in the portico of Zeus Eleutherios, +[1] and as he appeared to be at leisure, I went up to him and, sitting +down by his side, accosted him: How is this, Ischomachus? you seated +here, you who are so little wont to be at leisure? As a rule, when I +see you, you are doing something, or at any rate not sitting idle in the +market-place. + + [1] "The god of freedom, or of freed men." See Plat. "Theag." 259 A. + The scholiast on Aristoph. "Plutus" 1176 identifies the god with + Zeus Soter. See Plut. "Dem." 859 (Clough, v. 30). + +Nor would you see me now so sitting, Socrates (he answered), but that I +promised to meet some strangers, friends of mine, [2] at this place. + + [2] "Foreign friends." + +And when you have no such business on hand (I said) where in heaven's +name do you spend your time and how do you employ yourself? I will +not conceal from you how anxious I am to learn from your lips by what +conduct you have earned for yourself the title "beautiful and good." [3] +It is not by spending your days indoors at home, I am sure; the whole +habit of your body bears witness to a different sort of life. + + [3] "The sobriquet of 'honest gentleman.'" + +Then Ischomachus, smiling at my question, but also, as it seemed to +me, a little pleased to be asked what he had done to earn the title +"beautiful and good," made answer: Whether that is the title by which +folk call me when they talk to you about me, I cannot say; all I know +is, when they challenge me to exchange properties, [4] or else to +perform some service to the state instead of them, the fitting out of +a trireme, or the training of a chorus, nobody thinks of asking for the +beautiful and good gentleman, but it is plain Ischomachus, the son +of So-and-so, [5] on whom the summons is served. But to answer your +question, Socrates (he proceeded), I certainly do not spend my days +indoors, if for no other reason, because my wife is quite capable of +managing our domestic affairs without my aid. + + [4] On the antidosis or compulsory exchange of property, see Boeckh, + p. 580, Engl. ed.: "In case any man, upon whom a {leitourgia} was + imposed, considered that another was richer than himself, and + therefore most justly chargeable with the burden, he might + challenge the other to assume the burden, or to make with him an + {antidosis} or exchange of property. Such a challenge, if + declined, was converted into a lawsuit, or came before a heliastic + court for trial." Gow, "Companion," xviii. "Athenian Finance." See + Dem. "Against Midias," 565, Kennedy, p. 117, and Appendix II. For + the various liturgies, Trierarchy, Choregy, etc., see "Pol. Ath." + i. 13 foll. + + [5] Or, "the son of his father," it being customary at Athens to add + the patronymic, e.g. Xenophon son of Gryllus, Thucydides son of + Olorus, etc. See Herod. vi. 14, viii. 90. In official acts the + name of the deme was added, eg. Demosthenes son of Demosthenes of + Paiane; or of the tribe, at times. Cf. Thuc. viii. 69; Plat. + "Laws," vi. p. 753 B. + +Ah! (said I), Ischomachus, that is just what I should like particularly +to learn from you. Did you yourself educate your wife to be all that a +wife should be, or when you received her from her father and mother +was she already a proficient well skilled to discharge the duties +appropriate to a wife? + +Well skilled! (he replied). What proficiency was she likely to bring +with her, when she was not quite fifteen [6] at the time she wedded me, +and during the whole prior period of her life had been most carefully +brought up [7] to see and hear as little as possible, and to ask [8] +the fewest questions? or do you not think one should be satisfied, if at +marriage her whole experience consisted in knowing how to take the wool +and make a dress, and seeing how her mother's handmaidens had their +daily spinning-tasks assigned them? For (he added), as regards control +of appetite and self-indulgence, [9] she had received the soundest +education, and that I take to be the most important matter in the +bringing-up of man or woman. + + [6] See Aristot. "Pol." vii. 16. 1335(a). See Newman, op. cit. i. 170 + foll. + + [7] Or, "surveillance." See "Pol. Lac." i. 3. + + [8] Reading {eroito}; or if with Sauppe after Cobet, {eroin}, transl. + "talk as little as possible." + + [9] Al. "in reference to culinary matters." See Mahaffy, "Social Life + in Greece," p. 276. + +Then all else (said I) you taught your wife yourself, Ischomachus, until +you had made her capable of attending carefully to her appointed duties? + +That did I not (replied he) until I had offered sacrifice, and prayed +that I might teach and she might learn all that could conduce to the +happiness of us twain. + +Soc. And did your wife join in sacrifice and prayer to that effect? + +Isch. Most certainly, with many a vow registered to heaven to become +all she ought to be; and her whole manner showed that she would not be +neglectful of what was taught her. [10] + + [10] Or, "giving plain proof that, if the teaching failed, it should + not be from want of due attention on her part." See "Hellenica + Essays," "Xenophon," p. 356 foll. + +Soc. Pray narrate to me, Ischomachus, I beg of you, what you first +essayed to teach her. To hear that story would please me more than any +description of the most splendid gymnastic contest or horse-race you +could give me. + +Why, Socrates (he answered), when after a time she had become accustomed +to my hand, that is, was tamed [11] sufficiently to play her part in +a discussion, I put to her this question: "Did it ever strike you to +consider, dear wife, [12] what led me to choose you as my wife among +all women, and your parents to entrust you to me of all men? It was +certainly not from any difficulty that might beset either of us to find +another bedfellow. That I am sure is evident to you. No! it was with +deliberate intent to discover, I for myself and your parents in behalf +of you, the best partner of house and children we could find, that I +sought you out, and your parents, acting to the best of their ability, +made choice of me. If at some future time God grant us to have children +born to us, we will take counsel together how best to bring them up, for +that too will be a common interest, [13] and a common blessing if haply +they shall live to fight our battles and we find in them hereafter +support and succour when ourselves are old. [14] But at present there is +our house here, which belongs like to both. It is common property, for +all that I possess goes by my will into the common fund, and in the same +way all that you deposited [15] was placed by you to the common fund. +[16] We need not stop to calculate in figures which of us contributed +most, but rather let us lay to heart this fact that whichever of us +proves the better partner, he or she at once contributes what is most +worth having." + + [11] (The timid, fawn-like creature.) See Lecky, "Hist. of Eur. + Morals," ii. 305. For the metaphor cf. Dem. "Olynth." iii. 37. 9. + + [12] Lit. "woman." Cf. N. T. {gunai}, St. John ii. 4; xix. 26. + + [13] Or, "our interests will centre in them; it will be a blessing we + share in common to train them that they shall fight our battles, + and..." + + [14] Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 13. Holden cf. Soph. "Ajax." 567; Eur. + "Suppl." 918. + + [15] Or reading {epenegke} with Cobet, "brought with you in the way of + dowry." + + [16] Or, "to the joint estate." + +Thus I addressed her, Socrates, and thus my wife made answer: "But how +can I assist you? what is my ability? Nay, everything depends on you. My +business, my mother told me, was to be sober-minded!" [17] + + [17] "Modest and temperate," and (below) "temperance." + +"Most true, my wife," I replied, "and that is what my father said to me. +But what is the proof of sober-mindedness in man or woman? Is it not so +to behave that what they have of good may ever be at its best, and that +new treasures from the same source of beauty and righteousness may be +most amply added?" + +"But what is there that I can do," my wife inquired, "which will help to +increase our joint estate?" + +"Assuredly," I answered, "you may strive to do as well as possible what +Heaven has given you a natural gift for and which the law approves." + +"And what may these things be?" she asked. + +"To my mind they are not the things of least importance," I replied, +"unless the things which the queen bee in her hive presides over are of +slight importance to the bee community; for the gods" (so Ischomachus +assured me, he continued), "the gods, my wife, would seem to have +exercised much care and judgment in compacting that twin system which +goes by the name of male and female, so as to secure the greatest +possible advantage [18] to the pair. Since no doubt the underlying +principle of the bond is first and foremost to perpetuate through +procreation the races of living creatures; [19] and next, as the outcome +of this bond, for human beings at any rate, a provision is made by which +they may have sons and daughters to support them in old age. + + [18] Reading {oti}, or if with Br. {eti... auto}, "with the further + intent it should prove of maximum advantage to itself." + + [19] Cf. (Aristot.) "Oecon." i. 3. + +"And again, the way of life of human beings, not being maintained +like that of cattle [20] in the open air, obviously demands roofed +homesteads. But if these same human beings are to have anything to bring +in under cover, some one to carry out these labours of the field under +high heaven [21] must be found them, since such operations as the +breaking up of fallow with the plough, the sowing of seed, the planting +of trees, the pasturing and herding of flocks, are one and all open-air +employments on which the supply of products necessary to life depends. + + [20] "And the beast of the field." + + [21] "Sub dis," "in the open air." + +"As soon as these products of the field are safely housed and under +cover, new needs arise. There must be some one to guard the store and +some one to perform such necessary operations as imply the need of +shelter. [22] Shelter, for instance, is needed for the rearing of infant +children; shelter is needed for the various processes of converting the +fruits of earth into food, and in like manner for the fabrication of +clothing out of wool. + + [22] Or, "works which call for shelter." + +"But whereas both of these, the indoor and the outdoor occupations +alike, demand new toil and new attention, to meet the case," I added, +"God made provision [23] from the first by shaping, as it seems to me, +the woman's nature for indoor and the man's for outdoor occupations. +Man's body and soul He furnished with a greater capacity for enduring +heat and cold, wayfaring and military marches; or, to repeat, He laid +upon his shoulders the outdoor works. + + [23] "Straightway from the moment of birth provided." Cf. (Aristot.) + "Oecon." i. 3, a work based upon or at any rate following the + lines of Xenophon's treatise. + +"While in creating the body of woman with less capacity for these +things," I continued, "God would seem to have imposed on her the indoor +works; and knowing that He had implanted in the woman and imposed upon +her the nurture of new-born babies, He endowed her with a larger share +of affection for the new-born child than He bestowed upon man. [24] And +since He imposed on woman the guardianship of the things imported from +without, God, in His wisdom, perceiving that a fearful spirit was no +detriment to guardianship, [25] endowed the woman with a larger measure +of timidity than He bestowed on man. Knowing further that he to whom the +outdoor works belonged would need to defend them against malign attack, +He endowed the man in turn with a larger share of courage. + + [24] {edasato}, "Cyrop." IV. ii. 43. + + [25] Cf. "Hipparch," vii. 7; Aristot. "Pol." iii. 2; "Oecon." iii. + +"And seeing that both alike feel the need of giving and receiving, He +set down memory and carefulness between them for their common use, [26] +so that you would find it hard to determine which of the two, the male +or the female, has the larger share of these. So, too, God set down +between them for their common use the gift of self-control, where +needed, adding only to that one of the twain, whether man or woman, +which should prove the better, the power to be rewarded with a larger +share of this perfection. And for the very reason that their natures +are not alike adapted to like ends, they stand in greater need of one +another; and the married couple is made more useful to itself, the one +fulfilling what the other lacks. [27] + + [26] Or, "He bestowed memory and carefulness as the common heritage of + both." + + [27] Or, "the pair discovers the advantage of duality; the one being + strong wherein the other is defective." + +"Now, being well aware of this, my wife," I added, "and knowing well +what things are laid upon us twain by God Himself, must we not strive to +perform, each in the best way possible, our respective duties? Law, +too, gives her consent--law and the usage of mankind, by sanctioning the +wedlock of man and wife; and just as God ordained them to be partners in +their children, so the law establishes their common ownership of house +and estate. Custom, moreover, proclaims as beautiful those excellences +of man and woman with which God gifted them at birth. [28] Thus for +a woman to bide tranquilly at home rather than roam aborad is no +dishonour; but for a man to remain indoors, instead of devoting himself +to outdoor pursuits, is a thing discreditable. But if a man does things +contrary to the nature given him by God, the chances are, [29] such +insubordination escapes not the eye of Heaven: he pays the penalty, +whether of neglecting his own works, or of performing those appropriate +to woman." [30] + + [28] Or, "with approving fingers stamps as noble those diverse + faculties, those superiorities in either sex which God created in + them. Thus for the woman to remain indoors is nobler than to gad + about abroad." {ta kala...; kallion... aiskhion...}-- + These words, which their significant Hellenic connotation, suffer + cruelly in translation. + + [29] Or, "maybe in some respect this violation of the order of things, + this lack of discipline on his part." Cf. "Cyrop." VII. ii. 6. + + [30] Or, "the works of his wife." For the sentiment cf. Soph. "Oed. + Col." 337 foll.; Herod. ii. 35. + +I added: "Just such works, if I mistake not, that same queen-bee we +spoke of labours hard to perform, like yours, my wife, enjoined upon her +by God Himself." + +"And what sort of works are these?" she asked; "what has the queen-bee +to do that she seems so like myself, or I like her in what I have to +do?" + +"Why," I answered, "she too stays in the hive and suffers not the other +bees to idle. Those whose duty it is to work outside she sends forth +to their labours; and all that each of them brings in, she notes and +receives and stores against the day of need; but when the season for +use has come, she distributes a just share to each. Again, it is she who +presides over the fabric of choicely-woven cells within. She looks to it +that warp and woof are wrought with speed and beauty. Under her guardian +eye the brood of young [31] is nursed and reared; but when the days of +rearing are past and the young bees are ripe for work, she sends them +out as colonists with one of the seed royal [32] to be their leader." + + [31] Or, "the growing progeny is reared to maturity." + + [32] Or, "royal lineage," reading {ton epigonon} (emend. H. Estienne); + or if the vulg. {ton epomenon}, "with some leader of the host" + (lit. of his followers). So Breitenbach. + +"Shall I then have to do these things?" asked my wife. + +"Yes," I answered, "you will need in the same way to stay indoors, +despatching to their toils without those of your domestics whose work +lies there. Over those whose appointed tasks are wrought indoors, it +will be your duty to preside; yours to receive the stuffs brought in; +yours to apportion part for daily use, and yours to make provision for +the rest, to guard and garner it so that the outgoings destined for +a year may not be expended in a month. It will be your duty, when the +wools are introduced, to see that clothing is made for those who +need; your duty also to see that the dried corn is rendered fit and +serviceable for food. + +"There is just one of all these occupations which devolve upon you," I +added, "you may not find so altogether pleasing. Should any one of our +household fall sick, it will be your care to see and tend them to the +recovery of their health." + +"Nay," she answered, "that will be my pleasantest of tasks, if careful +nursing may touch the springs of gratitude and leave them friendlier +than before." + +And I (continued Ischomachus) was struck with admiration at her answer, +and replied: "Think you, my wife, it is through some such traits of +forethought seen in their mistress-leader that the hearts of bees are +won, and they are so loyally affectioned towards her that, if ever she +abandon her hive, not one of them will dream of being left behind; [33] +but one and all must follow her." + + [33] Al. "will suffer her to be forsaken." + +And my wife made answer to me: "It would much astonish me (said she) did +not these leader's works, you speak of, point to you rather than myself. +Methinks mine would be a pretty [34] guardianship and distribution of +things indoors without your provident care to see that the importations +from without were duly made." + + [34] Or, "ridiculous." + +"Just so," I answered, "and mine would be a pretty [35] importation if +there were no one to guard what I imported. Do you not see," I added, +"how pitiful is the case of those unfortunates who pour water in their +sieves for ever, as the story goes, [36] and labour but in vain?" + + [35] "As laughable an importation." + + [36] Or, "how pitiful their case, condemned, as the saying goes, to + pour water into a sieve." Lit. "filling a bucket bored with + holes." Cf. Aristot. "Oec." i. 6; and for the Danaids, see Ovid. + "Met." iv. 462; Hor. "Carm." iii. 11. 25; Lucr. iii. 937; Plaut. + "Pseud." 369. Cp. Coleridge: + + Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve, + And hope without an object cannot live. + +"Pitiful enough, poor souls," she answered, "if that is what they do." + +"But there are other cares, you know, and occupations," I answered, +"which are yours by right, and these you will find agreeable. This, for +instance, to take some maiden who knows naught of carding wool and to +make her proficient in the art, doubling her usefulness; or to receive +another quite ignorant of housekeeping or of service, and to render her +skilful, loyal, serviceable, till she is worth her weight in gold; or +again, when occasion serves, you have it in your power to requite by +kindness the well-behaved whose presence is a blessing to your house; or +maybe to chasten the bad character, should such an one appear. But the +greatest joy of all will be to prove yourself my better; to make me your +faithful follower; knowing no dread lest as the years advance you should +decline in honour in your household, but rather trusting that, though +your hair turn gray, yet, in proportion as you come to be a better +helpmate to myself and to the children, a better guardian of our home, +so will your honour increase throughout the household as mistress, +wife, and mother, daily more dearly prized. Since," I added, "it is not +through excellence of outward form, [37] but by reason of the lustre +of virtues shed forth upon the life of man, that increase is given to +things beautiful and good." [38] + + [37] "By reason of the flower on the damask cheek." + + [38] Al. "For growth is added to things 'beautiful and good,' not + through the bloom of youth but virtuous perfections, an increase + coextensive with the life of man." See Breit. ad loc. + +That, Socrates, or something like that, as far as I may trust my memory, +records the earliest conversation which I held with her. + + + +VIII + +And did you happen to observe, Ischomachus (I asked), whether, as +the result of what was said, your wife was stirred at all to greater +carefulness? + +Yes, certainly (Ischomachus answered), and I remember how piqued she was +at one time and how deeply she blushed, when I chanced to ask her for +something which had been brought into the house, and she could not give +it me. So I, when I saw her annoyance, fell to consoling her. "Do not be +at all disheartened, my wife, that you cannot give me what I ask for. It +is plain poverty, [1] no doubt, to need a thing and not to have the +use of it. But as wants go, to look for something which I cannot lay my +hands upon is a less painful form of indigence than never to dream of +looking because I know full well that the thing exists not. Anyhow, you +are not to blame for this," I added; "mine the fault was who handed over +to your care the things without assigning them their places. Had I done +so, you would have known not only where to put but where to find them. +[2] After all, my wife, there is nothing in human life so serviceable, +nought so beautiful as order. [3] + + [1] "Vetus proverbium," Cic. ap. Columellam, xii. 2, 3; Nobbe, 236, + fr. 6. + + [2] Lit. "so that you might know not only where to put," etc. + + [3] Or, "order and arrangement." So Cic. ap. Col. xii. 2, 4, + "dispositione atque ordine." + +"For instance, what is a chorus?--a band composed of human beings, +who dance and sing; but suppose the company proceed to act as each +may chance--confusion follows; the spectacle has lost its charm. How +different when each and all together act and recite [4] with orderly +precision, the limbs and voices keeping time and tune. Then, indeed, +these same performers are worth seeing and worth hearing. + + [4] Or, "declaim," {phtheggontai}, properly of the "recitative" of the + chorus. Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 238 D. + +"So, too, an army," I said, "my wife, an army destitute of order is +confusion worse confounded: to enemies an easy prey, courting attack; to +friends a bitter spectacle of wasted power; [5] a mingled mob of asses, +heavy infantry, and baggage-bearers, light infantry, cavalry, and +waggons. Now, suppose they are on the march; how are they to get along? +In this condition everybody will be a hindrance to everybody: 'slow +march' side by side with 'double quick,' 'quick march' at cross purposes +with 'stand at ease'; waggons blocking cavalry and asses fouling +waggons; baggage-bearers and hoplites jostling together: the whole a +hopeless jumble. And when it comes to fighting, such an army is not +precisely in condition to deliver battle. The troops who are compelled +to retreat before the enemy's advance [6] are fully capable of trampling +down the heavy infantry detachments in reserve. [7] + + [5] Reading {agleukestaton}, or, if with Breit, {akleestaton}, "a most + inglorious spectacle of extreme unprofitableness." + + [6] Or, "whose duty (or necessity) it is to retire before an attack," + i.e. the skirmishers. Al. "those who have to retreat," i.e. the + non-combatants. + + [7] Al. "are quite capable of trampling down the troops behind in + their retreat." {tous opla ekhontas} = "the troops proper," "heavy + infantry." + +"How different is an army well organised in battle order: a splendid +sight for friendly eyes to gaze at, albeit an eyesore to the enemy. For +who, being of their party, but will feel a thrill of satisfaction as he +watches the serried masses of heavy infantry moving onwards in unbroken +order? who but will gaze with wonderment as the squadrons of the cavalry +dash past him at the gallop? And what of the foeman? will not his heart +sink within him to see the orderly arrangements of the different arms: +[8] here heavy infantry and cavalry, and there again light infantry, +there archers and there slingers, following each their leaders, with +orderly precision. As they tramp onwards thus in order, though they +number many myriads, yet even so they move on and on in quiet progress, +stepping like one man, and the place just vacated in front is filled up +on the instant from the rear. + + [8] "Different styles of troops drawn up in separate divisions: + hoplites, cavalry, and peltasts, archers, and slingers." + +"Or picture a trireme, crammed choke-full of mariners; for what reason +is she so terror-striking an object to her enemies, and a sight so +gladsome to the eyes of friends? is it not that the gallant ship sails +so swiftly? And why is it that, for all their crowding, the ship's +company [9] cause each other no distress? Simply that there, as you may +see them, they sit in order; in order bend to the oar; in order recover +the stroke; in order step on board; in order disembark. But disorder +is, it seems to me, precisely as though a man who is a husbandman should +stow away [10] together in one place wheat and barley and pulse, and +by and by when he has need of barley meal, or wheaten flour, or some +condiment of pulse, [11] then he must pick and choose instead of laying +his hand on each thing separately sorted for use. + + [9] See Thuc. iii. 77. 2. + + [10] "Should shoot into one place." + + [11] "Vegetable stock," "kitchen." See Holden ad loc., and Prof. + Mahaffy, "Old Greek Life," p. 31. + +"And so with you too, my wife, if you would avoid this confusion, if you +would fain know how to administer our goods, so as to lay your finger +readily on this or that as you may need, or if I ask you for anything, +graciously to give it me: let us, I say, select and assign [12] the +appropriate place for each set of things. This shall be the place where +we will put the things; and we will instruct the housekeeper that she is +to take them out thence, and mind to put them back again there; and +in this way we shall know whether they are safe or not. If anything is +gone, the gaping space will cry out as if it asked for something back. +[13] The mere look and aspect of things will argue what wants mending; +[14] and the fact of knowing where each thing is will be like having it +put into one's hand at once to use without further trouble or debate." + + [12] {dokimasometha}, "we will write over each in turn, as it were, + 'examined and approved.'" + + [13] Lit. "will miss the thing that is not." + + [14] "Detect what needs attention." + +I must tell you, Socrates, what strikes me as the finest and most +accurate arrangement of goods and furniture it was ever my fortune to +set eyes on; when I went as a sightseer on board the great Phoenician +merchantman, [15] and beheld an endless quantity of goods and gear of +all sorts, all separately packed and stowed away within the smallest +compass. [16] I need scarce remind you (he said, continuing his +narrative) what a vast amount of wooden spars and cables [17] a ship +depends on in order to get to moorings; or again, in putting out to sea; +[18] you know the host of sails and cordage, rigging [19] as they call +it, she requires for sailing; the quantity of engines and machinery of +all sorts she is armed with in case she should encounter any hostile +craft; the infinitude of arms she carries, with her crew of fighting men +aboard. Then all the vessels and utensils, such as people use at home on +land, required for the different messes, form a portion of the +freight; and besides all this, the hold is heavy laden with a mass of +merchandise, the cargo proper, which the master carries with him for the +sake of traffic. + + [15] See Lucian, lxvi. "The Ship," ad in. (translated by S. T. Irwin). + + [16] Lit. "in the tiniest receptacle." + + [17] See Holden ad loc. re {xelina, plekta, kremasta}. + + [18] "In weighing anchor." + + [19] "Suspended tackle" (as opposed to wooden spars and masts, etc.) + +Well, all these different things that I have named lay packed there in a +space but little larger than a fair-sized dining-room. [20] The several +sorts, moreover, as I noticed, lay so well arranged, there could be no +entanglement of one with other, nor were searchers needed; [21] and if +all were snugly stowed, all were alike get-at-able, [22] much to the +avoidance of delay if anything were wanted on the instant. + + [20] Lit. "a symmetrically-shaped dining-room, made to hold ten + couches." + + [21] Lit. "a searcher"; "an inquisitor." Cf. Shakesp. "Rom. and Jul." + V. ii. 8. + + [22] Lit. "not the reverse of easy to unpack, so as to cause a waste + of time and waiting." + +Then the pilot's mate [23]--"the look-out man at the prow," to give him +his proper title--was, I found, so well acquainted with the place for +everything that, even off the ship, [24] he could tell you where each +set of things was laid and how many there were of each, just as well +as any one who knows his alphabet [25] could tell you how many letters +there are in Socrates and the order in which they stand. + + [23] Cf. "Pol. Ath." i. 1; Aristoph. "Knights," 543 foll. + + [24] Or, "with his eyes shut, at a distance he could say exactly." + + [25] Or, "how to spell." See "Mem." IV. iv. 7; Plat. "Alc." i. 113 A. + +I saw this same man (continued Ischomachus) examining at leisure [26] +everything which could possibly [27] be needful for the service of the +ship. His inspection caused me such surprise, I asked him what he was +doing, whereupon he answered, "I am inspecting, stranger," [28] "just +considering," says he, "the way the things are lying aboard the ship; in +case of accidents, you know, to see if anything is missing, or not lying +snug and shipshape. [29] There is no time left, you know," he added, +"when God makes a tempest in the great deep, to set about searching +for what you want, or to be giving out anything which is not snug and +shipshape in its place. God threatens and chastises sluggards. [30] If +only He destroy not innocent with guilty, a man may be content; [31] +or if He turn and save all hands aboard that render right good service, +[32] thanks be to Heaven." [33] + + [26] "Apparently when he had nothing better to do"; "by way of + amusement." + + [27] {ara}, "as if he were asking himself, 'Would this or this + possibly be wanted for the ship's service?'" + + [28] "Sir." + + [29] Or, "things not lying handy in their places." + + [30] Or, "them that are slack." Cf. "Anab." V. viii. 15; "Mem." IV. + ii. 40; Plat. "Gorg." 488 A: "The dolt and good-for-nothing." + + [31] "One must not grumble." + + [32] "The whole ship's crew right nobly serving." {uperetein} = "to + serve at the oar" (metaphorically = to do service to heaven). + + [33] Lit. "great thanks be to the gods." + +So spoke the pilot's mate; and I, with this carefulness of stowage still +before my eyes, proceeded to enforce my thesis: + +"Stupid in all conscience would it be on our parts, my wife, if those +who sail the sea in ships, that are but small things, can discover space +and place for everything; can, moreover, in spite of violent tossings up +and down, keep order, and, even while their hearts are failing them for +fear, find everything they need to hand; whilst we, with all our ample +storerooms [34] diversely disposed for divers objects in our mansion, +an edifice firmly based [35] on solid ground, fail to discover fair and +fitting places, easy of access for our several goods! Would not that +argue great lack of understanding in our two selves? Well then! how good +a thing it is to have a fixed and orderly arrangement of all furniture +and gear; how easy also in a dwelling-house to find a place for every +sort of goods, in which to stow them as shall suit each best--needs no +further comment. Rather let me harp upon the string of beauty--image a +fair scene: the boots and shoes and sandals, and so forth, all laid in +order row upon row; the cloaks, the mantles, and the rest of the apparel +stowed in their own places; the coverlets and bedding; the copper +cauldrons; and all the articles for table use! Nay, though it well may +raise a smile of ridicule (not on the lips of a grave man perhaps, but +of some facetious witling) to hear me say it, a beauty like the cadence +of sweet music [36] dwells even in pots and pans set out in neat +array: and so, in general, fair things ever show more fair when orderly +bestowed. The separate atoms shape themselves to form a choir, and all +the space between gains beauty by their banishment. Even so some sacred +chorus, [37] dancing a roundelay in honour of Dionysus, not only is +a thing of beauty in itself, but the whole interspace swept clean of +dancers owns a separate charm. [38] + + [34] Or, "coffers," "cupboards," "safes." + + [35] Cf. "Anab." III. ii. 19, "firmly planted on terra firma." + + [36] Or, "like the rhythm of a song," {euruthmon}. See Mr. Ruskin's + most appropriate note ("Bib. Past." i. 59), "A remarkable word, as + significant of the complete rhythm ({ruthmos}) whether of sound or + motion, that was so great a characteristic of the Greek ideal (cf. + xi. 16, {metarruthmizo})," and much more equally to the point. + + [37] "Just as a chorus, the while its dancers weave a circling dance." + + [38] Or, "contrasting with the movement and the mazes of the dance, a + void appears serene and beautiful." + +"The truth of what I say, we easily can test, my wife," I added, "by +direct experiment, and that too without cost at all or even serious +trouble. [39] Nor need you now distress yourself, my wife, to think how +hard it will be to discover some one who has wit enough to learn the +places for the several things and memory to take and place them there. +We know, I fancy, that the goods of various sorts contained in the whole +city far outnumber ours many thousand times; and yet you have only to +bid any one of your domestics go buy this, or that, and bring it you +from market, and not one of them will hesitate. The whole world knows +both where to go and where to find each thing. + + [39] Lit. "now whether these things I say are true (i.e. are facts), + we can make experiment of the things themselves (i.e. of actual + facts to prove to us)." + +"And why is this?" I asked. "Merely because they lie in an appointed +place. But now, if you are seeking for a human being, and that too at +times when he is seeking you on his side also, often and often shall +you give up the search in sheer despair: and of this again the reason? +Nothing else save that no appointed place was fixed where one was +to await the other." Such, so far as I can now recall it, was the +conversation which we held together touching the arrangement of our +various chattels and their uses. + + + +IX + +Well (I replied), and did your wife appear, Ischomachus, to lend a +willing ear to what you tried thus earnestly to teach her? + +Isch. Most certainly she did, with promise to pay all attention. Her +delight was evident, like some one's who at length has found a pathway +out of difficulties; in proof of which she begged me to lose no time in +making the orderly arrangement I had spoken of. + +And how did you introduce the order she demanded, Ischomachus? (I +asked). + +Isch. Well, first of all I thought I ought to show her the capacities +of our house. Since you must know, it is not decked with ornaments and +fretted ceilings, [1] Socrates; but the rooms were built expressly with +a view to forming the most apt receptacles for whatever was intended +to be put in them, so that the very look of them proclaimed what suited +each particular chamber best. Thus our own bedroom, [2] secure in its +position like a stronghold, claimed possession of our choicest carpets, +coverlets, and other furniture. Thus, too, the warm dry rooms would seem +to ask for our stock of bread-stuffs; the chill cellar for our wine; the +bright and well-lit chambers for whatever works or furniture required +light, and so forth. + + [1] Or, "curious workmanship and paintings." See "Mem." III. viii. 10. + Cf. Plat. "Rep." vii. 529 B; "Hipp. maj." 298 A. See Becker, + "Charicles," Exc. i. 111. + + [2] Or, "the bridal chamber." See Becker, op. cit. p. 266. Al. "our + store-chamber." See Hom. "Od." xxi. 9: + +{be d' imenai thalamonde sun amphipoloisi gunaixin eskhaton, k.t.l.} + +"And she (Penelope) betook her, with her handmaidens, to the +treasure-chamber in the uttermost part of the house, where lay the +treasures of her lord, bronze and gold and iron well wrought."--Butcher +and Lang. Cf. "Od." ii. 337; "Il." vi. 288. + +Next I proceeded to point out to her the several dwelling-rooms, all +beautifully fitted up for cool in summer and for warmth in winter. [3] I +showed her how the house enjoyed a southern aspect, whence it was plain, +in winter it would catch the sunlight and in summer lie in shade. [4] +Then I showed her the women's apartments, separated from the men's +apartments by a bolted door, [5] whereby nothing from within could +be conveyed without clandestinely, nor children born and bred by our +domestics without our knowledge and consent [6]--no unimportant matter, +since, if the act of rearing children tends to make good servants +still more loyally disposed, [7] cohabiting but sharpens ingenuity for +mischief in the bad. + + [3] See "Mem." III. viii. 8. + + [4] See "Mem." ib. 9. + + [5] "By bolts and bars." Lit. "a door fitted with a bolt-pin." See + Thuc. ii. 4; Aristoph. "Wasps," 200. + + [6] Cf. (Aristot.) "Oecon." i. 5, {dei de kai exomereuein tais + teknopoiiais}. + + [7] Lit. "since (you know) if the good sort of servant is rendered, as + a rule, better disposed when he becomes a father, the base, + through intermarrying, become only more ripe for mischief." + +When we had gone over all the rooms (he continued), we at once set about +distribution our furniture [8] in classes; and we began (he said) by +collecting everything we use in offering sacrifice. [9] After this we +proceeded to set apart the ornaments and holiday attire of the wife, and +the husband's clothing both for festivals and war; then the bedding used +in the women's apartments, and the bedding used in the men's apartments; +then the women's shoes and sandals, and the shoes and sandals of the +men. [10] There was one division devoted to arms and armour; another +to instruments used for carding wood; another to implements for making +bread; another to utensils for cooking condiments; another to utensils +for the bath; another connected with the kneading trough; another with +the service of the table. All these we assigned to separate places, +distinguishing one portion for daily and recurrent use and the rest +for high days and holidays. Next we selected and set aside the supplies +required for the month's expenditure; and, under a separate head, [11] +we stored away what we computed would be needed for the year. [12] For +in this way there is less chance of failing to note how the supplies are +likely to last to the end. + + [8] "Movable property," "meubles." + + [9] Holden cf. Plut. "De Curios." 515 E, {os gar Xenophon legei toi + Oikonomikois, k.t.l.} + + [10] Cf. "Cyrop." VIII. ii. 5. See Becker, op. cit. p. 447. + + [11] See Cic. ap. Col. who curiously mistranslates {dikha}. + + [12] Schneider, etc., cf. Aristot. "Oecon." i. 6. + +And so having arranged the different articles of furniture in classes, +we proceeded to convey them to their appropriate places. That done, we +directed our attention to the various articles needed by our domestics +for daily use, such as implements or utensils for making bread, cooking +relishes, spinning wool, and anything else of the same sort. These +we consigned to the care of those who would have to use them, first +pointing out where they must stow them, and enjoining on them to return +them safe and sound when done with. + +As to the other things which we should only use on feast-days, or +for the entertainment of guests, or on other like occasions at long +intervals, we delivered them one and all to our housekeeper. Having +pointed out to her their proper places, and having numbered and +registered [13] the several sets of articles, we explained that it was +her business to give out each thing as required; to recollect to whom +she gave them; and when she got them back, to restore them severally to +the places from which she took them. In appointing our housekeeper, we +had taken every pains to discover some one on whose self-restraint we +might depend, not only in the matters of food and wine and sleep, but +also in her intercourse with men. She must besides, to please us, be +gifted with no ordinary memory. She must have sufficient forethought not +to incur displeasure through neglect of our interests. It must be her +object to gratify us in this or that, and in return to win esteem and +honour at our hands. We set ourselves to teach and train her to feel a +kindly disposition towards us, by allowing her to share our joys in +the day of gladness, or, if aught unkind befell us, by inviting her +to sympathise in our sorrow. We sought to rouse in her a zeal for our +interests, an eagerness to promote the increase of our estate, by +making her intelligent of its affairs, and by giving her a share in our +successes. We instilled in her a sense of justice and uprightness, by +holding the just in higher honour than the unjust, and by pointing out +that the lives of the righteous are richer and less servile than those +of the unrighteous; and this was the position in which she found herself +installed in our household. [14] + + [13] Or, "having taken an inventory of the several sets of things." + Cf. "Ages." i. 18; "Cyrop." VII. iv. 12. See Newman, op. cit. i. + 171. + + [14] Or, "and this was the position in which we presently established + her herself." + +And now, on the strength of all that we had done, Socrates (he added), +I addressed my wife, explaining that all these things would fail of use +unless she took in charge herself to see that the order of each several +part was kept. Thereupon I taught her that in every well-constituted +city the citizens are not content merely to pass good laws, but they +further choose them guardians of the laws, [15] whose function as +inspectors is to praise the man whose acts are law-abiding, or to mulct +some other who offends against the law. Accordingly, I bade her believe +that she, the mistress, was herself to play the part of guardian of the +laws to her whole household, examining whenever it seemed good to her, +and passing in review the several chattels, just as the officer in +command of a garrison [16] musters and reviews his men. She must apply +her scrutiny and see that everything was well, even as the Senate [17] +tests the condition of the Knights and of their horses. [18] Like a +queen, she must bestow, according to the power vested in her, praise +and honour on the well-deserving, but blame and chastisement on him who +stood in need thereof. + + [15] See Plat. "Laws," vi. 755 A, 770 C; Aristot. "Pol." iii. 15, 1287 + A; iv. 14, 1298 B; vi. 8, 1323 A; "Ath. Pol." viii. 4; and Cic. + ap. Col. xii. 3. 10 f. Holden cf. Cic. "de Legg." iii. 20, S. 46; + "C. I. G." 3794. + + [16] Lit. Phrourarch, "the commandant." + + [17] Or, "Council" at Athens. + + [18] Cf. "Hipparch." i. 8, 13. + +Nor did my lessons end here (added he); I taught her that she must not +be annoyed should I seem to be enjoining upon her more trouble than upon +any of our domestics with regard to our possessions; pointing out to her +that these domestics have only so far a share in their master's chattels +that they must fetch and carry, tend and guard them; nor have they the +right to use a single one of them except the master grant it. But to +the master himself all things pertain to use as he thinks best. And so +I pointed the conclusion: he to whom the greater gain attaches in the +preservation of the property or loss in its destruction, is surely he to +whom by right belongs the larger measure of attention. [19] + + [19] Or, "he it is on whom devolves as his concern the duty of + surveillance." + +When, then (I asked), Ischomachus, how fared it? was your wife disposed +at all to lend a willing ear to what you told her? [20] + + [20] Lit. "when she heard did she give ear at all?" + +Bless you, [21] Socrates (he answered), what did she do but forthwith +answer me, I formed a wrong opinion if I fancied that, in teaching her +the need of minding our property, I was imposing a painful task upon +her. A painful task it might have been [22] (she added), had I bade her +neglect her personal concerns! But to be obliged to fulfil the duty of +attending to her own domestic happiness, [23] that was easy. After all +it would seem to be but natural (added he); just as any honest [24] +woman finds it easier to care for her own offspring than to neglect +them, so, too, he could well believe, an honest woman might find it +pleasanter to care for than to neglect possessions, the very charm of +which is that they are one's very own. + + [21] Lit. "By Hera!" Cf. the old formula "Marry!" or "By'r lakin!" + + [22] Lit. "more painful had it been, had I enjoined her to neglect her + own interests than to be obliged..." + + [23] {ton oikeion agathon}, cp. "charity begins at home." See Joel, + op. cit. p. 448. + + [24] Or, "true and honest"; "any woman worthy of the name." {sophroni} + = with the {sophrosune} of womanhood; possibly transl. "discreet + and sober-minded." + + + +X + +So (continued Socrates), when I heard his wife had made this answer, I +exclaimed: By Hera, Ischomachus, a brave and masculine intelligence the +lady has, as you describe her. + +(To which Ischomachus) Yes, Socrates, and I would fain narrate some +other instances of like large-mindedness on her part: shown in the +readiness with which she listened to my words and carried out my wishes. + +What sort of thing? (I answered). Do, pray, tell me, since I would far +more gladly learn about a living woman's virtues than that Zeuxis [1] +should show me the portrait of the loveliest woman he has painted. + + [1] See "Mem." I. iv. 3. + +Whereupon Ischomachus proceeded to narrate as follows: I must tell you, +Socrates, I one day noticed she was much enamelled with white lead, [2] +no doubt to enhance the natural whiteness of her skin; she had rouged +herself with alkanet [3] profusely, doubtless to give more colour to her +cheeks than truth would warrant; she was wearing high-heeled shoes, in +order to seem taller than she was by nature. [4] + + [2] Cf. Aristoph. "Eccl." 878; ib. 929, {egkhousa mallon kai to son + psimuthion}: ib. 1072; "Plut." 1064. + + [3] Lit. "enamelled or painted with anchusa or alkanet," a plant, the + wild bugloss, whose root yields a red dye. Cf. Aristoph. "Lys." + 48; Theophr. "H. Pl." vii. 8. 3. + + [4] See Becker, op. cit. p. 452; Breit. cf. "Anab." III. ii. 25; + "Mem." II. i. 22; Aristot. "Eth. Nic." iv. 3, 5, "True beauty + requires a great body." + +Accordingly I put to her this question: [5] "Tell me, my wife, would you +esteem me a less lovable co-partner in our wealth, were I to show you +how our fortune stands exactly, without boasting of unreal possessions +or concealing what we really have? Or would you prefer that I should try +to cheat you with exaggeration, exhibiting false money to you, or sham +[6] necklaces, or flaunting purples [7] which will lose their colour, +stating they are genuine the while?" + + [5] Lit. "So I said to her, 'Tell me, my wife, after which fashion + would you find me the more delectable partner in our joint estate + --were I to...? or were I to...?'" + + [6] Lit. "only wood coated with gold." + + [7] See Becker, op. cit. p. 434 f; Holden cf. Athen. ix. 374, xii. + 525; Ael. "V. H." xii. 32; Aristoph. "Plut." 533. + +She caught me up at once: "Hush, hush!" she said, "talk not such talk. +May heaven forfend that you should ever be like that. I could not love +you with my whole heart were you really of that sort." + +"And are we two not come together," I continued, "for a closer +partnership, being each a sharer in the other's body?" + +"That, at any rate, is what folk say," she answered. + +"Then as regards this bodily relation," I proceeded, "should you regard +me as more lovable or less did I present myself, my one endeavour and my +sole care being that my body should be hale and strong and thereby well +complexioned, or would you have me first anoint myself with pigments, +[8] smear my eyes with patches [9] of 'true flesh colour,' [10] and so +seek your embrace, like a cheating consort presenting to his mistress's +sight and touch vermillion paste instead of his own flesh?" + + [8] "Red lead." + + [9] Cf. Aristoph. "Ach." 1029. + + [10] {andreikelon}. Cf. Plat. "Rep." 501 B, "the human complexion"; + "Crat." 424 E. + +"Frankly," she answered, "it would not please me better to touch paste +than your true self. Rather would I see your own 'true flesh colour' +than any pigment of that name; would liefer look into your eyes and see +them radiant with health than washed with any wash, or dyed with any +ointment there may be." + +"Believe the same, my wife, of me then," Ischomachus continued (so he +told me); "believe that I too am not better pleased with white enamel +or with alkanet than with your own natural hue; but as the gods have +fashioned horses to delight in horses, cattle in cattle, sheep in their +fellow sheep, so to human beings the human body pure and undefiled is +sweetest; [11] and as to these deceits, though they may serve to cheat +the outside world without detection, yet if intimates try to deceive +each other, they must one day be caught; in rising from their beds, +before they make their toilet; by a drop of sweat they stand convicted; +tears are an ordeal they cannot pass; the bath reveals them as they +truly are." + + [11] See "Mem." II. i. 22. + +What answer (said I) did she make, in Heaven's name, to what you said? + +What, indeed (replied the husband), save only, that thenceforward she +never once indulged in any practice of the sort, but has striven +to display the natural beauty of her person in its purity. She did, +however, put to me a question: Could I advise her how she might become +not in false show but really fair to look upon? + +This, then, was the counsel which I gave her, Socrates: Not to be for +ever seated like a slave; [12] but, with Heaven's help, to assume the +attitude of a true mistress standing before the loom, and where her +knowledge gave her the superiority, bravely to give the aid of her +instruction; where her knowledge failed, as bravely try to learn. I +counselled her to oversee the baking woman as she made the bread; to +stand beside the housekeeper as she measured out her stores; to go tours +of inspection to see if all things were in order as they should be. +For, as it seemed to me, this would at once be walking exercise and +supervision. And, as an excellent gymnastic, I recommended her to knead +the dough and roll the paste; to shake the coverlets and make the beds; +adding, if she trained herself in exercise of this sort she would enjoy +her food, grow vigorous in health, and her complexion would in very +truth be lovelier. The very look and aspect of the wife, the mistress, +seen in rivalry with that of her attendants, being as she is at once +more fair [13] and more beautifully adorned, has an attractive charm, +[14] and not the less because her acts are acts of grace, not services +enforced. Whereas your ordinary fine lady, seated in solemn state, would +seem to court comparison with painted counterfeits of womanhood. + + [12] See Becker, p. 491. Breit., etc., cf. Nicostr. ap. Stob. "Tit." + lxxiv. 61. + + [13] Lit. "more spotles"; "like a diamond of purest water." Cf. + Shakesp. "Lucr." 394, "whose perfect white Showed like an April + daisy in the grass." + + [14] Or, "is wondrous wooing, and all the more with this addition, + hers are acts of grace, theirs services enforced." + +And, Socrates, I would have you know that still to-day, my wife is +living in a style as simple as that I taught her then, and now recount +to you. + + + +XI + +The conversation was resumed as follows: Thanking Ischomachus for what +he had told me about the occupations of his wife; on that side I have +heard enough (I said) perhaps for a beginning; the facts you mention +reflect the greatest credit on both wife and husband; but would you now +in turn describe to me your work and business? In doing so you will have +the pleasure of narrating the reason of your fame. And I, for my part, +when I have heard from end to end the story of a beautiful and good +man's works, if only my wits suffice and I have understood it, shall be +much indebted. + +Indeed (replied Ischomachus), it will give me the greatest pleasure to +recount to you my daily occupations, and in return I beg you to reform +me, where you find some flaw or other in my conduct. [1] + + [1] Lit. "in order that you on your side may correct and set me right + where I seem to you to act amiss." {metarruthmises}--remodel. Cf. + Aristot. "Nic. Eth." x. 9. 5. + +The idea of my reforming you! (I said). How could I with any show of +justice hope to reform you, the perfect model [2] of a beautiful, good +man--I, who am but an empty babbler, [3] and measurer of the air, +[4] who have to bear besides that most senseless imputation of being +poor--an imputation which, I assure you, Ischomachus, would have reduced +me to the veriest despair, except that the other day I chanced to come +across the horse of Nicias, [5] the foreigner? I saw a crowd of people +in attendance staring, and I listened to a story which some one had +to tell about the animal. So then I stepped up boldly to the groom and +asked him, "Has the horse much wealth?" The fellow looked at me as if I +were hardly in my right mind to put the question, and retorted, "How +can a horse have wealth?" Thereat I dared to lift my eyes from earth, on +learning that after all it is permitted a poor penniless horse to be +a noble animal, if nature only have endowed him with good spirit. If, +therefore, it is permitted even to me to be a good man, please recount +to me your works from first to last, I promise, I will listen, all I +can, and try to understand, and so far as in me lies to imitate you from +to-morrow. To-morrow is a good day to commence a course of virtue, is it +not? + + [2] Cf. Plat. "Rep." 566 A, "a tyrant full grown" (Jowett). + + [3] Cf. Plat. "Phaed." 70 C; Aristoph. "Clouds," 1480. + + [4] Or rather, "a measurer of air"--i.e. devoted not to good sound + solid "geometry," but the unsubstantial science of "aerometry." + See Aristoph. "Clouds," i. 225; Plat. "Apol." 18 B, 19 B; Xen. + "Symp." vi. 7. + + [5] Nothing is known of this person. + +You are pleased to jest, Socrates (Ischomachus replied), in spite of +which I will recount to you those habits and pursuits by aid of which I +seek to traverse life's course. If I have read aright life's lesson, it +has taught me that, unless a man first discover what he needs to do, and +seriously study to bring the same to good effect, the gods have placed +prosperity [6] beyond his reach; and even to the wise and careful they +give or they withhold good fortune as seemeth to them best. Such being +my creed, I begin with service rendered to the gods; and strive to +regulate my conduct so that grace may be given me, in answer to my +prayers, to attain to health, and strength of body, honour in my own +city, goodwill among my friends, safety with renown in war, and of +riches increase, won without reproach. + + [6] "The gods have made well-doing and well-being a thing impossible." + Cf. "Mem." III. ix. 7, 14. + +I, when I heard these words, replied: And are you then indeed so careful +to grow rich, Ischomachus?--amassing wealth but to gain endless trouble +in its management? + +Most certainly (replied Ischomachus), and most careful must I needs be +of the things you speak of. So sweet I find it, Socrates, to honour +God magnificently, to lend assistance to my friends in answer to +their wants, and, so far as lies within my power, not to leave my city +unadorned with anything which riches can bestow. + +Nay (I answered), beautiful indeed the works you speak of, and powerful +the man must be who would essay them. How can it be otherwise, seeing so +many human beings need the help of others merely to carry on existence, +and so many are content if they can win enough to satisfy their wants. +What of those therefore who are able, not only to administer their own +estates, but even to create a surplus sufficient to adorn their city and +relieve the burthen of their friends? Well may we regard such people +as men of substance and capacity. But stay (I added), most of us are +competent to sing the praises of such heroes. What I desire is to hear +from you, Ischomachus, in your own order, [7] first how you study to +preserve your health and strength of body; and next, how it is granted +to you [8] to escape from the perils of war with honour untarnished. +And after that (I added), it will much content me to learn from your own +lips about your money-making. + + [7] "And from your own starting-point." + + [8] As to the construction {themis einai} see Jebb ad "Oed. Col." + 1191, Appendix. + +Yes (he answered), and the fact is, Socrates, if I mistake not, all +these matters are in close connection, each depending on the other. +Given that a man have a good meal to eat, he has only to work off the +effect by toil [9] directed rightly; and in the process, if I mistake +not, his health will be confirmed, his strength added to. Let him but +practise the arts of war and in the day of battle he will preserve his +life with honour. He needs only to expend his care aright, sealing +his ears to weak and soft seductions, and his house shall surely be +increased. [10] + + [9] See "Mem." I. ii. 4; "Cyrop." I. ii. 16. Al. "bring out the effect + of it by toil." + + [10] Lit. "it is likely his estate will increase more largely." + +I answered: So far I follow you, Ischomachus. You tell me that by +labouring to his full strength, [11] by expending care, by practice and +training, a man may hope more fully to secure life's blessings. So I +take your meaning. But now I fain would learn of you some details. What +particular toil do you impose on yourself in order to secure good health +and strength? After what particular manner do you practise the arts of +war? How do you take pains to create a surplus which will enable you to +benefit your friends and to gratify the state? + + [11] Or, "by working off ill-humours," as we should say. + +Why then (Ischomachus replied), my habit is to rise from bed betimes, +when I may still expect to find at home this, that, or the other friend, +whom I may wish to see. Then, if anything has to be done in town, I set +off to transact the business and make that my walk; [12] or, if there is +no business to do in town, my serving-boy leads my horse to the farm; +I follow, and so make the country-road my walk, which suits my purpose +quite as well, or better, Socrates, perhaps, than pacing up and down the +colonnade. [13] Then when I have reached the farm, where mayhap some of +my men are planting trees, or breaking fallow, sowing or getting in the +crops, I inspect their various labours with an eye to every detail, +and, whenever I can improve upon the present system, I introduce reform. +After this, as a rule, I mount my horse and take a canter. I put +him through his paces, suiting these, as far as possible, to those +inevitable in war [14]--in other words, I avoid neither steep slope [15] +nor sheer incline, neither trench nor runnel, only giving my utmost heed +the while so as not to lame my horse while exercising him. When that +is over, the boy gives the horse a roll, [16] and leads him homewards, +taking at the same time from the country to town whatever we may chance +to need. Meanwhile I am off for home, partly walking, partly running, +and having reached home I take a bath and give myself a rub; [17] and +then I breakfast--a repast which leaves me neither empty nor replete, +[18] and will suffice to last me through the day. + + [12] See "Mem." III. xiii. 5. + + [13] {xusto}--the xystus, "a covered corridor in the gymnasium where + the athletes exercised in winter." Vitruv. v. 11. 4; vi. 7. 5. See + Rich, "Companion," s.n.; Becker, op. cit. p. 309. Cf. Plat. + "Phaedr." 227--Phaedrus loq.: "I have come from Lysias the son of + Cephalus, and I am going to take a walk outside the wall, for I + have been sitting with him the whole morning; and our common + friend Acumenus advises me to walk in the country, which he says + is more invigorating than to walk in the courts."--Jowett. + + [14] See "Horsemanship," iii. 7 foll.; ib. viii.; "Hipparch," i. 18. + + [15] "Slanting hillside." + + [16] See "Horsemanship," v. 3; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32. + + [17] Lit. "scrape myself clean" (with the {stleggis} or strigil). Cf. + Aristoph. "Knights," 580. See Becker, op. cit. p. 150. + + [18] See "Lac. Pol." ii. 5. Cf. Hor. "Sat." i. 6. 127: + +pransus non avide, quantum interpellet inani ventre diem durare. + +Then eat a temperate luncheon, just to stay A sinking stomach till the +close of day (Conington). + +By Hera (I replied), Ischomachus, I cannot say how much your doings take +my fancy. How you have contrived, to pack up portably for use--together +at the same time--appliances for health and recipes for strength, +exercises for war, and pains to promote your wealth! My admiration is +raised at every point. That you do study each of these pursuits in the +right way, you are yourself a standing proof. Your look of heaven-sent +health and general robustness we note with our eyes, while our ears have +heard your reputation as a first-rate horseman and the wealthiest of +men. + +Isch. Yes, Socrates, such is my conduct, in return for which I am +rewarded with--the calumnies of half the world. You thought, I daresay, +I was going to end my sentence different, and say that a host of people +have given me the enviable title "beautiful and good." + +I was indeed myself about to ask, Ischomachus (I answered), whether you +take pains also to acquire skill in argumentative debate, the cut and +thrust and parry of discussion, [19] should occasion call? + + [19] Lit. "to give a reason and to get a reason from others." Cf. + "Cyrop." I. iv. 3. + +Isch. Does it not strike you rather, Socrates, that I am engaged in one +long practice of this very skill, [20] now pleading as defendant that, +as far as I am able, I do good to many and hurt nobody? And then, again, +you must admit, I play the part of prosecutor when accusing people whom +I recognise to be offenders, as a rule in private life, or possibly +against the state, the good-for-nothing fellows? + + [20] "The arts of the defendant, the apologist; and of the plaintiff, + the prosecutor." + +But please explain one other thing, Ischomachus (I answered). Do you put +defence and accusation into formal language? [21] + + [21] "Does your practice include the art of translating into words + your sentiments?" Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 52. + +Isch. "Formal language," say you, Socrates? The fact is, I never cease +to practise speaking; and on this wise: Some member of my household has +some charge to bring, or some defence to make, [22] against some other. +I have to listen and examine. I must try to sift the truth. Or there +is some one whom I have to blame or praise before my friends, or I must +arbitrate between some close connections and endeavour to enforce the +lesson that it is to their own interests to be friends not foes. [23]... +We are present to assist a general in court; [24] we are called upon to +censure some one; or defend some other charged unjustly; or to prosecute +a third who has received an honour which he ill deserves. It frequently +occurs in our debates [25] that there is some course which we strongly +favour: naturally we sound its praises; or some other, which we +disapprove of: no less naturally we point out its defects. + + [22] Or, "One member of my household appears as plaintiff, another as + defendant. I must listen and cross-question." + + [23] The "asyndeton" would seem to mark a pause, unless some words + have dropped out. See the commentators ad loc. + + [24] The scene is perhaps that of a court-martial (cf. "Anab." V. + viii.; Dem. "c. Timocr." 749. 16). (Al. cf. Sturz, "Lex." s.v. "we + are present (as advocates) and censure some general"), or more + probably, I think, that of a civil judicial inquiry of some sort, + conducted at a later date by the Minister of Finance ({to stratego + to epi tas summorias eremeno}). + + [25] Or, "Or again, a frequent case, we sit in council" (as members of + the Boule). See Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15. + +He paused, then added: Things have indeed now got so far, Socrates, that +several times I have had to stand my trial and have judgment passed upon +me in set terms, what I must pay or what requital I must make. [26] + + [26] See "Symp." v. 8. Al. {dielemmenos} = "to be taken apart and have + ..." + +And at whose bar (I asked) is the sentence given? That point I failed to +catch. [27] + + [27] Or, "so dull was I, I failed to catch the point." + +Whose but my own wife's? (he answered). + +And, pray, how do you conduct your own case? (I asked). [28] + + [28] See "Mem." III. vii. 4; Plat. "Euth." 3 E. + +Not so ill (he answered), when truth and interest correspond, but when +they are opposed, Socrates, I have no skill to make the worse appear the +better argument. [29] + + [29] See Plat. "Apol." 19-23 D; Aristoph. "Clouds," 114 foll. + +Perhaps you have no skill, Ischomachus, to make black white or falsehood +truth (said I). [30] + + [30] Or, "It may well be, Ischomachus, you cannot manufacture + falsehood into truth." Lit. "Like enough you cannot make an + untruth true." + + + +XII + +But (I continued presently), perhaps I am preventing you from going, as +you long have wished to do, Ischomachus? + +To which he: By no means, Socrates. I should not think of going away +until the gathering in the market is dispersed. [1] + + [1] Lit. "until the market is quite broken up," i.e. after mid-day. + See "Anab." I. viii. 1; II. i. 7; "Mem." I. i. 10. Cf. Herod. ii. + 173; iii. 104; vii. 223. + +Of course, of course (I answered), you are naturally most careful not +to forfeit the title they have given you of "honest gentleman"; [2] and +yet, I daresay, fifty things at home are asking your attention at this +moment; only you undertook to meet your foreign friends, and rather than +play them false you go on waiting. + + [2] Lit. "beautiful and good." + +Isch. Let me so far correct you, Socrates; in no case will the things +you speak of be neglected, since I have stewards and bailiffs [3] on the +farms. + + [3] Cf. Becker, op. cit. p. 363. + +Soc. And, pray, what is your system when you need a bailiff? Do you +search about, until you light on some one with a natural turn for +stewardship; and then try to purchase him?--as, I feel certain, happens +when you want a carpenter: first, you discover some one with a turn for +carpentry, and then do all you can to get possession of him. [4] Or do +you educate your bailiffs yourself? + + [4] The steward, like the carpenter, and the labourers in general, + would, as a rule, be a slave. See below, xxi. 9. + +Isch. Most certainly the latter, Socrates; I try to educate them, as you +say, myself; and with good reason. He who is properly to fill my place +and manage my affairs when I am absent, my "alter ego," [5] needs but to +have my knowledge; and if I am fit myself to stand at the head of my own +business, I presume I should be able to put another in possession of my +knowledge. [6] + + [5] Or, "my other self." + + [6] Lit. "to teach another what I know myself." + +Soc. Well then, the first thing he who is properly to take your place +when absent must possess is goodwill towards you and yours; for without +goodwill, what advantage will there be in any knowledge whatsoever which +your bailiff may possess? + +Isch. None, Socrates; and I may tell you that a kindly disposition +towards me and mine is precisely what I first endeavour to instil. + +Soc. And how, in the name of all that is holy, do you pick out whom you +will and teach him to have kindly feeling towards yourself and yours? + +Isch. By kindly treatment of him, to be sure, whenever the gods bestow +abundance of good things upon us. + +Soc. If I take your meaning rightly, you would say that those who enjoy +your good things grow well disposed to you and seek to render you some +good? + +Isch. Yes, for of all instruments to promote good feeling this I see to +be the best. + +Soc. Well, granted the man is well disposed to you does it therefore +follow, Ischomachus, that he is fit to be your bailiff? It cannot have +escaped your observation that albeit human beings, as a rule, are kindly +disposed towards themselves, yet a large number of them will not apply +the attention requisite to secure for themselves those good things which +they fain would have. + +Isch. Yes, but believe me, Socrates, when I seek to appoint such men as +bailiffs, I teach them also carefulness and application. [7] + + [7] {epimeleia} is a cardinal virtue with the Greeks, or at any rate + with Xenophon, but it has no single name in English. + +Soc. Nay, now in Heaven's name, once more, how can that be? I always +thought it was beyond the power of any teacher to teach these virtues. +[8] + + [8] For the Socratic problem {ei arete didakte} see Grote, "H. G." + viii. 599. + +Isch. Nor is it possible, you are right so far, to teach such +excellences to every single soul in order as simply as a man might +number off his fingers. + +Soc. Pray, then, what sort of people have the privilege? [9] Should you +mind pointing them out to me with some distinctness? + + [9] Lit. "what kind of people can be taught them? By all means signify + the sort to me distinctly." + +Ishc. Well, in the first place, you would have some difficulty in making +intemperate people diligent--I speak of intemperance with regard to +wine, for drunkenness creates forgetfulness of everything which needs to +be done. + +Soc. And are persons devoid of self-control in this respect the only +people incapable of diligence and carefulness? or are there others in +like case? + +Isch. Certainly, people who are intemperate with regard to sleep, seeing +that the sluggard with his eyes shut cannot do himself or see that +others do what is right. + +Soc. What then? [10] Are we to regard these as the only people incapable +of being taught this virtue of carefulness? or are there others in a +like condition? + + [10] Or, "What then--is the list exhausted? Are we to suppose that + these are the sole people..." + +Isch. Surely we must include the slave to amorous affection. [11] Your +woeful lover [12] is incapable of being taught attention to anything +beyond one single object. [13] No light task, I take it, to discover any +hope or occupation sweeter to him than that which now employs him, his +care for his beloved, nor, when the call for action comes, [14] will +it be easy to invent worse punishment than that he now endures in +separation from the object of his passion. [15] Accordingly, I am in no +great hurry to appoint a person of this sort to manage [16] my affairs; +the very attempt to do so I regard as futile. + + [11] See "Mem." I. iii. 8 foll.; II. vi. 22. + + [12] {duserotes}. Cf. Thuc. vi. 13, "a desperate craving" (Jowett). + + [13] Cf. "Symp." iv. 21 foll.; "Cyrop." V. i. 7-18. + + [14] Or, "where demands of business present themselves, and something + must be done." + + [15] Cf. Shakesp. "Sonnets," passim. + + [16] Or, "I never dream of appointing as superintendent." See above, + iv. 7. + +Soc. Well, and what of those addicted to another passion, that of gain? +Are they, too, incapable of being trained to give attention to field and +farming operations? + +Isch. On the contrary, there are no people easier to train, none so +susceptible of carefulness in these same matters. One needs only to +point out to them that the pursuit is gainful, and their interest is +aroused. + +Soc. But for ordinary people? Given they are self-controlled to suit +your bidding, [17] given they possess a wholesome appetite for gain, how +will you lesson them in carefulness? how teach them growth in diligence +to meet your wishes? + + [17] Or, "in matters such as you insist on." + +Isch. By a simple method, Socrates. When I see a man intent on +carefulness, I praise and do my best to honour him. When, on the other +hand, I see a man neglectful of his duties, I do not spare him: I try in +every way, by word and deed, to wound him. + +Soc. Come now, Ischomachus, kindly permit a turn in the discussion, +which has hitherto concerned the persons being trained to carefulness +themselves, and explain a point in reference to the training process. +Is it possible for a man devoid of carefulness himself to render others +more careful? + +No more possible (he answered) than for a man who knows no music to make +others musical. [18] If the teacher sets but an ill example, the pupil +can hardly learn to do the thing aright. [19] And if the master's +conduct is suggestive of laxity, how hardly shall his followers attain +to carefulness! Or to put the matter concisely, "like master like man." +I do not think I ever knew or heard tell of a bad master blessed with +good servants. The converse I certainly have seen ere now, a good master +and bad servants; but they were the sufferers, not he. [20] No, he who +would create a spirit of carefulness in others [21] must have the skill +himself to supervise the field of labour; to test, examine, scrutinise. +[22] He must be ready to requite where due the favour of a service well +performed, nor hesitate to visit the penalty of their deserts upon those +neglectful of their duty. [23] Indeed (he added), the answer of the +barbarian to the king seems aposite. You know the story, [24] how the +king had met with a good horse, but wished to give the creature flesh +and that without delay, and so asked some one reputed to be clever about +horses: "What will give him flesh most quickly?" To which the other: +"The master's eye." So, too, it strikes me, Socrates, there is nothing +like "the master's eye" to call forth latent qualities, and turn the +same to beautiful and good effect. [25] + + [18] Or, "to give others skill in 'music.'" See Plat. "Rep." 455 E; + "Laws," 802 B. Al. "a man devoid of letters to make others + scholarly." See Plat. "Phaedr." 248 D. + + [19] Lit. "when the teacher traces the outline of the thing to copy + badly." For {upodeiknuontos} see "Mem." IV. iii. 13; "Horsem." ii. + 2. Cf. Aristot. "Oecon." i. 6; "Ath. Pol." 41. 17; and Dr. Sandys' + note ad loc. + + [20] Or, "but they did not go scot-free"; "punishments then were + rife." + + [21] Cf. Plat. "Polit." 275 E: "If we say either tending the herds, or + managing the herds, or having the care of them, that will include + all, and then we may wrap up the statesman with the rest, as the + argument seems to require."--Jowett. + + [22] Or, "he must have skill to over-eye the field of labour, and be + scrutinous." + + [23] "For every boon of service well performed he must be eager to + make requital to the author of it, nor hesitate to visit on the + heads of those neglectful of their duty a just recompense." (The + language is poetical.) + + [24] See Aristot. "Oecon." i. 6; Aesch. "Pers." 165; Cato ap. Plin. + "H. N." xviii. 5. Cic. ap. Colum. iv. 18; ib. vi. 21; La Fontaine, + "L'Oeil du Maitre." + + [25] Or, "so, too, in general it seems to me 'the master's eye' is + aptest to elicit energy to issue beautiful and good." + + + +XIII + +But now (I ventured), suppose you have presented strongly to the mind of +some one [1] the need of carefulness to execute your wishes, is a person +so qualified to be regarded as fit at once to be your bailiff? or is +there aught else which he must learn in order to play the part of an +efficient bailiff? + + [1] Breit. cf. "Pol. Lac." xv. 8. Holden cf. Plat. "Rep." 600 C. + +Most certainly there is (he answered): it still remains for him to learn +particulars--to know, that is, what things he has to do, and when and +how to do them; or else, if ignorant of these details, the profit of +this bailiff in the abstract may prove no greater than the doctor's +who pays a most precise attention to a sick man, visiting him late and +early, but what will serve to ease his patient's pains [2] he knows not. + + [2] Lit. "what it is to the advantage of his patient to do, is beyond + his ken." + +Soc. But suppose him to have learnt the whole routine of business, will +he need aught else, or have we found at last your bailiff absolute? [3] + + [3] Cf. Plat. "Rep." 566 D. Or, "the perfect and consummate type of + bailiff." + +Isch. He must learn at any rate, I think, to rule his fellow-workmen. + +What! (I exclaimed): you mean to say you educate your bailiffs to that +extent? Actually you make them capable of rule? + +At any rate I try to do so (he replied). + +And how, in Heaven's name (I asked), do you contrive to educate another +in the skill to govern human beings? + +Isch. I have a very simple system, Socrates; so simple, I daresay, you +will simply laugh at me. + +Soc. The matter, I protest, is hardly one for laughter. The man who +can make another capable of rule, clearly can teach him how to play the +master; and if can make him play the master, he can make him what is +grander still, a kingly being. [4] Once more, therefore, I protest: A +man possessed of such creative power is worthy, not of ridicule, far +from it, but of the highest praise. + + [4] i.e. {arkhikos} includes (1) {despotikos}, i.e. an arbitrary head + of any sort, from the master of one's own family to the {turannos + kai despotes} (Plat. "Laws," 859 A), despotic lord or owner; (2) + {basilikos}, the king or monarch gifted with regal qualities. + +Thus, then, I reason, [5] Socrates (he answered): The lower animals are +taught obedience by two methods chiefly, partly through being punished +when they make attempts to disobey, partly by experiencing some kindness +when they cheerfully submit. This is the principle at any rate adopted +in the breaking of young horses. The animal obeys its trainer, and +something sweet is sure to follow; or it disobeys, and in place of +something sweet it finds a peck of trouble; and so on, until it comes at +last to yield obedience to the trainer's every wish. Or to take another +instance: Young dogs, [6] however far inferior to man in thought +and language, [7] can still be taught to run on errands and turn +somersaults, [8] and do a host of other clever things, precisely on +this same principle of training. Every time the animal obeys it gets +something or other which it wanted, and every time it misbehaves it +gets a whipping. But when it comes to human beings: in man you have a +creature still more open to persuasion through appeals to reason; [9] +only make it plain to him "it is his interest to obey." Or if they +happen to be slaves, [10] the more ignoble training of wild animals +tamed to the lure will serve to teach obedience. Only gratify their +bellies in the matter of appetite, and you will succeed in winning much +from them. [11] But ambitious, emulous natures feel the spur of praise, +[12] since some natures hunger after praise no less than others crave +for meats and drinks. My practice then is to instruct those whom I +desire to appoint as my bailiffs in the various methods which I have +found myself to be successful in gaining the obedience of my fellows. To +take an instance: There are clothes and shows and so forth, with which +I must provide my workfolk. [13] Well, then, I see to it that these are +not all alike in make; [14] but some will be of better, some of less +good quality: my object being that these articles for use shall vary +with the service of the wearer; the worse man will receive the worse +things as a gift, the better man the better as a mark of honour. For I +ask you, Socrates, how can the good avoid despondency seeing that +the work is wrought by their own hands alone, in spite of which these +villains who will neither labour nor face danger when occasion calls are +to receive an equal guerdon with themselves? And just as I cannot bring +myself in any sort of way to look upon the better sort as worthy to +receive no greater honour than the baser, so, too, I praise my bailiffs +when I know they have apportioned the best things among the most +deserving. And if I see that some one is receiving preference by dint +of flatteries or like unworthy means, I do not let the matter pass; I +reprimand my bailiff roundly, and so teach him that such conduct is not +even to his interest. + + [5] {oukoun}. "This, then, is my major premiss: the dumb animal..." + (lit. "the rest of animals"). + + [6] {ta kunidia} possibly implies "performing poodles." + + [7] {te gnome... te glotte}, i.e. mental impression and expression, + "mind and tongue." + + [8] Or, "to run round and round and turn heels over head." Al. "dive + for objects." + + [9] "Logic, argument." Or, "a creature more compliant; merely by a + word demonstrate to him..." + + [10] Cf. Plat. "Rep." 591 C. + + [11] See Pater, "Plato and Platonism," "Lacedaemon," p. 196 foll. + + [12] See "Cyrop." passim. + + [13] {ergastersi}, Xenophontic for the common Attic {ergatais}. See + Hold. ad loc. for similar forms, and cf. Rutherford, "New + Phrynichus," 59. + + [14] Cf. Aristot. "Oecon." i. 5 (where the thesis is developed + further). + + + +XIV + +Soc. Well, then, Ischomachus, supposing the man is now so fit to rule +that he can compel obedience, [1] is he, I ask once more, your bailiff +absolute? or even though possessed of all the qualifications you have +named, does he still lack something? [2] + + [1] Or, "that discipline flows from him;" al. "he presents you with + obedient servants." + + [2] Lit. "will he still need something further to complete him?" + +Most certainly (replied Ischomachus). One thing is still required of +him, and that is to hold aloof from property and goods which are his +master's; he must not steal. Consider, this is the very person through +whose hands the fruits and produce pass, and he has the audacity to make +away with them! perhaps he does not leave enough to cover the expenses +of the farming operations! Where would be the use of farming the land by +help of such an overseer? + +What (I exclaimed), can I believe my ears? You actually undertake to +teach them virtue! What really, justice! + +Isch. To be sure, I do. but it does not follow therefore that I find +all equally apt to lend an ear to my instruction. However, what I do is +this. I take a leaf now out of the laws of Draco and again another out +of the laws of Solon, [3] and so essay to start my household on the path +of uprightness. And indeed, if I mistake not (he proceeded), both those +legislators enacted many of their laws expressly with a view to teaching +this branch of justice. [4] It is written, "Let a man be punished for +a deed of theft"; "Let whosoever is detected in the act be bound and +thrown in prison"; "If he offer violence, [5] let him be put to death." +It is clear that the intention of the lawgivers in framing these +enactments was to render the sordid love of gain [6] devoid of profit +to the unjust person. What I do, therefore, is to cull a sample of their +precepts, which I supplement with others from the royal code [7] where +applicable; and so I do my best to shape the members of my household +into the likeness of just men concerning that which passes through +their hands. And now observe--the laws first mentioned act as penalties, +deterrent to transgressors only; whereas the royal code aims higher: +by it not only is the malefactor punished, but the righteous and just +person is rewarded. [8] The result is, that many a man, beholding how +the just grow ever wealthier than the unjust, albeit harbouring in his +heart some covetous desires, is constant still to virtue. To abstain +from unjust dealing is engrained in him. [9] + + [3] Cobet, "Pros. Xen." cf. Plut. "Solon," xvii. {proton men oun tous + Drakontos nomous aneile k.t.l.} "First, then, he repealed all + Draco's laws, except those concerning homicide, because they were + too severe and the punishments too great; for death was appointed + for almost all offences, insomuch that those that were convicted + of idleness were to die, and those that stole a cabbage or an + apple to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege or + murder" (Clough, i. 184). See Aul. Gell. "N. A." xi. 13. + + [4] "The branch of justice which concerns us, viz. righteous dealing + between man and man." + + [5] For this sense of {tous egkheirountas} cf. Thuc. iv. 121; "Hell." + IV. v. 16. Al. {dedesthai tous egkheirountas kai thanatousthai en + tis alo poion} (Weiske), "let the attempt be punished with + imprisonment"; "let him who is caught in the act be put to death." + + [6] Cf. Plat. "Laws," 754 E. + + [7] Or, "the royal laws," i.e. of Persia. Cf. "Anab." I. ix. 16; + "Cyrop." I. ii. 2, 3. Or possibly = "regal"; cf. Plat. "Minos," + 317 C; {to men orthon nomos esti basilikos}. + + [8] Lit. "benefited." + + [9] Lit. "Whereby, beholding the just becoming wealthier than the + unjust, many albeit covetous at heart themselves most constantly + abide by abstinence from evil-doing." + +Those of my household (he proceeded) whom, in spite of kindly treatment, +I perceive to be persistently bent on evil-doing, in the end I treat as +desperate cases. Incurable self-seekers, [10] plain enough to see, whose +aspiration lifts them from earth, so eager are they to be reckoned just +men, not by reason only of the gain derivable from justice, but through +passionate desire to deserve my praise--these in the end I treat as +free-born men. I make them wealthy, and not with riches only, but in +honour, as befits their gentle manliness. [11] For if, Socrates, there +be one point in which the man who thirsts for honour differs from him +who thirsts for gain, it is, I think, in willingness to toil, face +danger, and abstain from shameful gains--for the sake of honour only and +fair fame. [12] + + [10] Lit. "Those, on the other hand, whom I discover to be roused" (to + honesty--not solely because honesty is the best policy). + + [11] Or, "men of fair and noble type"; "true gentlemen." This passage + suggests the "silver lining to the cloud" of slavery. + + [12] Cf. Hom. "Il." ix. 413, {oleto men moi nostos, atar kleos + aphthiton estai}, "but my fame shall be imperishable." + + + +XV + +Soc. But now, suppose, Ischomachus, you have created in the soul of some +one a desire for your welfare; have inspired in him not a mere passive +interest, but a deep concern to help you to achieve prosperity; further, +you have obtained for him a knowledge of the methods needed to give the +operations of the field some measure of success; you have, moreover, +made him capable of ruling; and, as the crowning point of all your +efforts, this same trusty person shows no less delight, than you might +take yourself, in laying at your feet [1] earth's products, each in +due season richly harvested--I need hardly ask concerning such an one, +whether aught else is lacking to him. It is clear to me [2] an overseer +of this sort would be worth his weight in gold. But now, Ischomachus, +I would have you not omit a topic somewhat lightly handled by us in the +previous argument. [3] + + [1] {apodeiknuon}, i.e. in presenting the inventory of products for + the year. Cf. "Hell." V. iii. 17; "Revenues," ii. 7. + + [2] {ede}, at this stage of the discussion. + + [3] Or, "that part of the discussion which we ran over in a light and + airy fashion," in reference to xiii. 2. + +What topic, pray, was that? (he asked). + +Soc. You said, if I mistake not, that it was most important to learn +the methods of conducting the several processes of husbandry; for, you +added, unless a man knows what things he has to do and how to do them, +all the care and diligence in the world will stand him in no stead. + +At this point [4] he took me up, observing: So what you now command me +is to teach the art itself of tillage, Socrates? + + [4] Keeping the vulg. order of SS. 3-9, which many commentators would + rearrange in various ways. See Breit. ad loc.; Lincke, op. cit. p. + 111 foll. + +Yes (I replied), for now it looks as if this art were one which made the +wise and skilled possessor of it wealthy, whilst the unskilled, in spite +of all the pains he takes, must live in indigence. + +Isch. Now shall you hear, then, [5] Socrates, the generous nature of +this human art. For is it not a proof of something noble in it, that +being of supreme utility, so sweet a craft to exercise, so rich in +beauty, so acceptable alike to gods and men, the art of husbandry may +further fairly claim to be the easiest of all the arts to learn? Noble I +name it! this, at any rate, the epithet we give to animals which, being +beautiful and large and useful, are also gentle towards the race of man. +[6] + + [5] Or, "Listen, then, and whilst I recount to you at once the + loving-kindness of this art, to man the friendliest." + + [6] Schenkl regards this sentence as an interpolation. For the epithet + {gennaios} applied to the dog see "Cyrop." I. iv. 15, 21; + "Hunting," iv. 7. + +Allow me to explain, Ischomachus (I interposed). Up to a certain point +I fully followed what you said. I understand, according to your theory, +how a bailiff must be taught. In other words, I follow your descriptions +both as to how you make him kindly disposed towards yourself; and how, +again, you make him careful, capable of rule, and upright. But at that +point you made the statement that, in order to apply this diligence to +tillage rightly, the careful husbandman must further learn what are the +different things he has to do, and not alone what things he has to do, +but how and when to do them. These are the topics which, in my opinion, +have hitherto been somewhat lightly handled in the argument. Let me make +my meaning clearer by an instance: it is as if you were to tell me that, +in order to be able to take down a speech in writing, [7] or to read a +written statement, a man must know his letters. Of course, if not +stone deaf, I must have garnered that for a certain object knowledge +of letters was important to me, but the bare recognition of the fact, +I fear, would not enable me in any deeper sense to know my letters. So, +too, at present I am easily persuaded that if I am to direct my care +aright in tillage I must have a knowledge of the art of tillage. But +the bare recognition of the fact does not one whit provide me with the +knowledge how I ought to till. And if I resolved without ado to set +about the work of tilling, I imagine, I should soon resemble your +physician going on his rounds and visiting his patients without knowing +what to prescribe or what to do to ease their sufferings. To save +me from the like predicaments, please teach me the actual work and +processes of tillage. + + [7] Or, "something from dictation." + +Isch. But truly, [8] Socrates, it is not with tillage as with the other +arts, where the learner must be well-nigh crushed [9] beneath a load +of study before his prentice-hand can turn out work of worth sufficient +merely to support him. [10] The art of husbandry, I say, is not so ill +to learn and cross-grained; but by watching labourers in the field, by +listening to what they say, you will have straightway knowledge enough +to teach another, should the humour take you. I imagine, Socrates (he +added), that you yourself, albeit quite unconscious of the fact, already +know a vast amount about the subject. The fact is, other craftsmen (the +race, I mean, in general of artists) are each and all disposed to keep +the most important [11] features of their several arts concealed: +with husbandry it is different. Here the man who has the most skill in +planting will take most pleasure in being watched by others; and so too +the most skilful sower. Ask any question you may choose about results +thus beautifully wrought, and not one feature in the whole performance +will the doer of it seek to keep concealed. To such height of nobleness +(he added), Socrates, does husbandry appear, like some fair mistress, to +conform the soul and disposition of those concerned with it. + + [8] "Nay, if you will but listen, Socrates, with husbandry it is not + the same as with the other arts." + + [9] {katatribenai}, "worn out." See "Mem." III. iv. 1; IV. vii. 5. Al. + "bored to death." + + [10] Or, "before the products of his pupilage are worth his keep." + + [11] Or, "critical and crucial." + +The proem [12] to the speech is beautiful at any rate (I answered), but +hardly calculated to divert the hearer from the previous question. A +thing so easy to be learnt, you say? then, if so, do you be all the +readier for that reason to explain its details to me. No shame on you +who teach, to teach these easy matters; but for me to lack the knowledge +of them, and most of all if highly useful to the learner, worse than +shame, a scandal. + + [12] Or, "the prelude to the piece." + + + +XVI + +Isch. First then, Socrates, I wish to demonstrate to you that what +is called [1] "the intricate variety in husbandry" [2] presents no +difficulty. I use a phrase of those who, whatever the nicety with +which they treat the art in theory, [3] have but the faintest practical +experience of tillage. What they assert is, that "he who would rightly +till the soil must first be made acquainted with the nature of the +earth." + + [1] "They term"; in reference to the author of some treatise. + + [2] Or, "the riddling subtlety of tillage." See "Mem." II. iii. 10; + Plat. "Symp." 182 B; "Phileb." 53 E. + + [3] Theophr. "De Caus." ii. 4, 12, mentions Leophanes amongst other + writers on agriculture preceding himself. + +And they are surely right in their assertion (I replied); for he who +does not know what the soil is capable of bearing, can hardly know, I +fancy, what he has to plant or what to sow. + +But he has only to look at his neighbour's land (he answered), at his +crops and trees, in order to learn what the soil can bear and what +it cannot. [4] After which discovery, it is ill work fighting against +heaven. Certainly not by dint of sowing and planting what he himself +desires will he meet the needs of life more fully than by planting and +sowing what the earth herself rejoices to bear and nourish on her bosom. +Or if, as well may be the case, through the idleness of those who occupy +it, the land itself cannot display its native faculty, [5] it is often +possible to derive a truer notion from some neighbouring district that +ever you will learn about it from your neighbour's lips. [6] Nay, even +though the earth lie waste and barren, it may still declare its nature; +since a soil productive of beautiful wild fruits can by careful tending +be made to yield fruits of the cultivated kind as beautiful. And on +this wise, he who has the barest knowledge [7] of the art of tillage can +still discern the nature of the soil. + + [4] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." i. 53; iv. 109. According to the + commentator Servius, the poet drew largely upon Xenophon's + treatise. + + [5] Or, "cannot prove its natural aptitude." + + [6] Or, "from a neighbouring mortal." + + [7] Or, "a mere empiric in the art of husbandry." + +Thank you (I said), Ischomachus, my courage needs no further fanning +upon that score. I am bold enough now to believe that no one need +abstain from agriculture for fear he will not recognise the nature of +the soil. Indeed, I now recall to mind a fact concerning fishermen, how +as they ply their business on the seas, not crawling lazily along, nor +bringing to, for prospect's sake, but in the act of scudding past the +flying farmsteads, [8] these brave mariners have only to set eyes upon +crops on land, and they will boldly pronounce opinion on the nature +of the soil itself, whether good or bad: this they blame and that they +praise. And these opinions for the most part coincide, I notice, with +the verdict of the skilful farmer as to quality of soil. [9] + + [8] Or, "the flying coastland, fields and farmyards." + + [9] Lit. "And indeed the opinions they pronounce about 'a good soil' + mostly tally with the verdict of the expert farmer." + +Isch. At what point shall I begin then, Socrates, to revive your +recollection [10] of the art of husbandry? since to explain to you the +processes employed in husbandry means the statement of a hundred details +which you know yourself full well already. + + [10] Or, "begin recalling to your mind." See Plat. "Meno," for the + doctrine of Anamensis here apparently referred to. + +Soc. The first thing I should like to learn, Ischomachus, I think, if +only as a point befitting a philosopher, is this: how to proceed and how +to work the soil, did I desire to extract the largest crops of wheat and +barley. + +Isch. Good, then! you are aware that fallow must be broken up in +readiness [11] for sowing? + + [11] Or, "ploughed up." Cf. Theophr. "Hist. Pl." iii. i. 6; Dion. Hal. + "Ant." x. 17. + +Soc. Yes, I am aware of that. + +Isch. Well then, supposing we begin to plough our land in winter? + +Soc. It would not do. There would be too much mud. + +Isch. Well then, what would you say to summer? + +Soc. The soil will be too hard in summer for a plough and a pair of oxen +to break up. + +Isch. It looks as if spring-time were the season to begin this work, +then? What do you say? + +Soc. I say, one may expect the soil broken up at that season of the year +to crumble [12] best. + + [12] {kheisthai} = laxari, dissolvi, to be most friable, to scatter + readily. + +Isch. Yes, and grasses [13] turned over at that season, Socrates, serve +to supply the soil already with manure; while as they have not shed +their seed as yet, they cannot vegetate. [14] I am supposing that you +recognise a further fact: to form good land, a fallow must be clean and +clear of undergrowth and weeds, [15] and baked as much as possible by +exposure to the sun. [16] + + [13] "Herbage," whether grass or other plants, "grass," "clover," etc; + Theophr. "Hist. Pl." i. 3. 1; Holden, "green crops." + + [14] Lit. "and not as yet have shed their seed so as to spring into + blade." + + [15] Or, "quitch." + + [16] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." i. 65, coquat; ii. 260, excoquere. So + Lucr. vi. 962. + +Soc. Yes, that is quite a proper state of things, I should imagine. + +Isch. And to bring about this proper state of things, do you maintain +there can be any other better system than that of turning the soil over +as many times as possible in summer? + +Soc. On the contrary, I know precisely that for either object, whether +to bring the weeds and quitch grass to the surface and to wither them by +scorching heat, or to expose the earth itself to the sun's baking rays, +there can be nothing better than to plough the soil up with a pair of +oxen during mid-day in midsummer. + +Isch. And if a gang of men set to, to break and make this fallow with +the mattock, it is transparent that their business is to separate the +quitch grass from the soil and keep them parted? + +Soc. Just so!--to throw the quitch grass down to wither on the surface, +and to turn the soil up, so that the crude earth may have its turn of +baking. + + + +XVII + +You see, Socrates (he said, continuing the conversation), we hold the +same opinion, both of us, concerning fallow. + +Why, so it seems (I said)--the same opinion. + +Isch. But when it comes to sowing, what is your opinion? Can you suggest +a better time for sowing than that which the long experience of former +generations, combined with that of men now living, recognises as +the best? See, so soon as autumn time has come, the faces of all men +everywhere turn with a wistful gaze towards high heaven. "When will God +moisten the earth," they ask, "and suffer men to sow their seed?" [1] + + [1] See Dr. Holden's interesting note at this point: "According to + Virgil ('Georg.' i. 215), spring is the time," etc. + +Yes, Ischomachus (I answered), for all mankind must recognise the +precept: [2] "Sow not on dry soil" (if it can be avoided), being taught +wisdom doubtless by the heavy losses they must struggle with who sow +before God's bidding. + + [2] Or, "it is a maxim held of all men." + +Isch. It seems, then, you and I and all mankind hold one opinion on +these matters? + +Soc. Why, yes; where God himself is teacher, such accord is apt to +follow; for instance, all men are agreed, it is better to wear thick +clothes [3] in winter, if so be they can. We light fires by general +consent, provided we have logs to burn. + + [3] Or, "a thick cloak." See Rich, s.v. Pallium (= {imation}). + +Yet as regards this very period of seed-time (he made answer), Socrates, +we find at once the widest difference of opinion upon one point; as to +which is better, the early, or the later, [4] or the middle sowing? + + [4] See Holden ad loc. Sauppe, "Lex. Xen.," notes {opsimos} as Ionic + and poet. See also Rutherford, "New Phryn." p. 124: "First met + with in a line of the 'Iliad' (ii. 325), {opsimos} does not appear + till late Greek except in the 'Oeconomicus,' a disputed work of + Xenophon." + +Soc. Just so, for neither does God guide the year in one set fashion, +but irregularly, now suiting it to early sowing best, and now to middle, +and again to later. + +Isch. But what, Socrates, is your opinion? Were it better for a man to +choose and turn to sole account a single sowing season, be it much he +has to sow or be it little? or would you have him begin his sowing with +the earliest season, and sow right on continuously until the latest? + +And I, in my turn, answered: I should think it best, Ischomachus, to use +indifferently the whole sowing season. [5] Far better [6] to have enough +of corn and meal at any moment and from year to year, than first a +superfluity and then perhaps a scant supply. + + [5] Or, "share in the entire period of seed time." Zeune cf. "Geop." + ii. 14. 8; Mr. Ruskin's translators, "Bibl. Past." vol. i.; cf. + Eccles. xi. 6. + + [6] Lit. "according to my tenet," {nomizo}. + +Isch. Then, on this point also, Socrates, you hold a like opinion with +myself--the pupil to the teacher; and what is more, the pupil was the +first to give it utterance. + +So far, so good! (I answered). Is there a subtle art in scattering the +seed? + +Isch. Let us by all means investigate that point. That the seed must be +cast by hand, I presume you know yourself? + +Soc. Yes, by the testimony of my eyes. [7] + + [7] Lit. "Yes, for I have seen it done." + +Isch. But as to actual scattering, some can scatter evenly, others +cannot. [8] + + [8] Holden cf. W. Harte, "Essays on Husbandry," p. 210, 2nd ed., "The + main perfection of sowing is to disperse the seeds equally." + +Soc. Does it not come to this, the hand needs practice (like the fingers +of a harp-player) to obey the will? + +Isch. Precisely so, but now suppose the soil is light in one part and +heavy in another? + +Soc. I do not follow; by "light" do you mean weak? and by "heavy" +strong? + +Isch. Yes, that is what I mean. And the question which I put to you +is this: Would you allow both sorts of soil an equal share of seed? or +which the larger? [9] + + [9] See Theophr. "Hist. Pl." viii. 6. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 275. + Holden cf. Adam Dickson, "Husbandry of the Ancients," vol. ii. 35. + 33 f. (Edin. 1788), "Were the poor light land in Britain managed + after the manner of the Roman husbandry, it would certainly + require much less seed than under its present management." + +Soc. The stronger the wine the larger the dose of water to be added, I +believe. The stronger, too, the man the heavier the weight we will +lay upon his back to carry: or if it is not porterage, but people to +support, there still my tenet holds: the broader and more powerful the +great man's shoulders, the more mouths I should assign to him to feed. +But perhaps a weak soil, like a lean pack-horse, [10] grows stronger the +more corn you pour into it. This I look to you to teach me. [11] + + [10] Or, "lean cattle." + + [11] Or, "Will you please answer me that question, teacher?" + +With a laugh, he answered: Once more you are pleased to jest. Yet rest +assured of one thing, Socrates: if after you have put seed into the +ground, you will await the instant when, while earth is being richly +fed from heaven, the fresh green from the hidden seed first springs, and +take and turn it back again, [12] this sprouting germ will serve as food +for earth: as from manure an inborn strength will presently be added to +the soil. But if you suffer earth to feed the seed of corn within it and +to bring forth fruit in an endless round, at last [13] it will be hard +for the weakened soil to yield large corn crops, even as a weak sow can +hardly rear a large litter of fat pigs. + + [12] "If you will plough the seedlings in again." + + [13] {dia telous... es telos}, "continually... in the end." See + references in Holden's fifth edition. + +Soc. I understand you to say, Ischomachus, that the weaker soil must +receive a scantier dose of seed? + +Isch. Most decidedly I do, and you on your side, Socrates, I understand, +give your consent to this opinion in stating your belief that the weaker +the shoulders the lighter the burdens to be laid on them. + +Soc. But those hoers with their hoes, Ischomachus, tell me for what +reason you let them loose [14] upon the corn. + + [14] Cf. "Revenues," iv. 5. + +Isch. You know, I daresay, that in winter there are heavy rains? [15] + + [15] "And melting snows, much water every way." + +Soc. To be sure, I do. + +Isch. We may suppose, then, that a portion of the corn is buried by +these floods beneath a coat of mud and slime, or else that the roots are +laid quite bare in places by the torrent. By reason of this same drench, +I take it, oftentimes an undergrowth of weeds springs up with the corn +and chokes it. + +Soc. Yes, all these ills are likely enough to happen. + +Isch. Are you not agreed the corn-fields sorely need relief at such a +season? + +Soc. Assuredly. + +Isch. Then what is to be done, in your opinion? How shall we aid the +stricken portion lying mud-bedabbled? + +Soc. How better than by lifting up and lightening the soil? + +Isch. Yes! and that other portion lying naked to the roots and +defenceless, how aid it? + +Soc. Possibly by mounding up fresh earth about it. [16] + + [16] "Scraping up a barrier of fresh earth about it." + +Isch. And what when the weeds spring up together with the corn and choke +it? or when they rob and ruthlessly devour the corn's proper sustenance, +like unserviceable drones [17] that rob the working bees of honey, +pilfering the good food which they have made and stored away with +labour: what must we do? + + [17] Cf. Shakesp. "Lazy yawning drones," "Henry V." I. ii. 204. + +Soc. In good sooth, there can be nothing for it save to cut out the +noisome weed, even as drones are cleared out from the hive. + +Isch. You agree there is some show of reason for letting in these gangs +of hoers? + +Soc. Most true. And now I am turning over in my mind, [18] Ischomachus, +how grand a thing it is to introduce a simile or such like figure well +and aptly. No sooner had you mentioned the word "drones" than I was +filled with rage against those miserable weeds, far more than when you +merely spoke of weeds and undergrowth. + + [18] Or, "I was just this moment pondering the virtue of a happy + illustration." Lit. "what a thing it is to introduce an 'image' + ({tas eikonas}) well." See Plat. "Rep." 487 E, {de eikonos}, "in a + parable" (Jowett); "Phaed." 87 B, "a figure"; Aristoph. "Clouds," + 559; Plat. "Phaedr." 267 C; Aristot. "Rhet." III. iv. As to the + drones, J. J. Hartman, "An. X." 186, aptly cf. Aristoph. "Wasps," + 1114 f. + + + +XVIII + +But, not to interrupt you further (I continued), after sowing, naturally +we hope to come to reaping. If, therefore, you have anything to say on +that head also, pray proceed to teach me. + +Isch. Yes, by all means, unless indeed you prove on this head also to +know as much yourself already as your teacher. To begin then: You know +that corn needs cutting? + +Soc. To be sure, I know that much at any rate. + +Isch. Well, then, the next point: in the act of cutting corn how will +you choose to stand? facing the way the wind blows, [1] or against the +wind? + + [1] Lit. "(on the side) where the wind blows or right opposite." + +Soc. Not against the wind, for my part. Eyes and hands must suffer, I +imagine, if one stood reaping face to face with husks and particles of +straw. [2] + + [2] i.e. "with particles of straw and beards of corn blowing in one's + face." + +Isch. And should you merely sever the ears at top, or reap close to the +ground? [3] + + [3] See Holden ad loc.; Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, "Husbandry," 27 (ed. + 1767), "In Somersetshire... they do share theyr wheate very + lowe...." + +If the stalk of corn were short (I answered), I should cut down close, +to secure a sufficient length of straw to be of use. But if the stalk be +tall, you would do right, I hold, to cut it half-way down, whereby the +thresher and the winnower will be saved some extra labour (which both +may well be spared). [4] The stalk left standing in the field, when +burnt down (as burnt it will be, I presume), will help to benefit the +soil; [5] and laid on as manure, will serve to swell the volume of +manure. [6] + + [4] Lit. "will be spared superfluous labour on what they do not want." + + [5] Al. "if burnt down...; if laid on as manure..." + + [6] "Help to swell the bulk" (Holden). For the custom see Virg. + "Georg." i. 84; J. Tull, op. cit. ix. 141: "The custom of burning + the stubble on the rich plains about Rome continues to this time." + +Isch. There, Socrates, you are detected "in the very act"; you know as +much about reaping as I do myself. + +It looks a little like it (I replied). But I would fain discover whether +I have sound knowledge also about threshing. + +Isch. Well, I suppose you are aware of this much: corn is threshed by +beasts of burthen? [7] + + [7] Holden cf. Dr. Davy, "Notes and Observations on the Ionian + Islands." "The grain is beaten out, commonly in the harvest field, + by men, horses, or mules, on a threshing-floor prepared extempore + for the purpose, where the ground is firm and dry, and the chaff + is separated by winnowing."--Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," ii. + 41 foll. + +Soc. Yes, I am aware of that much, and beast of burthen is a general +name including oxen, horses, mules, and so forth. [8] + + [8] See Varro, i. 52, as to tritura and ventilatio. + +Isch. Is it your opinion that these animals know more than merely how to +tread the corn while driven with the goad? + +Soc. What more can they know, being beasts of burthen? + +Isch. Some one must see, then, that the beasts tread out only what +requires threshing and no more, and that the threshing is done evenly +itself: to whom do you assign that duty, Socrates? + +Soc. Clearly it is the duty of the threshers who are in charge. [9] It +is theirs to turn the sheaves, and ever and again to push the untrodden +corn under the creatures' feet; and thus, of course, to keep the +threshing-floor as smooth, and finish off the work as fast, as possible. + + [9] Or, "to the over-threshers," "the drivers" (Holden). + +Isch. Your comprehension of the facts thus far, it seems, keeps pace +with mine. + +Soc. Well, after that, Ischomachus, we will proceed to cleanse the corn +by winnowing. [10] + + [10] Breit. cf. Colum. "de r. r." ii. 10, 14, 21; vide Rich, s.v. + ventilabrum. + +Isch. Yes, but tell me, Socrates; do you know that if you begin the +process from the windward portion (of the threshing-floor), you will +find your chaff is carried over the whole area. + +Soc. It must be so. + +Isch. Then it is more than likely the chaff will fall upon the corn. + +Soc. Yes, considering the distance, [11] the chaff will hardly be +carried across the corn into the empty portion of the threshing-floor. + + [11] Lit. "it is a long space for the chaff to be carried." Al. (1) + "It is of great consequence the chaff should be carried beyond the + corn." (2) "It often happens that the corn is blown not only on to + the corn, but over and beyond it into the empty portion of the + threshing-floor." So Breit. + +Isch. But now, suppose you begin winnowing on the "lee" side of the +threshing-floor? [12] + + [12] Or, "on the side of the threshing-floor opposite the wind." Al. + "protected from the wind." + +Soc. It is clear the chaff will at once fall into the chaff-receiver. +[13] + + [13] A hollowed-out portion of the threshing-floor, according to + Breitenbach. + +Isch. And when you have cleansed the corn over half the floor, will you +proceed at once, with the corn thus strewn in front of you, to winnow +the remainder, [14] or will you first pack the clean grain into the +narrowest space against the central pillar? [15] + + [14] Lit. "of the chaff," where we should say "corn," the winnowing + process separating chaff from grain and grain from chaff. + + [15] If that is the meaning of {ton polon}. Al. "the outer edge or rim + of the threshing-floor." + +Soc. Yes, upon my word! first pack together the clean grain, and +proceed. My chaff will now be carried into the empty portion of the +floor, and I shall escape the need of winnowing twice over. [16] + + [16] Or, "the same chaff (i.e. unwinnowed corn, Angl. corn) twice." + +Isch. Really, Socrates, you are fully competent yourself, it seems, to +teach an ignorant world [17] the speediest mode of winnowing. + + [17] Lit. "After all, Socrates, it seems you could even teach another + how to purge his corn most expeditiously." + +Soc. It seems, then, as you say, I must have known about these matters, +though unconsciously; and here I stand and beat my brains, [18] +reflecting whether or not I may not know some other things--how to +refine gold and play the flute and paint pictures--without being +conscious of the fact. Certainly, as far as teaching goes, no one ever +taught me these, no more than husbandry; while, as to using my own eyes, +I have watched men working at the other arts no less than I have watched +them till the soil. + + [18] Lit. "all this while, I am thinking whether..." + +Isch. Did I not tell you long ago that of all arts husbandry was the +noblest, the most generous, just because it is the easiest to learn? + +Soc. That it is without a doubt, Ischomachus. It seems I must have known +the processes of sowing, without being conscious of my knowledge. [19] + + [19] Or, "but for all my science, I was ignorant (of knowing my own + knowledge)." + + + +XIX + +Soc. (continuing). But may I ask, is the planting of trees [1] a +department in the art of husbandry? + + [1] i.e. of fruit trees, the vine, olive, fig, etc. + +Isch. Certainly it is. + +Soc. How is it, then, that I can know about the processes of sowing and +at the same time have no knowledge about planting? + +Isch. Is it so certain that you have no knowledge? + +Soc. How can you ask me? when I neither know the sort of soil in which +to plant, nor yet the depth of hole [2] the plant requires, nor the +breadth, or length of ground in which it needs to be embedded; [3] nor +lastly, how to lay the plant in earth, with any hope of fostering its +growth. [4] + + [2] Reading {to phuto}, "nor yet how deep or broad to sink (the hole) + for the plant." Holden (ed. 1886) supplies {bothunon}. Al. + {bothron}. + + [3] See Loudon, "Encycl. of Agric." S. 407, ap. Holden: "In France + plantations of the vine are made by dibbling in cuttings of two + feet of length; pressing the earth firmly to their lower end, an + essential part of the operation, noticed even by Xenophon." + + [4] Lit. "how, laid in the soil, the plant will best shoot forth or + grow." + +Isch. Come, then, to lessons, pupil, and be taught whatever you do not +know already! You have seen, I know, the sort of trenches which are dug +for plants? + +Soc. Hundreds of times. + +Isch. Did you ever see one more than three feet deep? + +Soc. No, I do not think I ever saw one more than two and a half feet +deep. + +Isch. Well, as to the breadth now. Did you ever see a trench more than +three feet broad? [5] + + [5] Or, "width," "wide." The commentators cf. Plin. "H. N." xvii. 11, + 16, 22; Columell. v. 5. 2; ib. iii. 15. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 288. + +Soc. No, upon my word, not even more than two feet broad. + +Isch. Good! now answer me this question: Did you ever see a trench less +than one foot deep? + +Soc. No, indeed! nor even less than one foot and a half. Why, the plants +would be no sooner buried than dug out again, if planted so extremely +near the surface. + +Isch. Here, then, is one matter, Socrates, which you know as well as any +one. [6] The trench is not to be sunk deeper than two feet and a half, +or shallower than one foot and a half. + + [6] Lit. "quite adequately." + +Soc. Obviously, a thing so plain appeals to the eye at once. + +Isch. Can you by eyesight recognise the difference between a dry soil +and a moist? + +Soc. I should certainly select as dry the soil round Lycabettus, [7] and +any that resembles it; and as moist, the soil in the marsh meadows of +Phalerum, [8] or the like. + + [7] See Leake, "Topog. of Athens," i. 209. + + [8] Or, "the Phaleric marsh-land." See Leake, ib. 231, 427; ii. 9. + +Isch. In planting, would you dig (what I may call) deep trenches in a +dry soil or a moist? + +Soc. In a dry soil certainly; at any rate, if you set about to dig deep +trenches in the moist you will come to water, and there and then an end +to further planting. + +Isch. You could not put it better. We will suppose, then, the trenches +have been dug. Does your eyesight take you further? [9] Have you noticed +at what season in either case [10] the plants must be embedded? + + [9] Lit. "As soon as the trenches have been dug then, have you further + noticed..." + + [10] (1) The vulg. reading {openika... ekatera} = "at what precise + time... either (i.e. 'the two different' kinds of) plant," i.e. + "vine and olive" or "vine and fig," I suppose; (2) Breit. emend. + {opotera... en ekatera} = "which kind of plant... in either + soil..."; (3) Schenkl. etc., {openika... en ekatera} = "at + what season... in each of the two sorts of soil..." + +Soc. Certainly. [11] + + [11] There is an obvious lacuna either before or after this remark, or + at both places. + +Isch. Supposing, then, you wish the plants to grow as fast as +possible: how will the cutting strike and sprout, do you suppose, most +readily?--after you have laid a layer of soil already worked beneath it, +and it merely has to penetrate soft mould? or when it has to force its +way through unbroken soil into the solid ground? + +Soc. Clearly it will shoot through soil which has been worked more +quickly than through unworked soil. + +Isch. Well then, a bed of earth must be laid beneath the plant? + +Soc. I quite agree; so let it be. + +Isch. And how do you expect your cutting to root best?--if set straight +up from end to end, pointing to the sky? [12] or if you set it slantwise +under its earthy covering, so as to lie like an inverted gamma? [13] + + [12] Lit. "if you set the whole cutting straight up, facing + heavenwards." + + [13] i.e. Anglice, "like the letter {G} upon its back" {an inverted + "upper-case" gamma looks like an L}. See Lord Bacon, "Nat. Hist." + Cent. v. 426: "When you would have many new roots of fruit-trees, + take a low tree and bow it and lay all his branches aflat upon the + ground and cast earth upon them; and every twig will take root. + And this is a very profitable experiment for costly trees (for the + boughs will make stock without charge), such as are apricots, + peaches, almonds, cornelians, mulberries, figs, etc. The like is + continually practised with vines, roses, musk roses, etc." + +Soc. Like an inverted gamma, to be sure, for so the plant must needs +have more eyes under ground. Now it is from these same eyes of theirs, +if I may trust my own, [14] that plants put forth their shoots above +ground. I imagine, therefore, the eyes still underground will do the +same precisely, and with so many buds all springing under earth, the +plant itself, I argue, as a whole will sprout and shoot and push its way +with speed and vigour. + + [14] Lit. "it is from their eyes, I see, that plants..." + +Isch. I may tell you that on these points, too, your judgment tallies +with my own. But now, should you content yourself with merely heaping up +the earth, or will you press it firmly round your plant? + +Soc. I should certainly press down the earth; for if the earth is not +pressed down, I know full well that at one time under the influence of +rain the unpressed soil will turn to clay or mud; at another, under the +influence of the sun, it will turn to sand or dust to the very bottom: +so that the poor plant runs a risk of being first rotted with moisture +by the rain, and next of being shrivelled up with drought through +overheating of the roots. [15] + + [15] Through "there being too much bottom heat." Holden (ed. 1886). + +Isch. So far as the planting of vines is concerned, it appears, +Socrates, that you and I again hold views precisely similar. + +And does this method of planting apply also to the fig-tree? (I +inquired). + +Isch. Surely, and not to the fig-tree alone, but to all the rest of +fruit-trees. [16] What reason indeed would there be for rejecting in the +case of other plant-growths [17] what is found to answer so well with +the vine? + + [16] {akrodrua} = "edible fruits" in Xenophon's time. See Plat. + "Criti." 115 B; Dem. "c. Nicostr." 1251; Aristot. "Hist. An." + viii. 28. 8, {out akrodrua out opora khronios}; Theophr. "H. Pl." + iv. 4. 11. (At a later period, see "Geopon." x. 74, = "fruits + having a hard rind or shell," e.g. nuts, acorns, as opposed to + pears, apples, grapes, etc., {opora}.) See further the interesting + regulations in Plat. "Laws," 844 D, 845 C. + + [17] Lit. "planting in general." + +Soc. How shall we plant the olive, pray, Ischomachus? + +Isch. I see your purpose. You ask that question with a view to put me +to the test, [18] when you know the answer yourself as well as possible. +You can see with your own eyes [19] that the olive has a deeper trench +dug, planted as it is so commonly by the side of roads. You can see that +all the young plants in the nursery adhere to stumps. [20] And lastly, +you can see that a lump of clay is placed on the head of every plant, +[21] and the portion of the plant above the soil is protected by a +wrapping. [22] + + [18] Plat. "Prot." 311 B, 349 C; "Theaet." 157 C: "I cannot make out + whether you are giving your own opinion, or only wanting to draw + me out" (Jowett). + + [19] For the advantage, see "Geopon." iii. 11. 2. + + [20] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." ii. 30-- + +quin et caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu, truditur e sicco radix +oleagina ligno. + +The stock in slices cut, and forth shall shoot, O passing strange! from +each dry slice a root (Holden). + +See John Martyn ad loc.: "La Cerda says, that what the Poet here speaks +of was practised in Spain in his time. They take the trunk of an olive, +says he, deprive it of its root and branches, and cut it into several +pieces, which they put into the ground, whence a root and, soon +afterwards, a tree is formed." This mode of propagating by dry pieces +of the trunk (with bark on) is not to be confounded with that of +"truncheons" mentioned in "Georg." ii. 63. + + [21] See Theophr. "H. Pl." ii. 2, 4; "de Caus." iii. 5. 1; "Geopon." + ix. 11. 4, ap. Hold.; Col. v. 9. 1; xi. 2. 42. + + [22] Or, "covered up for protection." + +Soc. Yes, all these things I see. + +Isch. Granted, you see: what is there in the matter that you do not +understand? Perhaps you are ignorant how you are to lay the potsherd on +the clay at top? + +Soc. No, in very sooth, not ignorant of that Ischomachus, or anything +you mentioned. That is just the puzzle, and again I beat my brains to +discover why, when you put to me that question a while back: "Had I, in +brief, the knowledge how to plant?" I answered, "No." Till then it never +would have struck me that I could say at all how planting must be done. +But no sooner do you begin to question me on each particular point +than I can answer you; and what is more, my answers are, you tell me, +accordant with the views of an authority [23] at once so skilful and so +celebrated as yourself. Really, Ischomachus, I am disposed to ask: "Does +teaching consist in putting questions?" [24] Indeed, the secret of your +system has just this instant dawned upon me. I seem to see the principle +in which you put your questions. You lead me through the field of my own +knowledge, [25] and then by pointing out analogies [26] to what I +know, persuade me that I really know some things which hitherto, as I +believed, I had no knowledge of. + + [23] Or, "whose skill in farming is proverbial." + + [24] Lit. "Is questioning after all a kind of teaching?" See Plat. + "Meno"; "Mem." IV. vi. 15. + + [25] It appears, then, that the Xenophontean Socrates has {episteme} + of a sort. + + [26] Or, "a series of resemblances," "close parallels," reading + {epideiknus}: or if with Breit. {apodeiknus}, transl. "by proving + such or such a thing is like some other thing known to me + already." + +Isch. Do you suppose if I began to question you concerning money and its +quality, [27] I could possibly persuade you that you know the method to +distinguish good from false coin? Or could I, by a string of questions +about flute-players, painters, and the like, induce you to believe that +you yourself know how to play the flute, or paint, and so forth? + + [27] Lit. "whether it is good or not." + +Soc. Perhaps you might; for have you not persuaded me I am possessed of +perfect knowledge of this art of husbandry, [28] albeit I know that no +one ever taught this art to me? + + [28] Or, "since you actually succeeded in persuading me I was + scientifically versed in," etc. See Plat. "Statesm." 301 B; + "Theaet." 208 E; Aristot. "An. Post." i. 6. 4; "Categ." 8. 41. + +Isch. Ah! that is not the explanation, Socrates. The truth is what +I told you long ago and kept on telling you. Husbandry is an art so +gentle, so humane, that mistress-like she makes all those who look on +her or listen to her voice intelligent [29] of herself at once. Many +a lesson does she herself impart how best to try conclusions with her. +[30] See, for instance, how the vine, making a ladder of the nearest +tree whereon to climb, informs us that it needs support. [31] Anon it +spreads its leaves when, as it seems to say, "My grapes are young, my +clusters tender," and so teaches us, during that season, to screen and +shade the parts exposed to the sun's rays; but when the appointed moment +comes, when now it is time for the swelling clusters to be sweetened +by the sun, behold, it drops a leaf and then a leaf, so teaching us to +strip it bare itself and let the vintage ripen. With plenty teeming, see +the fertile mother shows her mellow clusters, and the while is nursing +a new brood in primal crudeness. [32] So the vine plant teaches us how +best to gather in the vintage, even as men gather figs, the juiciest +first. [33] + + [29] Or, "gives them at once a perfect knowledge of herself." + + [30] Lit. "best to deal with her," "make use of her." + + [31] Lit. "teaches us to prop it." + + [32] Lit. "yet immature." + + [33] Or, "first one and then another as it swells." Cf. Shakespeare: + +The mellow plum doth fall, the green sticks fast, Or being early pluck'd +is sour to taste ("V. and A." 527). + + + +XX + +At this point in the conversation I remarked: Tell me, Ischomachus, +if the details of the art of husbandry are thus easy to learn, and all +alike know what needs to be done, how does it happen that all farmers +do not fare like, but some live in affluence owning more than they +can possibly enjoy, while others of them fail to obtain the barest +necessities and actually run into debt? + +I will tell you, Socrates (Ischomachus replied). It is neither knowledge +nor lack of knowledge in these husbandmen which causes some to be well +off, while others are in difficulties; nor will you ever hear such tales +afloat as that this or that estate has gone to ruin because the sower +failed to sow evenly, or that the planter failed to plant straight rows +of plants, or that such an one, [1] being ignorant what soil was best +suited to bear vines, had set his plants in sterile ground, or that +another [2] was in ignorance that fallow must be broken up for purposes +of sowing, or that a third [3] was not aware that it is good to mix +manure in with the soil. No, you are much more likely to hear said of +So-and-so: No wonder the man gets in no wheat from his farm, when he +takes no pains to have it sown or properly manured. Or of some other +that he grows no wine: Of course not, when he takes no pains either to +plant new vines or to make those he has bear fruit. A third has neither +figs nor olives; and again the self-same reason: He too is careless, and +takes no steps whatever to succeed in growing either one or other. These +are the distinctions which make all the difference to prosperity in +farming, far more than the reputed discovery of any clever agricultural +method or machine. [4] + + [1] "Squire This." + + [2] "Squire That." + + [3] "Squire T'other." + + [4] There is something amiss with the text at this point. For + emendations see Breit., Schenkl, Holden, Hartman. + +You will find the principle applies elsewhere. There are points of +strategic conduct in which generals differ from each other for the +better or the worse, not because they differ in respect of wit or +judgment, but of carefulness undoubtedly. I speak of things within the +cognisance of every general, and indeed of almost every private soldier, +which some commanders are careful to perform and others not. Who does +not know, for instance, that in marching through a hostile territory +an army ought to march in the order best adapted to deliver battle with +effect should need arise? [5]--a golden rule which, punctually obeyed +by some, is disobeyed by others. Again, as all the world knows, it is +better to place day and night pickets [6] in front of an encampment. Yet +even that is a procedure which, carefully observed at times, is at times +as carelessly neglected. Once more: not one man in ten thousand, [7] +I suppose, but knows that when a force is marching through a narrow +defile, the safer method is to occupy beforehand certain points of +vantage. [8] Yet this precaution also has been known to be neglected. + + [5] See Thuc. ii. 81: "The Hellenic troops maintained order on the + march and kept a look-out until..."--Jowett. + + [6] See "Cyrop." I. vi. 43. + + [7] Lit. "it would be hard to find the man who did not know." + + [8] Or, "to seize advantageous positions in advance." Cf. "Hiero," x. + 5. + +Similarly, every one will tell you that manure is the best thing in +the world for agriculture, and every one can see how naturally it is +produced. Still, though the method of production is accurately known, +though there is every facility to get it in abundance, the fact remains +that, while one man takes pains to have manure collected, another is +entirely neglectful. And yet God sends us rain from heaven, and every +hollow place becomes a standing pool, while earth supplies materials of +every kind; the sower, too, about to sow must cleanse the soil, and what +he takes as refuse from it needs only to be thrown into water and time +itself will do the rest, shaping all to gladden earth. [9] For matter +in every shape, nay earth itself, [10] in stagnant water turns to fine +manure. + + [9] Lit. "Time itself will make that wherein Earth rejoices." + + [10] i.e. "each fallen leaf, each sprig or spray of undergrowth, the + very weeds, each clod." Lit. "what kind of material, what kind of + soil does not become manure when thrown into stagnant water?" + +So, again, as touching the various ways in which the earth itself needs +treatment, either as being too moist for sowing, or too salt [11] for +planting, these and the processes of cure are known to all men: how +in one case the superfluous water is drawn off by trenches, and in the +other the salt corrected by being mixed with various non-salt bodies, +moist or dry. Yet here again, in spite of knowledge, some are careful of +these matters, others negligent. + + [11] See Anatol. "Geop." ii. 10. 9; Theophr. "de Caus." ii. 5. 4, 16. + 8, ap. Holden. Cf. Virg. "Georg." ii. 238: + +salsa autem tellus, et quae perhibetur amara frugibus infelix. + +But even if a man were altogether ignorant what earth can yield, were he +debarred from seeing any fruit or plant, prevented hearing from the +lips of any one the truth about this earth: even so, I put it to you, it +would be easier far for any living soul to make experiments on a piece +of land, [12] than on a horse, for instance, or on his fellow-man. For +there is nought which earth displays with intent to deceive, but in +clear and simple language stamped with the seal of truth she informs +us what she can and cannot do. [13] Thus it has ever seemed to me that +earth is the best discoverer of true honesty, [14] in that she offers +all her stores of knowledge in a shape accessible to the learner, so +that he who runs may read. Here it is not open to the sluggard, as in +other arts, to put forward the plea of ignorance or lack of knowledge, +for all men know that earth, if kindly treated, will repay in kind. +No! there is no witness [15] against a coward soul so clear as that of +husbandry; [16] since no man ever yet persuaded himself that he could +live without the staff of life. He therefore that is unskilled in other +money-making arts and will not dig, shows plainly he is minded to make +his living by picking and stealing, or by begging alms, or else he +writes himself down a very fool. [17] + + [12] Or, "this fair earth herself." + + [13] Or, "earth our mother reveals her powers and her impotence." + + [14] Lit. "of the good and the bad." Cf. Dem. "adv. Phorm." 918. 18. + + [15] Lit. "no accuser of." Cf. Aesch. "Theb." 439. + + [16] Reading, with Sauppe, {all' e georgia}, or if, with Jacobs, {e en + georgia argia}, transl. "as that of idleness in husbandry." + + [17] Or, "if not, he must be entirely irrational." Cf. Plat. "Apol." + 37 C. + +Presently, Ischomachus proceeded: Now it is of prime importance, [18] in +reference to the profitableness or unprofitableness of agriculture, even +on a large estate where there are numerous [19] workfolk, [20] whether a +man takes any pains at all to see that his labourers are devoted to the +work on hand during the appointed time, [21] or whether he neglects that +duty. Since one man will fairly distance ten [22] simply by working at +the time, and another may as easily fall short by leaving off before the +hour. [23] In fact, to let the fellows take things easily the whole day +through will make a difference easily of half in the whole work. [24] + + [18] Lit. "it made a great difference, he said, with regard to profit + and loss in agriculture." + + [19] Or if, after Hertlein, adding {kai meionon}, transl. "workmen now + more, now less, in number." + + [20] {ergasteron}, "poet." L. & S. cf. "Orph. H." 65. 4. See above, v. + 15; xiii. 10. + + [21] Cf. Herod. II. ii. 2. + + [22] Or, "Why! one man in ten makes all the difference by..." + {para} = "by comparison with." + + [23] Reading as vulg., or if {to me pro k.t.l.} transl. "by not + leaving off, etc." + + [24] i.e. "is a difference of fifty per cent on the whole work." + +As, on a walking-expedition, it may happen, of two wayfarers, the +one will gain in pace upon the other half the distance say in every +five-and-twenty miles, [25] though both alike are young and hale of +body. The one, in fact, is bent on compassing the work on which he +started, he steps out gaily and unflinchingly; the other, more slack in +spirit, stops to recruit himself and contemplate the view by fountain +side and shady nook, as though his object were to court each gentle +zephyr. So in farm work; there is a vast difference as regards +performance between those who do it not, but seek excuse for idleness +and are suffered to be listless. Thus, between good honest work and base +neglect there is as great a difference as there is between--what shall I +say?--why, work and idleness. [26] The gardeners, look, are hoeing vines +to keep them clean and free of weeds; but they hoe so sorrily that the +loose stuff grows ranker and more plentiful. Can you call that [27] +anything but idleness? + + [25] Lit. "per 200 stades." + + [26] Or, "wholly to work and wholly to be idle." Reading as Sauppe, + etc., or if with Holden, etc., {to de de kalos kai to kakos + ergazesthai e epimeleisthai}, transl. "between toil and + carefulness well or ill expended there lies all the difference; + the two things are sundered as wide apart as are the poles of work + and play," etc. A. Jacobs' emend. ap. Hartm. "An. Xen." p. 211, + {to de de kakos ergazesthai e kakos epimeleisthai kei to kalos}, + seems happy. + + [27] Or, "such a hoer aught but an idle loon." + +Such, Socrates, are the ills which cause a house to crumble far more +than lack of scientific knowledge, however rude it be. [28] For if +you will consider; on the one hand, there is a steady outflow [29] of +expenses from the house, and, on the other, a lack of profitable works +outside to meet expenses; need you longer wonder if the field-works +create a deficit and not a surplus? In proof, however, that the man who +can give the requisite heed, while straining every nerve in the pursuit +of agriculture, has speedy [30] and effective means of making money, I +may cite the instance of my father, who had practised what he preached. +[31] + + [28] Cf. Thuc. v. 7; Plat. "Rep." 350 A; "Theaet." 200 B. + + [29] Or, "the expenses from the house are going on at the full rate," + {enteleis}. Holden cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 1367: {ton misthon + apodoso 'ntele}, "I'll have the arrears of seamen's wages paid to + a penny" (Frere). + + [30] {anutikotaten}. Cf. "Hipparch," ii. 6. + + [31] Or, "who merely taught me what he had himself carried out in + practice." + +Now, my father would never suffer me to purchase an estate already under +cultivation, but if he chanced upon a plot of land which, owing to the +neglect or incapacity of the owner, was neither tilled nor planted, [32] +nothing would satisfy him but I must purchase it. He had a saying that +estates already under cultivation cost a deal of money and allowed of +no improvement; and where there is no prospect of improvement, more than +half the pleasure to be got from the possession vanishes. The height of +happiness was, he maintained, to see your purchase, be it dead chattel +or live animal, [33] go on improving daily under your own eyes. [34] +Now, nothing shows a larger increase [35] than a piece of land reclaimed +from barren waste and bearing fruit a hundredfold. I can assure you, +Socrates, many is the farm which my father and I made worth I do not +know how many times more than its original value. And then, Socrates, +this valuable invention [36] is so easy to learn that you who have but +heard it know and understand it as well as I myself do, and can go away +and teach it to another if you choose. Yet my father did not learn it of +another, nor did he discover it by a painful mental process; [37] but, +as he has often told me, through pure love of husbandry and fondness of +toil, he would become enamoured of such a spot as I describe, [38] and +then nothing would content him but he must own it, in order to have +something to do, and at the same time, to derive pleasure along with +profit from the purchase. For you must know, Socrates, of all Athenians +I have ever heard of, my father, as it seems to me, had the greatest +love for agricultural pursuits. + + [32] i.e. out of cultivation, whether as corn land or for fruit trees, + viz. olive, fig, vine, etc. + + [33] Or, "be it a dead thing or a live pet." Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 174 + B; "Laws," 789 B, 790 D, 819 B; "C. I." 1709. + + [34] Cf. "Horsem." iii. 1; and see Cowley's Essay above referred to. + + [35] Or, "is susceptible of greater improvement." + + [36] Or, "discovery." See "Anab." III. v. 12; "Hell." IV. v. 4; + "Hunting," xiii. 13. + + [37] Or, "nor did he rack his brains to discover it." See "Mem." III. + v. 23. Cf. Aristoph. "Clouds," 102, {merimnophrontistai}, minute + philosophers. + + [38] "He could not see an estate of the sort described but he must + fall over head and ears in love with it at first sight; have it he + must." + +When I heard this, I could not resist asking a question; Ischomachus (I +said), did your father retain possession of all the farms he put under +cultivation, or did he part with them whenever he was offered a good +price? + +He parted with them, without a doubt (replied Ischomachus), but then at +once he bought another in the place of what he sold, and in every case +an untilled farm, in order to gratify his love for work. + +As you describe him (I proceeded), your father must truly have +been formed by nature with a passion for husbandry, not unlike that +corn-hunger which merchants suffer from. You know their habits: by +reason of this craving after corn, [39] whenever they hear that corn is +to be got, they go sailing off to find it, even if they must cross the +Aegean, or the Euxine, or the Sicilian seas. And when they have got as +much as ever they can get, they will not let it out of their sight, but +store it in the vessel on which they sail themselves, and off they go +across the seas again. [40] Whenever they stand in need of money, they +will not discharge their precious cargo, [41] at least not in haphazard +fashion, wherever they may chance to be; but first they find out where +corn is at the highest value, and where the inhabitants will set the +greatest store by it, and there they take and deliver the dear article. +Your father's fondness for agriculture seems to bear a certain family +resemblance to this passion. + + [39] Lit. "of their excessive love for corn." + + [40] Lit. "they carry it across the seas again, and that, too, after + having stored it in the hold of the very vessel in which they sail + themselves." + + [41] Or, "their treasure." {auton} throughout, which indeed is the + humour of the passage. The love of John Barleycorn is their master + passion. + +To these remarks Ischomachus replied: You jest, Socrates; but still I +hold to my belief: that man is fond of bricks and mortar who no sooner +has built one house than he must needs sell it and proceed to build +another. + +To be sure, Ischomachus (I answered), and for my part I assure you, upon +oath, I, Socrates, do verily and indeed believe [42] you that all men by +nature love (or hold they ought to love) those things wherebysoever they +believe they will be benefited. + + [32] Reading {e men pisteuein soi phusei (nomizein) philein tauta + pantas...}; and for the "belief" propounded with so much + humorous emphasis, see Adam Smith, "Moral Sentiments." Hartman, + "An. Xen." 180, cf. Plat. "Lysis." + + + +XXI + +After a pause, I added: I am turning over in my mind how cleverly you +have presented the whole argument to support your thesis: which was, +that of all arts the art of husbandry is the easiest to learn. And now, +as the result of all that has been stated, I am entirely persuaded that +this is so. + +Isch. Yes, Socrates, indeed it is. But I, on my side, must in turn admit +that as regards that faculty which is common alike to every kind of +conduct (tillage, or politics, the art of managing a house, or of +conducting war), the power, namely, of command [1]--I do subscribe to +your opinion, that on this score one set of people differ largely +from another both in point of wit and judgement. On a ship of war, for +instance, [2] the ship is on the high seas, and the crew must row whole +days together to reach moorings. [3] Now note the difference. Here you +may find a captain [4] able by dint of speech and conduct to whet the +souls of those he leads, and sharpen them to voluntary toils; and there +another so dull of wit and destitute of feeling that it will take his +crew just twice the time to finish the same voyage. See them step on +shore. The first ship's company are drenched in sweat; but listen, they +are loud in praise of one another, the captain and his merry men alike. +And the others? They are come at last; they have not turned a hair, the +lazy fellows, but for all that they hate their officer and by him are +hated. + + [1] See "Mem." I. i. 7. + + [2] Or, "the crew must row the livelong day..." + + [3] For an instance see "Hell." VI. ii. 27, Iphicrates' periplus. + + [4] Or, "one set of boatswains." See Thuc. ii. 84. For the duties of + the Keleustes see "Dict. Gk. Rom. Ant." s.v. portisculus; and for + the type of captain see "Hell." V. i. 3, Teleutias. + +Generals, too, will differ (he proceeded), the one sort from the other, +in this very quality. Here you have a leader who, incapable of kindling +a zest for toil and love of hairbreadth 'scapes, is apt to engender in +his followers that base spirit which neither deigns nor chooses to obey, +except under compulsion. They even pride and plume themselves, [5] the +cowards, on their opposition to their leader; this same leader who, in +the end, will make his men insensible to shame even in presence of +most foul mishap. On the other hand, put at their head another stamp of +general: one who is by right divine [6] a leader, good and brave, a +man of scientific knowledge. Let him take over to his charge those +malcontents, or others even of worse character, and he will have them +presently ashamed of doing a disgraceful deed. "It is nobler to obey" +will be their maxim. They will exult in personal obedience and in common +toil, where toil is needed, cheerily performed. For just as an unurged +zeal for voluntary service [7] may at times invade, we know, the breasts +of private soldiers, so may like love of toil with emulous longing to +achieve great deeds of valour under the eyes of their commander, be +implanted in whole armies by good officers. + + [5] Lit. "magnify themselves." See "Ages." x. 2; "Pol. Lac." viii. 2. + + [6] Or, "god-like," "with something more than human in him." See Hom. + "Il." xxiv. 259: + +{oude eokei andros ge thnetou pais emmenai alla theoio.} + +"Od." iv. 691; {theioi basilees}. Cf. Carlyle, "Heroes"; Plat. "Meno," +99 D: Soc. "And may we not, Meno, truly call those men divine who, +having no understanding, yet succeed in many a grand deed and word?" +And below: Soc. "And the women too, Meno, call good men divine; and the +Spartans, when they praise a good man, say, 'that he is a divine man'" +(Jowett). Arist. "Eth. N." vii. 1: "That virtue which transcends the +human, and which is of an heroic or godlike type, such as Priam, in the +poems of Homer, ascribes to Hector, when wishing to speak of his great +goodness: + + Not woman-born seemed he, but sprung from gods." + +And below: "And exactly as it is a rare thing to find a man of godlike +nature--to use the expression of the Spartans, 'a godlike man,' which +they apply to those whom they expressively admire--so, too, brutality is +a type of character rarely found among men" (Robert Williams). + + [7] Reading {etheloponia tis}, or if {philoponia}, transl. "just as + some strange delight in labour may quicken in the heart of many an + individual soldier." See "Anab." IV. vii. 11. + +Happy must that leader be whose followers are thus attached to him: +beyond all others he will prove a stout and strong commander. And by +strong, I mean, not one so hale of body as to tower above the stoutest +of the soldiery themselves; no, nor him whose skill to hurl a javelin +or shoot an arrow will outshine the skilfullest; nor yet that mounted +on the fleetest charger it shall be his to bear the brunt of danger +foremost amid the knightliest horsemen, the nimblest of light infantry. +No, not these, but who is able to implant a firm persuasion in the minds +of all his soldiers: follow him they must and will through fire, if need +be, or into the jaws of death. [8] + + [8] Or, "through flood and fire or other desperate strait." Cf. + "Anab." II. vi. 8. + +Lofty of soul and large of judgment [9] may he be designated justly, at +whose back there steps a multitude stirred by his sole sentiment; not +unreasonably may he be said to march "with a mighty arm," [10] to whose +will a thousand willing hands are prompt to minister; a great man in +every deed he is who can achieve great ends by resolution rather than +brute force. + + [9] See "Ages." ix. 6, "of how lofty a sentiment." + + [10] See Herod. vii. 20, 157; Thuc. iii. 96. + +So, too, within the field of private industry, the person in authority, +be it the bailiff, be it the overseer, [11] provided he is able to +produce unflinching energy, intense and eager, for the work, belongs +to those who haste to overtake good things [12] and reap great plenty. +Should the master (he proceeded), being a man possessed of so +much power, Socrates, to injure the bad workman and reward the +zealous--should he suddenly appear, and should his appearance in the +labour field produce no visible effect upon his workpeople, I cannot say +I envy or admire him. But if the sight of him is followed by a stir +of movement, if there come upon [13] each labourer fresh spirit, with +mutual rivalry and keen ambition, drawing out the finest qualities of +each, [14] of him I should say, Behold a man of kingly disposition. +And this, if I mistake not, is the quality of greatest import in every +operation which needs the instrumentality of man; but most of all, +perhaps, in agriculture. Not that I would maintain that it is a thing to +be lightly learnt by a glance of the eye, or hearsay fashion, as a tale +that is told. Far from it, I assert that he who is to have this +power has need of education; he must have at bottom a good natural +disposition; and, what is greatest of all, he must be himself a god-like +being. [15] For if I rightly understand this blessed gift, this faculty +of command over willing followers, by no means is it, in its entirety, +a merely human quality, but it is in part divine. It is a gift plainly +given to those truly initiated [16] in the mystery of self-command. +Whereas despotism over unwilling slaves, the heavenly ones give, as it +seems to me, to those whom they deem worthy to live the life of Tantalus +in Hades, of whom it is written [17] "he consumes unending days in +apprehension of a second death." + + [11] According to Sturz, "Lex." s.v., the {epitropos} is (as a rule, + see "Mem." II. viii.) a slave or freedman, the {epistates} a free + man. See "Mem." III. v. 18. + + [12] Apparently a homely formula, like "make hay whilst the sun + shines," "a stitch in time saves nine." + + [13] Cf. Hom. "Il." ix. 436, xvii. 625; "Hell." VII. i. 31. + + [14] Reading {kratiste ousa}, or if with Heindorf, {kratisteusai}, + transl. "to prove himself the best." + + [15] See "Cyrop." I. i. 3; Grote, "Plato," vol. iii. 571. + + [16] See Plat. "Phaed." 69 C; Xen. "Symp." i. 10. + + [17] Or, "it is said." See Eur. 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