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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1172 ***
+
+THE CAVALRY GENERAL
+
+By Xenophon
+
+Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+
+
+
+
+
+     Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
+     pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
+     and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
+     and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
+     years before having to move once more, to settle
+     in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
+
+
+
+     The Cavalry General is a discourse on the merits
+     a cavalry general, or hipparch, in Athens should
+     have. Xenophon also describes the development of
+     a cavalry force, and some tactical details to be
+     applied in the field and in festival exhibition.
+
+
+
+
+PREPARER'S NOTE
+
+     This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a
+     four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though
+     there is doubt about some of these) is:
+
+     Work                                   Number of books
+
+     The Anabasis                                         7
+     The Hellenica                                        7
+     The Cyropaedia                                       8
+     The Memorabilia                                      4
+     The Symposium                                        1
+     The Economist                                        1
+     On Horsemanship                                      1
+     The Sportsman                                        1
+     The Cavalry General                                  1
+     The Apology                                          1
+     On Revenues                                          1
+     The Hiero                                            1
+     The Agesilaus                                        1
+     The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians   2
+
+     Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
+     English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
+     diacritical marks have been lost.
+
+
+
+
+THE CAVALRY GENERAL
+
+
+
+
+THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH  (1)
+
+or
+
+Commander of Cavalry at Athens
+
+
+
+I
+
+Your first duty is to offer sacrifice, petitioning the gods to grant
+you such good gifts (2) as shall enable you in thought, word, and deed
+to discharge your office in the manner most acceptable to Heaven, and
+with fullest increase to yourself, and friends, and to the state at
+large of affection, glory, and wide usefulness. The goodwill of
+Heaven (3) so obtained, you shall proceed to mount your troopers,
+taking care that the full complement which the law demands is reached,
+and that the normal force of cavalry is not diminished. There will
+need to be a reserve of remounts, or else a deficiency may occur at
+any moment, (4) looking to the fact that some will certainly succumb to
+old age, and others, from one reason or another, prove unserviceable.
+
+ (1) For the title, etc., see Schneid. "Praemon. de Xeno." {Ipp}.
+    Boeckh, "P. E. A." 251.
+
+ (2) Or, "with sacrifice to ask of Heaven those gifts of thought and
+    speech and conduct whereby you will exercise your office most
+    acceptably to the gods themselves, and with..." Cf. Plat.
+    "Phaedr." 273 E; "Euthr." 14 B.
+
+ (3) The Greek phrase is warmer, {theon d' ileon onton}, "the gods
+    being kindly and propitious." Cf. Plat. "Laws," 712 B.
+
+ (4) Lit. "at any moment there will be too few." See "Les Cavaliers
+    Atheniens," par Albert Martin, p. 308.
+
+But now suppose the complement of cavalry is levied, (5) the duty will
+devolve on you of seeing, in the first place, that your horses are
+well fed and in condition to stand their work, since a horse which
+cannot endure fatigue will clearly be unable to overhaul the foeman or
+effect escape; (6) and in the second place, you will have to see to it
+the animals are tractable, since, clearly again, a horse that will not
+obey is only fighting for the enemy and not his friends. So, again, an
+animal that kicks when mounted must be cast; since brutes of that sort
+may often do more mischief than the foe himself. Lastly, you must pay
+attention to the horses' feet, and see that they will stand being
+ridden over rough ground. A horse, one knows, is practically useless
+where he cannot be galloped without suffering.
+
+ (5) Lit. "in process of being raised."
+
+ (6) Or, "to press home a charge a l'outrance, or retire from the field
+    unscathed."
+
+And now, supposing that your horses are all that they ought to be,
+like pains must be applied to train the men themselves. The trooper,
+in the first place, must be able to spring on horseback easily--a feat
+to which many a man has owed his life ere now. And next, he must be
+able to ride with freedom over every sort of ground, since any
+description of country may become the seat of war. When, presently,
+your men have got firm seats, your aim should be to make as many
+members of the corps as possible not only skilled to hurl the javelin
+from horseback with precision, but to perform all other feats expected
+of the expert horseman. Next comes the need to arm both horse and man
+in such a manner as to minimise the risk of wounds, and yet to
+increase the force of every blow delivered. (7) This attended to, you
+must contrive to make your men amenable to discipline, without which
+neither good horses, nor a firm seat, nor splendour of equipment will
+be of any use at all.
+
+ (7) Lit. "so that whilst least likely to be wounded themselves, they
+    may most be able to injure the enemy."
+
+The general of cavalry, (8) as patron of the whole department, is
+naturally responsible for its efficient working. In view, however, of
+the task imposed upon that officer had he to carry out these various
+details single-handed, the state has chosen to associate (9) with him
+certain coadjutors in the persons of the phylarchs  (or tribal
+captains), (10) and has besides imposed upon the senate a share in the
+superintendence of the cavalry. This being so, two things appear to me
+desirable; the first is, so to work upon the phylarch that he shall
+share your own enthusiasm for the honour of the corps; (11) and
+secondly, to have at your disposal in the senate able orators, (12)
+whose language may instil a wholesome fear into the knights
+themselves, and thereby make them all the better men, or tend to
+pacify the senate on occasion and disarm unseasonable anger.
+
+ (8) See "Mem." III. iii.
+
+ (9) Cf. Theophr. xxix. "The Oligarchic Man": "When the people are
+    deliberating whom they shall associate with the archon as joint
+    directors of the procession."  (Jebb.)
+
+ (10) Or, "squadron-leaders."
+
+ (11) "Honour and prestige of knighthood."
+
+ (12) "To keep a staff of orators." Cf. "Anab." VII. vi. 41; "Cyrop."
+    I. vi. 19; "Hell." VI. ii. 39.
+
+The above may serve as memoranda (13) of the duties which will claim
+your chief attention. How the details in each case may best be carried
+out is a further matter, which I will now endeavour to explain.
+
+ (13) "A sort of notes and suggestions," "mementoes." Cf.
+    "Horsemanship," iii. 1, xii. 14.
+
+As to the men themselves--the class from which you make your pick of
+troopers--clearly according to the law you are bound to enrol "the
+ablest" you can find "in point of wealth and bodily physique"; and "if
+not by persuasion, then by prosecution in a court of law." (14) And for
+my part, I think, if legal pressure is to be applied, you should apply
+it in those cases where neglect to prosecute might fairly be ascribed
+to interested motives; (15) since if you fail to put compulsion on the
+greater people first, you leave a backdoor of escape at once to those
+of humbler means. But there will be other cases; (16) say, of young men
+in whom a real enthusiasm for the service may be kindled by recounting
+to them all the brilliant feats of knighthood; while you may disarm
+the opposition of their guardians by dwelling on the fact that, if not
+you, at any rate some future hipparch will certainly compel them to
+breed horses, (17) owing to their wealth; whereas, if they enter the
+service (18) during your term of office, you will undertake to deter
+their lads from mad extravagance in buying horses, (19) and take pains
+to make good horsemen of them without loss of time; and while pleading
+in this strain, you must endeavour to make your practice correspond
+with what you preach.
+
+ (14) Lit. "by bringing them into court, or by persuasion," i.e. by
+    legal if not by moral pressure. See Martin, op. cit. pp. 316, 321
+    foll.
+
+ (15) i.e. "would cause you to be suspected of acting from motives of
+    gain."
+
+ (16) Reading {esti de kai ous}, or if as vulg. {eti de kai}, "More
+    than that, it strikes me one may work on the feelings of young
+    fellows in such a way as to disarm." See Hartmann, "An. Xen. N."
+    325.
+
+ (17) Cf. Aesch. "P. V." 474; Herod. vi. 35; Dem. 1046. 14; Thuc. vi.
+    12; Isocr. {peri tou zeugous}, 353 C. {ippotrophein d'
+    epikheiresas, o ton eudaimonestaton ergon esti.} See Prof. Jebb's
+    note to Theophr. "Ch." vi. p. 197, note 16.
+
+ (18) Lit. "if they mount."
+
+ (19) Like that of Pheidippides in the play; see Aristoph. "Clouds," 23
+    foll. And for the price of horses, ranging from 3 minas  (= L12
+    circa) for a common horse, or 12 minas  (say L50) for a good saddle
+    or race-horse, up to the extravagant sum of 13 talents  (say 3000
+    guineas) given for "Bucephalus," see Boeckh, "P. E. A."  (Eng. tr.)
+    p. 74. Cf. Isaeus, 55. 22; 88. 17; Lys. "de Maled." 133. 10; Aul.
+    Gell. "Noct. Att." v. 2.
+
+To come to the existing body of knights, (20) it would tend, (21) I
+think, to better rearing and more careful treatment of their horses if
+the senate issued a formal notice that for the future twice the amount
+of drill will be required, and that any horse unable to keep up will
+be rejected. And so, too, with regard to vicious horses, I should like
+to see an edict promulgated to the effect that all such animals will
+be rejected. This threat would stimulate the owners of such brutes to
+part with them by sale, and, what is more, to exercise discretion at
+the time of purchase. So, too, it would be a good thing if the same
+threat of rejection were made to include horses that kick on the
+exercising-grounds, since it is impossible to keep such animals in the
+ranks; and in case of an advance against a hostile force at any
+point, (22) they must perforce trail in the rear, so that, thanks to
+the vice of the animal which he bestrides, the trooper himself is
+rendered useless.
+
+ (20) Or, "As regards those who are actually serving in the cavalry."
+    For a plausible emend. of this passage  (S. 13) see Courier  ("Notes
+    sur le texte," p. 54); L. Dind. ad loc.
+
+ (21) Lit. "the senate might incite to..."
+
+ (22) Reading {ean}, or if {kan} with the MSS., trans. "even in case of
+    an advance against the enemy."
+
+With a view to strengthening the horses' feet: if any one has an
+easier or more simple treatment to suggest, by all means let it be
+adopted; but for myself, as the result of experience, I maintain that
+the proper course is to lay down a loose layer of cobbles from the
+road, a pound or so in weight, on which the horse should be put to
+stand, when taken from the manger to be groomed. (23) The point is,
+that the horse will keep perpetually moving first one foot and then
+another on the stones, whilst being rubbed down or simply because he
+is fidgeted by flies. Let any one try the experiment, and, I venture
+to predict, not only will he come to trust my guidance, but he will
+see his horse's hoofs grow just as round and solid as the cobbles.
+
+ (23) See below, "Horse." iv. 4. The Greeks did not "shoe" their
+    horses.
+
+Assuming, then, your horses are all that horses ought to be, how is
+the trooper to attain a like degree of excellence? To that question I
+will now address myself. The art of leaping on to horseback is one
+which we would fain persuade the youthful members of the corps to
+learn themselves; though, if you choose to give them an
+instructor, (24) all the greater credit to yourself. And as to the
+older men you cannot do better than accustom them to mount, or rather
+to be hoisted up by aid of some one, Persian fashion. (25)
+
+ (24) Like Pheidon, in the fragment of Mnesimachus's play "The Breeder
+    of Horses," ap. Athen. See Courier, ib. p. 55.
+
+ (25) See "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Horsemanship," vi. 12.
+
+With a view to keeping a firm seat on every sort of ground, it may be
+perhaps be thought a little irksome to be perpetually marching out,
+when there is no war; (26) but all the same, I would have you call your
+men together and impress upon them the need to train themselves, when
+they ride into the country to their farms, or elsewhere, by leaving
+the high road and galloping at a round pace on ground of every
+description. (27) This method will be quite as beneficial to them as
+the regular march out, and at the same time not produce the same sense
+of tedium. You may find it useful also to remind them that the state
+on her side is quite willing to expend a sum of nearly forty
+talents (28) yearly, so that in the event of war she may not have to
+look about for cavalry, but have a thoroughly efficient force to hand
+for active service. Let these ideas be once instilled into their
+minds, and, mark my words, your trooper will fall with zest to
+practising horsemanship, so that if ever the flame of war burst out he
+may not be forced to enter the lists a raw recruit, unskilled to fight
+for fame and fatherland or even life itself.
+
+ (26) In the piping days of peace.
+
+ (27) See "Econ." xi. 17. Cf. Theophr. "Ch." viii. "The Late Learner":
+    {kai eis agron eph' ippou allotriou katakhoumenos ama meletan
+    ippazesthai, kai peson ten kephalon kateagenai}, "Riding into the
+    country on another's horse, he will practise his horsemanship by
+    the way, and falling, will break his head"  (Jebb).
+
+ (28) = L10,000 circa. See Boeckh, op. cit. p. 251.
+
+It would be no bad thing either, to forewarn your troopers that one
+day you will take them out yourself for a long march, and lead them
+across country over every kind of ground. Again, whilst practising the
+evolutions of the rival cavalry display, (29) it will be well to gallop
+out at one time to one district and again to another. Both men and
+horses will be benefited.
+
+ (29) Lit. "the anthippasia." See iii. 11, and "Horsemanship," viii.
+    10.
+
+Next, as to hurling the javelin from horseback, the best way to secure
+as wide a practice of the art as possible, it strikes me, would be to
+issue an order to your phylarchs that it will be their duty to put
+themselves at the head of the marksmen of several tribes, and to ride
+out to the butts for practice. In this way a spirit of emulation will
+be roused--the several officers will, no doubt, be eager to turn out
+as many marksmen as they can to aid the state. (30)
+
+ (30) On competition cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22, and our author passim.
+
+And so too, to ensure that splendour of accoutrement which the force
+requires, (31) the greatest help may once again be looked for from the
+phylarchs; let these officers but be persuaded that from the public
+point of view the splendid appearance of their squadrons (32) will
+confer a title to distinction far higher than that of any personal
+equipment. Nor is it reasonable to suppose that they will be deaf to
+such an argument, since the very desire to hold the office of phylarch
+itself proclaims a soul alive to honour and ambition. And what is
+more, they have it in their power, in accordance with the actual
+provisions of the law, to equip their men without the outlay of a
+single penny, by enforcing that self-equipment out of pay (33) which
+the law prescribes.
+
+ (31) Or, "a beauty of equipment, worthy of our knights." Cf. Aristoph.
+    "Lysistr." 561, and a fragment of "The Knights," of Antiphanes,
+    ap. Athen. 503 B, {pant' 'Amaltheias keras}. See "Hiero," ix. 6;
+    "Horse." xi. 10.
+
+ (32) Lit. "tribes," {phulai}  (each of the ten tribes contributing
+    about eighty men, or, as we might say, a squadron).
+
+ (33) i.e. the {katastasis}, "allowance," so technically called. Cf.
+    Lys. "for Mantitheos"; Jebb, "Att. Or." i. 246; Boeckh, "P. E. A."
+    II. xxi. p. 263; K. F. Hermann, 152, 19; Martin, op. cit. p. 341.
+
+But to proceed. In order to create a spirit of obedience in your
+subordinates, you have two formidable instruments; (34) as a matter of
+plain reason you can show them what a host of blessings the word
+discipline implies; and as a matter of hard fact you can, within the
+limits of the law, enable the well-disciplined to reap advantage,
+while the undisciplined are made to feel the pinch at every turn.
+
+ (34) "The one theoretic, the other practical."
+
+But if you would rouse the emulation of your phylarchs, if you would
+stir in each a personal ambition to appear at the head of his own
+squadron in all ways splendidly appointed, the best incentive will be
+your personal example. You must see to it that your own bodyguard (35)
+are decked with choice accoutrement and arms; you must enforce on them
+the need to practise shooting pertinaciously; you must expound to them
+the theory of the javelin, yourself an adept in the art through
+constant training. (36)
+
+ (35) Techn. {prodromoi}, possibly = the Hippotoxotai, or corps of 200
+    mounted archers--Scythians; cf. "Mem." III. iii. 11. Or, probably,
+    "mounted skirmishers," distinct from the {ippotexotai}. Cf.
+    Arrian, "An." i. 12. 7. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49. 5.
+
+ (36) Reading as vulg. {eisegoio}, or if with L. D. {egoio}  (cf. above,
+    S. 21), trans. "you must lead them out to the butts yourself."
+
+Lastly, were it possible to institute and offer prizes to the several
+tribal squadrons in reward for every excellence of knighthood known to
+custom in the public spectacles of our city, we have here, I think, an
+incentive which will appeal to the ambition of every true Athenian.
+How small, in the like case of our choruses, the prizes offered, and
+yet how great the labour and how vast the sums expended! (37) But we
+must discover umpires of such high order that to win their verdict
+will be as precious to the victor as victory itself.
+
+ (37) See "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Hiero," ix. 3; "Cyrop." I. vi. 18;
+    Martin, op. cit. p. 260 f.
+
+
+
+II
+
+Given, then, that your troopers are thoroughly trained in all the
+above particulars, it is necessary, I presume, that they should
+further be instructed in a type of evolution the effect of which will
+show itself not only in the splendour of the great processions (1) in
+honour of the gods, but in the manouvres of the exercising-ground; in
+the valorous onslaught of real battle when occasion calls; and in the
+ease with which whole regiments will prosecute their march, or cross a
+river, or thread a defile without the slightest symptom of confusion.
+What this formation is--essential, at least in my opinion, to the
+noblest execution of their several duties--I will now, without delay,
+endeavour to explain. (2)
+
+ (1) e.g. the Panathenaic, as depicted on the frieze of the Parthenon.
+
+ (2) Or, "what this best order is, the adoption of which will give
+    these several features fair accomplishment, I will without further
+    pause set forth."
+
+We take as our basis, then, the constitutional division of ten
+tribes. (3) Given these, the proper course, I say, is to appoint, with
+the concurrence of the several phylarchs, certain decadarchs
+ (file-leaders) (4) to be selected from the men ripest of age and
+strength, most eager to achieve some deed of honour and to be known to
+fame. These are to form your front-rank men; (5) and after these, a
+corresponding number should be chosen from the oldest and the most
+sagacious members of the squadron, to form the rear-rank of the files
+or decads; since, to use an illustration, iron best severs iron when
+the forefront of the blade (6) is strong and tempered, and the momentum
+at the back is sufficient.
+
+ (3) See "Revenues," iv. 30.
+
+ (4) Decadarchs, lit. commanders of ten, a "file" consisting normally
+     (or ideally) of ten men. Cf. "Cyrop. II." ii. 30; VIII. i. 14. It
+    will be borne in mind that a body of cavalry would, as a rule, be
+    drawn up in battle line at least four deep  (see "Hell." III. iv.
+    13), and frequently much deeper.  (The Persian cavalry in the
+    engagement just referred to were twelve deep.)
+
+ (5) See "Cyrop." III. iii. 41, 57; VI. iii. 24, 27; VII. i. 15; "Pol.
+    Lac." xi. 5. These front-rank men would seem to correspond to our
+    "troop guides," and the rear-rank men to our serre-files to some
+    extent.
+
+ (6) Cf. Aelian Tact. 26, ap. Courier.
+
+The interval between the front and rear-rank men will best be filled
+supposing that the decadarchs are free to choose their own supports,
+and those chosen theirs, and so on following suit; since on this
+principle we may expect each man to have his trustiest comrade at his
+back.
+
+As to your lieutenant, (7) it is every way important to appoint a good
+man to this post, whose bravery will tell; and in case of need at any
+time to charge the enemy, the cheering accents of his voice will
+infuse strength into those in front; or when the critical moment of
+retreat arrives, his sage conduct in retiring will go far, we may well
+conclude, towards saving his division. (8)
+
+ (7) {ton aphegoumenon}, lit. "him who leads back"  (a function which
+    would devolve upon the {ouragos} under many circumstances). Cf.
+    "Cyrop." II. iii. 21; "Hell." IV. viii. 37; Plat. "Laws," 760 D. =
+    our "officer serre-file," to some extent. So Courier: "Celui qui
+    commande en serre-file. C'est chez nous le capitaine en second."
+
+ (8) Or, "the rest of the squadron." Lit. "his own tribesmen."
+
+An even number of file-leaders will admit of a greater number of equal
+subdivisions than an odd.
+
+The above formation pleases me for two good reasons: in the first
+place, all the front-rank men are forced to act as officers; (9) and
+the same man, mark you, when in command is somehow apt to feel that
+deeds of valour are incumbent on him which, as a private, he ignores;
+and in the next place, at a crisis when something calls for action on
+the instant, the word of command passed not to privates but to
+officers takes speedier effect.
+
+ (9) i.e. all find themselves in a position of command, and there is
+    nothing like command to inspire that feeling of noblesse oblige
+    which is often lacking in the private soldier. See Thuc. v. 66;
+    "Pol. Lac." xi. 5.
+
+Supposing, then, a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this formation:
+just as the squadron-leaders have their several positions for the march
+ (or the attack (10)) assigned them by the commander, so the file-leaders
+will depend upon the captain for the order passed along the line in what
+formation they are severally to march; and all being prearranged by word
+of mouth, the whole will work more smoothly than if left to chance--like
+people crowding out of a theatre to their mutual annoyance. And when it
+comes to actual encounter greater promptitude will be displayed:
+supposing the attack is made in front, by the file-leaders who know that
+this is their appointed post; or in case of danger suddenly appearing in
+rear, then by the rear-rank men, whose main idea is that to desert one's
+post is base. A want of orderly arrangement, on the contrary, leads to
+confusion worse confounded at every narrow road, at every passage of a
+river; and when it comes to fighting, no one of his own free will
+assigns himself his proper post in face of an enemy.
+
+ (10) Lit. "where to ride," i.e. in what formation whether on the line
+    of march or in action.
+
+The above are fundamental matters not to be performed without the
+active help of every trooper who would wish to be a zealous and
+unhesitating fellow-worker with his officer. (11)
+
+ (11) Cf. "Hiero," vii. 2; "Cyrop." II. iv. 10.
+
+
+
+III
+
+I come at length to certain duties which devolve upon the general of
+cavalry himself in person: and first and foremost, it concerns him to
+obtain the favour of the gods by sacrifices in behalf of the state
+cavalry; and in the next place to make the great procession at the
+festivals a spectacle worth seeing; and further, with regard to all
+those public shows demanded by the state, wherever held, (1) whether in
+the grounds of the Academy or the Lyceum, at Phaleron or within the
+hippodrome, it is his business as commander of the knights to see that
+every pageant of the sort is splendidly exhibited.
+
+ (1) Cf. Theophr. "Ch." vii.  (Jebb ad loc. p. 204, n. 25).
+
+But these, again, are memoranda. (2) To the question how the several
+features of the pageant shall receive their due impress of beauty, I
+will now address myself.
+
+ (2) Read {tauta men alla upomnemata}, or if with Pantazid. {apla},
+    trans. "these are simply memoranda."
+
+And first to speak of the Processions. (3) These will, I think, be
+rendered most acceptable to Heaven and to earth's spectators were the
+riders to ride round the Agora and temples, commencing from the
+Hermae, and pay honour to the sacred beings, each in turn, whose
+shrines and statues are there congregated.  (Thus in the great
+Dionysia (4) the choruses embrace their gracious service to the other
+gods and to the Twelve with circling dance. (5)) When the circuit is
+completed, and the riders are back again in front of the Hermae, it
+would add, I think, to the beauty of the scene (6) if at this point
+they formed in companies of tribes, and giving their horses rein,
+swept forward at the gallop to the Eleusinion. Nor must I omit to note
+the right position of the lance, to lessen as far as possible the risk
+of mutual interference. (7) Each trooper should hold his lance straight
+between the ears of his charger, which in proportion to the
+distinctness given to the weapon will rouse terror, and at the same
+time create a vague idea of multitudinousness. (8)
+
+ (3) {tas pompas}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 147, 160.
+
+ (4) Celebrated in March  (Elaphebolion).
+
+ (5) Or, "by dancing roundelays in honour of the gods, especially The
+    Twelve"; and as to the Twelve cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 235,
+    "Birds," 95; Plat. "Laws," 654; Paus. i. 3. 3; 40. 3; viii. 25. 3;
+    Plut. "Nic." 13; Lycurg. 198.
+
+ (6) Or, "it would be a beautiful sequel to the proceedings, in my
+    opinion, if at this point they formed in squadron column, and
+    giving rein to their chargers, swept forward at full gallop to the
+    Eleusinion." See Leake, op. cit. i. 296.
+
+ (7) Lit. "nor will I omit how the lances shall as little as possible
+    overlap one another."
+
+ (8) Lit. "Every trooper should be at pains to keep his lance straight
+    between the ears of his charger, if these weapons are to be
+    distinct and terror-striking, and at the same time to appear
+    numerous."
+
+As soon as they have ceased from the charge at full gallop, the pace
+should at once be changed; and now, with footing slow, let them
+retrace their course back to the temples. In this way every detail
+characteristic of knightly pageantry (9) will have been displayed to
+the delight of god and man. That our knights are not accustomed to
+these actual evolutions, I am well aware; but I also recognise the
+fact that the performances are good and beautiful and will give
+pleasure to spectators. I do not fail to note, moreover, that novel
+feats of horsemanship have before now been performed by our knights,
+when their commanders have had the ability to get their wishes readily
+complied with.
+
+ (9) Lit. "everything that may be performed on a mounted horse."
+    Possibly, as Cobet suggests, {kala} has dropped out. See
+    "Horsemanship," xi. 3, 6.
+
+But now, let us suppose it is the occasion of the march-past, (10) in
+the grounds of the Lyceum, before the javelin-throwing. The scene
+would gain in beauty if the tribal squadrons were to ride in line of
+columns (11) as if for battle, in two divisions, five squadrons in the
+one and five in the other, with the hipparch and the phylarchs at
+their head, in such formation as to allow the whole breadth of the
+racecourse to be filled. Then, as soon as they have gained the top (12)
+of the incline, which leads down to the theatre opposite, it would, I
+think, be obviously useful here to show the skill with which your
+troopers can gallop down a steep incline (13) with as broad a front as
+the nature of the ground permits. I am quite clear that your troopers,
+if they can trust their own skill in galloping, will take kindly to
+such an exhibition; while as certainly, if unpractised, they must look
+to it that the enemy does not give them a lesson in the art some day,
+perforce.
+
+ (10) {dielaunosin en Lukeio}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 196; cf. Arist.
+    "Peace," 356.
+
+ (11) Or, as we might say, "in regimental order," "with the commanding
+    officer in front and their respective squadron-leaders"; and for
+    the Lyceum see "Hell." I. i. 33; II. iv. 27.
+
+ (12) Lit. "the apex of the confronting theatre."
+
+ (13) See "Horsemanship," viii. 6; "Anab." IV. viii. 28.
+
+To come to the test manouvres. (14) The order in which the men will
+ride with showiest effect on these occasions has been already
+noted. (15) As far as the leader is himself concerned, and presuming he
+is mounted on a powerful horse, I would suggest that he should each
+time ride round on the outer flank; in which case he will himself be
+kept perpetually moving at a canter, and those with him, as they
+become the wheeling flank, will, by turns, fall into the same pace,
+with this result: the spectacle presented to the senate will be that
+of an ever rapidly moving stream of cavaliers; and the horses having,
+each in turn, the opportunity to recover breath, will not be overdone.
+
+ (14) {dokimasiais}, reviews and inspections. See A. Martin, op. cit.
+    p. 333.
+
+ (15) Where? Some think in a lost passage of the work  (see Courier, p.
+    111, n. 1); or is the reference to ch. ii. above? and is the scene
+    of the {dokimasiai} Phaleron? There is no further reference to {ta
+    Phaleroi}. Cf. S. 1, above. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49  (now the
+    locus classicus on the subject), and Dr. Sandys ad loc. The scene
+    is represented on a patera from Orvieto, now in the Berlin Museum,
+    reproduced and fully described in "The Art of Horsemanship by
+    Xenophon," translated, with chapters on the Greek Riding-Horse,
+    and with notes, by Morris H. Morgan, p. 76.
+
+On occasions when the display takes place in the hippodrome, (16) the
+best arrangement would be, in the first place, that the troops should
+fill the entire space with extended front, so forcing out the mob of
+people from the centre; (17) and secondly, that in the sham fight (18)
+which ensues, the tribal squadrons, swiftly pursuing and retiring,
+should gallop right across and through each other, the two hipparchs
+at their head, each with five squadrons under him. Consider the effect
+of such a spectacle: the grim advance of rival squadrons front to
+front; the charge; the solemn pause as, having swept across the
+hippodrome, they stand once more confronting one another; and then the
+trumpet sounds, whereat a second and yet swifter hostile advance, how
+fine the effect!--and once again they are at the halt; and once again
+the trumpet sounds, and for the third time, at the swiftest pace of
+all, they make a final charge across the field, before dismissal;
+after which they come to a halt en masse, in battle order; and, as now
+customary, (19) ride up to salute the senate, and disband. These
+evolutions will at once approve themselves, I think, not only for
+their novelty, but for their resemblance to real warfare. The notion
+that the hipparch is to ride at a slower pace than his phylarchs, and
+to handle his horse precisely in their style, seems to me below the
+dignity of the office.
+
+ (16) In the hippodrome near Munychia, I suppose.
+
+ (17) Lit. "... it would be beautiful to form with extended front, so
+    as to fill the hippodrome with horses and drive out the people
+    from the central space, beautiful to..." The new feature of the
+    review would seem to have been the introduction of a sham fight in
+    three parts, down to the customary advance of the whole corps,
+    {epi phalaggos}. Cf. Virg. "Aen." v. 545 foll. But see Martin, op.
+    cit. 197.
+
+ (18) Lit. "the anthippasia."
+
+ (19) "As is your custom." See "Mem." III. iii. 6.
+
+When the cavalry parade takes place on the hard-trodden (20) ground of
+the Academy, I have the following advice to give. To avoid being
+jolted off his horse at any moment, the trooper should, in charging,
+lean well back, (21) and to prevent his charger stumbling, he should
+while wheeling hold his head well up, but along a straight stretch he
+should force the pace. Thus the spectacle presented to the senate will
+combine the elements of beauty and of safety.
+
+ (20) Cf. Thuc. vii. 27.
+
+ (21) See "Horsemanship," vii. 17.
+
+
+
+IV
+
+To pass to a different topic: on the march, the general will need to
+exercise a constant forethought to relieve the horses' backs and the
+troopers' legs, by a judicious interchange of riding and of marching.
+Wherein consists the golden mean, will not be hard to find; since
+"every man a standard to himself," (1) applies, and your sensations are
+an index to prevent your fellows being overdone through inadvertence.
+
+ (1) The phrase is proverbial. Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 183 B.
+
+But now supposing you are on the march in some direction, and it is
+uncertain whether you will stumble on the enemy, your duty is to rest
+your squadrons in turn; since it will go hard with you, if the enemy
+come to close quarters when the whole force is dismounted. (2) Or,
+again, suppose the roads are narrow, or you have to cross a defile,
+you will pass, by word of mouth, the command to diminish the front; (3)
+or given, again, you are debouching on broad roads, again the word of
+command will pass by word of mouth, to every squadron, "to increase
+their front"; or lastly, supposing you have reached flat country, "to
+form squadron in order of battle." If only for the sake of practice,
+it is well to go through evolutions of the sort; (4) besides which it
+adds pleasure to the march thus to diversify the line of route with
+cavalry maneuvers.
+
+ (2) See "Hell." V. iv. 40 for a case in point.
+
+ (3) Or, "advance by column of route." See "Hell." VII. iv. 23.
+
+ (4) Or, "it is a pleasant method of beguiling the road." Cf. Plat.
+    "Laws," i. 625 B.
+
+Supposing, however, you are off roads altogether and moving fast over
+difficult ground, no matter whether you are in hostile or in friendly
+territory, it will be useful if the scouts attached to squadrons (5)
+rode on in advance, their duty being, in case of encountering pathless
+clefts or gullies, to work round on to practicable ground, and to
+discover at what point the troopers may effect a passage, so that
+whole ranks may not go blindly roaming. (6)
+
+ (5) {ton upereton} = "ground scouts," al. "orderlies." Ordonnances,
+    trabans  (Courier). See Rustow and Kochly, p. 140. "Cyrop." II. i.
+    21; II. iv. 4; V. iii. 52; VII. v. 18, and VI. ii. 13; "Anab." I.
+    ix. 27; II. i. 9; where "adjutants," "orderlies" would seem to be
+    implied.
+
+ (6) Al. "to prevent whole divisions losing their way." Cf. "Anab."
+    VIII. iii. 18.
+
+Again, if there is prospect of danger on the march, a prudent general
+can hardly show his wisdom better than by sending out advanced patrols
+in front of the ordinary exploring parties to reconnoitre every inch
+of ground minutely. So to be apprised of the enemy's position in
+advance, and at as great a distance off as possible, cannot fail to be
+useful, whether for purposes of attack or defence; just as it is
+useful also to enforce a halt at the passage of a river or some other
+defile, so that the men in rear may not knock their horses all to bits
+in endeavouring to overtake their leader. These are precepts known, I
+admit, to nearly all the world, but it is by no means every one who
+will take pains to apply them carefully. (7)
+
+ (7) See "Econ." xx. 6. foll.
+
+It is the business of the hipparch to take infinite precautions while
+it is still peace, to make himself acquainted with the details, not
+only of his own, but of the hostile territory; (8) or if, as may well
+betide, he personally should lack the knowledge, he should invite the
+aid of others (9)--those best versed in the topography of any district.
+Since there is all the difference in the world between a leader
+acquainted with his roads and one who is not; and when it comes to
+actual designs upon the enemy, the difference between knowing and not
+knowing the locality can hardly be exaggerated.
+
+ (8) Or, "with hostile and friendly territories alike."
+
+ (9) Lit. "he should associate with himself those of the rest"; i.e.
+    his colleagues or other members of the force.
+
+So, too, with regard to spies and intelligencers. Before war commences
+your business is to provide yourself with a supply of people friendly
+to both states, or maybe merchants  (since states are ready to receive
+the importer of goods with open arms); sham deserters may be found
+occasionally useful. (10) Not, of course, that the confidence you feel
+in your spies must ever cause you to neglect outpost duty; indeed your
+state of preparation should at any moment be precisely what it ought
+to be, supposing the approach or the imminent arrival of the enemy
+were to be announced. Let a spy be ever so faithful, there is always
+the risk he may fail to report his intelligence at the critical
+moment, since the obstacles which present themselves in war are not to
+be counted on the fingers.
+
+ (10) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. i. 39, where one of the Persians, Araspas,
+    undertakes to play this role to good effect.
+
+But to proceed to another topic. The enemy is less likely to get wind
+of an advance of cavalry, if the orders for march were passed from
+mouth to mouth rather than announced by voice of herald, or public
+notice. (11) Accordingly, in addition to (12) this method of
+ordering the march by word passed along the line, the appointment
+of file-leaders seems desirable, who again are to be supplemented by
+section-leaders, (13) so that the number of men to whom each petty
+officer has to transmit an order will be very few; (14) while the
+section-leaders will deploy and increase the front, whatever the
+formation, without confusion, whenever there is occasion for the
+movement. (15)
+
+ (11) i.e. "given by general word of command, or in writing." As to the
+    "word-of-mouth command," see above, S. 3; "Hell." VII. v. 9; and
+    for the "herald," see "Anab." III. iv. 36.
+
+ (12) Reading {pros to dia p.}, or if {pros to}... transl. "with a
+    view to."
+
+ (13) Lit. pempadarchs, i.e. No. 6 in the file. See "Cyrop." II. i. 22
+    foll., iii. 21.
+
+ (14) Lit. "so that each officer may pass the word to as few as
+    possible."
+
+ (15) Cf. "Anab." IV. vi. 6.
+
+When an advanced guard is needed, I say for myself I highly approve of
+secret pickets and outposts, if only because in supplying a guard to
+protect your friends you are contriving an ambuscade to catch the
+enemy. Also the outposts will be less exposed to a secret attack,
+being themselves unseen, and yet a source of great alarm to the enemy;
+since the bare knowledge that there are outposts somewhere, though
+where precisely no man knows, will prevent the enemy from feeling
+confident, and oblige him to mistrust every tenable position. An
+exposed outpost, on the contrary, presents to the broad eye of day its
+dangers and also its weaknesses. (16) Besides which, the holder of a
+concealed outpost can always place a few exposed vedettes beyond his
+hidden pickets, and so endeavour to decoy the enemy into an ambuscade.
+Or he may play the part of trapper with effect by placing a second
+exposed outpost in rear of the other; a device which may serve to take
+in the unwary foeman quite as well as that before named.
+
+ (16) Lit. "makes plain its grounds of terror as of confidence."
+
+Indeed I take it to be the mark of a really prudent general never to
+run a risk of his own choosing, except where it is plain to him
+beforehand, that he will get the better of his adversary. To play into
+the enemy's hands may more fitly be described as treason to one's
+fellow-combatants than true manliness. So, too, true generalship
+consists in attacking where the enemy is weakest, even if the point be
+some leagues distant. Severity of toil weighs nothing in the scale
+against the danger of engaging a force superior to your own. (17)
+Still, if on any occasion the enemy advance in any way to place
+himself between fortified points that are friendly to you, let him be
+never so superior in force, your game is to attack on whichever flank
+you can best conceal your advance, or, still better, on both flanks
+simultaneously; since, while one detachment is retiring after
+delivering its attack, a charge pressed home from the opposite quarter
+cannot fail to throw the enemy into confusion and to give safety to
+your friends.
+
+ (17) N.B. Throughout this treatise the author has to meet the case of
+    a small force of cavalry acting on the defensive.
+
+How excellent a thing it is to endeavour to ascertain an enemy's
+position by means of spies and so forth, as in ancient story; yet best
+of all, in my opinion, is it for the commander to try to seize some
+coign of vantage, from which with his own eyes he may descry the
+movements of the enemy and watch for any error on his part. (18)
+
+ (18) As, e.g. Epaminondas at Tegea. See "Hell." VII. v. 9.
+
+Whatever may be snatched by ruse, thief fashion, (19) your business is
+to send a competent patrol to seize; or again where capture by coup de
+main (20) is practicable, you will despatch a requisite body of troops
+to effect a coup de main. Or take the case: the enemy is on the march
+in some direction, and a portion of his force becomes detached from
+his main body or through excess of confidence is caught straggling; do
+not let the opportunity escape, but make it a rule always to pursue a
+weaker with a stronger force. (21) These, indeed, are rules of
+procedure, which it only requires a simple effort of the mind to
+appreciate. Creatures far duller of wit than man have this ability:
+kites and falcons, when anything is left unguarded, pounce and carry
+it off and retire into safety without being caught; or wolves, again,
+will hunt down any quarry left widowed of its guard, or thieve what
+they can in darksome corners. (22) In case a dog pursues and overtakes
+them, should he chance to be weaker the wolf attacks him, or if
+stronger, the wolf will slaughter (23) his quarry and make off. At
+other times, if the pack be strong enough to make light of the
+guardians of a flock, they will marshal their battalions, as it were,
+some to drive off the guard and others to effect the capture, and so
+by stealth or fair fight they provide themselves with the necessaries
+of life. I say, if dumb beasts are capable of conducting a raid with
+so much sense and skill, it is hard if any average man cannot prove
+himself equally intelligent with creatures which themselves fall
+victims to the craft of man.
+
+ (19) e.g. defiles, bridges, outposts, stores, etc.
+
+ (20) e.g. a line of outposts, troops in billets or bivouac, etc.
+
+ (21) "It is a maxim, the quarry should be weaker than the pursuer."
+
+ (22) Zeune cf. Ael. "N. A." viii. 14, on the skill of wolves in
+    hunting.
+
+ (23) For {aposphaxas} Courier suggests {apospasas}, "dragging off what
+    he can."
+
+
+
+V
+
+Here is another matter which every horseman ought to know, and that is
+within what distance a horse can overhaul a man on foot; or the
+interval necessary to enable a slower horse to escape one more fleet.
+It is the business rather of the cavalry general to recognise at a
+glance the sort of ground on which infantry will be superior to
+cavalry and where cavalry will be superior to infantry. He should be a
+man of invention, ready of device to turn all circumstances to
+account, so as to give at one time a small body of cavalry the
+appearance of a larger, and again a large the likeness of a smaller
+body; he should have the craft to appear absent when close at hand,
+and within striking distance when a long way off; he should know
+exactly not only how to steal an enemy's position, but by a master
+stroke of cunning (1) to spirit his own cavalry away, and, when least
+expected, deliver his attack. Another excellent specimen of
+inventiveness may be seen in the general's ability, while holding a
+weak position himself, to conjure up so lively an apprehension in the
+enemy that he will not dream of attacking; or conversely, when, being
+in a strong position himself, he can engender a fatal boldness in the
+adversary to venture an attack. Thus with the least cost to yourself,
+you will best be able to catch your enemy tripping.
+
+ (1) Or, "sleight of hand"; and for {kleptein} = escamoter see "Anab."
+    IV. vi. 11, 15; V. vi. 9.
+
+But to avoid suspicion of seeming to prescribe impossible feats, I
+will set down, in so many words, the procedure in certain crucial
+instances.
+
+The best safeguard against failure in any attempt to enforce pursuit
+or conduct a retreat lies in a thorough knowledge of your horse's
+powers. (2) But how is this experience to be got? Simply by paying
+attention to their behaviour in the peaceable manouvres of the sham
+fight, when there is no real enemy to intervene--how the animals come
+off, in fact, and what stamina they show in the various charges and
+retreats.
+
+ (2) {empeiria}, "empirical knowledge."
+
+Or suppose the problem is to make your cavalry appear numerous. In the
+first place, let it be a fundamental rule, if possible, not to attempt
+to delude the enemy at close quarters; distance, as it aids illusion,
+will promote security. The next point is to bear in mind that a mob of
+horses clustered together  (owing perhaps to the creatures' size) will
+give a suggestion of number, whereas scattered they may easily be
+counted.
+
+Another means by which you may give your troop an appearance of
+numerical strength beyond reality consists in posting, in and out
+between the troopers, so many lines of grooms (3) who should carry
+lances if possible, or staves at any rate to look like lances--a plan
+which will serve alike whether you mean to display your cavalry force
+at the halt or are deploying to increase front; in either case,
+obviously the bulk and volume of the force, whatever your formation,
+will appear increased. Conversely, if the problem be to make large
+numbers appear small, supposing you have ground at command adapted to
+concealment, the thing is simple: by leaving a portion of your men
+exposed and hiding away a portion in obscurity, you may effect your
+object. (4) But if the ground nowhere admits of cover, your best course
+is to form your files (5) into ranks one behind the other, and wheel
+them round so as to leave intervals between each file; the troopers
+nearest the enemy in each file will keep their lances erect, and the
+rest low enough not to show above.
+
+ (3) Cf. Polyaen. II. i. 17, of Agesilaus in Macedonia, 394 B.C.  (our
+    author was probably present); IV. iv. 3, of Antipater in Thessaly,
+    323 B.C.
+
+ (4) Lit. "steal your troopers." See "Cyrop." V. iv. 48.
+
+ (5) Lit. "form your decads  (squads of ten; cf. our 'fours') in ranks
+    and deploy with intervals."
+
+To come to the next topic: you may work on the enemy's fears by the
+various devices of mock ambuscades, sham relief parties, false
+information. Conversely, his confidence will reach an overweening
+pitch, if the idea gets abroad that his opponents have troubles of
+their own and little leisure for offensive operations.
+
+But over and beyond all that can be written on the subject--inventiveness
+is a personal matter, beyond all formulas--the true general must be able
+to take in, deceive, decoy, delude his adversary at every turn, as the
+particular occasion demands. In fact, there is no instrument of war more
+cunning than chicanery; (6) which is not surprising when one reflects
+that even little boys, when playing, "How many  (marbles) have I got in
+my hand?" (7) are able to take one another in successfully. Out goes a
+clenched fist, but with such cunning that he who holds a few is thought
+to hold several; or he may present several and appear to be holding only
+a few. Is it likely that a grown man, giving his whole mind to methods
+of chicanery, will fail of similar inventiveness? Indeed, when one comes
+to consider what is meant by advantages snatched in war, one will find,
+i think, that the greater part of them, and those the more important,
+must be attributed in some way or other to displays of craft; (8) which
+things being so, a man had better either not attempt to exercise
+command, or, as part and parcel of his general equipment, let him pray
+to Heaven to enable him to exercise this faculty and be at pains himself
+to cultivate his own inventiveness.
+
+ (6) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. ii. 26; VII. i. 18.
+
+ (7) {posinda}, lit. "How many?"  (i.e. dice, nuts, marbles, etc.); cf.
+    the old game, "Buck! buck! how many horns do I hold up?" Schneid.
+    cf. Aristot. "Rhet."iii. 5. 4.
+
+ (8) "Have been won in connection with craft." See "Cyrop." I. vi. 32;
+    "Mem." III. i. 6; IV. ii. 15.
+
+A general, who has access to the sea, may exercise the faculty as
+follows: he may either, whilst apparently engaged in fitting out his
+vessels, strike a blow on land; (9) or with a make-believe of some
+aggressive design by land, hazard an adventure by sea. (10)
+
+ (9) A ruse adopted by Jason, 371 B.C. Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 21.
+
+ (10) Cf. the tactics of the Athenians at Catana, 415 B.C. Thuc. vi.
+    64.
+
+I consider it to be the duty of the cavalry commander to point out
+clearly to the state authority the essential weakness of a force of
+cavalry unaided by light infantry, as opposed to cavalry with
+foot-soldiers attached. (11) It is duty also, having got his footmen, to
+turn the force to good account. It is possible to conceal them
+effectively, not only between the lines, but in rear also of the
+troopers--the mounted soldier towering high above his follower on foot.
+
+ (11) Or, "divorced from infantry." In reference to {amippoi}, cf.
+    Thuc. v. 57; "Hell." VII. v. 23.
+
+With regard to these devices and to any others which invention may
+suggest towards capturing the foeman by force or fraud, I have one
+common word of advice to add, which is, to act with God, and then
+while Heaven propitious smiles, fortune will scarcely dare to
+frown. (12)
+
+ (12) Or, "and then by the grace of Heaven you may win the smiles of
+    fortune," reading with Courier, etc., {ina kai e tukhe sunepaine}.
+    Cf. "Cyrop." III. iii. 20.
+
+At times there is no more effective fraud than a make-believe (13) of
+over-caution alien to the spirit of adventure. This itself will put
+the enemy off his guard and ten to one will lure him into some
+egregious blunder; or conversely, once get a reputation for
+foolhardiness established, and then with folded hands sit feigning
+future action, and see what a world of trouble you will thereby cause
+your adversary.
+
+ (13) S. 15 should perhaps stand before S. 13.
+
+
+
+VI
+
+But, after all, no man, however great his plastic skill, can hope to
+mould and shape a work of art to suit his fancy, unless the stuff on
+which he works be first prepared and made ready to obey the
+craftsman's will. Nor certainly where the raw material consists of
+men, will you succeed, unless, under God's blessing, these same men
+have been prepared and made ready to meet their officer in a friendly
+spirit. They must come to look upon him as of greater sagacity than
+themselves in all that concerns encounter with the enemy. This
+friendly disposition on the part of his subordinates, one must
+suppose, will best be fostered by a corresponding sympathy on the part
+of their commander towards the men themselves, and that not by simple
+kindness but by the obvious pains he takes on their behalf, at one
+time to provide them with food, and at another to secure safety of
+retreat, or again by help of outposts and the like, to ensure
+protection during rest and sleep.
+
+When on active service (1) the commander must prove himself
+conspicuously careful in the matter of forage, quarters, water-supply,
+outposts, (2) and all other requisites; forecasting the future and
+keeping ever a wakeful eye in the interest of those under him; and in
+case of any advantage won, the truest gain which the head of affairs
+can reap is to share with his men the profits of success.
+
+ (1) Al. "on garrison outpost duty."
+
+ (2) Reading {phulakon}, or if with Courier {thulakon}, "haversacks,"
+    i.e. "la farine, le contenant pour le contenu."
+
+Indeed, to put the matter in a nutshell, there is small risk a general
+will be regarded with contempt by those he leads, if, whatever he may
+have to preach, he shows himself best able to perform.
+
+Beginning with the simple art of mounting on horseback, let him so
+train himself in all particulars of horsemanship that, to look at him,
+the men must see their leader is a horseman who can leap a trench
+unscathed or scale a parapet, (3) or gallop down a bank, and hurl a
+javelin with the best. These are accomplishments which one and all
+will pave the way to make contempt impossible. If, further, the men
+shall see in their commander one who, with the knowledge how to act,
+has force of will and cunning to make them get the better of the
+enemy; and if, further, they have got the notion well into their heads
+that this same leader may be trusted not to lead them recklesssly
+against the foe, without the help of Heaven, or despite the auspices--I
+say, you have a list of virtues which will make those under his command
+the more obedient to their ruler.
+
+ (3) Or, "stone walls," "dykes."
+
+
+
+VII
+
+If prudence may be spoken of as the one quality distinctive of true
+generalship, there are two respects in which a general of cavalry at
+Athens should pre-eminently excel. Not only must he show a dutiful
+submission to the gods; but he must possess great fighting qualities,
+seeing that he has on his borders a rival cavalry equal to his own in
+number and backed by a large force of heavy infantry. (1) So that, if
+he undertake to invade the enemy's territory unsupported by the other
+forces of the city (2)--in dealing with two descriptions of forces
+single-handed, he and his cavalry must look for a desperate adventure;
+or to take the converse case, that the enemy invades the soil of
+Attica, to begin with, he will not invade at all, unless supported by
+other cavalry besides his own and an infantry force sufficient to
+warrant the supposition that no force on our side can cope with him.
+
+ (1) The reference is doubtless to the Thebans. Unfortunately we do not
+    know, on good authority, how many troops of either arm they had in
+    the field at Leuctra or at Mantinea.
+
+ (2) Lit. "without the rest of the city," i.e. the hoplites, etc.
+
+Now, to deal with this vast hostile array, if only the city will
+determine to sally out en masse to protect her rural districts, the
+prospect is fair. Under God, our troopers, if properly cared for, are
+the finer men; our infantry of the line are no less numerous, and as
+regards physique, if it comes to that, not one whit inferior, while in
+reference to moral qualities, they are more susceptible to the spur of
+a noble ambition, if only under God's will they be correctly trained.
+Or again, as touching pride of ancestry, what have Athenians to fear
+as against Boeotians on that score? (3)
+
+ (3) See "Mem." III. v. 3, where it is contended that in pride of
+    ancestry Athenians can hold their own against Boeotians.
+
+But suppose the city of Athens determine to betake herself to her
+navy, as in the old days when the Lacedaemonians, leagued with the
+rest of Hellas, brought invasion; (4) and is content once more simply
+to protect her walls through thick and thin. As to protecting what
+lies outside the city wall she looks to her cavalry for that; and
+single-handed her troopers must do desperate encounter against the
+united forces of the enemy. I say, under these circumstances, we shall
+need in the first place the strong support of Heaven; and in the
+second place, well will it be for us if our cavalry commander prove
+himself a consummate officer. (5) Indeed, he will have need of large
+wisdom to deal with a force so vastly superior in numbers, and of
+enterprise to strike when the critical moment comes.
+
+ (4) See Thuc. ii. 13, 14, 22, etc., and in particular iv. 95,
+    Hippocrates' speech before the battle of Delium, 424 B.C.
+
+ (5) A "parfait marechal."
+
+He must also, as it appears to me, be capable of great physical
+endurance; (6) since clearly, if he has to run full tilt against an
+armament present, as we picture, in such force that not even our whole
+state cares to cope with it, it is plain he must accept whatever fate
+is due, where might is right, himself unable to retaliate.
+
+ (6) So Jason, "Hell." VI. i. 4.
+
+If, on the contrary, he elect to guard the territory outside the
+walls (7) with a number just sufficient to keep a look-out on the
+enemy, and to withdraw into safe quarters from a distance whatever
+needs protection--a small number, be it observed, is just as capable
+of vedette duty, as well able, say, to scan the distant horizon, as a
+large; and by the same token men with no great confidence in
+themselves or in their horses are not ill-qualified to guard, or
+withdraw within shelter (8) the property of friends; since fear, as the
+proverb has it, makes a shrewd watchman. The proposal, therefore, to
+select from these a corps of observation will most likely prove true
+strategy. But what then of the residue not needed for outpost duty? If
+any one imagines he has got an armament, he will find it miserably
+small, and lacking in every qualification necessary to risk an open
+encounter.
+
+ (7) Or, "His better plan would be to."
+
+ (8) Reading {anakhorizein}. Cf. "Cyrop." II. ii. 8; "Anab." V. ii. 10;
+    or if {anakhorein eis}, transl. "or retire into safe quarters."
+    See "Hell." IV. vi. 44.
+
+But let him make up his mind to employ it in guerilla war, and he will
+find the force quite competent for that, I warrant. His business, so
+at least it seems to me, will be to keep his men perpetually in
+readiness to strike a blow, and without exposing himself, to play
+sentinel, waiting for any false move on the part of the hostile
+armament. And it is a way with soldiers, bear in mind, the more
+numerous they are, the more blunders they commit. They must needs
+scatter of set purpose (9) in search of provisions; or through the
+disorder incidental to a march, some will advance and others lag
+behind, beyond a proper limit. Blunders like these, then, our hipparch
+must not let pass unpunished  (unless he wishes the whole of Attica to
+become a gigantic camp); (10) keeping his single point steadily in
+view, that when he strikes a blow he must be expeditious and retire
+before the main body has time to rally to the rescue.
+
+ (9) {epimeleia}. Cf. "Cyrop." V. iii. 47.
+
+ (10) Lit. "or else the whole of Attica will be one encampment." As at
+    the date of the fortification of Decelea  (413 B.C.), which
+    permanently commanded the whole country. See Thuc. vii. 27. Al.
+    Courier, "autrement vous n'avez plus de camp, ou pour mieux dire,
+    tout le pays devient votre camp."
+
+Again, it frequently happens on the march, that an army will get into
+roads where numbers are no advantage. Again, in the passage of rivers,
+defiles, and the like, it is possible for a general with a head on his
+shoulders to hang on the heels of an enemy in security, and to
+determine with precision (11) the exact number of the enemy he will
+care to deal with. Occasionally the fine chance occurs to attack the
+foe while encamping or breakfasting or supping, or as the men turn out
+of bed: seasons at which the soldier is apt to be unharnessed--the
+hoplite for a shorter, the cavalry trooper for a longer period. (12)
+
+ (11) See "Anab." II. v. 18; "Cyrop." III. iii. 47; IV. i. 18.
+    {tamieusasthai}, "with the precision of a controller."
+
+ (12) Cf. "Hell." II. iv. 6; VII. i. 16.
+
+As to vedettes and advanced outposts, you should never cease planning
+and plotting against them. For these in their turn, as a rule, are apt
+to consist of small numbers, and are sometimes posted at a great
+distance from their own main body. But if after all it turns out that
+the enemy are well on their guard against all such attempts, then, God
+helping, it would be a feat of arms to steal into the enemy's country,
+first making it your business to ascertain (13) his defences, the
+number of men at this, that, and the other point, and how they are
+distributed throughout the country. For there is no booty so splendid
+as an outpost so overmastered; and these frontier outposts are
+especially prone to be deceived, with their propensity to give chase
+to any small body they set eyes on, regarding that as their peculiar
+function. You will have to see, however, in retiring that your line of
+retreat is not right into the jaws of the enemy's reliefs hastening to
+the scene of action.
+
+ (13) Or, "having first studied." Cf. "Mem." III. vi. 10.
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+It stands to reason, however, that in order to be able to inflict real
+damage upon a greatly superior force, the weaker combatant must
+possess such a moral superiority over the other as shall enable him to
+appear in the position of an expert, trained in all the feats of
+cavalry performance in the field, and leave his enemy to play the part
+of raw recruits or amateurs. (1)
+
+ (1) Cf. "Cyrop." I. v. 11; "Mem." III. vii. 7.
+
+And this end may be secured primarily on this wise: those who are to
+form your guerilla bands (2) must be so hardened and inured to the
+saddle that they are capable of undergoing all the toils of a
+campaign. (3) That a squadron  (and I speak of horse and man alike)
+should enter these lists in careless, disorderly fashion suggests the
+idea of a troop of women stepping into the arena to cope with male
+antagonists.
+
+ (2) Or, add, "for buccaneers and free-lances you must be."
+
+ (3) Lit. "every toil a soldier can encounter."
+
+But reverse the picture. Suppose men and horses to have been taught
+and trained to leap trenches and scale dykes, to spring up banks, and
+plunge from heights without scathe, to gallop headlong at full speed
+adown a steep: they will tower over unpractised opponents as the birds
+of the air tower over creatures that crawl and walk. (4) Their feet are
+case-hardened by constant training, and, when it comes to tramping
+over rough ground, must differ from the uninitiated as the sound man
+from the lame. And so again, when it comes to charging and retiring,
+the onward-dashing gallop, the well-skilled, timely retreat, expert
+knowledge of the ground and scenery will assert superiority over
+inexpertness like that of eyesight over blindness.
+
+ (4) See "Horse." viii. 6; cf. "Hunting," xii. 2; "Cyrop." I. vi. 28
+    foll.
+
+Nor should it be forgotten, that in order to be in thorough efficiency
+the horses must not only be well fed and in good condition, but at the
+same time so seasoned by toil that they will go through their work
+without the risk of becoming broken-winded. And lastly, as bits and
+saddle-cloths  (to be efficient) (5) need to be attached by straps, a
+cavalry general should never be without a good supply, whereby at a
+trifling expense he may convert a number of nonplussed troopers into
+serviceable fighting men. (6)
+
+ (5)  ({khresima}) L.D. For the {upomnema} itself cf. "Cyrop." VI. ii.
+    32.
+
+ (6) Or, "thus at a trifling outlay he will be able to render so many
+    non-efficients useful." Al. "make the articles as good as new."
+
+But if any one is disposed to dwell on the amount of trouble it will
+cost him, if he is required to devote himself to horsemanship so
+assiduously, let him console himself with the reflection that the
+pains and labours undergone by any man in training for a gymnastic
+contest are far larger and more formidable than any which the severest
+training of the horseman will involve; and for this reason, that the
+greater part of gymnastic exercises are performed "in the sweat of the
+brow," while equestrian exercise is performed with pleasure. Indeed,
+there is no accomplishment which so nearly realises the aspiration of
+a man to have the wings of a bird than this of horsemanship. (7) But
+further, to a victory obtained in war attaches a far greater weight of
+glory than belongs to the noblest contest of the arena. (8) Of these
+the state indeed will share her meed of glory, (9) but in honour of
+victory in war the very gods are wont to crown whole states with
+happiness. (10) So that, for my part, I know not if there be aught else
+which has a higher claim to be practised than the arts of war.
+
+ (7) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. iii. 15; Herod. iv. 132; Plat. "Rep." v. 467 D.
+
+ (8) Cf. Eur. "Autolycus," fr. 1, trans. by J. A. Symonds, "Greek
+    Poets," 2nd series, p. 283.
+
+ (9) Cf. Plut. "Pelop." 34  (Clough, ii. p. 235): "And yet who would
+    compare all the victories in the Pythian and Olympian games put
+    together, with one of these enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he
+    successfully performed so many?"
+
+ (10) "To bind about the brows of states happiness as a coronal."
+
+And this, too, is worth noting: that the buccaneer by sea, the
+privateersman, through long practice in endurance, is able to live at
+the expense of far superior powers. Yes, and the life of the
+freebooter is no less natural and appropriate to landsmen--I do not
+say, to those who can till and gather in the fruit of their fields,
+but to those who find themselves deprived of sustenance; since there
+is no alternative--either men must till their fields or live on the
+tillage of others, otherwise how will they find the means either of
+living or of obtaining peace? (11)
+
+ (11) Cf. "Econ." v. 7.
+
+Here, too, is a maxim to engrave upon the memory: in charging a
+superior force, never to leave a difficult tract of ground in the rear
+of your attack, since there is all the difference in the world between
+a stumble in flight and a stumble in pursuit.
+
+There is another precaution which I feel called upon to note. Some
+generals, (12) in attacking a force which they imagine to be inferior
+to their own, will advance with a ridiculously insufficient force, (13)
+so that it is the merest accident if they do not experience the injury
+they were minded to inflict. Conversely, in attacking any enemy whose
+superiority is a well-known fact, they will bring the whole of their
+force into action.
+
+ (12) Or, "one knows of generals," e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.C.
+    Cf. "Hell." VI. v. 51.
+
+ (13) Lit. "an absolutely weak force."
+
+Now, my maxim would be precisely converse: if you attack with a
+prospect of superiority, do not grudge employing all the power at your
+command; excess of victory (14) never yet caused any conqueror one pang
+of remorse.
+
+ (14) Or, "a great and decided victory." Cf. "Hiero," ii. 16.
+
+But in any attempt to attack superior forces, in full certainty that,
+do what you can, you must eventually retire, it is far better, say I,
+under these circumstances to bring a fraction only of your whole force
+into action, which fraction should be the pick and flower of the
+troops at your command, both horses and men. A body of that size and
+quality will be able to strike a blow and to fall back with greater
+security. Whereas, if a general brings all his troops into action
+against a superior force, when he wishes to retire, certain things
+must happen: those of his men who are worse mounted will be captured,
+others through lack of skill in horsemanship will be thrown, and a
+third set be cut off owing to mere difficulties of ground; since it is
+impossible to find any large tract of country exactly what you would
+desire. If for no other reason, through sheer stress of numbers there
+will be collisions, and much damage done by kicks through mutual
+entanglement; whereas a pick of horse and men will be able to escape
+offhand, (15) especially if you have invention to create a scare in the
+minds of the pursuers by help of the moiety of troops who are out of
+action. (16) For this purpose false ambuscades will be of use.
+
+ (15) Or, "by themselves," reading {ex auton}, as L. Dind. suggests.
+    Cf. Polyb. x. 40. 6, or if as vulg. {ex auton}  (sub. {kheiron},
+    Weiske), transl. "to slip through their fingers."
+
+ (16) Zeune and other commentators cf Liv. v. 38  (Diod. xiv. 114), but
+    the part played by the Roman subsidiarii at the battle of the
+    Allia, if indeed "una salus fugientibus," was scarcely happy.
+    Would not "Hell." VII. v. 26 be more to the point? The detachment
+    of cavalry and infantry placed by Epaminondas "on certain crests,
+    to create an apprehension in the minds of the Athenians" in that
+    quarter of the field at Mantinea was a {mekhanema} of the kind
+    here contemplated.
+
+Another serviceable expedient will be to discover on which side a
+friendly force may suddenly appear and without risk to itself put a
+drag on the wheels of the pursuer. Nay, it is self-evident, I think,
+that, as far as work and speed are concerned, it is the small body
+which will assert its superiority more rapidly over the larger, and
+not vice versa--not of course that the mere fact of being a small body
+will enable them to endure toil or give them wings; but simply it is
+easier to find five men than five hundred, who will take the requisite
+care and pains with their horses, and personally practise of their own
+accord the art of horsemanship.
+
+But suppose the chance should occur of entering the lists against an
+equal number of the enemy's cavalry, according to my judgment it were
+no bad plan to split the squadron into divisions, (17) the first of
+which should be commanded by the squadron-leader, and the other by the
+ablest officer to be found. This second-officer will for the time
+being follow in rear of the leading division with the squadron leader;
+and by and by, when the antagonist is in near proximity, and when the
+word of command is passed, form squadron to the front and charge the
+hostile ranks (18)--a maneuver calculated, as I conceive, to bring the
+whole mass down upon the enemy with paralysing force, and to cause him
+some trouble to extricate himself. Ideally speaking, both
+divisions (19) will be backed by infantry kept in rear of the cavalry;
+these will suddenly disclose themselves, and rushing to close
+quarters, in all probability clench the nail of victory. (20) So at any
+rate it strikes me, seeing as I do the effects of what is
+unexpected--how, in the case of good things, the soul of man is filled
+to overflowing with joy, and again, in the case of things terrible,
+paralysed with amazement. In proof of what I say, let any one reflect on
+the stupor into which a body of men with all the weight of numerical
+advantage on their side will be betrayed by falling into an ambuscade;
+or again, on the exaggerated terror mutually inspired in belligerents
+during the first few days, of finding themselves posted in face of one
+another.
+
+ (17) Or, "troops."
+
+ (18) Possibly on flank. See Courier, p. 35, on Spanish cavalry
+    tactics.
+
+ (19) Lit. "supposing both divisions to be backed by footmen," etc.
+
+ (20) Or, "achieve a much more decisive victory." Cf. "Cyrop." III.
+    iii. 28.
+
+To make these dispositions is not hard; the difficulty is to discover
+a body of men who will dash forward (21) and charge an enemy as above
+described intelligently and loyally, with an eager spirit and
+unfailing courage. That is a problem for a good cavalry general to
+solve. I mean an officer who must be competent to so assert himself in
+speech or action (22) that those under him will no longer hesitate.
+They will recognise of themselves that it is a good thing and a right
+to obey, (23) to follow their leader, to rush to close quarters with
+the foe. A desire will consume them to achieve some deed of glory and
+renown. A capacity will be given them patiently to abide by the
+resolution of their souls.
+
+ (21) {parelontas}, in reference to S. 18 above, {parelaunoi}, "form
+    squadron to the front."
+
+ (22) "To be this, he must be able as an orator as well as a man of
+    action." Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 11.
+
+ (23) Cf. Tennyson's "The Charge of the Light Brigade":
+
+     Their's not to make reply,
+     Their's not to reason why,
+     Their's but to do and die.
+
+
+To turn to another matter, take the case in which you have two armeis
+facing one another in battle order, or a pair of fortresses (24)
+belonging to rival powers, and in the space between all kinds of
+cavalry manouvres are enacted, wheelings and charges and retreats. (25)
+Under such circumstances the custom usually is for either party after
+wheeling to set off at a slow pace and to gallop full speed only in
+the middle of the course. But now suppose that a commander, after
+making feint (26) in this style, presently on wheeling quickens for the
+charge and quickens to retire--he will be able to hit the enemy far
+harder, and pull through absolutely without scathe himself most
+likely; through charging at full speed whilst in proximity to his own
+stronghold  (or main body), and quickening to a gallop as he retires
+from the stronghold  (or main body) of the enemy. If further, he could
+secretly contrive to leave behind four or five troopers, the bravest
+and best mounted of the squadron, it would give them an immense
+advantage in falling upon the enemy whilst wheeling to return to the
+charge. (27)
+
+ (24) Al. "fields and farmsteads between."
+
+ (25) Or, "retirements," see "Horsemanship," viii. 12; "Cyrop." V. iv.
+    8; "Hell." IV. ii. 6; "Ages." ii. 3.
+
+ (26) Or, "having precluded in this fashion." See Theocr. xxii. 102:
+
+        {ton men anax ataraxen etosia khersi prodeiknus Pantothen},
+
+    "feinting on every side"  (A. Lang). Al. "having given due warning
+    of his intention." Cf. Aristot. "H. A." ix. 37.
+
+ (27) Cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 244  (Demosthenes calls to the
+    hipparchs (?)):
+
+        {andres eggus. all' amunou, kapanastrephou palin}.
+
+
+
+IX
+
+To read these observations over a few times will be sufficient, but
+for giving them effect the officer will need perpetually to act as
+circumstances require. (1) He must take in the situation at a glance,
+and carry out unflinchingly whatever is expedient for the moment. To
+set down in writing everything that he must do, is not a whit more
+possible than to know the future as a whole. (2) But of all hints and
+suggestions the most important to my mind is this: whatever you
+determine to be right, with diligence endeavour to perform. For be it
+tillage of the soil, or trading, or seafaring, or the art of ruling,
+without pains applied to bring the matter to perfection, the best
+theories in the world, the most correct conclusions, will be
+fruitless.
+
+ (1) {pros to paratugkhanon}, lit. "to meet emergencies." Cf. Thuc. i.
+    122: "For war, least of all things, conforms to prescribed rules;
+    it strikes out a path for itself when the moment comes"  (Jowett).
+
+ (2) Or, "is about as feasible as to foretell each contingency hid in
+    the womb of futurity."
+
+One thing I am prepared to insist on: it is clear to myself that by
+Heaven's help our total cavalry force might be much more quickly
+raised to the full quota of a thousand troopers, (3) and with far less
+friction to the mass of citizens, by the enrolment of two hundred
+foreign cavalry. Their acquisition will be doubly helpful, as
+intensifying the loyalty of the entire force and as kindling a mutual
+ambition to excel in manly virtue.
+
+ (3) See Schneid. ad loc.; Boeckh, "P. E. A." pp. 263, 264; Herod. vi.
+    112; Thuc. vi. 31; Aristoph. "Knights," 223; Aeschin. "De F. L."
+    334-337. See for this reform, Martin, op. cit. 343, 368.
+
+I can state on my own knowledge that the Lacedaemonian cavalry only
+began to be famous (4) with the introduction of foreign troopers; and
+in the other states of Hellas everywhere the foreign brigades stand in
+high esteem, as I perceive. Need, in fact, contributes greatly to
+enthusiasm. Towards the necessary cost of the horses I hold that an
+ample fund will be provided, (5) partly out of the pockets of those who
+are only too glad to escape cavalry service  (in other words, those on
+whom the service devolves prefer to pay a sum of money down and be
+quit of the duty), (6) and from wealthy men who are physically
+incompetent; and I do not see why orphans possessed of large estates
+should not contribute. (7) Another belief I hold is that amongst our
+resident aliens (8) there are some who will show a laudable ambition if
+incorporated with the cavalry. I argue from the fact, apparent to
+myself, that amongst this class persons are to be found most zealously
+disposed to carry out the part assigned to them, in every other branch
+of honourable service which the citizens may choose to share with
+them. Again, it strikes me that if you seek for an energetic infantry
+to support your cavalry, you will find it in a corps composed of
+individuals whose hatred to the foe is naturally intense. (9) But the
+success of the above suggestions will depend doubtless on the
+consenting will of Heaven. (10)
+
+ (4) "Entered on an era of prestige with the incorporation of," after
+    Leuctra, 371 B.C., when the force was at its worst. See "Hell."
+    VI. iv. 10.
+
+ (5) Or, "money will be forthcoming for them." Cf. Lys. "Against
+    Philon," xxxi. 15; Martin, op. cit. 319.
+
+ (6) Cf. "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Ages." i. 23. Courier brackets this
+    sentence  ({oti... ippeuein}) as a gloss; Martin, p. 323,
+    emends.
+
+ (7) As to the legal exemption of orphans Schneid. cf. Dem. "Symm."
+    182. 15; Lys. "Against Diogeit." 24.
+
+ (8) Lit. "metoecs." See "Revenues," ii.
+
+ (9) Lit. "men the most antagonistic to the enemy." Is the author
+    thinking of Boeotian emigres? Cf. "Hell." VI. iii. 1, 5; Diod. xv.
+    46. 6.
+
+ (10) Lit. "with the consenting will of the gods these things all may
+    come to pass."
+
+And now if the repetition of the phrase throughout this treatise "act
+with God," surprises any one, he may take my word for it that with the
+daily or hourly occurrence of perils which must betide him, his
+wonderment will diminish; as also with the clearer recognition of the
+fact that in time of war the antagonists are full of designs against
+each other, but the precise issue of these plots and counterplots is
+rarely known. To what counsellor, then, can a man apply for advice in
+his extremity save only to the gods, who know all things and forewarn
+whomsoever they will by victims or by omens, by voice or vision? Is it
+not rational to suppose that they will prefer to help in their need,
+not those who only seek them in time of momentary stress and trouble,
+but those rather who in the halcyon days of their prosperity make a
+practice of rendering to Heaven the service of heart and soul?
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cavalry General, by Xenophon
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1172 ***