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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:51 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:51 -0700 |
| commit | 3e2008aecf605ad54e64e3d7e9c0fe5527c34a23 (patch) | |
| tree | 23560b61f51aefab76c8ad5a43f728dcec8bb3e0 /11398-h | |
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diff --git a/11398-h/11398-h.htm b/11398-h/11398-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a4129ef --- /dev/null +++ b/11398-h/11398-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10436 @@ + +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>Mortuary Customs</title> +<meta http-equiv = "Content-Type" content = "text/html; charset=UTF-8"> + +<!--BAE annual report 1 / pp. 87-203 --> + + +<style type = "text/css"> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +div.titlepage {margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 4em; padding: 1em 0; +border-top: 4px double #000; border-bottom: 4px double #000;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; +text-align: center;} +hr.small {width: 30%;} +hr.tiny {width: 20%;} + +img {text-decoration: none; border: none; padding: 0;} + +table.toc a, .mynote a, div.index a +{text-decoration: none;} +table.toc a:link {color: #009; background-color: inherit;} +table.toc a:visited {color: #006; background-color: inherit;} + +a.tag {text-decoration: none; vertical-align: .3em; font-size: 80%; +padding-left: .25em; line-height: .1em;} + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; +font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; +margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 200%;} +h2 {font-size: 175%; margin-top: 2em;} +h3 {font-size: 150%; margin-top: 3em;} +div.maintext h3 {font-size: 125%; letter-spacing: .17em;} +h4 {font-size: 120%; margin-top: 2em;} +div.maintext h4 {font-size: 112%; font-style: italic; +margin-bottom: 1em; letter-spacing: .08em;} +div.titlepage h2, div.titlepage h3, div.titlepage h4, div.mynote h4 +{margin-top: .5em;} +div.maintext h3 + h4 {margin-top: 1em;} + +h5 {font-size: 100%;} +div.maintext h5 {margin-top: 1em; font-size: 92%;} +h6 {font-size: 85%;} + +p {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: 0em; line-height: 1.2;} + +p.inset {padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;} +p.right {text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} +p.center {text-align: center;} + +p.quotation {margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 95%;} + +p.illustration {text-align: center; margin-top: 1em; +margin-bottom: 1em;} +p.illustration.clear {clear: right;} +p.caption {margin-bottom: 1.5em; font-size: 85%; text-align: center;} + +div.verse {margin: .5em 4em;} +div.verse p {margin-top: 0; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em;} +div.verse p.indent {margin-left: 5em;} + +div.figfloat {float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 .5em .5em; +width: auto;} +div.figfloat p.illustration {margin-top: 0;} +div.figfloat p.caption {margin-bottom: 0;} + +div.fig24 {background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: top left; +background-image: url("images/fig24.png"); margin: 0; padding: 0;} +div.sandbag {float: left; clear: left; margin: 0; padding: 0;} + + +/* footnotes */ + +div.footnote {margin: 2em; font-size: 92%;} + +div.index {font-size: 95%;} +div.index p {margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em; margin-top: .25em;} +div.index p.indent {text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0;} +div.index p.indent2 {text-indent: -2em; margin-top: 0;} +div.index p.letter {margin-top: .75em;} + + +/* tables */ + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 1em; +margin-bottom: 1em; font-size: inherit; font-family: inherit;} + +td {vertical-align: top; text-align: left; padding: .1em;} + +td.number, td.item {text-align: right;} +td.item {padding-right: 0;} +td.number {vertical-align: bottom;} + +table.toc {width: 80%;} + +td.inset {padding-left: 1em;} + +table.picture {margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; +border-spacing: 2em .8em;} +table.picture td {text-align: center; font-size: 85%;} +td.illustration {vertical-align: bottom;} + + +/* conditional */ +table.toc p {margin-top: 0; margin-left: 2em; +text-indent: -2em; line-height: normal;} + + +/* text formatting */ + +span.smaller {font-size: 88%;} +span.tiny {font-size: 50%;} +span.smallcaps {font-variant: small-caps;} +span.smallroman {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + +span.ellipsis {letter-spacing: 1em; margin-left: 1em; +white-space: nowrap;} + + +/* greek translit */ + +span.greek {font-family: inherit;} + + +/* correction popup */ + +ins.correction {text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted red;} + +/* page number */ + +span.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: 90%; +font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: right; +text-indent: 0;} + +/* Transcriber's Note */ + +.mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; +font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 90%;} + +div.mynote {margin: 2em 5%; padding: .5em 1em 1em;} +p.mynote {margin: 1em 5%; padding: 1em;} +div.mynote a {text-decoration: none;} + +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11398 ***</div> + +<div class = "mynote"> + +<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> includes a few +characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding:</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +Tsinūk, tamahno-ūs, mé-mel-ūs-illa-hee; Kaw-a-wāh, Tāh-zee:<br> +<i>macron (“long” mark) on <b>a</b> or <b>u</b></i></p> + +<p>There is also a single Greek word. If any of these characters do not +display properly, or if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this +paragraph appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or +unavailable fonts. First, make sure that the browser’s “character set” +or “file encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to +change your browser’s default font.</p> + +<p>Much of this article is quoted from other published sources. The +resulting incon­sistencies in spelling and punctuation are +unchanged. +Typographical errors are shown with <ins class = "correction" title = +"like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>. Differences in punctuation or +hyphenization between the List of Illustrations and the captions +themselves are not noted.</p> + +<p>The Table of Contents and Index were supplied from the beginning and +end of the Annual Report volume. The List of Illustrations was printed +with the article. For this e-text, illustrations were placed as close as +practical to their discussion in the text; the List of Illustrations +shows their original location.</p> + +<p>Most footnotes are purely bibliographic. Asterisks after a few +footnote numbers <a class = "tag" href = "#note44">44*</a> were added by +the transcriber to identify those notes that give further +information.</p> + +<p class = "center"> +<a href = "#contents">Table of Contents</a> +<br> +<a href = "#illus">List of Illustrations</a> +<br> +<a href = "#mortuary">Mortuary Customs</a> +<br> +<a href = "#index">Index</a> +<br> +<a href = "#endnote">Note on Illustrations</a> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum">87</span> +<a name = "page087" id = "page087"> </a> + + +<div class = "titlepage"> + +<h4>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY</h4> + +<h5>J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR</h5> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<h3>A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION</h3> + +<h6>TO THE</h6> + +<h1>STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS</h1> + +<h6>OF THE</h6> + +<h2>NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.</h2> + +<h6>BY</h6> + +<h3>Dr. H. C. YARROW,</h3> + +<h5>ACT. ASST. SURG., U.S.A.</h5> + +</div> + + +<hr class = "small"> + +<span class = "pagenum">88</span> +<a name = "page088" id = "page088"> </a> + +<h4><a name = "contents" id = "contents">CONTENTS</a></h4> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "table of contents"> +<tr> +<td>List of illustrations</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Introductory</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Classification of burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Inhumation</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Pit burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Grave burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Stone graves or cists</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Burial in mounds</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Cave burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Embalmment or mummification</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Urn burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Surface burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Cairn burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page142">142</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Cremation</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page143">143</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Partial cremation</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Aerial sepulture</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page152">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Lodge burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page152">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Box burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Tree and scaffold burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page171">171</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Aquatic burial</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Living sepulchers</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc.</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Mourning</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Sacrifice</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Feasts</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Superstition regarding burial feasts</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Food</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Dances</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Songs</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Games</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Posts</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Fires</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Superstitions</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page199">199</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class = "small"> + +<span class = "pagenum">89</span> +<a name = "page089" id = "page089"> </a> + +<h4><a name = "illus" id = "illus">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h4> + +<p class = "mynote"> +In the original, Figure 12 was printed before Figure 11 (both full-page +Plates). Figure 45 (<i>on</i> page 196) was printed before the group of +plates 34-44 (<i>between</i> pages 196 and 197).</p> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "list of illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig1">1</a>.—</td> +<td><ins class = "correction" title = +"text reads ‘Quiogozeon’">Quiogozon</ins> or dead house</td> +<td class = "number">94</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig2">2</a>.—</td> +<td>Pima burial</td> +<td class = "number">98</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig3">3</a>.—</td> +<td>Towers of silence</td> +<td class = "number">105</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig4">4</a>.—</td> +<td>Towers of silence</td> +<td class = "number">106</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig5">5</a>.—</td> +<td>Alaskan mummies</td> +<td class = "number">135</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig6">6</a>.—</td> +<td>Burial urns</td> +<td class = "number">138</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig7">7</a>.—</td> +<td>Indian cemetery</td> +<td class = "number">139</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig8">8</a>.—</td> +<td>Grave pen</td> +<td class = "number">141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig9">9</a>.—</td> +<td>Grave pen</td> +<td class = "number">141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig10">10</a>.—</td> +<td>Tolkotin cremation</td> +<td class = "number">145</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig11">11</a>.—</td> +<td>Eskimo lodge burial</td> +<td class = "number">154</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig12">12</a>.—</td> +<td>Burial houses</td> +<td class = "number">154</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig13">13</a>.—</td> +<td>Innuit grave</td> +<td class = "number">156</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig14">14</a>.—</td> +<td>Ingalik grave</td> +<td class = "number">157</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig15">15</a>.—</td> +<td>Dakota scaffold burial</td> +<td class = "number">158</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig16">16</a>.—</td> +<td><p>Offering food to the dead</p></td> +<td class = "number">159</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig17">17</a>.—</td> +<td>Depositing the corpse</td> +<td class = "number">160</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig18">18</a>.—</td> +<td>Tree-burial</td> +<td class = "number">161</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig19">19</a>.—</td> +<td>Chippewa scaffold burial</td> +<td class = "number">162</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig20">20</a>.—</td> +<td>Scarification at burial</td> +<td class = "number">164</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig21">21</a>.—</td> +<td><p>Australian scaffold burial</p></td> +<td class = "number">166</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig22">22</a>.—</td> +<td>Preparing the dead</td> +<td class = "number">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig23">23</a>.—</td> +<td>Canoe-burial</td> +<td class = "number">171</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig24">24</a>.—</td> +<td>Twana canoe-burial</td> +<td class = "number">172</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig25">25</a>.—</td> +<td>Posts for burial canoes</td> +<td class = "number">173</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig26">26</a>.—</td> +<td>Tent on scaffold</td> +<td class = "number">174</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig27">27</a>.—</td> +<td>House burial</td> +<td class = "number">175</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig28">28</a>.—</td> +<td>House burial</td> +<td class = "number">175</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig29">29</a>.—</td> +<td>Canoe-burial</td> +<td class = "number">178</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig30">30</a>.—</td> +<td>Mourning-cradle</td> +<td class = "number">181</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig31">31</a>.—</td> +<td><p>Launching the burial cradle</p></td> +<td class = "number">182</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig32">32</a>.—</td> +<td>Chippewa widow</td> +<td class = "number">185</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig33">33</a>.—</td> +<td>Ghost gamble</td> +<td class = "number">195</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig34">34</a>.—</td> +<td>Figured plum stones</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig35">35</a>.—</td> +<td>Winning throw, No. 1</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig36">36</a>.—</td> +<td>Winning throw, No. 2</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig37">37</a>.—</td> +<td>Winning throw, No. 3</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig38">38</a>.—</td> +<td>Winning throw, No. 4</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig39">39</a>.—</td> +<td>Winning throw, No. 5</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig40">40</a>.—</td> +<td>Winning throw, No. 6</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig41">41</a>.—</td> +<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 1</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig42">42</a>.—</td> +<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 2</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig43">43</a>.—</td> +<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 3</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig44">44</a>.—</td> +<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 4</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig45">45</a>.—</td> +<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 5</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig46">46</a>.—</td> +<td>Burial posts</td> +<td class = "number">197</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig47">47</a>.—</td> +<td>Grave fire</td> +<td class = "number">198</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<a name = "page090" id = "page090"> </a> + +<hr class = "small"> + +<span class = "pagenum">91</span> +<a name = "page091" id = "page091"> </a> + +<h3><a name = "mortuary" id = "mortuary">A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION</a><br> +<span class = "tiny">TO THE</span><br> +<span class = "smaller">STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF<br> +THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS</span></h3> + +<hr class = "small"> + +<h5><span class = "smallcaps">By H. C. Yarrow.</span></h5> + +<hr class = "small"> + +<div class = "maintext"> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY.</h3> + + +<p>In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many +readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen +the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to +reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an +introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate +study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and +more important.</p> + +<p>The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are +rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other +disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all +interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously, +while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable. +This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an +almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and +the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing. +A wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably +seconded the efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants, +from the public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of +scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press, +too—the mouth-piece of the people—is ever on the alert to +scatter broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of +well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry, +and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is +the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North +American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it +be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already +contributed.</p> + +<p>It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest, +since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great +importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost +invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our +globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed +more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of +supererogation +<span class = "pagenum">92</span> +<a name = "page092" id = "page092"> </a> +to continue a further examination of the subject, for nearly every +author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention of burial +observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on the sea of +this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless supported by +corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely unreliable. To +bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and arrange +collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer’s task, +and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method of +securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and +need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present +to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to +the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies, +the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples, +and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding +the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be +done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough +analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and +from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be +considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer +having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the +accounts furnished.</p> + +<p>It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be +embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions +to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj. +J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian +Institution, from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant +encouragement and advice has been received, and to whom all American +ethnologists owe a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.</p> + +<p>Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the +subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies +among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost +analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World.</p> + +<p>For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of +burials may be adopted, although further study may lead to some +modifications.</p> + + + + +<h3>CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL.</h3> + + +<p>1st. By <span class = "smallroman">INHUMATION</span> in pits, graves, +or holes in the ground, stone graves or cists, in mounds, beneath or in +cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or in caves.</p> + +<p>2d. By <span class = "smallroman">EMBALMMENT</span> or a process of +mummifying, the remains being afterwards placed in the earth, caves, +mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in charnel-houses.</p> + +<p>3d. By <span class = "smallroman">DEPOSITION</span> of remains in +urns.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">93</span> +<a name = "page093" id = "page093"> </a> +<p>4th. By <span class = "smallroman">SURFACE BURIAL</span>, the remains +being placed in hollow trees or logs, pens, or simply covered with +earth, or bark, or rocks forming cairns.</p> + +<p>5th. By <span class = "smallroman">CREMATION</span>, or partial +burning, generally on the surface of the earth, occasionally beneath, +the resulting bones or ashes being placed in pits in the ground, in +boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns, sometimes scattered.</p> + +<p>6th. By <span class = "smallroman">AERIAL SEPULTURE</span>, the +bodies being left in lodges, houses, cabins, tents, deposited on +scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the two latter receptacles +supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the ground. Occasionally +baskets have been used to contain the remains of children, these being +hung to trees.</p> + +<p>7th. By <span class = "smallroman">AQUATIC BURIAL</span>, beneath the +water, or in canoes, which were turned adrift.</p> + +<p>These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem +sufficient for all practical needs.</p> + +<p>The use of the term <i>burial</i> throughout this paper is to be +understood in its literal significance, the word being derived from the +Teutonic Anglo-Saxon “<i>birgan</i>,” to conceal or hide away.</p> + +<p>In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies, +it has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished, +in order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the +relator’s language been changed except to correct manifest +unintentional, errors of spelling.</p> + + + + +<h3>INHUMATION.</h3> + + +<h4>PIT BURIAL.</h4> + +<p>The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been +that of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of +different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of +the process:</p> + +<p>One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:<a class = +"tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href = "#note1">1</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the body was +placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it was covered with +timber, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby kept the +body from being pressed. They then raised the earth in a round hill over +it. They always dressed the corpse in all its finery, and put wampum and +other things into the grave with it; and the relations suffered not +grass nor any wood to grow upon the grave, and frequently visited it and +made lamentation.</p> + +<p>In Jones<a class = "tag" name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href = +"#note2">2</a> is the following interesting account from Lawson<a class += "tag" name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href = "#note3">3</a> of the burial +customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was accompanied with +special ceremonies, the expense and formality attendant upon the funeral +according with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was first placed in +a cane hurdle and deposited in +<span class = "pagenum">94</span> +<a name = "page094" id = "page094"> </a> +an outhouse made for the purpose, where it was suffered to remain for a +day and a night, guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with +disheveled hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral go into the +town, and from the backs of the first young men they meet strip such +blankets and matchcoats as they deem suitable for their purpose. In +these the dead body is wrapped and then covered with two or three mats +made of rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or hollow +canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared for the +interment, the corpse is carried from the house in which it has been +lying into the orchard of peach-trees and is there deposited in another +hurdle. Seated upon mats are there congregated the family and tribe of +the deceased and invited guests. The medicine man, or conjurer, having +enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral oration, during which he +recounts the exploits of the deceased, his valor, skill, love of +country, property, and influence; alludes to the void caused by his +death, and counsels those who remain to supply his place by following in +his footsteps; pictures the happiness he will enjoy in the land of +spirits to which he has gone, and concludes his address by an allusion +to the prominent traditions of his tribe.</p> + +<p>Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed +throughout the civilized world up to the present day—a custom, in +the opinion of many, “more honored in the breach than in the +observance.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from that Hurdle +to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the Relations, the King, old +Men, and all the Nation. When they come to the Sepulcre, which is about +six foot deep and eight foot long, having at each end (that is, at the +Head and Foot) a Light-Wood or Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down +the sides of the Grave firmly into the Ground (these two Forks are to +contain a Ridge-Pole, as you shall understand presently), before they +lay the Corps into the Grave, they cover the bottom two or three time +over with the Bark of Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two +Belts that the <i>Indians</i> carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely +upon the said Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood in the +two Forks, and having a great many Pieces of Pitch-Pine Logs about two +Foot and a half long, they stick them in the sides of the Grave down +each End and near the Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the +Ridge-Pole, so that they are declining like the Roof of a House. These +being very thick plac’d, they cover them [many times double] with Bark; +then they throw the Earth thereon that came out of the Grave and beat it +down very firm. By this Means the dead Body lies in a Vault, nothing +touching him.</p> + +<p>After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited +in an ossuary called the Quiogozon.</p> + +<p>Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers +called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to +it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair +greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited, +another dried bodies.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig1" id = "fig1"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig1.png" width = "298" height = "426" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>—Quiogozon or Dead +House.</p> + +<p>It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M. B. Kent, +relating to the Sacs and Foxes (<i>Oh-sak-ke-uck</i>) of the Nehema +Agency, Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead +to prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom +has been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by +examples given further on.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Ancient burial.</i>—The body was buried in a grave made about +2½ feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards the east, the +burial taking place as soon after death as possible. The grave was +prepared by putting bark in the bottom of it before the corpse +<span class = "pagenum">95</span> +<a name = "page095" id = "page095"> </a> +was deposited, a plank covering made and secured some distance +above the body. The plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse +with the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse was +always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a long journey in +life, no coffin being used.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Modern burial.</i>—This tribe now usually bury in coffins, rude +ones constructed by themselves, still depositing the body in the grave +with the head towards the east.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Ancient funeral ceremonies.</i>—Every relative of the deceased +had to throw some article in the grave, either food, clothing, or other +material. There was no rule stating the nature of what was to be added +to the collection, simply a requirement that something must be +deposited, if it were only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After the +corpse was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead, +instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would soon discover +moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he came to a great river, +which is the river of death; when there he would find a pole across the +river, which, if he has been honest, upright, and good, will be +straight, upon which he could readily cross to the other side; but if +his life had been one of wickedness and sin, the pole would be very +crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he would be precipitated +into the turbulent stream and lost forever. The brave also told him if +he crossed the river in safety the Great Father would receive him, take +out his old brains, give him new ones, and then he would have reached +the happy hunting grounds, always be happy and have eternal life. After +burial a feast was always called, and a portion of the food of which +each and every relative was partaking was burned to furnish subsistence +to the spirit upon its journey.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Modern funeral ceremonies.</i>—Provisions are rarely put into +the grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast subsequent +to burial is burned, although the feast is continued. All the address +delivered by the brave over the corpse after being deposited in the +grave is omitted. A prominent feature of all ceremonies, either +funeral or religious, consists of feasting accompanied with music and +dancing.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Ancient mourning observances.</i>—The female relations allowed +their hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed themselves in the most +unpresentable attire, the latter of which the males also do. Men blacked +the whole face for a period of ten days after a death in the family, +while the women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the children were +blacked for three months; they were also required to fast for the same +length of time, the fasting to consist of eating but one meal per day, +to be made entirely of hominy, and partaken of about sunset. It was +believed that this fasting would enable the child to dream of coming +events and prophesy what was to happen in the future. The extent and +correctness of prophetic vision depended upon how faithfully the ordeal +of fasting had been observed.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Modern mourning observances.</i>—Many of those of the past are +continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing uncouth +apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children, and they are adhered +to with as much tenacity as many of the professing Christians belonging +to the evangelical churches adhere to their practices, which constitute +mere forms, the intrinsic value of which can very reasonably be called +in question.</p> + +<p>The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,<a +class = "tag" name = "tag4" id = "tag4" href = "#note4">4</a> made the +graves of their dead as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse about four +feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the cabin or rock wherever +he died. The corpse is placed in the hole in a sitting posture, with a +blanket wrapped about it, and the legs bent under and tied together. If +a warrior, he is painted, and his pipe, ornaments, and warlike +appendages are deposited with him. The grave is then covered with canes +tied to a hoop round the top of the hole, then a firm layer of clay, +sufficient to support the weight of a man. The relations howl loudly and +mourn publicly for four days. If the deceased has been a man of eminent +character, the family immediately remove +<span class = "pagenum">96</span> +<a name = "page096" id = "page096"> </a> +from the house in which he is buried and erect a new one, with a belief +that where the bones of their dead are deposited the place is always +attended by goblins and chimeras dire.</p> + +<p>Dr. W. C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County, +Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most +interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it +may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those +already mentioned:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in southern Gage +County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000 acres, unsurpassed in +beauty of location, natural resources, and adaptability for prosperous +agriculture. This pastoral people, though in the midst of civilization, +have departed but little from the rude practice and customs of a nomadic +life, and here may be seen and studied those interesting dramas as +vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote frontier.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +During my residence among this people on different occasions, +I have had the opportunity of witnessing the Indian burials and +many quaint ceremonies pertaining thereto.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe subject, +the preparation of the burial costume is immediately began. The near +relatives of the dying Indian surround the humble bedside, and by loud +lamentations and much weeping manifest a grief which is truly +commensurate with the intensity of Indian devotion and attachment.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +While thus expressing before the near departed their grief at the sad +separation impending, the Indian women, or friendly braves, lose no time +in equipping him or her with the most ornate clothes and ornaments that +are available or in immediate possession. It is thus that the departed +Otoe is enrobed in death, in articles of his own selection and by +arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his own tongue. It is +customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere his departure, the +propriety or impropriety of the accustomed sacrifices. In some cases +there is a double and in others no sacrifice at all. The Indian women +then prepare to cut away their hair; it is accomplished with scissors, +cutting close to the scalp at the side and behind.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with great solemnity +and care. Bead-work, the most ornate, expensive blankets and ribbons +comprise the funeral shroud. The dead, being thus enrobed, is placed in +a recumbent posture at the most conspicuous part of the lodge and viewed +in rotation by the mourning relatives previously summoned by a courier, +all preserving uniformity in the piercing screams which would seem to +have been learned by rote.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the tribe, +arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge around one of their +number, keeping time upon a drum or some rude cooking-utensil.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance excitedly +around the central person, vociferating, and with wild gesture, tomahawk +in hand, imprecate the evil spirit, which he drives to the land where +the sun goes down. The evil spirit being thus effectually banished, the +mourning gradually subsides, blending into succeeding scenes of feasting +and refreshment. The burial feast is in every respect equal in richness +to its accompanying ceremonies. All who assemble are supplied with +cooked venison, hog, buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing +alike hot cakes soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case +may be.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged Indian +present will sit in the central circle, and in a continuous and doleful +tone narrate the acts of valor in the life of the departed, enjoining +fortitude and bravery upon all sitting around as an essential +qualification for admittance to the land where the Great Spirit reigns. +When the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is customary for the +surviving friends to +<span class = "pagenum">97</span> +<a name = "page097" id = "page097"> </a> +present the bereaved family with useful articles of domestic needs, such +as calico in bolt, flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or +horses. After the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the body is +carefully placed in a wagon and, with an escort of all friends, +relatives, and acquaintances, conveyed to the grave previously prepared +by some near relation or friend. When a wagon is used, the immediate +relatives occupy it with the corpse, which is propped in a semi-sitting +posture; before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it was necessary to +bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then convey him to his +last resting place among his friends. In past days when buffalo were +more available, and a tribal hunt was more frequently indulged in, it is +said that those dying on the way were bound upon horses and thus +frequently carried several hundred miles for interment at the burial +places of their friends.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a double +nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel, and upon the other +blended with the deepest grief and most heartfelt sorrow. Before the +interment of the dead the chattels of the deceased are unloaded from the +wagons or unpacked from the backs of ponies and carefully arranged in +the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is wider than the top (graves +here being dug like an inverted funnel), is spread with straw or grass +matting, woven generally by the Indian women of the tribe or some near +neighbor. The sides are then carefully hung with handsome shawls or +blankets, and trunks, with domestic articles, pottery, &c., of less +importance, are piled around in abundance. The sacrifices are next +inaugurated. A pony, first designated by the dying Indian, is led +aside and strangled by men hanging to either end of a rope. Sometimes, +but not always, a dog is likewise strangled, the heads of both +animals being subsequently laid upon the Indian’s grave. The body, which +is now often placed in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if +a coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the deceased +before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a saddle and +bridle, blankets, dishes, &c., are placed upon it, the mourning +ceases, and the Indians prepare to close the grave. It should be +remembered, among the Otoe and Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in +upon the body, but simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs +that are accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the +burying is completed, a distribution of the property of the +deceased takes place, the near relatives receiving everything, from the +merest trifle to the tent and homes, leaving the immediate family, wife +and children or father out-door pensioners.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Although the same generosity is not observed towards the whites +assisting in funeral rites, it is universally practiced as regards +Indians, and poverty’s lot is borne by the survivors with a fortitude +and resignation which in them amounts to duty, and marks a higher grade +of intrinsic worth than pervades whites of like advantages and +conditions. We are told in the Old Testament Scriptures, “four days and +four nights should the fires burn,” &c. In fulfillment of this +sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil carefully kept by these +Indians four days and four nights at the graves of their departed. +A small fire is kindled for the purpose near the grave at sunset, +where the nearest relatives convene and maintain a continuous +lamentation till the morning dawn. There was an ancient tradition that +at the expiration of this time the Indian arose, and mounting his spirit +pony, galloped off to the happy hunting-ground beyond.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these superstitions have +faded, and the living sacrifices are partially continued only from a +belief that by parting with their most cherished and valuable goods they +propitiate the Great Spirit for the sins committed during the life of +the deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find was the practice +of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt offerings the lamb or the +ox; hence we cannot censure this people, but, from a comparison of +conditions, credit them with a more strict observance of our Holy Book +than pride and seductive fashions permit of us.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">98</span> +<a name = "page098" id = "page098"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +From a careful review of the whole of their attendant ceremonies a +remarkable similarity can be marked. The arrangement of the corpse +preparatory to interment, the funeral feast, the local service by the +aged fathers, are all observances that have been noted among whites, +extending into times that are in the memory of those still living.</p> + +<p>The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that +led the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with +the corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F. E. +Grossman,<a class = "tag" name = "tag5" id = "tag5" href = +"#note5">5</a> and the account is corroborated by M. Alphonse +Pinart<a class = "tag" name = "tag6" id = "tag6" href = "#note6">6</a> +and Bancroft.<a class = "tag" name = "tag7" id = "tag7" href = +"#note7">7</a></p> + +<p>Captain Grossman’s account follows:</p> + +<div class = "figfloat"> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig2" id = "fig2"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig2.png" width = "236" height = "264" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>—Pima burial.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing the latter +around their neck and under the knees, and then drawing them tight until +the body is doubled up and forced into a sitting position. They dig the +graves from four to five feet deep and perfectly round (about two feet +in diameter), and then hollow out to one side of the bottom of this +grave a sort of vault large enough to contain the body. Here the body is +deposited, the grave is filled up level with the ground, and poles, +trees, or pieces of timber placed upon the grave to protect the remains +from coyotes.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony. The mourners +chant during the burial, but signs of grief are rare. The bodies of +their dead are buried if possible, immediately after death has taken +place and the graves are generally prepared before the patients die. +Sometimes sick persons (for whom the graves had already been dug) +recover. In such cases the graves are left open until the persons for +whom they are intended die. Open graves of this kind can be seen in +several of their burial grounds. Places of burial are selected some +distance from the village, and, if possible, in a grove of mesquite +trees.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house and personal +effects of the deceased are burned and his horses and cattle killed, the +meat being cooked as a +<span class = "pagenum">99</span> +<a name = "page099" id = "page099"> </a> +repast for the mourners. The nearest relatives of the deceased as a sign +of their sorrow remain within their village for weeks, and sometimes +months; the men cut off about six inches of their long hair, while the +women cut their hair quite short. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The custom of destroying all the property of the husband when he dies +impoverishes the widow and children and prevents increase of stock. The +women of the tribe, well aware that they will be poor should their +husbands die, and that then they will have to provide for their children +by their own exertions, do not care to have many children, and +infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to a great extent. +This is not considered a crime, and old women of the tribe practice it. +A widow may marry again after a year’s mourning for her first +husband; but having children no man will take her for a wife and thus +burden himself with her children. Widows generally cultivate a small +piece of ground, and friends and relatives (men) plow the ground for +them.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman’s description by my friend Dr. +W. J. Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial.</p> + +<p>Stephen Powers<a class = "tag" name = "tag8" id = "tag8" href = +"#note8">8</a> describes a similar mode of grave preparation among the +Yuki of California:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a hole six feet +deep sometimes and at the bottom of it “<i>coyote</i>” under, making a +little recess in which the corpse is deposited.</p> + +<p>The Comanches of Indian Territory (<i>Nem</i>, <i>we, or us, +people</i>), according to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency, +Indian Territory, go to the opposite extreme, so far as the protection +of the dead from the surrounding earth is concerned. The account as +received is given entire, as much to illustrate this point as others of +interest.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be faintly +heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not departed from the +body, the knees are strongly bent upon the chest, and the legs flexed +upon the thighs. The arms are also flexed upon each side of the chest, +and the head bent forward upon the knees. A lariat, or rope, is now +used to firmly bind the limbs and body in this position. A blanket +is then wrapped around the body, and this again tightly corded, so that +the appearance when ready for burial is that of an almost round and +compact body, very unlike the composed pall of his Wichita or Caddo +brother. The body is then taken and placed in a saddle upon a pony, in a +sitting posture; a squaw usually riding behind, though sometimes +one on either side of the horse, holds the body in position until the +place of burial is reached, when the corpse is literally tumbled into +the excavation selected for the purpose. The deceased is only +accompanied by two or three squaws, or enough to perform the little +labor bestowed upon the burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge +or village of the bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes or heads +of cañons in which the Comanche country abounds is selected, and the +body thrown in, without special reference to position. With this are +deposited the bows and arrows; these, however, are first broken. The +saddle is also placed in the grave, together with many of the personal +valuables of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks and +earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Funeral ceremonies.</i>—the best pony owned by the deceased is +brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may appear well +mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the other world. Formerly, +if the deceased were a chief or man of consequence and had large herds +of ponies, many were killed, sometimes amounting to 200 or 300 head in +number.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good pony for the +convoy +<span class = "pagenum">100</span> +<a name = "page100" id = "page100"> </a> +of the deceased to the happy-grounds by the following story, which is +current among both Comanches and Wichitas:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +“A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no relatives and who +was quite poor. Some of the tribe concluded that almost any kind of a +pony would serve to transport him to the next world. They therefore +killed at his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared horse. But a few +weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo and behold he +returned, riding this same old worn-out horse, weary and hungry. He +first appeared at the Wichita camps, where he was well known, and asked +for something to eat, but his strange appearance, with sunken eyes and +hollow cheeks, filled with consternation all who saw him, and they fled +from his presence. Finally one bolder than the rest placed a piece of +meat on the end of a lodge-pole and extended it to him. He soon appeared +at his own camp, creating, if possible, even more dismay than among the +Wichitas, and this resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving their +villages and moving <i>en masse</i> to a place on Rush Creek, not far +distant from the present site of Fort Sill.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +“When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was questioned why +he thus appeared among the inhabitants of earth, he made reply that when +he came to the gates of paradise the keepers would on no account permit +him to enter upon such an ill-conditioned beast as that which bore him, +and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the homes of those whose +stinginess and greed permitted him no better equipment. Since this no +Comanche has been permitted to depart with the sun to his chambers in +the west without a steed which in appearance should do honor alike to +the rider and his friends.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that the spirit +may accompany the setting sun to the world beyond. The spirit starts on +its journey the following night after death has taken place; if this +occur at night, the journey is not begun until the next night.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Mourning observances.</i>—All the effects of the deceased, the +tents, blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of value, aside from +the articles which have been buried with the body, are burned, so that +the family is left in poverty. This practice has extended even to the +burning of wagons and harness since some of the civilized habits have +been adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the smoke, +and will thus be of service to the owner in the other world. Immediately +upon the death of a member of the household, the relatives begin a +peculiar wailing, and the immediate members of the family take off their +customary apparel and clothe themselves in rags and cut themselves +across the arms, breast, and other portions of the body, until sometimes +a fond wife or mother faints from loss of blood. This scarification is +usually accomplished with a knife, or, as in earlier days, with a flint. +Hired mourners are employed at times who are in no way related to the +family, but who are accomplished in the art of crying for the dead. +These are invariably women. Those nearly related to the departed, cut +off the long locks from the entire head, while those more distantly +related, or special friends, cut the hair only from one side of the +head. In case of the death of a chief, the young warriors also cut the +hair, usually from the left side of the head.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is conducted +more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the Comanches venerate the +sun; and the mourning at these seasons is kept up, if the death occurred +in summer, until the leaves fall, or, if in the winter, until they +reappear.</p> + +<p>It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the +corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the +burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body +with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The +hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from +remotest periods of time.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">101</span> +<a name = "page101" id = "page101"> </a> +<h4>GRAVE BURIAL.</h4> + +<p>The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians +of San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph, +will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon +those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo +people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian +Territory, the most civilized of our tribes.</p> + +<p>According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves +<i>Wee-ka-nahs</i>.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +These are commonly known to the whites as <i>Piros</i>. The manner of +burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern, as far as I can +ascertain from information obtained from the most intelligent of the +tribe, is that the body of the dead is and has been always buried in the +ground in a horizontal position with the flat bottom of the grave. The +grave is generally dug out of the ground in the usual and ordinary +manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7 feet long, and about 2 feet +wide. It is generally finished after receiving its occupant by being +leveled with the hard ground around it, never leaving, as is customary +with the whites, a mound to mark the spot. This tribe of Pueblo +Indians never cremated their dead, as they do not know, even by +tradition, that it was ever done or attempted. There are no utensils or +implements placed in the grave, but there are a great many Indian +ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells, hawk-bells, round +looking-glasses, and a profusion of ribbons of all imaginable colors; +then they paint the body with red vermilion and white chalk, giving it a +most fantastic as well as ludicrous appearance. They also place a +variety of food in the grave as a wise provision for its long journey to +the happy hunting-ground beyond the clouds.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar. First, after +death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo robe spread out on the +ground, then they dress the body in the best possible manner in their +style of dress; if a male, they put on his beaded leggins and +embroidered <i>saco</i>, and his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large +brass or shell ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or +dress, tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her fancy +dancing-moccasins; her <i>rosario</i> around her neck, her brass or +shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed black hair tied up +with red tape or ribbon, this completes her wardrobe for her long and +happy chase. When they get through dressing the body, they place about a +dozen lighted candles around it, and keep them burning continually until +the body is buried. As soon as the candles are lighted, the +<i>veloris</i>, or wake, commences; the body lies in state for about +twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends, relatives, and +neighbors of the deceased or “<i>difunti</i>” visit the wake, chant, +sing, and pray for the soul of the same, and tell one another of the +good deeds and traits of valor and courage manifested by the deceased +during his earthly career, and at intervals in their praying, singing, +&c., some near relative of the deceased will step up to the corpse +and every person in the room commences to cry bitterly and express aloud +words of endearment to the deceased and of condolence to the family of +the same in their untimely bereavement.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in attendance +marches out into another room and partakes of a frugal Indian meal, +generally composed of wild game; Chilé Colorado or red-pepper tortillas, +and guayaves, with a good supply of mush and milk, which completes the +festive board of the <i>veloris</i> or wake. When the deceased is in +good circumstances, the crowd in attendance is treated every little +while during the wake to alcoholic refreshments. This feast and feasting +is kept up until the Catholic priest arrives to perform the funeral +rites.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">102</span> +<a name = "page102" id = "page102"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather baled up in a +large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied around tight with a rope or +lasso made for the purpose; then six or eight men act as pall-bearers, +conducting the body to the place of burial, which is in front of their +church or chapel. The priest conducts the funeral ceremonies in the +ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings observed by the Catholic +church all over the world. While the grave-diggers are filling up the +grave, the friends, relatives, neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that +attend the funeral, give vent to their sad feelings by making the whole +pueblo howl; after the tremendous uproar subsides, they disband and +leave the body to rest until Gabriel blows his trumpet. When the +ceremonies are performed with all the pomp of the Catholic church, the +priest receives a fair compensation for his services; otherwise he +officiates for the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo pay +him, which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning observance, which +last for one year after the demise of the deceased. While in mourning +for the dead, the mourners do not participate in the national +festivities of the tribe, which are occasions of state with them, but +they retire into a state of sublime quietude which makes more civilized +people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning ceases, at the end +of the year, they have high mass said for the benefit of the soul of the +departed; after this they again appear upon the arena of their wild +sports and continue to be gay and happy until the next mortal is called +from this terrestrial sphere to the happy hunting-ground, which is their +pictured celestial paradise. The above cited facts, which are the most +interesting points connected with the burial customs of the Indians of +the pueblo San Geronimo de Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but +are the absolute facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances +for a period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a short +distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer of their peculiar +burial customs, am able to give you this true and undisguised +information relative to your circular on “burial customs.”</p> + +<p>Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth +coming in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the +burial of the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr. +Fordyce Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection +with the Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves +<i>Kitty-ka-tats</i>, or those of the tattooed eyelids.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through the village +and announces the fact. Preparations are immediately made for the +burial, and the body is taken without delay to the grave prepared for +its reception. If the grave is some distance from the village, the body +is carried thither on the back of a pony, being first wrapped in +blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle, one person walking on +either side to support it. The grave is dug from three to four feet deep +and of sufficient length for the extended body. First blankets and +buffalo-robes are laid in the bottom of the grave, then the body, being +taken from the horse and unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel and +with ornaments is placed upon a couch of blankets and robes, with the +head towards the west and the feet to the east; the valuables belonging +to the deceased are placed with the body in the grave. With the man are +deposited his bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking +utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body sticks are +placed six or eight inches deep and grass over these, so that when the +earth is filled in, it need not come in contact with the body or its +trappings. After the grave is filled with earth, a pen of poles is +built around it, or as is frequently the case, stakes are driven so that +they cross each other from either side about midway over the grave, thus +forming a complete protection from the invasion of wild animals. After +all this is done, the grass or other <i>debris</i> is carefully scraped +from about the grave for several feet, so that the ground is left smooth +and clean. It is seldom the case that the relatives accompany +<span class = "pagenum">103</span> +<a name = "page103" id = "page103"> </a> +the remains to the grave, but they more often employ others to bury the +body for them, usually women. Mourning is similar in this tribe, as in +others, and it consists in cutting off the hair, fasting, &c. Horses +are also killed at the grave.</p> + +<p>The Caddoes, <i>Ascena</i>, or Timber Indians, as they call +themselves, follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but +one custom prevailing is worthy of mention:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried, but is left to +be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and the condition of such +individuals in the other world is considered to be far better than that +of persons dying a natural death.</p> + +<p>In a work by Bruhier<a class = "tag" name = "tag9" id = "tag9" href = +"#note9">9</a> the following remarks, freely translated by the writer, +may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the +exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on the roads, +and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts it was esteemed a +great honor, a misfortune if not. Sometimes they interred, always +wrapping the dead in a wax cloth to prevent odor.</p> + +<p>M. Pierre Muret,<a class = "tag" name = "tag10" id = "tag10" href = +"#note10">10</a> from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his +information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar +method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It is a matter of astonishment, considering the <i>Persians</i> have +ever had the renown of being one of the most civilized Nations in the +world, that notwithstanding they should have used such barbarous customs +about the Dead as are set down in the Writings of some Historians; and +the rather because at this day there are still to be seen among them +those remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie us, that their Tombs +have been very magnificent. And yet nevertheless, if we will give credit +to <i>Procopius</i> and <i>Agathias</i>, the <i>Persians</i> were never +wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far were they from bestowing any +Funeral Honours upon them: But, as these Authors tell us, they exposed +them stark naked in the open fields, which is the greatest shame our +Laws do allot to the most infamous Criminals, by laying them open to the +view of all upon the highways: Yea, in their opinion it was a great +unhappiness, if either Birds or Beasts did not devour their Carcases; +and they commonly made an estimate of the Felicity of these poor Bodies, +according as they were sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning these, +they resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed, since even +the beasts themselves would not touch them; which caused an extream +sorrow to their Relations, they taking it for an ill boding to their +Family, and an infallible presage of some great misfortune hanging over +their heads; for they persuaded themselves, that the Souls which +inhabited those Bodies being dragg’d into Hell, would not fail to come +and trouble them; and that being always accompanied with the Devils, +their Tormentors, they would certainly give them a great deal of +disturbance.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently devoured, their +joy was very great, they enlarged themselves in praises of the Deceased; +every one esteeming them undoubtedly happy, and came to congratulate +their relations on that account: For as they believed assuredly, that +they were entered into the <i>Elysian</i> Fields, so they were +persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all those of their +family.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones scatered up +and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely endure to see those of +Horses and Dogs used so. And these remains of Humane Bodies, (the sight +whereof gives us so much horror, that we presently bury them out of our +sight, whenever we find them elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or +Church-yards) were the occasion of their greatest joy; beecause they +concluded from thence the happiness of those that had been devoured, +wishing after their Death to meet with the like good luck.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">104</span> +<a name = "page104" id = "page104"> </a> +<p>The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that +the Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a +horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and +of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the +open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a part of their belief +being that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy +at least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite +probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians +trained dogs for this special purpose, called <i>Canes sepulchrales</i>, +which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper +that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to +dwell in.</p> + +<p>The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead +on top of high rocks.</p> + +<p>According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London +Times of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta +regarding the “Towers of Silence,” so called, of the Parsees, who, it is +well known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from +Persia by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100 +years since. This gentleman’s narrative is freely made use of to show +how the custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has +continued up to the present time.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a garden on the +highest point of Malabar Hill, a beautiful, rising ground on one +side of Black Bay, noted for the bungalows and compounds of the European +and wealthier inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every direction over +its surface.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private road, all access +to which, except to Parsees, is barred by strong iron gates.</p> + +<p>The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +No English nobleman’s garden could be better kept, and no pen could do +justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses, and palms. It +seemed the very ideal, not only of a place of sacred silence, but of +peaceful rest.</p> + +<p>The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about +40 feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as +almost to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest +of the towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees +first settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next +oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next +century. A sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only +used for criminals.</p> + +<p>The writer proceeds as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest moldings, +the parapet of each tower possesses an extraordinary coping, which +instantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a coping formed not of +dead stone, but of living vultures. These birds, on the occasion of my +visit, had settled themselves side by side in perfect order and in a +complete circle around the parapets of the towers, with their heads +pointing inwards, and so lazily did they sit there, and so motionless +was their whole mien, that except for their color, they might have been +carved out of the stonework.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig3" id = "fig3"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig3.png" width = "337" height = "536" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span>—Parsee Towers of Silence +(interior).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">105</span> +<a name = "page105" id = "page105"> </a> +<p>No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor +is any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts. +A model was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this +description:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet high and at +least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of solid stone except in the +center, where a well, 5 or 6 feet across, leads down to an +excavation under the masonry, containing four drains at right angles to +each other, terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the upper +surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely hiding the +interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12 feet in height. This it +is which, when viewed from the outside, appears to form one piece with +the solid stone-work, and being, like it, covered with chunam, gives the +whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper surface of the solid +stone column is divided into 72 compartments, or open receptacles, +radiating like the spokes of a wheel from the central well, and arranged +in three concentric rings, separated from each other by narrow ridges of +stone, which are grooved to act as channels for conveying all moisture +from the receptacles into the well and into the lower drains. It should +be noted that the number “3” is emblematical of Zoroaster’s three +precepts, and the number “72” of the chapters of his Yasna, +a portion of the Zend-Avestá.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next by a pathway, +so that there are three circular pathways, the last encircling the +central well, and these three pathways are crossed by another pathway +conducting from the solitary door which admits the corpse-bearers from +the exterior. In the outermost circle of the stone coffins are placed +the bodies of males, in the middle those of the females, and in the +inner and smallest circle nearest the well those of children.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the model, +a sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our heads. At least +a hundred birds collected round one of the towers began to show symptoms +of excitement, while others swooped down from neighboring trees. The +cause of this sudden abandonment of their previous apathy soon revealed +itself. A funeral was seen to be approaching. However distant the +house of a deceased person, and whether he be rich or poor, high or low +in rank, his body is always carried to the towers by the official +corpse-bearers, called <i>Nasasalár</i>, who form a distinct class, the +mourners walking behind.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Before they remove the body from the house where the relatives are +assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and the corpse is exposed to the +gaze of a dog, regarded by the Parsees as a sacred animal. This latter +ceremony is called <i>sagdid</i>.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a curved metal +trough, open at both ends, and the corpse-bearers, dressed in pure white +garments, proceed with it towards the towers. They are followed by the +mourners at a distance of at least 30 feet, in pairs, also dressed in +white, and each couple joined by holding a white handkerchief between +them. The particular funeral I witnessed was that of a child. When the +two corpse-bearers reached the path leading by a steep incline to the +door of the tower, the mourners, about eight in number, turned back and +entered one of the prayer-houses. “There,” said the secretary, “they +repeat certain gáthás, and pray that the spirit of the deceased may be +safely transported, on the fourth day after death, to its final +resting-place.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which other +members of the same family had before been laid. The two bearers +speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed the body of the child +into the interior, and, unseen by any one, laid it uncovered in one of +the open stone receptacles nearest the central well. In two minutes they +reappeared with the empty bier and white cloth, and scarcely had they +closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down upon the body and +were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes more we saw the +satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again upon the parapet. +They had left nothing behind but a skeleton. Meanwhile, the bearers were +seen to enter a building shaped like a high barrel. There, +<span class = "pagenum">106</span> +<a name = "page106" id = "page106"> </a> +as the secretary informed me, they changed their clothes and washed +themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come out and deposit their +cast-off funeral garments in a stone receptacle near at hand. Not a +thread leaves the garden, lest it should carry defilement into the city. +Perfectly new garments are supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or, +at most, four weeks, the same bearers return, and, with gloved hands and +implements resembling tongs, place the dry skeleton in the central well. +There the bones find their last resting-place, and there the dust of +whole generations of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for +centuries.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my back on the +towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I asked the secretary how it +was possible to become reconciled to such usage. His reply was nearly in +the following words: “Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived 6,000 years ago, +taught us to regard the elements as symbols of the Deity. Earth, fire, +water, he said, ought never, under any circumstances, to be defiled by +contact with putrefying flesh. Naked, he said, came we into the world +and naked we ought to leave it. But the decaying particles of our bodies +should be dissipated as rapidly as possible and in such a way that +neither Mother Earth nor the beings she supports should be contaminated +in the slightest degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest of health +officers, and, following his sanitary laws, we build our towers on the +tops of the hills, above all human habitations. We spare no expense in +constructing them of the hardest materials, and we expose our putrescent +bodies in open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen feet of solid +granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures, but to be +dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without the possibility +of polluting the earth or contaminating a single being dwelling thereon. +God, indeed, sends the vultures, and, as a matter of fact, these birds +do their appointed work much more expeditiously than millions of insects +would do if we committed our bodies to the ground. In a sanitary point +of view, nothing can be more perfect than our plan. Even the rain-water +which washes our skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying +charcoal. Here in these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees +that have lived in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We form a +united body in life and we are united in death.”</p> + +<p>It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of +disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with +the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which +allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat +similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the +North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees, +but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care +is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the +corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes +or thongs.</p> + +<p>Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence, +drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig4" id = "fig4"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig4.jpg" width = "564" height = "346" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span>—Parsee Towers of +Silence.</p> + +<p>George Gibbs<a class = "tag" name = "tag11" id = "tag11" href = +"#note11">11</a> gives the following account of burial among the Klamath +and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been +originally furnished him by James G. Swan.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their houses, exhibit +very considerable taste and a laudable care. The dead are inclosed in +rude coffins formed by placing four boards around the body, and covered +with earth to some depth; a heavy plank, often supported by upright +head and foot stones, is laid upon the top, or stones are built up into +a wall about a foot above the ground, and the top flagged with +<span class = "pagenum">107</span> +<a name = "page107" id = "page107"> </a> +others. The graves of the chiefs are surrounded by neat wooden palings, +each pale ornamented with a feather from the tail of the bald eagle. +Baskets are usually staked down by the side, according to the wealth or +popularity of the individual, and sometimes other articles for ornament +or use are suspended over them. The funeral ceremonies occupy three +days, during which the soul of the deceased is in danger from +<i>O-mah-á</i>, or the devil. To preserve it from this peril, +a fire is kept up at the grave, and the friends of the deceased +howl around it to scare away the demon. Should they not be successful in +this the soul is carried down the river, subject, however, to redemption +by <i>Péh-ho-wan</i> on payment of a big knife. After the expiration of +three days it is all well with them.</p> + +<p>The question may well be asked, is the big knife a “sop to +Cerberus”?</p> + +<p>To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States +Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer +is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary +customs of the</p> + +<h5>WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A large proportion of these Indians being members of the Presbyterian +church (the missionaries of which church have labored among them for +more than forty years past), the dead of their families are buried after +the customs of that church, and this influence is felt to a great extent +among those Indians who are not strict church members, so that they are +dropping one by one the traditional customs of their tribe, and but few +can now be found who bury their dead in accordance with their customs of +twenty or more years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to +their modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated below.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Warrior.</i>—After death they paint a warrior red across the +mouth, or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb on one side +of the mouth and the fingers separated on the other cheek, the rest of +the face being painted red. (This latter is only done as a mark of +respect to a specially brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the medicine-bag +of the deceased when alive are buried with the body, the medicine-bag +being placed on the bare skin over the region of the heart. There is not +now, nor has there been, among these Indians any special preparation of +the grave. The body of a warrior is generally wrapped in a blanket or +piece of cloth (and frequently in addition is placed in a box) and +buried in the grave prepared for the purpose, always, as the majority of +these Indians inform me, with the head towards the <i>south</i>. +(I have, however, seen many graves in which the head of the +occupant had been placed to the <i>east</i>. It may be that these graves +were those of Indians who belonged to the church; and a few Indians +inform me that the head is sometimes placed towards the <i>west</i>, +according to the occupant’s belief when alive as to the direction from +which his guiding medicine came, and I am personally inclined to give +credence to this latter as sometimes occurring.) In all burials, when +the person has died a natural death, or had not been murdered, and +whether man, woman, or child, the body is placed in the grave with the +face <i>up</i>. In cases, however, when a man or woman has been murdered +by one of their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the +grave with the face <i>down</i>, head to the <i>south</i>, and a piece +of fat (bacon or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of fat is placed +in the mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent the spirit of the +murdered person driving or scaring the game from that section of +country. Those Indians who state that their dead are always buried with +the head towards the south say they do so in order that the spirit of +the deceased may go to the south, the land from which these Indians +believe they originally came.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Women and children.</i>—Before death the face of the person +expected to die is often painted in a red color. When this is not done +before death it is done afterwards; the +<span class = "pagenum">108</span> +<a name = "page108" id = "page108"> </a> +body being then buried in a grave prepared for its reception, and in the +manner described for a warrior, cooking-utensils taking the place of the +warrior’s weapons. In cases of boys and girls a kettle of cooked food is +sometimes placed at the head of the grave after the body is covered. +Now, if the dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go +up and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls do likewise. +This, however, has never obtained as a custom, but is sometimes done in +cases of warriors and women also.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is now, and +always has been, a custom among them to remove a lock of hair from +the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or from the left side of the head of +a woman, which is carefully preserved by some near relative of the +deceased, wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in the lodge +of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the dead person. To the +bundle is attached a tin cup or other vessel, and in this is placed some +food for the spirit of the dead person. Whenever a stranger happens in +at meal time, this food, however, is not allowed to go to waste; if not +consumed by the stranger to whom it is offered, some of the occupants of +the lodge eat it. They seem to take some pains to please the ghost of +the deceased, thinking thereby they will have good luck in their family +so long as they continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they +smoke to offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time asking it to +confer some favor on them, or aid them in their work or in +hunting, &c.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost of the +deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This feast may be at any +time, and is not at any particular time, occurring, however, generally +as often as once a year, unless, at the time of the first feast, the +friends designate a particular time, such, for instance, as when the +leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle is never +permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the dead person, except +to be buried in the grave of one of them. Much of the property of the +deceased person is buried with the body, a portion being placed +under the body and a portion over it. Horses are sometimes killed on the +grave of a warrior, but this custom is gradually ceasing, in consequence +of the value of their ponies. These animals are therefore now generally +given away by the person before death, or after death disposed of by the +near relatives. Many years ago it was customary to kill one or more +ponies at the grave. In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an +Indian, much of his personal property is now, and has ever been, +reserved from burial with the body, and forms the basis for a gambling +party, which will be described hereafter. No food is ever buried in the +grave, but some is occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case +it is consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the method +that was in vogue with these Indians twenty years ago, and which is +still adhered to, with more or less exactness, by the majority of them, +the exceptions being those who are strict church members and those very +few families who adhere to their ancient customs.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as the oldest +members of these tribes can remember, and with the usual tribal +traditions handed down from generation to generation, in regard to this +as well as to other things, for these Indians to bury in a tree or on a +platform, and in those days an Indian was only buried in the ground as a +mark of disrespect in consequence of the person having been murdered, in +which case the body would be buried in the ground, <i>face down</i>, +head toward the south and with a piece of fat in the mouth. <span class += "ellipsis">***</span> The platform upon which the body was deposited +was constructed of four crotched posts firmly set in the ground, and +connected near the top by cross-pieces, upon which was placed boards, +when obtainable, and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so as to give +a firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an elevation of +from six to eight or more feet, and never contained but one body, +although frequently having sufficient surface to accommodate two or +three. In burying in the crotch of a tree and on platforms, the head of +the dead person was always placed towards the south; the body was +wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely tied, and many of the +personal effects +<span class = "pagenum">109</span> +<a name = "page109" id = "page109"> </a> +of the deceased were buried with it; as in the case of a warrior, his +bows and arrows, war-clubs, &c., would be placed alongside of the +body, the Indians saying he would need such things in the next +world.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before their +outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near relative whom they held +in great respect with them on their moves, for a greater or lesser time, +often as long as two or three years before burial. This, however, never +obtained generally among them, and some of them seem to know nothing +about it. It has of late years been entirely dropped, except when a +person dies away from home, it being then customary for the friends to +bring the body home for burial.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Mourning ceremonies.</i>—The mourning ceremonies before the +year 1860 were as follows: After the death of a warrior the whole camp +or tribe would be assembled in a circle, and after the widow had cut +herself on the arms, legs, and body with a piece of flint, and removed +the hair from her head, she would go around the ring any number of times +she chose, but each time was considered as an oath that she would not +marry for a year, so that she could not marry for as many years as times +she went around the circle. The widow would all this time keep up a +crying and wailing. Upon the completion of this the friends of the +deceased would take the body to the platform or tree where it was to +remain, keeping up all this time their wailing and crying. After +depositing the body, they would stand under it and continue exhibiting +their grief, the squaws by hacking their arms and legs with flint and +cutting off the hair from their head. The men would sharpen sticks and +run them through the skin of their arms and legs, both men and women +keeping up their crying generally for the remainder of the day, and the +near relatives of the deceased for several days thereafter. As soon as +able, the warrior friends of the deceased would go to a near tribe of +their enemies and kill one or more of them if possible, return with +their scalps, and exhibit them to the deceased person’s relatives, after +which their mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as +properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when their enemies +were within reasonable striking distance, such, for instance, as the +Chippewas and the Arickarees, Gros Ventres and Mandan Indians. In cases +of women and children, the squaws would cut off their hair, hack their +persons with flint, and sharpen sticks and run them through the skin of +the arms and legs, crying as for a warrior.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for a squaw +when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by hanging herself with +a lariat over the limb of a tree. This could not have prevailed to any +great extent, however, although the old men recite several instances of +its occurrence, and a very few examples within recent years. Such was +their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since which time it has +gradually died out, and at the present time these ancient customs are +adhered to by but a single family, known as the seven brothers, who +appear to retain all the ancient customs of their tribe. At the present +time, as a mourning observance, the squaws hack themselves on their legs +with knives, cut off their hair, and cry and wail around the grave of +the dead person, and the men in addition paint their faces, but no +longer torture themselves by means of sticks passed through the skin of +the arms and legs. This cutting and painting is sometimes done before +and sometimes after the burial of the body. I also observe that +many of the women of these tribes are adopting so much of the customs of +the whites as prescribes the wearing of black for certain periods. +During the period of mourning these Indians never wash their face, or +comb their hair, or laugh. These customs are observed with varying +degree of strictness, but not in many instances with that exactness +which characterized these Indians before the advent of the white man +among them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of the person +practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That mutilation of a finger by +removing one or more joints, so generally observed among the Minnetarree +Indians at the Fort Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not here seen, although +the old men of these tribes inform me that it was an ancient custom +among +<span class = "pagenum">110</span> +<a name = "page110" id = "page110"> </a> +their women, on the occasion of the burial of a husband, to cut off a +portion of a finger and have it suspended in the tree above his body. +I have, however, yet to see an example of this having been done by +any of the Indians now living, and the custom must have fallen into +disuse more than seventy years ago.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In regard to the period of mourning, I would say that there does +not now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never was, any fixed +period of mourning, but it would seem that, like some of the whites, +they mourn when the subject is brought to their minds by some remark or +other occurrence. It is not unusual at the present time to hear a man or +woman cry and exclaim, “O, my poor husband!” “O, my poor wife!” or “O, +my poor child!” as the case may be, and, upon inquiring, learn that the +event happened several years before. I have elsewhere mentioned +that in some cases much of the personal property of the deceased was and +is reserved from burial with the body, and forms the basis of a gambling +party. I shall conclude my remarks upon the burial customs, +&c., of these Indians by an account of this, which they designate as +the “ghost’s gamble.”</p> + +<p>The account of the game will be found in another part of this +paper.</p> + +<p>As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the +tomb, a translation of Schiller’s beautiful burial song is here +given. It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted +to the kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.:</p> + +<h5>BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN.</h5> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>See on his mat, as if of yore,</p> +<p class = "indent">How lifelike sits he here;</p> +<p>With the same aspect that he wore</p> +<p class = "indent">When life to him was dear.</p> +<p>But where the right arm’s strength, and where</p> +<p class = "indent">The breath he used to breathe</p> +<p>To the Great Spirit aloft in air,</p> +<p class = "indent">The peace-pipe’s lusty wreath?</p> +<p>And where the hawk-like eye, alas!</p> +<p class = "indent">That wont the deer pursue</p> +<p>Along the waves of rippling grass,</p> +<p class = "indent">Or fields that shone with dew?</p> +<p>Are these the limber, bounding feet</p> +<p class = "indent">That swept the winter snows?</p> +<p>What startled deer was half so fleet,</p> +<p class = "indent">Their speed outstripped the roe’s.</p> +<p>These hands that once the sturdy bow</p> +<p class = "indent">Could supple from its pride,</p> +<p>How stark and helpless hang they now</p> +<p class = "indent">Adown the stiffened side!</p> +<p>Yet weal to him! at peace he strays</p> +<p class = "indent">Where never fall the snows,</p> +<p>Where o’er the meadow springs the maize</p> +<p class = "indent">That mortal never sows;</p> +<p>Where birds are blithe in every brake,</p> +<p class = "indent">Where forests teem with deer,</p> +<p>Where glide the fish through every lake,</p> +<p class = "indent">One chase from year to year!</p> +<p>With spirits now he feasts above;</p> +<p class = "indent">All left us, to revere</p> +<p>The deeds we cherish with our love,</p> +<p class = "indent">The rest we bury here.</p> +<span class = "pagenum">111</span> +<a name = "page111" id = "page111"> </a> +<p>Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill</p> +<p class = "indent">Wail death-dirge of the brave</p> +<p>What pleased him most in life may still</p> +<p class = "indent">Give pleasure in the grave.</p> +<p>We lay the axe beneath his head</p> +<p class = "indent">He swung when strength was strong,</p> +<p>The bear on which his hunger fed—</p> +<p class = "indent">The way from earth is long!</p> +<p>And here, new-sharpened, place the knife</p> +<p class = "indent">Which severed from the clay,</p> +<p>From which the axe had spoiled the life,</p> +<p class = "indent">The conquered scalp away.</p> +<p>The paints that deck the dead bestow,</p> +<p class = "indent">Aye, place them in his hand,</p> +<p>That red the kingly shade may glow</p> +<p class = "indent">Amid the spirit land.</p> +</div> + +<p>The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr. +McChesney, face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of +Indians, is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a +cemetery belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near +Abiquiu, N. Mex., a number of bodies, all of which had been +buried face downward. The account originally appeared in Field and +Forest, 1877, vol. iii, No. 1, p. 9.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +On each side of the town were noticed two small <ins class = +"correction" title = "spelling consistent for this selection">arroyas</ins> +or water washed ditches, within 30 feet of the +walls, and a careful examination of these revealed the objects of our +search. At the bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly formed +subsequent to the occupation of the village, we found portions of human +remains, and following up the walls of the ditch soon had the pleasure +of discovering several skeletons <i>in situ</i>. The first found was in +the eastern arroya, and the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the +surface of the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face +downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the skeleton +were two shining black earthen vases, containing small bits of charcoal, +the bones of mammals, birds, and partially consumed corn, and above +these “<i>ollas</i>” the earth to the surface was filled with pieces of +charcoal. Doubtless the remains found in the vases served at a funeral +feast prior to the inhumation. We examined very carefully this grave, +hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or weapons, but none rewarded +our search. In all of the graves examined the bodies were found in +similar positions and under similar circumstances in both arroyas, +several of the skeletons being those of children. No information could +be obtained as to the probable age of these interments, the present +Indians considering them as dating from the time when their ancestors +with Moctezuma came from the <i>north</i>.</p> + +<p>The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W. J. Hoffman,<a class = "tag" +name = "tag12" id = "tag12" href = "#note12">12</a> in disposing of +their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any +needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this +manner:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe, partially wrap +up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity left by the removal of a +small rock or the stump of a tree. After the body has been crammed into +the smallest possible space the rock or stump is again rolled into its +former position, when a number of stones are placed around the base to +keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin usually mourn for the period of +one month, during that time giving utterance at intervals to the most +dismal lamentations, which are apparently sincere. During the day this +obligation is +<span class = "pagenum">112</span> +<a name = "page112" id = "page112"> </a> +frequently neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner is reminded of +his duty he renews his howling with evident interest. This custom of +mourning for the period of thirty days corresponds to that formerly +observed by the Natchez.</p> + +<p>Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in +the life of Moses Van Campen,<a class = "tag" name = "tag13" id = +"tag13" href = "#note13">13</a> which relates to the Indians formerly +inhabiting Pennsylvania:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had fallen in +battle, which they did by rolling an old log from its place and laying +the body in the hollow thus made, and then heaping upon it a little +earth.</p> + +<p>As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following +account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr. +Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of +the agents of a French company kept in 1794:</p> + +<h5>CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The Indians plant +a stake on the right side of the head of the deceased and bury them in a +bark canoe. Their children come every year to bring provisions to the +place where their fathers are buried. One of the graves had fallen in, +and we observed in the soil some sticks for stretching skins, the +remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps for carrying it, and +near the place where the head lay were the traces of a fire which they +had kindled for the soul of the deceased to come and warm itself by and +to partake of the food deposited near it.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +These were probably the Massasauga Indians, then inhabiting the north +shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather intruders here, the country +being claimed by the Oneidas.</p> + +<p>It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has +occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the +graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was +discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may +have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his +vocation—nets, fish-spears, &c.—were near him, and this +burial was only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to +all Indians, that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same +articles as were employed in this one. It should be added that of the +many hundreds of skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned +presented the only example of the kind.</p> + +<p>Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe +burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus +described:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a pitpan which +has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the funeral and drown their +grief in <i>mushla</i>, the women giving vent to their sorrow by dashing +themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and inflicting other +tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As it is supposed that +the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the body, musicians are +called in to lull it to sleep while preparations are made for its +removal. All at once four naked men, who have disguised themselves with +paint so as not to be recognized and punished by <i>Wulasha</i>, rush +out from a neighboring hut, and, seizing a rope +<span class = "pagenum">113</span> +<a name = "page113" id = "page113"> </a> +attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods, followed by the music and +the crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into the grave with bow, arrow, +spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the departed in the land +beyond, then the other half of the boat is placed over the body. +A rude hut is constructed over the grave, serving as a receptacle +for the choice food, drink, and other articles placed there from time to +time by relatives.</p> + + +<h4>STONE GRAVES OR CISTS.</h4> + +<p>These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare +occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care +taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a +suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in +the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the +class of graves previously described.</p> + +<p>A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus +described by Moses Fiske:<a class = "tag" name = "tag14" id = "tag14" +href = "#note14">14</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with regular graves. +They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed slabs at the bottom ends and +sides, forming a kind of stone coffin, and, after laying in the body, +covered it over with earth.</p> + +<p>It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of +a number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutré, in +France, and they were almost identical in construction with those +described by Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper, +this, however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a +deposition of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which +have elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer +in 1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom +and sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were +none directly over the skeletons.</p> + +<p>The next account is by Maj. J. W. Powell, the result of his own +observation in Tennessee.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant throughout the +State. Often hundreds of graves may be found on a single hillside. The +same people sometimes bury in scattered graves and in mounds—the +mounds being composed of a large number of cist graves. The graves are +increased by additions from time to time. The additions are sometimes +placed above and sometimes at the sides of the others. In the first +burials there is a tendency to a concentric system with the feet towards +the center, but subsequent burials are more irregular, so that the +system is finally abandoned before the place is desired for cemetery +purposes.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Some other peculiarities are of interest. A larger number of +interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed there before the +decay of the flesh, and in many instances collections of bones are +buried. Sometimes these bones are placed in some order about the crania, +and sometimes in irregular piles, as if the collection of bones had been +emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers, knives, arrowheads, +&c., were usually found, with women, pottery, rude beads, shells, +&c., with children, toys of pottery, beads, curious +pebbles, &c.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a previous burial +was used as a portion of the second cist. All of the cists were covered +with slabs.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">114</span> +<a name = "page114" id = "page114"> </a> +<p>Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone +graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian +Institution, to which valuable work<a class = "tag" name = "tag15" id = +"tag15" href = "#note15">15</a> the reader is referred for a more +detailed account of this mode of burial.</p> + +<p>G. K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the +writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to +their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a +receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the +hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the +dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave +by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground +after the grave is filled in.</p> + +<p>The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George +Escoll Sellers,<a class = "tag" name = "tag16" id = "tag16" href = +"#note16">16</a> inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which +is as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about 30°, it has +been terraced and the terrace as well as the crown of the spur have been +used as a cemetery; portions of the terraces are still perfect; all the +burials appear to have been made in rude stone cists, that vary in size +from 13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4 feet, and from 18 inches to 2 +feet deep. They are made of thin-bedded sandstone slabs, generally +roughly shaped, but some of them have been edged and squared with +considerable care, particularly the covering slabs. The slope below the +terraces was thickly strewed with these slabs, washed out as the +terraces have worn away, and which have since been carried off for +door-steps and hearth-stones. I have opened many of these cists; +they nearly all contain fragments of human bones far gone in decay, but +I have never succeeded in securing a perfect skull; even the clay +vessels that were interred with the dead have disintegrated, the +portions remaining being almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some +of the cists that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water +shells, but most generally with the fragments of the great salt-pans, +which in every case are so far gone in decay as to have lost the outside +markings. This seems conclusively to couple the tenants of these ancient +graves with the makers and users of these salt-pans. The great number of +graves and the quantity of slabs that have been washed out prove either +a dense population or a long occupancy, or both.</p> + +<p>W. J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a +description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from +other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some twenty-five years +ago, of seeing what was called “Indian graves,” and those that I +examined were close to small streams of water, and were buried in a +sitting or squatting posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones, and +were then buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves which I +examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to be isolated, +no two being found in the same locality. When the burials took place I +could hardly conjecture, but it must have been, from appearances, from +fifty to one hundred years. The bones that I took out on first +appearance seemed tolerably perfect, but on short exposure to the +atmosphere crumbled, and I was unable to save a specimen. No implements +or relics were observed in those examined by me, but I have heard of +others who have found such. In that State, Kentucky, there are a number +of places +<span class = "pagenum">115</span> +<a name = "page115" id = "page115"> </a> +where the Indians buried their dead and left mounds of earth over the +graves, but I have not examined them myself. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p>According to Bancroft,<a class = "tag" name = "tag17" id = "tag17" +href = "#note17">17</a> the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central +America, also followed the cist form of burial.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the principal +men, constructed with flat stones laid together with much care, and in +which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food and wine for the +dead. Those for the plebians were merely trenches, in which were +deposited some gourds of maize and wine, and the place filled with +stones. In some parts of Panama and Darien only the chiefs and lords +received funeral rites. Among the common people a person feeling his end +approaching either went himself or was led to the woods by his wife, +family, or friends, who, supplying him with some cake or ears of corn +and a gourd of water, then left him to die alone or to be assisted by +wild beasts. Others, with more respect for their dead, buried them in +sepulchers made with niches, where they placed maize and wine and +renewed the same annually. With some, a mother dying while suckling +her infant, the living child was placed at her breast and buried with +her, in order that in her future state she might continue to nourish it +with her milk.</p> + + +<h4>BURIAL IN MOUNDS.</h4> + +<p>In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive, +and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of +Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote +any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting +examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers.</p> + +<p>The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling +cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is +from Prof. F. W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of +Archæology, Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, +and is published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> He then stated that it would be of +interest to the members, in connection with the discovery of dolmens in +Japan, as described by Professor Morse, to know that within twenty-four +hours there had been received at the Peabody Museum a small collection +of articles taken from rude dolmens (or chambered barrows, as they +would be called in England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is +now engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody +Museum.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of Clay County, +Missouri, and form a large group on both sides of the Missouri River. +The chambers are, in the three opened by Mr. Curtiss, about 8 feet +square, and from 4½ to 5 feet high, each chamber having a passage-way +several feet in length and 2 in width, leading from the southern side +and opening on the edge of the mound formed by covering the chamber and +passage-way with earth. The walls of the chambered passages were about 2 +feet thick, vertical, and well made of stones, which were evenly laid +without clay or mortar of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a +covering of large, flat rocks, but the others seem to have been closed +over with wood. The chambers were filled with clay which had been burnt, +and appeared as if it had fallen in from above. The inside walls of the +chambers also showed signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each +chamber, were found the remains of several human skeletons, all of which +had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small fragments of the +bones, which were mixed with the ashes and charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought +that in one chamber +<span class = "pagenum">116</span> +<a name = "page116" id = "page116"> </a> +he found the remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these +skeletons there were a few flint implements and minute fragments of +vessels of clay.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but in this no +chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been burnt. This mound +proved remarkably rich in large flint implements, and also contained +well-made pottery and a peculiar “gorget” of red stone. The connection +of the people who placed the ashes of their dead in the stone chambers +with those who buried their dead in the earth mounds is, of course, yet +to be determined.</p> + +<p>It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used +for secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.</p> + +<p>In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same +investigator gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like +the preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed +therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Mr. F. W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an account +of his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial places in the +Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by Mr. Edwin +Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of the Peabody Museum at +Cambridge. During this time many mounds of various kinds had been +thoroughly explored, and several thousand of the singular stone graves +of the mound builders of Tennessee had been carefully opened. <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span> Mr. Putnam’s remarks were illustrated by +drawings of several hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds, +particularly to show the great variety of articles of pottery and +several large and many unique forms of implements of chipped flint. He +also exhibited and explained in detail a map of a walled town of this +old nation. This town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a bend of +Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying ditch, +encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this inclosure there was one +large mound with a flat top, 15 feet high, 130 feet long, and 90 feet +wide, which was found not to be a burial mound. Another mound near the +large one, about 50 feet in diameter, and only a few feet high, +contained 60 human skeletons, each in a carefully-made stone grave, the +graves being arranged in two rows, forming the four sides of a square, +and in three layers. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> The most +important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of finding the +remains of the houses of the people who lived in this old town. Of them +about 70 were traced out and located on the map by Professor Buchanan, +of Lebanon, who made the survey for Mr. Putnam. Under the floors of hard +clay, which was in places much burnt, Mr. Putnam found the graves of +children. As only the bodies of adults had been placed in the one mound +devoted to burial, and as nearly every site of a house he explored had +from one to four graves of children under the clay floor, he was +convinced that it was a regular custom to bury the children in that way. +He also found that the children had undoubtedly been treated with +affection, as in their small graves were found many of the best pieces +of pottery he obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads, several +large pearls, and many other objects which were probably the playthings +of the little ones while living.<a class = "tag" name = "tag18" id = +"tag18" href = "#note18">18</a></p> + +<p>This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it +is frequently mentioned by writers on North American archæology.</p> + +<p>The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them +serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part +used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless +common.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">117</span> +<a name = "page117" id = "page117"> </a> +<p>Caleb Atwater<a class = "tag" name = "tag19" id = "tag19" href = +"#note19">19</a> gives this description of the</p> + +<h5>BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Near the center of the round fort <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> +was a tumulus of earth about 10 feet in height and several rods in +diameter at its base. On its eastern side, and extending 6 rods from it, +was a semicircular pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in +the bed of the Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been +brought. The summit of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and +there was a raised way to it, leading from the east, like a modern +turnpike. The summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement +and the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this mound was +entirely removed several years since. The writer was present at its +removal and carefully examined the contents. It contained—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the original surface of +the earth.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as +to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made of an elk’s +horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a ferule of +silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time. Though the +handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted, yet no iron +was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and size.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were +surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared to +have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost consumed +the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a little to the +south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet to the north of it +was another, with which were—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1½ inches in +thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (<i>mica membranacea</i>), and +on it—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was +disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour +answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This skeleton +had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal and a +considerable quantity of wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is in my +possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at the time. +The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal’s Museum, at +Philadelphia.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another, +more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate representing +these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears to be artificial. +This must have been the common cemetery, as it contains an immense +number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages. The skeletons are laid +horizontally, with their heads generally towards the center and the feet +towards the outside of the tumulus. A considerable part of this +work still stands uninjured, except by time. In it have been found, +besides these skeletons, stone axes and knives, and several ornaments, +with holes through them, by means of which, with a cord passing through +these perforations, they could be worn by their owners. On the south +side of this tumulus, and not far from it, was a semicircular fosse, +which, when I first saw it, was 6 feet deep. On opening it was +discovered at the bottom a great quantity of human bones, which I am +inclined to believe were the remains of those who had been slain in some +great and destructive battle: first, because they belonged to persons +who had attained their full size, whereas in the mound adjoining were +found the skeletons of persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were +here in the utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not +conjecture that they belonged to the people who resided in the town, and +who were victorious in the engagement? Otherwise they would not have +been thus honorably buried in the common cemetery.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Chillicothe mound.</i>—Its perpendicular height was about 15 +feet, and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was composed of +sand and contained human bones belonging +<span class = "pagenum">118</span> +<a name = "page118" id = "page118"> </a> +to skeletons which were buried in different parts of it. It was not +until this pile of earth was removed and the original surface exposed to +view that a probable conjecture of its original design could be formed. +About 20 feet square of the surface had been leveled and covered with +bark. On the center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been +spread a mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the breast lay +what had been a piece of copper, in the form of a cross, which had now +become verdigris. On the breast also lay a stone ornament with two +perforations, one near each end, through which passed a string, by means +of which it was suspended around the wearer’s neck. On this string, +which was made of sinews, and very much injured by time, were placed a +great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I cannot certainly say +which. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Mounds of stone.</i>—Two such mounds have been described +already in the county of Perry. Others have been found in various parts +of the country. There is one at least in the vicinity of Licking River, +not many miles from Newark. There is another on a branch of Hargus’s +Creek, a few miles to the northeast of Circleville. There were +several not very far from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds were +sometimes used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they were also +used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the recollection of some +great transaction or event. In the former not more generally than one or +two skeletons are found; in the latter none. These mounds are like those +of earth, in form of a cone, composed of small stones on which no marks +of tools were visible. In them some of the most interesting articles are +found, such as urns, ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &c., of +the same metal, as well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> works of this class, compared with +those of earth, are few, and they are none of them as large as the +mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of Circleville, which belong to the +first class. I saw one of these stone tumuli which had been piled +on the surface of the earth on the spot where three skeletons had been +buried in stone coffins, beneath the surface. It was situated on the +western edge of the hill on which the “walled town” stood, on Paint +Creek. The graves appear to have been dug to about the depth of ours in +the present times. After the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat +stones, the corpses were placed in these graves in an eastern and +western direction, and large flat stones were laid over the graves; then +the earth which had been dug out of the graves was thrown over them. +A huge pile of stones was placed over the whole. It is quite +probable, however, that this was a work of our present race of Indians. +Such graves are more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except +the skeletons, was found in these graves; and the skeletons resembled +very much the present race of Indians.</p> + +<p>The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C. +Holbrook<a class = "tag" name = "tag20" id = "tag20" href = +"#note20">20</a> as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian mounds found +on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first one opened +was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 7 feet high. In +the interior of this I found a <i>dolmen</i> or quadrilateral wall about +10 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4½ feet wide. It had been built of +lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was covered with large flat stones. +No mortar or cement had been used. The whole structure rested on the +surface of the natural soil, the interior of which had been scooped out +to enlarge the chamber. Inside of the <i>dolmen</i> I found the partly +decayed remains of eight human skeletons, two very large teeth of an +unknown animal, two fossils, one of which is not found in this place, +and a plummet. One of the long bones had been splintered; the fragments +had united, but there remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) +in several places. One of the skulls presented a circular opening about +the size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during life, +for the edges had commenced to cicatrize. +<span class = "pagenum">119</span> +<a name = "page119" id = "page119"> </a> +I later examined three circular mounds, but in them I found no dolmens. +The first mound contained three adult human skeletons, a few +fragments of the skeleton of a child, the lower maxillary of which +indicated it to be about six years old. I also found claws of some +carnivorous animal. The surface of the soil had been scooped out and the +bodies laid in the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth; +fires had then been made upon the grave and the mound afterwards +completed. The bones had not been charred. No charcoal was found among +the bones, but occurred in abundance in a stratum about one foot above +them. Two other mounds, examined at the same time, contain no +remains.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4 feet +high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on an +elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the top of +this mound one might view the country for many miles in almost any +direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long and 4½ wide. It +was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which had been burned red, +some portions having been almost converted into lime. On and about this +altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the sides of the altar were +fragments of human bones, some of which had been charred. It was covered +by a natural growth of vegetable mold and sod, the thickness of which +was about 10 inches. Large trees had once grown in this vegetable mold, +but their stumps were so decayed I could not tell with certainty; to +what species they belonged. Another large mound was opened which +contained nothing.</p> + +<p>The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., +and was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United +States Army:<a class = "tag" name = "tag21" id = "tag21" href = +"#note21">21</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were buried in +it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his head. This +idea was based upon some superficial explorations which had been made +from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their excavations had, indeed, +brought to light pots containing fragments of skulls, but not buried in +the position they imagined. Very extensive explorations, made at +different times by myself, have shown that only fragments of skulls and +of the long bones of the body are to be found in the mound, and that +these are commonly associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but +more frequently broken fragments only. In some instances portions of the +skull were placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited in its +immediate vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand, and +fragments of bones would be found near them. The most successful “find” +I made was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all +in a good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of skull, +which I take, from its small size, to have been that of a female. +Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried in +the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains because of +her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason of the unusual +wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter of conjecture. +I found, altogether, fragments of skulls and thigh-bones belonging +to at least fifty individuals, but in no instance did I find anything +like a complete skeleton. There were no vertebræ, no ribs, no pelvic +bones, and none of the small bones of the hands and feet. Two or three +skulls, nearly perfect, were found, but they were so fragile that it was +impossible to preserve them. In the majority of instances, only +fragments of the frontal and parietal bones were found, buried in pots +or in fragments of pots too small to have ever contained a complete +skull. The conclusion was irresistible that this was not a burial-place +for <i>the bodies</i> of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been +gathered from some other locality for burial in this mound, or that +cremation was practiced before burial, and the fragments of bone not +consumed by fire were gathered and deposited in the mound. That the +latter supposition is the correct one I deem probable from the fact that +in digging in +<span class = "pagenum">120</span> +<a name = "page120" id = "page120"> </a> +the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places, but without +any regularity as to depth and position. These evidences consist in +strata of from one to four inches in thickness, in which the sand is of +a dark color and has mixed with it numerous small fragments of +charcoal.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the +following manner: That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was erected +on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the body was +consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered, placed in a +pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were covered by a layer +of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for that purpose. This view +is further supported by the fact that only the shafts of the long bones +are found, the expanded extremities, which would be most easily +consumed, having disappeared; also, by the fact that no bones of +children were found. Their bones being smaller, and containing a less +proportion of earthy matter, would be entirely consumed. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I found +the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved skulls. <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span> The bodies were not, apparently, deposited +upon any regular system, and I found no objects of interest associated +with the remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the +skeletons found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in which +they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the fact that they +were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of ante-mortem +injuries which must have been of a fatal character.</p> + +<p>Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,<a class = "tag" name = "tag22" id = +"tag22" href = "#note22">22</a> in alluding to the ossuary, or +bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation +takes place, in this manner:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of the +deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one upon +another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth heaped +above.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of a +festival called the feast of the dead.</p> + +<p>Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a +somewhat curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley +of Ohio:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a +central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons buried +around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture, but leaning against +one another, tipped over towards the right, facing inwards. I did +not see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many ornaments, awls, +&c., said to have been found near the central body. The parties +informing me are trustworthy.</p> + +<p>As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting +as being <i>sui generis</i>, the following description by Dr. J. Mason +Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11, 1871, +on the farm of R. V. Michaux, esq., near John’s River, in Burke +County, N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer +of undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted:</p> + +<h5>EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he informed me +that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was formerly of +considerable height, +<span class = "pagenum">121</span> +<a name = "page121" id = "page121"> </a> +but had gradually been plowed down; that several mounds in the +neighborhood had been excavated, and nothing of interest found in them. +I asked permission to examine this mound, which was granted, and +upon investigation the following facts were revealed:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length +and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a +rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was +found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth, about 18 +inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length, and 16 inches +in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with the corners +rounded.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an excavation in +the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which, upon +examination, proved to be in front of the remains of a human skeleton in +a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right hand were +resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a small stone +about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian hatchet. Upon a +further examination many of the bones were found, though in a very +decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air soon crumbled to +pieces. The heads of the bones, a considerable portion of the +skull, maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the vertebra, were in +their proper places, though the weight of the earth above them had +driven them down, yet the entire frame was so perfect that it was an +easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones of the cranium were +slightly inclined toward the east. Around the neck were found coarse +beads that seemed to be of some hard substance and resembled chalk. +A small lump of red paint about the size of an egg was found near +the right side of this skeleton. The sutures of the cranium indicated +the subject to have been 25 or 28 years of age, and its top rested about +12 inches below the mark of the plow.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave and found +another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing the +east. A rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right hand +were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been about 7 +inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was much better +finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck of this one, +but were much smaller and of finer quality than those on the neck of the +first. The material, however, seems to be the same. A much larger +amount of paint was found by the side of this than the first. The bones +indicated a person of large frame, who, I think, was about 50 years +of age. Everything about this one had the appearance of superiority over +the first. The top of the skull was about 6 inches below the mark of the +plane.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found nothing +at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east, found another +skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing the west. On the +right side of this was a rock on which the bones of the right hand were +resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk, which had been about 8 +inches in length, but was broken into <i>three</i> pieces, and was +composed of much better material, and better finished than the others. +Beads were also found on the neck of this, but much smaller and finer +than those of the others. A larger amount of paint than both of the +others was found near this one. The top of the cranium had been moved by +the plow. The bones indicated a person of 40 years of age.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller bones +were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken from their +bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with the fact that +the farm on which this grave was found was the first settled in that +part of the country, the date of the first deed made from Lord Granville +to John Perkins running back about 150 years (the land still belonging +to the descendants of the same family that first occupied it), +would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old grave.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet, the +line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of the soil. +It was dug in rich, black +<span class = "pagenum">122</span> +<a name = "page122" id = "page122"> </a> +loam, and filled around the bodies with white or yellow sand, which I +suppose was carried from the river-bank, 200 yards distant. The +skeletons approximated the walls of the grave, and contiguous to them +was a dark-colored earth, and so decidedly different was this from all +surrounding it, both in quality and odor, that the line of the bodies +could be readily traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had +been flesh, was similar to clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when +compressed in the hand.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots +made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the warrior +had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need, in the +“hunting-grounds beyond,” his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and +scalping-knife.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will +carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the American +Indians were in possession of at least some of the mysteries of our +order, and that it was evidently the grave of Masons, and the three +highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave was situated due east and +west; an altar was erected in the center; the south, west, and east were +occupied—<i>the north was not</i>; implements of authority were +near each body. The difference in the quality of the beads, the +tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces, and the difference in distance +that the bodies were placed from the surface, indicate beyond doubt that +these three persons had been buried by Masons, and those, too, that +understood what they were doing.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the Masonic +world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic information?</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other +bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, +D.C., to be placed among the archives of that institution for +exhibition, at which place they may be seen.</p> + +<p>Should Dr. Spainhour’s inferences be incorrect, there is still a +remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.</p> + +<p>In support of this gentleman’s views, attention is called to the +description of the <i>Midawan</i>—a ceremony of initiation for +would-be medicine men—in Schoolcraft’s History of the Indian +Tribes of the United States, 1855, p. 428, relating to the Sioux +and Chippewas. In this account are found certain forms and resemblances +which have led some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of +Masonry.</p> + + +<h4>BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES.</h4> + +<p>While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted +methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently—<i>lodge</i> +burial—they differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface +or aerial burial, and must consequently fall under another caption. The +narratives which are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former +kinds of burial.</p> + +<p>Bartram<a class = "tag" name = "tag23" id = "tag23" href = +"#note23">23</a> relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the +Carolinas:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a four-foot, +square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which the deceased laid on in +his house, lining the grave with cypress bark, when they place the +corpse in a sitting posture, as if it were alive, depositing with him +his gun, tomahawk, pipe, and such other matters as he +<span class = "pagenum">123</span> +<a name = "page123" id = "page123"> </a> +had the greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest wife, or the +queen dowager, has the second choice of his possessions, and the +remaining effects are divided among his other wives and children.</p> + +<p>According to Bernard Roman,<a class = "tag" name = "tag24" id = +"tag24" href = "#note24">24</a> the “funeral customs of the Chickasaws +did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred +the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in +which the deceased expired.”</p> + +<p>The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable +distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as +related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies, closing up the +house or hogan or covering the body with stones or brush. In case the +body is removed, it is taken to a cleft in the rocks and thrown in, and +stones piled over. The person touching or carrying the body first takes +off all his clothes and afterwards washes his body with water before +putting them on or mingling with the living. When a body is removed from +a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and the place in every case +abandoned, as the belief is that the devil comes to the place of death +and remains where a dead body is. Wild animals frequently (indeed, +generally) get the bodies, and it is a very easy matter to pick up +skulls and bones around old camping grounds, or where the dead are laid. +In case it is not desirable to abandon a place, the sick person is left +out in some lone spot protected by brush, where they are either +abandoned to their fate or food brought to them until they die. This is +done only when all hope is gone. I have found bodies thus left so +well inclosed with brush that wild animals were unable to get at them; +and one so left to die was revived by a cup of coffee from our house and +is still living and well.</p> + +<p>Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal +communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr. +Menard, as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a reservation in the +extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona. The +funeral ceremonies of the Navajos are of the most simple character. They +ascribe the death of an individual to the direct action of +<i>Chinde</i>, or the devil, and believe that he remains in the vicinity +of the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the tribe dies a +shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by one of the near +male relatives, and into this the corpse is unceremoniously tumbled by +the relatives, who have previously protected themselves from the evil +influence by smearing their naked bodies with tar from the piñon tree. +After the body has thus been disposed of, the hogan (composed of logs +and branches of trees covered with earth) is pulled down over it and the +place deserted. Should the deceased have no near relatives or was of no +importance in the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed +with, the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This carelessness +does not appear to arise from want of natural affection for the dead, +but fear of the evil influence of <i>Chinde</i> upon the surviving +relatives causes them to avoid doing anything that might gain for them +his ill-will. A Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the +logs of a fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have +been years in that condition. There are no mourning observances other +than smearing the forehead and under the eyes with tar, which is allowed +to remain until worn off, and then not renewed. The deceased is +apparently forgotten, as his name is never spoken by the survivors for +fear of giving offense to <i>Chinde</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">124</span> +<a name = "page124" id = "page124"> </a> +<p>J. L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California, +furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the +Navajos:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in the ground, +draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and wrap the body into as +small a bulk as possible in blankets, tie them firmly with cords, place +them in the grave, throw in beads, baskets, clothing, everything owned +by the deceased, and often donating much extra; all gathered around the +grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their faces with their nails till +the blood would run down their cheeks, pull out their hair, and such +other heathenish conduct. These burials were generally made under their +thatch houses or very near thereto. The house where one died was always +torn down, removed, rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks, &c., +were in their own jargon; none else could understand, and they seemingly +knew but little of its meaning (if there was any meaning +in it); it simply seemed to be the promptings of grief, without +sufficient intelligence to direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out +his own impulse.</p> + +<p>The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,<a class = "tag" name += "tag25" id = "tag25" href = "#note25">25</a> relating to the +Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example +of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to +consider the receptacles as temples.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n’enterent point leur Chef, lorsqu’il +est décédé; mais-ils font sécher son cadavre au feu et à la fumée de +façon qu’ils en font un vrai squelette. Après l’avoir réduit en cet +état, ils le portent au Temple (car ils en ont un ainsi que les +Natchez), et le mettent à la place de son prédécesseur, qu’ils tirent de +l’endroit qu’il occupoit, pour le porter avec les corps de leurs autres +Chefs dans le fond du Temple où ils sont tous rangés de suite dressés +sur leurs pieds comme des statues. A l’égard du dernier mort, il +est exposé à l’entrée de ce Temple sur une espèce d’autel ou de table +faite de cannes, et couverte d’une natte très-fine travaillée fort +proprement en quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces mêmes +cannes. Le cadavre du Chef est exposé au milieu de cette table droit sur +ses pieds, soutenu par derrière par une longue perche peinte en rouge +dont le bout passe au dessus de sa tête, et à laquelle il est attaché +par le milieu du corps avec une liane. D’une main il tient un casse-tête +ou une petite hache, de l’autre un pipe; et au-dessus de sa tête, est +attaché au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le Calumet le plus fameux +de tous ceux qui lui ont été présentés pendant sa vie. Du reste cette +table n’est guères élevée de terre que d’un demi-pied; mais elle a au +moins six pieds de large et dix de longueur.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +C’est sur cette table qu’on vient tous les jours servir à manger à ce +Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de sagamité, du bled grolé ou +boucané, &c. C’est-là aussi qu’au commencement de toutes les +récoltes ses Sujets vont lui offrir les premiers de tous les fruits +qu’ils peuvent recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est présenté de la sorte +reste sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est toujours +ouverte, qu’il n’y a personne préposé pour y veiller, que par conséquent +y entre qui veut, et que d’ailleurs il est éloigné du Village d’un grand +quart de lieue, il arrive que ce sont ordinairement des Etrangers, +Chasseurs ou Sauvages, qui profitent de ces mets et de ces fruits, ou +qu’ils sont consommés par les animaux. Mais cela est égal à ces +sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu’ils retournent le lendemain, plus +ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur Chef a bien mangé, et que par +conséquent il est content d’eux quoiqu’il les ait abandonnés. Pour leur +ouvrir les yeux sur l’extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur +représenter ce qu’ils ne peuvent s’empêcher de voir eux-mêmes, que ce +n’est point ce mort qui mange; ils répondent que si ce n’est pas lui, +c’est toujours lui au moins qui offre à qui il lui plaît ce qui a été +mis sur la table; qu’après tout c’étoit là la pratique de leur père, de +leur mère, de leurs parens; qu’ils n’ont pas plus d’esprit qu’eux, et +qu’ils ne sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +C’est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la veuve du +Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent de tems en tems lui +rendre visite et lui faire +<span class = "pagenum">125</span> +<a name = "page125" id = "page125"> </a> +leur harangue, comme s’il étoit en état de les entendre. Les uns lui +demandent pourquoi il s’est laissé mourir avant eux? d’autres lui disent +que s’il est mort ce n’est point leur faute; que c’est lui même qui +s’est tué par telle débauche on par tel effort; enfin s’il y a eu +quelque défaut dans son gouvernement, on prend ce tems-là pour le lui +reprocher. Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui disant +de n’être pas fâché contre eux, de bien manger, et qu’ils auront +toujours bien soin de lui.</p> + +<p>Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the +publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p. 89, taken from +Strachey’s Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early +writer on American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess +as a truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of +Virginia:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the cenotaphies or +the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes, so soon as they be dead, +they embowell, and, scraping the flesh from off the bones, they dry the +same upon hurdells into ashes, which they put into little potts (like +the anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the bones they bind together or +case up in leather, hanging braceletts, or chaines of copper, beads, +pearle, or such like, as they used to wear about most of their joints +and neck, and so repose the body upon a little scaffold (as upon a +tomb), laying by the dead bodies’ feet all his riches in severall +basketts, his apook, and pipe, and any one toy, which in his life he +held most deare in his fancy; their inwards they stuff with pearle, +copper, beads, and such trash, sowed in a skynne, which they overlapp +againe very carefully in whit skynnes one or two, and the bodyes thus +dressed lastly they rowle in matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay +them orderly one by one, as they dye in their turnes, upon an arche +standing (as aforesaid) for the tomb, and thes are all the +ceremonies we yet can learne that they give unto their dead. We heare of +no sweet oyles or oyntments that they use to dresse or chest their dead +bodies with; albeit they want not of the pretious rozzin running out of +the great cedar, wherewith in the old time they used to embalme dead +bodies, washing them in the oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the +priests the care of these temples and holy interments are committed, and +these temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or ministers +to exercise themselves in contemplation, for they are seldome out of +them, and therefore often lye in them and maynteyne contynuall fier in +the same, upon a hearth somewhat neere the east end.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the earth with +sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in skynns and matts with their +jewells, they laye uppon sticks in the ground, and soe cover them with +earth; the buryall ended, the women (being painted all their faces with +black coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in their howses, +mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling and howling as may +expresse their great passions.</p> + +<p>While this description brings the subject under the head before +given—house burial—at the same time it might also afford an +example of embalmment or mummifying.</p> + +<p><a href = "#fig1">Figure 1</a> may be referred to as a probable +representation of the temple or charnel-house described.</p> + +<p>The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be +considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices +prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the +Rev. J. G. Wood,<a class = "tag" name = "tag26" id = "tag26" href = +"#note26">26</a> bury their dead within the inclosure of the home-stead, +fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems. The Apingi, +according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in its +dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and +<span class = "pagenum">126</span> +<a name = "page126" id = "page126"> </a> +deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas +bury within the inclosure of a man’s house, although the bones are +subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside +the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle +inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the +Bechuanas follow the same general plan.</p> + +<p>The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted +above (p. 314), is added as containing an account of certain +details which resemble somewhat those followed by North American +Indians. In the narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed +only if specially desired by the expiring person:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar fashion. As +soon as life is extinct—some say even before the last breath is +drawn—the bystanders break the spine by a blow from a large stone. +They then unwind the long rope that encircles the loins, and lash the +body together in a sitting posture, the head being bent over the knees. +Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its face to the +north, as already described when treating of the Bechuanas. Cattle are +then slaughtered in honor of the dead chief, and over the grave a post +is erected, to which the skulls and hair are attached as a trophy. The +bow, arrows, assagai, and clubs of the deceased are hung on the same +post. Large stones are pressed into the soil above and around the grave, +and a large pile of thorns is also heaped over it, in order to keep off +the hyenas, who would be sure to dig up and devour the body before the +following day. The grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302. +Now and then a chief orders that his body shall be left in his own +house, in which case it is laid on an elevated platform, and a strong +fence of thorns and stakes built round the hut.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief forsakes the place +and takes the whole of the people under his command. He remains at a +distance for several years, during which time he wears the sign of +mourning, i.e., a dark-colored conical cap, and round the neck a +thong, to the ends of which are hung two small pieces of ostrich-shell. +When the season of mourning is over, the tribe return, headed by the +chief, who goes to the grave of his father, kneels over it, and whispers +that he has returned, together with the cattle and wives which his +father gave him. He then asks for his parent’s aid in all his +undertakings, and from that moment takes the place which his father +filled before him. Cattle are then slaughtered, and a feast held to the +memory of the dead chief and in honor of the living one, and each person +present partakes of the meat, which is distributed by the chief himself. +The deceased chief symbolically partakes of the banquet. A couple +of twigs cut from the tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased +belonged are considered as his representative, and with this emblem each +piece of meat is touched before the guests consume it. In like manner, +the first pail of milk that is drawn is taken to the grave and poured +over it.</p> + + +<h4>CAVE BURIAL.</h4> + +<p>Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in +rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the +earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only +the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation +and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of +artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have +actuated this +<span class = "pagenum">127</span> +<a name = "page127" id = "page127"> </a> +mode of burial, a discussion would be out of place at this time, +except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so far as can +be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient resting +places for their deceased relatives and friends.</p> + +<p>In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered, +but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few +illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of +observers to the subject.</p> + +<p>While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a +natural cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to +which resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had +deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was +quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination +made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the +same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the +Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it, +which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian, +a Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of +his tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the +party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted +in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew +a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if +an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some +years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent +game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it +was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full +extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many +refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour +and the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the +apex of a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole +which was pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This +entrance was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As +the Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones +and roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of +uninterrupted, faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned. +The guide was asked if many bodies were therein, and replied “Heaps, +heaps,” moving the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There +is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it +was voluntarily imparted.</p> + +<p>In a communication received from Dr. A. J. McDonald, physician to the +Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a description is given of +crevice or rock-fissure burial, which follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced by the +medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are busily engaged in +preparing the corpse for the grave. This does not take long; whatever +articles of clothing may have been on the body at the time of death are +not removed. The dead man’s limbs are straightened out, his weapons of +war laid by his side, and his robes and blankets wrapped securely and +snugly around him, and now everything is ready for burial. It is the +<span class = "pagenum">128</span> +<a name = "page128" id = "page128"> </a> +custom to secure if possible, for the purpose of wrapping up the corpse, +the robes and blankets in which the Indian died. At the same time that +the body is being fitted for internment, the squaws having immediate +care of it, together with all the other squaws in the neighborhood, keep +up a continued chant or dirge, the dismal cadence of which may, when the +congregation of women is large, be heard for quite a long distance. The +death song is not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces +expressions eulogistic in character, but whether or not any particular +formula of words is adopted on such occasion is a question which I am +unable, with the materials at my disposal, to determine with any degree +of certainty.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of placing the +dead man on a horse and conducting the remains to the spot chosen for +burial. This is in the cleft of a rock, and, so far as can be +ascertained, it has always been customary among the Utes to select +sepulchers of this character. From descriptions given by Mr. Harris, who +has several times been fortunate enough to discover remains, it would +appear that no superstitious ideas are held by this tribe with respect +to the position in which the body is placed, the space accommodation of +the sepulcher probably regulating this matter; and from the same source +I learn that it is not usual to find the remains of more than one Indian +deposited in one grave. After the body has been received into the cleft, +it is well covered with pieces of rock, to protect it against the +ravages of wild animals. The chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the +burial ceremonies are at an end. The men during all this time have not +been idle, though they have in no way participated in the preparation of +the body, have not joined the squaws in chanting praises to the memory +of the dead, and have not even as mere spectators attended the funeral, +yet they have had their duties to perform. In conformity with a +long-established custom, all the personal property of the deceased is +immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle are shot, and his +wigwam, furniture, &c., burned. The performance of this part of the +ceremonies is assigned to the men; a duty quite in accord with +their taste and inclinations. Occasionally the destruction of horses and +other properly is of considerable magnitude, but usually this is not the +case, owing to a practice existing with them of distributing their +property among their children while they are of a very tender age, +retaining to themselves only what is necessary to meet every-day +requirements.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The widow “goes into mourning” by smearing her face with a substance +composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is made but once, and is +allowed to remain on until it wears off. This is the only mourning +observance of which I have any knowledge.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the same as those +in the case of a male, except that no destruction of property takes +place, and of course no weapons are deposited with the corpse. Should a +youth die while under the superintendence of white men, the Indians will +not as a role have anything to do with the interment of the body. In a +case of the kind which occurred at this agency some time ago, the squaws +prepared the body in the usual manner; the men of the tribe selected a +spot for the burial, and the employee at the agency, after digging a +grave and depositing the corpse therein, filled it up according to the +fashion of civilized people, and then at the request of the Indians +rolled large fragments of rocks on top. Great anxiety was exhibited by +the Indians to have the employes perform the service as expeditiously as +possible.</p> + +<p>Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos +agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock +fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency.</p> + +<p>An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been +used for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J. D. +Whitney:<a class = "tag" name = "tag27" id = "tag27" href = +"#note27">27</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls, now in +the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is near the Stanislaus River, +in Calaveras County, on +<span class = "pagenum">129</span> +<a name = "page129" id = "page129"> </a> +a nameless creek, about two miles from Abbey’s Ferry, on the road to +Vallicito, at the house of Mr. Robinson. There were two or three persons +with me, who had been to the place before and knew that the skulls in +question were taken from it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and +since that the condition of things in the cave has greatly changed. +Owing to some alteration in the road, mining operations, or some other +cause which I could not ascertain, there has accumulated on the formerly +clean stalagmitic floor of the cave a thickness of some 20 feet of +surface earth that completely conceals the bottom, and which could not +be removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27 feet deep +at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet in +diameter. It is the general opinion of those who have noticed this cave +and saw it years ago that it was a burying-place of the present Indians. +Dr. Jones said he found remains of bows and arrows and charcoal with the +skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed at the time the village of +Murphy’s was burned. All the people spoke of the skulls as lying on the +surface and not as buried in the stalagmite.</p> + +<p>The next description of cave burial, by W. H. Dall,<a class = "tag" +name = "tag28" id = "tag28" href = "#note28">28</a> is so remarkable +that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to +the Innuits of Alaska.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time of writing I +refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall]. There are some crania found +by us in the lowermost part of the Amaknak cave and a cranium obtained +at Adakh, near the anchorage in the Bay of Islands. These were deposited +in a remarkable manner, precisely similar to that adopted by most of the +continental Innuit, but equally different from the modern Aleut fashion. +At the Amaknak cave we found what at first appeared to be a wooden +inclosure, but which proved to be made of the very much decayed +supra-maxillary bones of some large cetacean. These were arranged so as +to form a rude rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces of +bone. This was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 18 +inches deep. The bottom was formed of flat pieces of stone. Three such +were found close together, covered with and filled by an accumulation of +fine vegetable and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton +in the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in the Innuit +fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all the bones, with the +exception of the skull, were minced to a soft paste, or even entirely +gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted me to dig into a small knoll near the +ancient shell-heap, and here we found, in a precisely similar +sarcophagus, the remains of a skeleton, of which also only the cranium +retained sufficient consistency to admit of preservation. This +inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty mass not reduced to +mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous growth, which had reached a +thickness of nearly 2 feet above the remains. When we reflect upon the +well-known slowness of this kind of growth in these northern regions, +attested by numerous Arctic travelers, the antiquity of the remains +becomes evident.</p> + +<p>It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as +regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments +were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of +Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many +mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles +were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary +skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">130</span> +<a name = "page130" id = "page130"> </a> +<h3>EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION.</h3> + + +<p>Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of +mummifying or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of +the kind have generally been found in such repositories.</p> + +<p>It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and +discuss the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt +certain processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all +flesh must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope +of this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories +advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians. +Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their +dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on +this point no definite information has been procured. In the final +volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification +among the Indians and aborigines of this continent.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time +of the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more +than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by +others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from +corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to +prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. “They did not +inter them,” says he, “for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did +they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything +which it touched.” According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment +originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his +tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief, +insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples +that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty +thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the +souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived, +provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that +sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the +deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the +ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising +that this theory has obtained many believers. M. Gannal believes +embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our +nature—a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains +of loved ones; but MM. Volney and Pariset think it was intended to +obviate, in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being +primarily a cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later; +and the Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from +the finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had +hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is +thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction +to embalmment in North America.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">131</span> +<a name = "page131" id = "page131"> </a> +<p>From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, +it appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of +Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of +distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to +Beverly,<a class = "tag" name = "tag29" id = "tag29" href = +"#note29">29</a> being as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The <i>Indians</i> are religious in preserving the Corpses of their +Kings and Rulers after Death, which they order in the following manner: +First, they neatly flay off the Skin as entire as they can, slitting it +only in the Back; then they pick all the Flesh off from the Bones as +clean as possible, leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that they +may preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in the Sun, +and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean time has been kept +from drying or shrinking; when the Bones are placed right in the Skin, +they nicely fill up the Vacuities, with a very fine white Sand. After +this they sew up the Skin again, and the Body looks as if the Flesh had +not been removed. They take care to keep the Skin from shrinking, by the +help of a little Oil or Grease, which saves it also from Corruption. The +Skin being thus prepar’d, they lay it in an apartment for that purpose, +upon a large Shelf rais’d above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with +Mats, for the Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the same, to +keep it from the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon Hurdles in the Sun to +dry, and when it is thoroughly dried, it is sewed up in a Basket, and +set at the Feet of the Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also +they set up a <i>Quioccos</i>, or Idol, which they believe will be a +Guard to the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the Priests +must give his Attendance, to take care of the dead Bodies. So great an +Honour and Veneration have these ignorant and unpolisht People for their +Princes even after they are dead.</p> + +<p>It should be added that, in the writer’s opinion, this account and +others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and +recopied a score of times.</p> + +<p>According to Pinkerton,<a class = "tag" name = "tag30" id = "tag30" +href = "#note30">30</a> who took the account from Smith’s Virginia, the +Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the Devil’s] image +euill favouredly carved, and then painted and adorned with chaines of +copper, and beads, and covered with a skin, in such manner as the +deformitie may well suit with such a God. By him is commonly the +sepulchre of their Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then dried +upon hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of their +ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of copper, pearle, and +such like, as they use to wear. Their inwards they stuffe with copper +beads, hatchets, and such trash. Then lappe they them very carefully in +white skins, and so rowle them in mats for their winding-sheets. And in +the Tombe, which is an arch made of mats, they lay them orderly. What +remaineth of this kind of wealth their Kings have, they set at their +feet in baskets. These temples and bodies are kept by their Priests.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the earth with +sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in skins and mats with their +Jewels they lay them upon stickes in the ground, and so cover them with +earth. The buriale ended, the women being painted all their faces with +blacke cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in the houses mourning +and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and howling as may expresse +their great passions. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there are three +great houses filled with images of their Kings and devils and the tombes +of their predecessors. Those houses are near sixty feet in length, built +harbourwise after their building. This place they count so holey as that +but the priests and Kings dare come into them; nor the savages dare not +go up the river in boates by it, but that they solemnly cast +<span class = "pagenum">132</span> +<a name = "page132" id = "page132"> </a> +some piece of copper, white beads or pocones into the river for feare +their Okee should be offended and revenged of them.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They think that their Werowances and priests which they also esteeme +quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond the mountains +towards the setting of the sun, and ever remain there in form of their +Okee, with their bedes paynted rede with oyle and pocones, finely +trimmed with feathers, and shall have beads, hatchets, copper, and +tobacco, doing nothing but dance and sing with all their predecessors. +But the common people they suppose shall not live after deth, but rot in +their graves like dede dogges.</p> + +<p>This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former +page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding +truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other.</p> + +<p><a href = "#fig1">Figure 1</a> may again be referred to as an example +of the dead-house described.</p> + +<p>The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to +Lawson, used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the +subjoined extract from Schoolcraft;<a class = "tag" name = "tag31" id = +"tag31" href = "#note31">31</a> but instead of laying away the remains +in caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched +sticks.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The manner of their interment is thus: A mole or pyramid of earth +is raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth and even, +sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity of the person whose +monument it is. On the top thereof is an umbrella, made ridgeways, like +the roof of a house. This in supported by nine stakes or small posts, +the grave being about 6 to 8 feet in length and 4 feet in breadth, about +which is hung gourds, feathers, and other such like trophies, placed +there by the dead man’s relations in respect to him in the grave. The +other parts of the funeral rites are thus: As soon as the party is dead +they lay the corpse upon a piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or +embalming it with a small root beaten to powder, which looks as red as +vermillion; the same is mixed with bear’s oil to beautify the hair. +After the carcass has laid a day or two in the sun they remove it and +lay it upon crotches cut on purpose for the support thereof from the +earth; then they anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients +of the powder of this root and bear’s oil. When it is so done they cover +it over very exactly with the bark or pine of the cypress tree to +prevent any rain to fall upon it, sweeping the ground very clean all +about it. Some of his nearest of kin brings all the temporal estate he +was possessed of at his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads, +feathers, match-coat, &c. This relation is the chief mourner, being +clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful ditty for +three or four days, his face being black with the smoke of pitch pine +mixed with bear’s oil. All the while he tells the dead man’s relations +and the rest of the spectators who that dead person was, and of the +great feats performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks tending to the +praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows mellow and will cleave +from the bone they get it off and burn it, making the bones very clean, +then anoint them with the ingredients aforesaid, wrapping up the skull +(very carefully) in a cloth artificially woven of opossum’s hair. The +bones they carefully preserve in a wooden box, every year oiling and +cleansing them. By these means they preserve them for many ages, that +you may see an Indian in possession of the bones of his grandfather or +some of his relations of a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of +tombs, as when an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of +stones (or sticks where stones are not to be found); to this +memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment the heap in +respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a roof of light wood or +<span class = "pagenum">133</span> +<a name = "page133" id = "page133"> </a> +pitch-pine over the graves of the more distinguished, covering it with +bark and then with earth, leaving the body thus in a subterranean vault +until the flesh quits the bones. The bones are then taken up, cleaned, +jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins, and laid away in the +<i>Quiogozon</i>, which is the royal tomb or burial-place of their kings +and war-captains, being a more magnificent cabin reared at the public +expense. This Quiogozon is an object of veneration, in which the writer +says he has known the king, old men, and conjurers to spend several days +with their idols and dead kings, and into which he could never gain +admittance.</p> + +<p>Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the +saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt +with archæologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve +these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with +certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens +were found. Charles Wilkins<a class = "tag" name = "tag32" id = "tag32" +href = "#note32">32</a> thus describes one:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> An exsiccated body of a female<a +class = "tag" name = "tag33" id = "tag33" href = "#note33">33</a> <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span> was found at the depth of about 10 feet +from the surface of the cave bedded in clay strongly impregnated with +nitre, placed in a sitting posture, incased in broad stones standing on +their edges, with a flat atone covering the whole. It was enveloped in +coarse clothes, <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> the whole wrapped in +deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the manner in which the +Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in the stone coffin were the +working utensils, beads, feathers, and other ornaments of dress which +belonged to her.</p> + +<p>The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.<a class = "tag" +name = "tag34" id = "tag34" href = "#note34">34*</a></p> + +<p class = "right"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Aug. 24th, 1815.</span></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Dear Sir</span>: I offer you some observations +on a curious piece of American antiquity now in New York. It is a human +body: found in one of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a perfect +desiccation; all the fluids are dried up. The skin, bones, and other +firm parts are in a state of entire preservation. I think it enough +to have puzzled Bryant and all the archæologists.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the neighborhood of +Glasgow for saltpetre.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to attract and +retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime and potash; and probably +the earthy matter of these excavations contains a good proportion of +calcareous carbonate. Amidst them drying and antiseptick ingredients, it +may be conceived that putrefaction would be stayed, and the solids +preserved from decay. The outer envelope of the body is a deer-skin, +probably dried in the usual way, and perhaps softened before its +application by rubbing. The next covering is a deer’s skin, whose hair +had been cut away by a sharp instrument resembling a batter’s knife. The +remnant of the hair and the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a sheared +pelt of beaver. The next wrapper is of cloth made of twine doubled and +twisted. But the thread does not appear to have been formed by the +wheel, nor the web by the loom. The warp and filling seem to have been +crossed and knotted by an operation like that of the fabricks of the +northwest coast, and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the +lamented Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the +fibrous material.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">134</span> +<a name = "page134" id = "page134"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the preceding, but +furnished with large brown feathers, arranged and fashioned with great +art, so as to be capable of guarding the living wearer from wet and +cold. The plumage is distinct and entire, and the whole bears a near +similitude to the feathery cloaks now worn by the nations of the +northwestern coast of America. A Wilson might tell from what bird +they were derived.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm reclining +forward, and its hand encircling the right leg. The left arm hangs down, +with its hand inclined partly under the seat. The individual, who was a +male, did not probably exceed the age of fourteen at his death. There is +near the occiput a deep and extensive fracture of the skull, which +probably killed him. The skin has sustained little injury; it is of a +dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be decided with exactness, from +its present appearance. The scalp, with small exceptions, is covered +with sorrel or foxey hair. The teeth are white and sound. The hands and +feet, in their shrivelled state, are slender and delicate. All this is +worthy the investigation of our acute and perspicacious colleague, Dr. +Holmes.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the body, like the +Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages around any part. Except the +several wrappers, the body is totally naked. There is no sign of a +suture or incision about the belly; whence it seems that the viscera +were not removed.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as to the +antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +First, then, I am satisfied that it does not belong to that class +of white men of which we are members.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the bands of +Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500 and 1600, rambled up +the Mississippi, and along its tributary streams. But on this head I +should like to know the opinion of my learned and sagacious friend, Noah +Webster.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +3dly. I am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it belonged +to any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately inhabiting +Kentucky.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of twisted +threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the indigines of Wakash and +the Pacifick Islands, that I refer this individual to that era of time, +and that generation of men, which preceded the Indians of the Green +River, and of the place where these relicks were found. This conclusion +is strengthened by the consideration that such manufactures are not +prepared by the actual and resident red men of the present day. If the +Abbe Clavigero had had this case before him, he would have thought of +the people who constructed those ancient forts and mounds, whose exact +history no man living can give. But I forbear to enlarge; my intention +being merely to manifest my respect to the society for having enrolled +me among its members, and to invite the attention of its Antiquarians to +further inquiry on a subject of such curiousity.</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +With respect, I remain yours,</p> + +<p class = "right"> +<span class = "smaller">SAMUEL L. MITCHILL.</span></p> + +<p>It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that +the natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be +seen from the work recently published by W. H. Dall,<a class = +"tag" name = "tag35" id = "tag35" href = "#note35">35</a> the +description of the mummies being as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by interment in +their compartments of the communal dwelling, as already described; +second, by being laid on a rude platform of drift-wood or stones in some +convenient rock shelter. These lay on straw and moss, covered by +matting, and rarely have either implements, weapons, or carvings +associated with them. We found only three or four specimens in all in +<span class = "pagenum">135</span> +<a name = "page135" id = "page135"> </a> +these places, of which we examined a great number. This was apparently +the more ancient form of disposing of the dead, and one which more +recently was still pursued in the case of poor or unpopular +individuals.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few centuries, +and up to the historic period (1740), another mode was adopted for the +wealthy, popular, or more distinguished class. The bodies were +eviscerated, cleansed from fatty matters in running water, dried, and +usually placed in suitable cases in wrappings of fur and fine grass +matting. The body was usually doubled up into the smallest compass, and +the mummy case, especially in the case of children, was usually +suspended (so as not to touch the ground) in some convenient rock +shelter. Sometimes, however, the prepared body was placed in a lifelike +position, dressed and armed. They were placed as if engaged in some +congenial occupation, such as hunting, fishing, sewing, &c. With +them were also placed effigies of the animals they were pursuing, while +the hunter was dressed in his wooden armor and provided with an enormous +mask all ornamented with feathers, and a countless variety of wooden +pendants, colored in gay patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the +weapons even were only fac-similes in wood of the original articles. +Among the articles represented were drums, rattles, dishes, weapons, +effigies of men, birds, fish, and animals, wooden armor of rods or +scales of wood, and remarkable masks, so arranged that the wearer when +erect could only see the ground at his feet. These were worn at their +religious dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to +animate a temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look upon it while +so occupied. An extension of the same idea led to the masking of those +who had gone into the land of spirits.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to the whaling +class—a custom peculiar to the Kadiak Innuit—has erroneously +been confounded with the one now described. The latter included women as +well as men, and all those whom the living desired particularly to +honor. The whalers, however, only preserved the bodies of males, and +they were not associated with the paraphernalia of those I have +described. Indeed, the observations I have been able to make show the +bodies of the whalers to have been preserved with stone weapons and +actual utensils instead of effigies, and with the meanest apparel, and +no carvings of consequence. These details, and those of many other +customs and usages of which the shell heaps bear no testimony <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span> do not come within my line.</p> + +<p>Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig5" id = "fig5"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig5.jpg" width = "555" height = "317" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 5.</span>—Alaskan Mummies.</p> + +<p>Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings’ Expedition,<a class = "tag" name += "tag36" id = "tag36" href = "#note36">36</a> speaks of the Aleutian +Islanders embalming their dead, as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for they embalm +the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass; bury them in their best +attire, in a sitting posture, in a strong box, with their darts and +instruments; and decorate the tomb with various coloured mats, +embroidery, and paintings. With women, indeed, they use less ceremony. +A mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut for some +months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when it begins to +smell, or when they get reconciled to parting with it.</p> + +<p>Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin +gives this account:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska Commercial Company, +has arrived from the seal islands of the company with the mummified +remains of Indians who lived on an island north of Ounalaska one hundred +and fifty years ago. This contribution to science was secured by Captain +Henning, an agent of the company who has long resided at Ounalaska. In +his transactions with the Indians he learned +<span class = "pagenum">136</span> +<a name = "page136" id = "page136"> </a> +that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the island in +question, as the last resting-place of a great chief, known as +Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was in the neighborhood of +Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and other furs, and he bore up for the +island, with the intention of testing the truth of the tradition he had +heard. He had more difficulty in entering the cave than in finding it, +his schooner having to beat on and off shore for three days. Finally he +succeeded in affecting a landing, and clambering up the rocks he found +himself in the presence of the dead chief, his family and relatives.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great care the +mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets and ornaments +scattered around were also taken away.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or three have as +yet been opened. The body of the chief is inclosed in a large +basket-like structure, about four feet in height. Outside the wrappings +are finely wrought sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in texture, and +skins. At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of thinly cut wood, and +adjoining the center portions are pieces of body armor composed of reeds +bound together. The body is covered with the fine skin of the sea-otter, +always a mark of distinction in the interments of the Aleuts, and round +the whole package are stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the +sinews of the sea lion; also those of a bird-net. There are evidently +some bulky articles inclosed with the chief’s body, and the whole +package differs very much from the others, which more resemble, in their +brown-grass matting, consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich +Islands than the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose and +of a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon after it, +have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet of the latter +projects, with a toe-nail visible. The remaining mummies are of +adults.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man’s body in +tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of the face decomposed. +This and the other bodies were doubled up at death by severing some of +the muscles at the hip and knee joints and bending the limbs downward +horizontally upon the trunk. Perhaps the most peculiar package, next to +that of the chief, is one which incloses in a single matting, with +sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and woman. The collection also +embraces a couple of skulls, male and female, which have still the hair +attached to the scalp. The hair has changed its color to a brownish red. +The relics obtained with the bodies include a few wooden vessels scooped +out smoothly: a piece of dark, greenish, flat stone, harder than +the emerald, which the Indians use to tan skins; a scalp-lock of +jet-black hair; a small rude figure, which may have been a very +ugly doll or an idol; two or three tiny carvings in ivory of the +sea-lion, very neatly executed; a comb, a necklet made of +bird’s claws inserted into one another, and several specimens of little +bags, and a cap plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight.</p> + +<p>In Cary’s translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following +passage occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the +Macrobrian Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a +matter of curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved +have ever been discovered.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which are said to +be prepared from crystal in the following manner. When they have dried +the body, either as the Egyptians do, or in some other way, they plaster +it all over with gypsum, and paint it, making it as much as possible +resemble real life; they then put round it a hollow column made of +crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and is easily wrought. The body +being in the middle of the column is plainly seen, nor does it emit an +unpleasant smell, nor is it in any way offensive, and it is all visible +as the body itself. The nearest relations keep the column in their +houses for a year, offering to it the first-fruits +<span class = "pagenum">137</span> +<a name = "page137" id = "page137"> </a> +of all, and performing sacrifices; after that time they carry it out and +place it somewhere near the city.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Egyptian mummies could +only be seen in front, the back being covered by a box or coffin; the +Ethiopian bodies could be seen all round, as the column of glass was +transparent.</p> + +<p>With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment +may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that +particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to +ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular +preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil +of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.</p> + + + + +<h3>URN-BURIAL.</h3> + + +<p>To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following +account of urn-burial in Foster<a class = "tag" name = "tag37" id = +"tag37" href = "#note37">37</a> may be added:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by the +mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern States. In the +mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden, S.C., according to Dr. +Blanding, ranges of vases, one above the other, filled with human +remains, were found. Sometimes when the mouth of the vase is small the +skull is placed with the face downward in the opening, constituting a +sort of cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in which urn-burial +alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was accidentally +discovered not many years since in Saint Catherine’s Island, off the +coast of Georgia. Professor Swallow informs me that from a mound at New +Madrid, Mo., he obtained a human skull inclosed in an earthen jar, the +lips of which were too small to admit of its extraction. It must +therefore have been molded on the head after death.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans, where the +funeral jars often contain a human cranium much too expanded to admit of +the possibility of its passing out of it, so that either the clay must +have been modeled over the corpse, and then baked, or the neck of the +jar must have been added subsequently to the other rites of interment.<a +class = "tag" name = "tag38" id = "tag38" href = "#note38">38</a></p> + +<p>It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the +distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for +notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and +Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but +<i>to a very limited extent</i>, in North America, except as a secondary +interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or +ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under +circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent +to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of +ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as +the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply +tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been +that bodies +<span class = "pagenum">138</span> +<a name = "page138" id = "page138"> </a> +were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the fleshy parts to +decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in urns, and +reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution, furnishes +the following account of urns used for burial:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and cover, Nos. +27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very recently received from Mr. +William McKinley, of Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on his +plantation, ten miles below that city, on the bottom lands of the Oconee +River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes, tall grasses, and +briers. We had a few months ago from the same source one of the covers, +of which the ornamentation was different but more entire. A portion +of a similar cover has been received also from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. +McKinley ascribes the use of these urns and covers to the Muscogees, +a branch of the Creek Nation.</p> + +<p>These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the +ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the +bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was +a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around +the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented +scroll ornamentations.</p> + +<p>The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E. A. Barber:<a +class = "tag" name = "tag39" id = "tag39" href = "#note39">39</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Burial-urns <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> comprise vessels or +ollas without handles, for cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches +in height, with broad, open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a +laminated exterior (partially or entirely ornamented). Frequently the +indentations extend simply around the neck or rim, the lower portion +being plain.</p> + +<p>So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been +found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr. +J. C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of +possibility that future researches in regions not far distant from that +which he explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents +different forms of burial-urns, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>e</i>, after +Foster, are from Laporte, Ind. <i>f</i>, after Foster, is from Greenup +County, Kentucky; <i>d</i> is from Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian +collection, No. 27976; and <i>c</i> is one of the peculiar shoe-shaped +urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake Nicaragua, by Surgeon J. C. +Bransford, U.S.N.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig6" id = "fig6"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig6.png" width = "337" height = "536" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 6.</span>—Burial Urns.</p> + + + + +<h3>SURFACE BURIAL.</h3> + + +<p>This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far +as can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was +employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for +time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees, +the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead +being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the +Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently +<span class = "pagenum">139</span> +<a name = "page139" id = "page139"> </a> +large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and +permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen +was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by +R. S. Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a +communication received in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial +in two different ways:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> 1st. The surface burial in hollow +logs. These have been found in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been +split and the two halves hollowed out to receive the body, when it was +either closed with withes or confined to the ground with crossed stakes; +and sometimes a hollow tree is used by closing the ends.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen of logs +laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every course until they meet +in a single log at the top.</p> + +<p>The writer has recently received from Prof. C. Engelhardt, of +Copenhagen, Denmark, a brochure describing the oak coffins of +Borum-Æshœi. From an engraving in this volume it would appear that the +manner employed by the ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins +has its analogy among the North American Indians.</p> + +<p>Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible +extent in accordance with the <i>ante mortem</i> wishes of the dead, +were the obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The +account is given by George Catlin:<a class = "tag" name = "tag40" id = +"tag40" href = "#note40">40</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +He requested them to take his body down the river to this his favorite +haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering bluff to bury him on the +back of his favorite war-horse, which was to be buried alive under him, +from whence he could see, as he said, “the Frenchmen passing up and down +the river in their boats.” He owned, amongst many horses, a noble +white steed, that was led to the top of the grass-covered hill, and with +great pomp and ceremony, in the presence of the whole nation and several +of the fur-traders and the Indian agent, he was placed astride of his +horse’s back, with his bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver slung, +with his pipe and his medicine bag, with his supply of dried meat, and +his tobacco-pouch replenished to last him through the journey to the +beautiful hunting grounds of the shades of his fathers, with his flint, +his steel, and his tinder to light his pipe by the way; the scalps he +had taken from his enemies’ heads could be trophies for nobody else, and +were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in full dress, and fully +equipped, and on his head waved to the last moment his beautiful +head-dress of the war-eagles’ plumes. In this plight, and the last +funeral honors having been performed by the medicine-men, every warrior +of his band painted the palm and fingers of his right hand with +vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly impressed on the milk-white +sides of his devoted horse. This all done, turfs were brought and placed +around the feet and legs of the horse, and gradually laid up to its +sides, and at last over the back and head of the unsuspecting animal, +and last of all over the head and even the eagle plumes of its valiant +rider, where all together have smouldered and remained undisturbed to +the present day.</p> + +<p>Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a +high bluff of the Missouri River.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig7" id = "fig7"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig7.jpg" width = "544" height = "319" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 7.</span>—Indian Cemetery.</p> + +<p>According to the Rev. J. G. Wood,<a class = "tag" name = "tag41" id = +"tag41" href = "#note41">41</a> the Obongo, an African tribe, +<span class = "pagenum">140</span> +<a name = "page140" id = "page140"> </a> +buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of +the Seminoles:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow tree in the +forest and drop it into the hollow, which is afterwards filled to the +top with earth, leaves, and branches.</p> + +<p>M. de la Potherie<a class = "tag" name = "tag42" id = "tag42" href = +"#note42">42</a> gives an account of surface burial as practiced by the +Iroquois of New York:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son séant, on oint ses cheveux +et tout son corps d’huile d’animaux, on lui applique du vermillon sur le +visage; on lui met toutes sortes de beaux plumages de la rassade de la +porcelaine et on le pare des plus beaux habits que l’on peut trouver, +pendant que les parens et des vieilles continuent toujours à pleurer. +Cette cérémonie finie, les alliez apportent plusieurs présens. Les uns +sont pour essuyer les larmes et les autres pour servir de matelas au +défunt, on en destine certains pour couvrir la fosse, de peur, +disent-ils, que la plague ne l’incommode, on y étend fort proprement des +peaux d’ours et de chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui met ses +ajustemens avec un sac de farine de bled d’Inde, de la viande, sa +cuillière, et généralement tout ce qu’il faut à un homme qui veut faire +un long voyage, avec toux les présens qui lui ont été faits á sa mort, +et s’il a été guerrier on lui donne ses armes pour s’en servir au pais +des morts. L’on couvre ensuite ce cadavre d’écorce d’arbres sur +lesquelles on jette de la terre et quantité de pierres, et on l’entoure +de pierres pour empêcher que les animaux ne le déterrent. Ces sortes de +funérailles ne se font que dans leur village. Lorsqu’ils meurent en +campagne on les met dans un cercueil d’écorce, entre les branches des +arbres où on les élève sur quatre pilliers.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +On observe ces mêmes funérailles aux femmes et aux filles. Tous ceux qui +ont assisté aux obsèques profitent de toute la dépouille du défunt et +s’il n’avoit rien, les parens y supléent. Ainsi ils ne pleurent pas en +vain. Le deuil consiste à ne se point couper ni graisser les cheveux et +de se tenir négligé sans aucune parure, couverts de méchantes hardes. Le +père et la mère portent le deuil de leur fils. Si le père meurt les +garçons le portent, et les filles de leur mère.</p> + +<p>Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to +forward to the writer an interesting work by J. V. Spencer,<a class += "tag" name = "tag43" id = "tag43" href = "#note43">43</a> containing +annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and +partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly +inhabiting Illinois:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his hands +grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow hole in the ground, +setting the body in up to the waist, so the most of the body was above +ground. The part above ground was then covered by a buffalo robe, and a +trench about eight feet square was then dug about the grave. In this +trench they set picketing about eight feet high, which secured the grave +against wild animals. When I first came here there were quite a number +of these high picketings still standing where their chiefs had been +buried, and the body of a chief was disposed of in this way while I +lived near their village. The common mode of burial was to dig a shallow +grave, wrap the body in a blanket, place it in the grave, and fill it +nearly full of dirt; then take split sticks about three feet long and +stand them in the grave so that their tops would come together in the +form of a roof; then they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks +in place. I saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their +child about a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a blanket and +putting a long stick through the blanket, each taking an end of the +stick.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">141</span> +<a name = "page141" id = "page141"> </a> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is done by +digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in it, and covering it. +I have seen several bodies in one tree. I think when they are +disposed of in this way it is by special request, as I knew of an Indian +woman who lived with a white family who desired her body placed in a +tree, which was accordingly done.<a class = "tag" name = "tag44" id = +"tag44" href = "#note44">44*</a> Doubtless there was some peculiar +superstition attached to this mode, though I do not remember to have +heard what it was.</p> + +<p>Judge H. Welch<a class = "tag" name = "tag45" id = "tag45" href = +"#note45">45</a> states that “the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies buried +by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of sticks +or logs. I think the bodies lay heads to the east.” And C. C. +Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as +follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge Welch. <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span> In 1824 he went with his father-in-law, +Judge Gibson, to Fort Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of an +Ottawa or Pottawatomie chief. The body lay on the ground covered with +notched poles. It had been there but a few days and the worms were +crawling around the body. My special interest in the case was the +accusation of witchcraft against a young squaw who was executed for +killing him by her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only +parts of skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been +burned.</p> + +<p>W. A. Brice<a class = "tag" name = "tag46" id = "tag46" href = +"#note46">46</a> mentions a curious variety of surface burial not +heretofore met with:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough of a tree, +or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the infant of the Indian +mother; or a few little log inclosures, where the bodies of adults sat +upright, with all their former apparel wrapped about them, and their +trinkets, tomahawks, &c., by their side, could be seen at any time +for many years by the few pale-faces visiting or sojourning here.</p> + +<p>A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may +be considered under that head is the one employed by some of the +Ojibways and Swampy Crees of Canada. A small cavity is scooped out, +the body deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus +formed being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark.</p> + +<p>Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River +exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the +Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave, +which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and +they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and 9.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig8" id = "fig8"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig8.png" width = "452" height = "353" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 8.</span>—Grave Pen.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig9" id = "fig9"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig9.png" width = "451" height = "350" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 9.</span>—Grave Pen.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">142</span> +<a name = "page142" id = "page142"> </a> +<h4>CAIRN-BURIAL.</h4> + +<p>The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock +burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent +among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra +Nevadas.</p> + +<p>In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries +in Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen +or twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the +side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully +chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find +it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have +been constructed in the following manner: A number of bowlders had +been removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had +been obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein, +with weapons, ornaments, &c., and covered over with saplings of the +mountain aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled, +forming a huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the +last resting place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the +graves were scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which +had been sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of +the graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number +of articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a +boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this +place.</p> + +<p>From Dr. O. G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, +Indian Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was +received. According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves +<i>Kaw-a-wāh</i>, the Comanches <i>Nerm</i>, and the Apaches +<i>Tāh-zee</i>.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not seem to +have any particular rule with regard to the position. Sometimes prone, +sometimes supine, but always decumbent. They select a place where the +grave is easily prepared, which they do with such implements as they +chance to have, viz, a squaw-axe, or hoe. If they are traveling, +the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much time is spent in +finishing. I was present at the burial of Black Hawk, an Apache +chief, some two years ago, and took the body in my light wagon up the +side of a mountain to the place of burial. They found a crevice in the +rocks about four feet wide and three feet deep. By filling in loose +rocks at either end they made a very nice tomb. The body was then put in +face downwards, short sticks were put across, resting on projections of +rock at the sides, brush was thrown on this, and flat rocks laid over +the whole of it.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing, together with +all the ornaments most admired by the person when living. The face is +painted with any colored paint they may have, mostly red and yellow, as +I have observed. The body is then wrapped in skins, blankets, or +domestic, with the hands laid across the breast, and the legs placed +upon the thighs. They put into the grave their guns, bows and arrows, +tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins, and trinkets of +various kinds. One +<span class = "pagenum">143</span> +<a name = "page143" id = "page143"> </a> +or more horses are killed over or near the grave. Two horses and a mule +were killed near Black Hawk’s grave. They were led up near and shot in +the head. At the death of a Comanche chief, some years ago, I am +told about seventy horses were killed, and a greater number than that +were said to have been killed at the death of a prominent Kiowa chief a +few years since.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The mourning is principally done by the relatives and immediate friends, +although any one of their own tribe, or one of another tribe, who +chances to be passing, will stop and moan with the relatives. Their +mourning consists in a weird wail, which to be described must be heard, +and once heard is never forgotten, together with the scarifying of their +faces, arms, and legs with some sharp instrument, the cutting off of the +hair, and oftentimes the cutting off of a joint of a finger, usually the +little finger (Comanches do not cut off fingers). The length of time and +intensity of their mourning depends upon the relation and position of +the deceased in the tribe. I have known instances where, if they +should be passing along where any of their friends had died, even a year +after their death, they would mourn.</p> + +<p>The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath +heaps of rocks, according to H. Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County, +Nevada, although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as +reasons for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d, +because they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural +indolence of the Indians—indisposition to work any more than can +be helped.</p> + +<p>The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as +did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact, +a number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom +prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient +Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this +ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the +body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.</p> + + + + +<h3>CREMATION.</h3> + + +<p>Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common +custom to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially +those living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we +have undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more +eastern ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from +its great antiquity, for Tegg<a class = "tag" name = "tag47" id = +"tag47" href = "#note47">47</a> informs us that it reached as far back +as the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the +burning of Menœacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair, +eighth judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among +the ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos +up to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom +among civilized people.</p> + +<p>While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance +<span class = "pagenum">144</span> +<a name = "page144" id = "page144"> </a> +of this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North +America, yet, did space admit, a discussion might profitably be +entered upon regarding the details of it among the ancients and the +origin of the ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the +country, with discursive notes and an account of its origin among the +Nishinams of California, by Stephen Powers,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag48" id = "tag48" href = "#note48">48</a> seem to be all that is +required at this time:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all things that +exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was bad. In making men and +women, the moon wished to so fashion their souls that when they died +they should return to the earth after two or three days as he himself +does when he dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said this should +not be; but that when men died their friends should burn their bodies +and once a year make a great mourning for them and the coyote prevailed. +So, presently when deer died, they burned his body, as the coyote had +decreed and after a year they made a great mourning for him. But the +moon created the rattlesnake and caused it to bite the coyote’s son, so +that he died. Now, though the coyote had been willing to burn the deer’s +relations, he refused to burn his own son. Then the moon said unto him, +“This is your own rule. You would have it so, and now your son shall be +burned like the others.” So he was burned, and after a year the coyote +mourned for him. Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and, +as he had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its value in that +it shows there was a time when the California Indians did not practice +cremation, which is also established by other traditions. It hints at +the additional fact that the Nishinams to this day set great store by +the moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred ways and observe its +changes for a hundred purposes.</p> + +<p>Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in +Schoolcraft<a class = "tag" name = "tag49" id = "tag49" href = +"#note49">49</a> and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their number died +the body became full of little animals or spirits, as they thought then. +After crawling over the body for a time they took all manner of shapes, +some that of the deer, others the elk, antelope, etc. It was discovered +however, that great numbers were taking wings and for a while they +sailed about in the air, but eventually they would fly off to the moon. +The old coyotes or Indians, fearing the earth might become depopulated +in this way, concluded to stop it at once and ordered that when one of +their people died the body must be burnt. Ever after they continued to +burn the bodies of deceased persons.</p> + +<p>Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the +Tolkotins of Oregon:<a class = "tag" name = "tag50" id = "tag50" href = +"#note50">50</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and quite peculiar +to this tribe. The body of the deceased is kept nine days laid out in +his lodge and on the tenth it is buried. For this purpose a rising +ground is selected, on which are laid a number of sticks, about 7 feet +long, of cypress, neatly split and in the interstices, placed a quantity +of gummy wood. During these operations invitations are dispatched to the +natives of the neighboring villages requesting their attendance at the +ceremony. When the preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on +the pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of +burning, the bystanders appear to be in +<span class = "pagenum">145</span> +<a name = "page145" id = "page145"> </a> +a high state of merriment. If a stranger happen to be present they +invariably plunder him, but if that pleasure be denied them, they never +separate without quarreling among themselves. Whatever property the +deceased possessed is placed about the corpse, and if he happened to be +a person of consequence, his friends generally purchase a capote, +a shirt, a pair of trousers, &c, which articles are also +laid around the pile. If the doctor who attended him has escaped +uninjured, he is obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last +time tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation. Failing in +this, he throws on the body a piece of leather, or some other article, +as a present, which in some measure appeases the resentment of his +relatives, and preserves the unfortunate quack from being maltreated. +During the nine days the corpse is laid out, the widow of the deceased +is obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to sunrise, and from this +custom there is no relaxation even during the hottest days of summer! +While the doctor is performing his last operations she must lie on the +pile, and after the fire is applied to it she cannot stir until the +doctor orders her to be removed, which, however, is never done until her +body is completely covered with blisters. After being placed on her +legs, she is obliged to pass her hands gently through the flame and +collect some of the liquid fat which issues from the corpse, with which +she is permitted to wet her face and body. When the friends of the +deceased observe the sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract +they compel the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by dint +of hard pressing to straighten those members.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +If during her husband’s life time she has been known to have committed +any act of infidelity or omitted administering to him savory food or +neglected his clothing, &c. she is now made to suffer severely for +such lapses of duty by his relations, who frequently fling her in the +funeral pile, from which she is dragged by her friends, and thus between +alternate scorching and cooling she is dragged backwards and forwards +until she falls into a state of insensibility.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the widow +collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an envelope of birch +bark and which she is obliged for some years afterwards to carry on her +back. She is now considered and treated as a slave, all the laborious +duties of cooking, collecting food, &c. devolve on her. She must +obey the orders of all the women, and even of the children belonging to +the village, and the slightest mistake or disobedience subjects her to +the infliction of a heavy punishment. The ashes of her husband are +carefully collected and deposited in a grave which it is her duty to +keep free from weeds, and should any such appear, she is obliged to root +them out with her fingers. During this operation her husband’s relatives +stand by and beat her in a cruel manner until the task is completed or +she falls a victim to their brutality. The wretched widows, to avoid +this complicated cruelty, frequently commit suicide. Should she, +however, linger on for three or four years, the friends of her husband +agree to relieve her from the her painful mourning. This is a ceremony +of much consequence and the preparations for it occupy a considerable +time generally from six to eight months. The hunters proceed to the +various districts in which deer and beaver abound and after collecting +large quantities of meat and fur return to the village. The skins are +immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing, trinkets, &c. +Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants of the various friendly +villages, and when they have all assembled the feast commences, and +presents are distributed to each visitor. The object of their meeting is +then explained, and the woman is brought forward, still carrying on her +back the bones of her late husband, which are now removed and placed in +a covered box, which is nailed or otherwise fastened to a post twelve +feet high. Her conduct as a faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and +the ceremony of her manumission is completed by one man powdering on her +head the down of birds and another pouring on it the contents of a +bladder of oil. She is then at liberty to marry again or lead a life of +single blessedness, but few of them, I believe, wish to encounter +the risk attending a second widowhood.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">146</span> +<a name = "page146" id = "page146"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +The men are condemned to a similar ordeal, but they do not bear it with +equal fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid the brutal +treatment which custom has established as a kind of religious rite.</p> + +<p>Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the +description given.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig10" id = "fig10"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig10.jpg" width = "555" height = "319" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 10.</span>—Tolkotin cremation.</p> + +<p>Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of +this narrative may be permitted.</p> + +<p>It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after +death—certainly a long period of time, when it is remembered that +Indians as a rule endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible. +This may be accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the +friends and relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death, +and of making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the +verification of the dead person, William Sheldon<a class = "tag" name = +"tag51" id = "tag51" href = "#note51">51</a> gives an account of a +similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and which +seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased persons +by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this is mere +hypothesis:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They had some very extraordinary customs respecting deceased persons. +When one of them died, it was necessary that all his relations should +see him and examine the body in order to ascertain that he died a +natural death. They acted so rigidly on this principle, that if one +relative remained who had not seen the body all the others could not +convince that one that the death was natural. In such a case the absent +relative considered himself as bound in honor to consider all the other +relatives as having been accessories to the death of the kinsman, and +did not rest until he had killed one of them to revenge the death of the +deceased. If a Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his +relations lived in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon them to see +the body, and several months sometimes elapsed before it could be +finally interred. When a Caraib died he was immediately painted all over +with <i>roucou</i>, and had his mustachios and the black streaks in his +face made with a black paint, which was different from that used in +their lifetime. A kind of grave was then dug in the <i>carbet</i> +where he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body was +let down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached to the knees, and +the body was placed in it in a sitting posture, resembling that in which +they crouched round the fire or the table when alive, with the elbows on +the knees and the palms of the hands against the cheeks. No part of the +body touched the outside of the grave, which was covered with wood and +mats until all the relations had examined it. When the customary +examinations and inspections were ended the hole was filled, and the +bodies afterwards remained undisturbed. The hair of the deceased was +kept tied behind. In this way bodies have remained several months +without any symptoms of decay or producing any disagreeable smell. The +<i>roucou</i> not only preserved them from the sun, air, and insects +during their lifetime, but probably had the same effect after death. The +arms of the Caraibs were placed by them when they were covered over for +inspection, and they were finally buried with them.</p> + +<p>Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very +merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a +funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over +for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be +remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As +<span class = "pagenum">147</span> +<a name = "page147" id = "page147"> </a> +already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the +widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but, +if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable +to such torments.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a +husband died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her +severely. Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to +take good care of their husbands.</p> + +<p>George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,<a class = "tag" name = "tag52" id = +"tag52" href = "#note52">52</a> states that among the Indians of Clear +Lake, California, “the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a +hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered.”</p> + +<p>According to Stephen Powers,<a class = "tag" name = "tag53" id = +"tag53" href = "#note53">53</a> cremation was common among the Se-nél of +California. He thus relates it.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a scene of +incremation that he once witnessed, which was frightful for its +exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and infatuation. The corpse was that of a +wealthy chieftain, and as he lay upon the funeral pyre they placed in +his month two gold twenties, and other smaller coins in his ears and +hands, on his breast, &c. besides all his finery, his feather +mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy bows, painted arrows, +&c. When the torch was applied they set up a mournful ululation, +chanting and dancing about him, gradually working themselves into a wild +and ecstatic raving, which seemed almost a demoniacal possession, +leaping, howling, lacerating their flesh. Many seemed to lose all +self-control. The younger English-speaking Indians generally lend +themselves charily to such superstitious work, especially if American +spectators are present, but even they were carried away by the old +contagious frenzy of their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat, +quite new and fine, and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the +blazing pile. Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a pile of +California blankets, when a white man, to test his sincerity, offend him +$16 for them, jingling the bright coins before his eyes, but the savage +(for such he had become again for the moment) otherwise so avaricious, +hurled him away with a yell of execration and ran and threw his offering +into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied, wildly flung upon the pyre +all they had in the world—their dearest ornaments, their gaudiest +dresses, their strings of glittering shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing +their hair, beating their breasts in their mad and insensate +infatuation, some of them would have cast themselves bodily into the +flaming ruins and perished with the chief had they not been restrained +by their companions. Then the bright, swift flames, with their hot +tongues, licked this “cold obstruction” into chemic change, and the once +“delighted spirit” of the savage was borne up. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare’s shudder at the thought +of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the one passion of his +superstition to think of the soul, of his departed friend set free and +purified by the swift purging heat of the flames not dragged down to be +clogged and bound in the mouldering body, but borne up in the soft, warm +chariots of the smoke toward the beautiful sun, to bask in his warmth +and light, and then to fly away to the Happy Western Land. What wonder +if the Indian shrinks with unspeakable horror from the thought of +<i>burying his friend’s soul!</i>—of pressing and ramming down +with pitiless clods that inner something which once took such delight in +the sweet light of the sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade +him to do otherwise and follow our custom! What wonder if even then he +does it with sad fears and misgivings! Why not let him keep his custom! +In the gorgeous +<span class = "pagenum">148</span> +<a name = "page148" id = "page148"> </a> +landscapes and balmy climate of California an Indian incremation is as +natural to the savage as it is for him to love the beauty of the sun. +Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian bury their dead if they +will; it matters little, the earth is the same above as below; or to +them the bosom of the earth may seem even the better; but in California +do not blame the savage if he recoils at the thought of going +underground! This soft pale halo of the lilac hills—ah, let him +console himself if he will with the belief that his lost friend enjoys +it still! The narrator concluded by saying that they destroyed full $500 +worth of property. “The blankets,” said he with a fine Californian scorn +of much absurd insensibility to such a good bargain, “the blankets that +the American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +After death the Se-nél hold that bad Indians return into coyotes. Others +fall off a bridge which all souls must traverse, or are hooked off by a +raging bull at the further end, while the good escape across. Like the +Yokaia and the Konkan, they believe it necessary to nourish the spirits +of the departed for the space of a year. This is generally done by a +squaw, who takes pinole in her blanket, repairs to the scene of the +incremation, or to places hallowed by the memory of the dead, when she +scatters it over the ground, meantime rocking her body violently to and +fro in a dance and chanting the following <ins class = "correction" +title = "spelling unchanged">chorous</ins>:</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>Hel-lel-li-ly,</p> +<p>Hel-lel-lo,</p> +<p>Hel-lel-lu.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "quotation"> +This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the words have +no meaning whatever.</p> + +<p>Henry Gillman<a class = "tag" name = "tag54" id = "tag54" href = +"#note54">54</a> has published an interesting account of the exploration +of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant evidence that +cremation had existed among the former Indian population. It is as +follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In opening a burial-mound at Cade’s Pond, a small body of water +situated about two miles northeastward of Santa Fé Lake, Fla., the +writer found two instances of cremation, in each of which the skull of +the subject, which was unconsumed, was used as the depository of his +ashes. The mound contained besides a large number of human burials, the +bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a great number of +vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in brilliant colors, +chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some of them ornamented with +indented patterns, displaying not a little skill in the ceramic art, +though they are reduced to fragments. The first of the skulls referred +to was exhumed at a depth of 2½ feet. It rested on its apex (base +uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half incinerated human +bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and the sand which invariably +sifts into crania under such circumstances. Immediately beneath the +skull lay the greater part of a human tibia, presenting the peculiar +compression known as a platycnemism to the degree of affording a +latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and surrounding it lay the +fragments of a large number of human bones, probably constituting an +entire individual. In the second instance of this peculiar mode in +cremation, the cranium was discovered on nearly the opposite side of the +mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and, like the former, resting on its apex. +It was filled with a black mass—the residuum of burnt human bones +mingled with sand. At three feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a +flattened tibia, which presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both the +skulls were free from all action of fire, and though subsequently +crumbling to pieces on their removal, the writer had opportunity to +observe their strong resemblance to the small, orthocephalic crania +which he had exhumed from mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was +perceptible in the other cranium belonging to this mound. The small +narrow, retreating frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather +protuberant occipital, which was +<span class = "pagenum">149</span> +<a name = "page149" id = "page149"> </a> +not in the least compressed, the well defined supraciliary ridges, and +the superior border of the orbits, presenting a quadrilateral outline, +were also particularly noticed. The lower facial bones, including the +maxillaries, were wanting. On consulting such works as are accessible to +him, the writer finds no mention of any similar relics having been +discovered in mounds in Florida, or elsewhere. For further particulars +reference may be had to a paper on the subject read before the Saint +Louis meeting of the American Association, August, 1878.</p> + +<p>The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the +people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial +cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use +of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.</p> + +<p>The fact is well-known to archæologists that whenever cremation was +practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the +blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead, +but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as +occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E. +Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account +of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at +the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but +all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had +served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained +unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.</p> + +<p>A. S. Tiffany<a class = "tag" name = "tag55" id = "tag55" href = +"#note55">55</a> describes what he calls a cremation-furnace, discovered +within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> Mound seven miles, below the city, +a projecting point known as Eagle Point. The surface was of the +usual black soil to the depth of from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a +burnt indurated clay, resembling in color and texture a medium-burned +brick, and about 30 inches in depth. Immediately beneath this clay was a +bed of charred human remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the +unchanged and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor of +the pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a few very much +decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No implements of any kind were +discovered. The furnace appears to have been constructed by excavating +the pit and placing at the bottom of it the bodies or skeletons which +had possibly been collected from scaffolds, and placing the fuel among +and above the bodies, with a covering of poles or split timbers +extending over and resting upon the earth, with the clay covering above, +which latter we now find resting upon the charred remains. The ends of +the timber covering, where they were protected by the earth above and +below, were reduced to charcoal, parallel pieces of which were found at +right angles to the length of the mound. No charcoal was found among or +near the remains, the combustion there having been complete. The porous +and softer portions of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black. +Mr. Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably not been +opened after the burning.</p> + +<p>This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be +incorrect.</p> + +<p>Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given +to show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be +sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">150</span> +<a name = "page150" id = "page150"> </a> +<h4>PARTIAL CREMATION.</h4> + +<p>Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is +supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of +North Carolina, and which is thus described by J. W. Foster:<a +class = "tag" name = "tag56" id = "tag56" href = "#note56">56</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region, when, in +pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of the lands lying in the +valley of the Little Tennessee River. In 1821 Mr. McDowell commenced +farming. During the first season’s operations the plowshare, in passing +over a certain portion of a field, produced a hollow rumbling sound, and +in exploring for the cause the first object met with was a shallow layer +of charcoal, beneath which was a slab of burnt clay about 7 feet in +length and 4 feet broad, which, in the attempt to remove, broke into +several fragments. Nothing beneath this slab was found, but on examining +its under side, to his great surprise there was the mould of a naked +human figure. Three of these burned-clay sepulchers were thus raised and +examined during the first year of his occupancy, since which time none +have been found until recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow +brought up another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the +impress of a plump human arm.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Col. C. W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines, which +have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me thus:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +“We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending back for 500 +years. In this time they have buried their dead under huge piles of +stones. We have at one point the remains of 600 warriors under one pile, +but a grave has just been opened of the following construction: +A pit was dug, into which the corpse was placed, face upward; then +over it was moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the form and features. +On this was built a hot fire, which formed an entire shield of pottery +for the corpse. The breaking up of one such tomb gives a perfect cast of +the form of the occupant.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these archeological +discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the exhumation, who proceeded +to remove the earth from the mould, which he reached through a layer of +charcoal, and then with a trowel excavated beneath it. The clay was not +thoroughly baked, and no impression of the corpse was left, except of +the forehead and that portion of the limbs between the ankles and the +knees, and even these portions of the mould crumbled. The body had been +placed east and west, the head toward the east. “I had hoped,” +continues Mr. McDowell, “that the cast in the clay would be as perfect +as one I found 51 years ago, a fragment of which I presented to +Colonel Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on one side and +on the other of the fingers, that had pressed down the soft clay upon +the body interred beneath it.” The mound-builders of the Ohio valley, as +has been shown, often placed a layer of clay over the dead, but not in +immediate contact, upon which they builded fires; and the evidence that +cremation was often resorted to in their disposition are too abundant to +be gainsaid.</p> + +<p>This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:<a class = "tag" name = +"tag57" id = "tag57" href = "#note57">57</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina his +attention was called to an unusual method of burial by an ancient race +of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous instances burial places were +discovered where the bodies had been placed with the face up and covered +with a coating of plastic clay about an inch thick. A pile of wood +was then placed on top and fired, which consumed the body and baked the +clay, which retained the impression of the body. This was then lightly +covered with earth.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">151</span> +<a name = "page151" id = "page151"> </a> +<p>It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the +cases are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in +the extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of +burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the +ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster +(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.</p> + +<p>Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been +practiced by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the shoulders nearly +even with the ground. The grave is prepared by digging a hole of +sufficient depth and circumference to admit the body, the head being cut +off. In the grave are placed the bows and arrows, bead-work, trappings, +&c., belonging to the deceased; quantities of food, consisting of +dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with the body also. The +grave was then filled up, covering the headless body; then a bundle of +fagots was brought and placed on the grave by the different members of +the tribe, and on these fagots the head was placed, the pile fired, and +the head consumed to ashes; after this was done the female relatives of +the deceased, who had appeared as mourners with their faces blackened +with a preparation resembling tar or paint, dipped their fingers in the +ashes of the cremated head and made three marks on their right cheek. +This constituted the mourning garb, the period of which lasted until +this black substance wore off from the face. In addition to this +mourning, the blood female relatives of the deceased (who, by the way, +appeared to be a man of distinction) had their hair cropped short. +I noticed while the head was burning that the old women of the +tribe sat on the ground, forming a large circle, inside of which another +circle of young girls were formed standing and swaying their bodies to +and fro and singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male +that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very different, their +bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins and laid away in caves, with +their valuables and in some cases food being placed with them in their +mouths. Occasionally money is left to pay for food in the spirit +land.</p> + +<p>This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy +quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial +above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only +well-authenticated case on record, although E. A. Barber<a class = +"tag" name = "tag58" id = "tag58" href = "#note58">58</a> has described +what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one above +noted:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice +recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New Jersey +bank of the Delaware River, a short distance below Gloucester City, +the skeleton of a man was found buried in a standing position, in a +high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A few inches +below the surface the neck bones were found, and below these the +remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of the hands +and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be determined whether +the remains were those of an Indian or of a white man, but in either +case the sepulture was peculiarly aboriginal. A careful exhumation +and critical examination by Mr. Klingbeil disclosed the fact that around +the lower extremities of the body had been placed a number of large +stones, which revealed traces of fire, in conjunction with charred wood, +and the bones of the feet had undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes +it appear reasonably certain that the subject had been executed, +probably as a prisoner of war. A pit had been dug, in which he was +placed erect, and a fire kindled around him. Then he had been buried +alive, or, at least, if he did not survive the fiery ordeal, his body +was imbedded +<span class = "pagenum">152</span> +<a name = "page152" id = "page152"> </a> +in the earth, with the exception of his head, which was left protruding +above the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it seems +probable that the head had either been burned or severed from the body +and removed, or else left a prey to ravenous birds. The skeleton, which +would have measured fully six feet in height, was undoubtedly that of a +man.</p> + +<p>Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom +known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in +some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning. +The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an +outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient +Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with +the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in +the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment, +placed a piece of money in the corpse’s mouth, which was thought to be +Charon’s fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River. +Besides this, the corpse’s mouth was furnished with a certain cake, +composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to appease the fury +of Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet +entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more.</p> + + + + +<h3>AERIAL SEPULTURE.</h3> + + +<h4>LODGE-BURIAL.</h4> + +<p>Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground, +including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the +first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is +by no means common. The description which follows is by Stansbury,<a +class = "tag" name = "tag59" id = "tag59" href = "#note59">59</a> and +relates to the Sioux:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a flag to the +wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had attracted our curiosity. +There were five of them pitched upon the open prairie, and in them we +found the bodies of nine Sioux laid out upon the ground, wrapped in +their robes of buffalo-skin, with their saddles, spears, camp-kettles, +and all their accoutrements piled up around them. Some lodges contained +three, others only one body, all of which were more or less in a state +of decomposition. A short distance apart from these was one lodge +which, though small, seemed of rather superior pretensions, and was +evidently pitched with great care. It contained the body of a young +Indian girl of sixteen or eighteen years, with a countenance presenting +quite an agreeable expression: she was richly dressed in leggins of fine +scarlet cloth elaborately ornamented; a new pair of moccasins, +beautifully embroidered with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her +body was wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner; she +had evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our surprise a portion +of the upper part of her person was bare, exposing the face and a part +of the breast, as if the robes in which she was wrapped had by some +means been disarranged, whereas all the other bodies were closely +covered up. +<span class = "pagenum">153</span> +<a name = "page153" id = "page153"> </a> +It was, at the time, the opinion of our mountaineers, that these Indians +must have fallen in an encounter with a party of Crows; but I +subsequently learned that they had all died of the cholera, and that +this young girl, being considered past recovery, had been arranged by +her friends in the habiliments of the dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, +and abandoned to her fate, so fearfully alarmed were the Indians by this +to them novel and terrible disease.</p> + +<p>It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional, +and due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the +homes of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was +not the case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among +the same tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of +their chiefs (Long Horse) being disposed of as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet at the base, +converging to a point, at least 30 feet high, covered with buffalo-hides +dressed without hair except a part of the tail switch, which floats +outside like, and mingled with human scalps. The different skins are +neatly fitted and sewed together with sinew, and all painted in seven +alternate horizontal stripes of brown and yellow, decorated with various +lifelike war scenes. Over the small entrance is a large bright cross, +the upright being a large stuffed white wolf-skin upon his war lance, +and the cross-bar of bright scarlet flannel, containing the quiver of +bow and arrows, which nearly all warriors still carry, even when armed +with repeating rifles. As the cross is not a pagan but a Christian +(which Long Horse was not either by profession or practice) emblem, it +was probably placed there by the influence of some of his white friends. +I entered, finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war +dress, paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about +breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments. A large +opening and wind-flap at the top favored ventilation, and though he had +lain there in an open coffin a full month, some of which was hot +weather, there was but little effluvia; in fact, I have seldom +found much in a burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus +performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose.</p> + +<p>This account is furnished by Col. P. W. Norris, superintendent of +Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he +relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is +admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal +of his article, that the facts are correct.</p> + +<p>General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the +Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small +scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins +deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his +side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then +closed up.</p> + +<p>Dr. W. J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of +the Shoshones of Nevada:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known to have at +any time practiced cremation. In Independence Valley, under a deserted +and demolished <i>wickeup</i> or “brush tent,” I found the dried-up +corpse of a boy, about twelve years of age. The body had been here for +at least six weeks, according to information received, and presented a +shriveled and hideous appearance. The dryness of the atmosphere +prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region usually leave the +body when life terminates, merely throwing over it such rubbish as may +be at hand, or the remains of their primitive shelter tents, which are +mostly composed of small branches, leaves, grass, &c.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">154</span> +<a name = "page154" id = "page154"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the eastern banks of +the Owyhee River, upper portion of Nevada, did not bury their dead at +the time of my visit in 1871. Whenever the person died, his lodge +(usually constructed of poles and branches of <i>Salix</i>) was +demolished and placed in one confused mass over his remains, when the +band removed a short distance. When the illness is not too great, or +death sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable place, some +distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to avoid the +necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens, and other carnivores +soon remove all the flesh so that there remains nothing but the bones, +and even these are scattered by the wolves. The Indians at Tuscarora, +Nevada, stated that when it was possible and that they should by chance +meet the bony remains of any Shoshone, they would bury it, but in what +manner I failed to discover as the were very reticent, and avoided +giving any information regarding the dead. One corpse was found totally +dried and shrivelled, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere in this +region.</p> + +<p>Capt. F. W. Beechey<a class = "tag" name = "tag60" id = "tag60" href += "#note60">60</a> describes a curious mode of burial among the +Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat +similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a +good idea of these burial receptacles.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig11" id = "fig11"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig11.png" width = "566" height = "339" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 11.</span>—Eskimo lodge burial.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to what we had +already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished several examples of the +manner in which this tribe of natives dispose of their dead. In some +instances a platform was constructed of drift-wood raised about two feet +and a quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed, with its +head to the westward and a double tent of drift-wood erected over it, +the inner one with spars about seven feet long, and the outer one with +some that were three times that length. They were placed close together, +and at first no doubt sufficiently so to prevent the depredations of +foxes and wolves, but they had yielded at last, and all the bodies, and +even the hides that covered them, had suffered by these rapacious +animals.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks, as at Cape +Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock made of eider duck skins, +with one of deer skin over it, and were covered with a sea horse hide, +such as the natives use for their <i>baidars</i>. Suspended to the +poles, and on the ground near them, were several Esquimaux implements, +consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a tamborine, which, we were +informed as well as signs could convey the meaning of the natives, were +placed there for the use of the deceased, who, in the next world +(pointing to the western sky) ate, drank, and sang songs. Having no +interpreter, this was all the information I could obtain, but the custom +of placing such instruments around the receptacles of the dead is not +unusual, and in all probability the Esquimaux may believe that the soul +has enjoyments in the next world similar to those which constitute their +happiness in this.</p> + +<p>The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the +Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J. F. Hammond, U.S.A., +place their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a +rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the +northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in +Figure 12.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig12.jpg" width = "555" height = "318" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 12.</span>—Burial Houses.</p> + +<p>Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag61" id = "tag61" href = +"#note61">61</a> states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when +a death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of +plaited palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being +supplied, +<span class = "pagenum">155</span> +<a name = "page155" id = "page155"> </a> +and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and attended to +amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently informed that a +similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic accounts are known of +analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the Old World, although +quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the floors of their +houses, a custom which has been followed by the Mosquito Indians of +Central America and one or two of our own tribes.</p> + + +<h4>BOX-BURIAL.</h4> + +<p>Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain +tribes on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead +wonderfully carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a +low platform or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small +house with an angular roof, and each one has an opening through which +food may be passed to the corpse.</p> + +<p>Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much +resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did +the same.</p> + +<p>Capt. J. H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following +relating to the Creeks in Indian Territory.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> are buried on the surface, in a box +or a substitute made of branches of trees, covered with small branches, +leaves, and earth. I have seen several of their graves, which after +a few weeks had become uncovered and the remains exposed to view. +I saw in one Creek grave (a child’s) a small sum of +silver, in another (adult male) some implements of warfare, bow and +arrows. They are all interred with the feet of the corpse to the east. +In the mourning ceremonies of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared +their hair and faces with a composition made of grease and wood ashes, +and would remain in that condition for several days, and probably a +month.</p> + +<p>Josiah Priest<a class = "tag" name = "tag62" id = "tag62" href = +"#note62">62</a> gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe +of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The +writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an +example of credulity shown by many writers and readers.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there was no bad +smell, they were deposited in large wooden coffins, well constructed, +and placed upon benches two feet from the ground. In smaller coffins, +and in baskets, the Spaniards found the clothes of the deceased men and +women, and so many pearls that they distributed them among the officers +and soldiers by handsfulls.</p> + +<p>In Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag63" id = "tag63" href = +"#note63">63</a> may be found the following account of the burial boxes +of the Esquimaux.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the body up and +place it on the side in a plank box which is elevated three or four feet +from the ground and supported by four posts. The grave-box is often +covered with painted figures of +<span class = "pagenum">156</span> +<a name = "page156" id = "page156"> </a> +birds, fishes and animals. Sometimes it is wrapped in skins placed upon +an elevated frame and covered with planks or trunks of trees so as to +protect it from wild beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are +deposited the arms, clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the +deceased. Frequent mention is made by travelers of burial places where +the bodies lie exposed with their heads placed towards the north.</p> + +<p>Frederic Whymper<a class = "tag" name = "tag64" id = "tag64" href = +"#note64">64</a> describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that +Territory.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain only the ashes +of the dead. These people invariably burn the deceased. On one of the +boxes I saw a number of faces painted, long tresses of human hair +depending therefrom. Each head represented a victim of the (happily) +deceased one’s ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more esteemed than +if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are much ornamented with +carved and painted faces and other devices.</p> + +<p>W. H. Dall,<a class = "tag" name = "tag65" id = "tag65" href = +"#note65">65</a> well known as one of the most experienced and careful +of American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the +Innuits of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as +follows: Figs. 13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume +noted.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig13.png" width = "408" height = "344" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 13.</span>—Innuit Grave.</p> + +<h5>INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its side in a box +of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about four feet long. This is +elevated several feet above the ground on four posts which project above +the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with red chalk in figures +of fur animals, birds, and fishes. According to the +<span class = "pagenum">157</span> +<a name = "page157" id = "page157"> </a> +wealth of the dead man, a number of articles which belonged to him +are attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them have +kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes, or even kettles, +around the grave or fastened to it; and almost invariably the wooden +dish, or “kantág,” from which the deceased was accustomed to eat, is +hung on one of the posts.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig14" id = "fig14"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig14.png" width = "427" height = "297" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 14.</span>—Ingalik grave.</p> + +<h5>INNUIT OF YUKON.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner previously +described. The annexed sketch shows the form of the sarcophagus, which, +in this case, is ornamented with snow-shoes, a reel for seal-lines, +a fishing-rod, and a wooden dish or kantág. The latter is found +with every grave, and usually one is placed in the box with the body. +Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is placed in the +coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is thus disposed of. +Generally the furs, possessions, and clothing (except such as has been +worn) are divided among the nearer relatives of the dead, or remain in +possession of his family if he has one; such clothing, household +utensils, and weapons as the deceased had in daily use are almost +invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are many deaths about the +same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything belonging to the dead is +destroyed. The house in which a death occurs is always deserted and +usually destroyed. In order to avoid this, it is not uncommon to take +the sick person out of the house and put him in a tent to die. +A woman’s coffin may be known by the kettles and other feminine +utensils about it. There is no distinction between the sexes in method +of burial. On the outside of the coffin, figures are usually drawn in +red ochre. Figures of fur animals usually indicate that the dead person +was a good trapper; if seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter; +representation of parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of his death +is also occasionally indicated. For four days after a death the women in +the village do no sewing; for five days the men do not cut wood with an +axe. The relatives of the dead must not seek birds’ eggs on the +overhanging cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under them +and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or indicated, +except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch the body, chanting a +<span class = "pagenum">158</span> +<a name = "page158" id = "page158"> </a> +mournful refrain until he is interred. They seldom suspect that others +have brought the death about by shamánism, as the Indians almost +invariably do.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At the end of a year from the death, a festival is given, presents +are made to those who assisted in making the coffin, and the period of +mourning is over. Their grief seldom seems deep but they indulge for a +long time in wailing for the dead at intervals. I have seen several +women who refused to take a second husband, and had remained single in +spite of repeated offers for many years.</p> + +<h5>INGALIKS OF ULUKUK.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mikála, one of my +men, informed me that it was women lamenting for the dead. On landing, +I saw several Indians hewing out the box in which the dead are +placed. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> The body lay on its side on +a deer skin, the heels were lashed to the small of the back, and the +head bent forward on the chest so that his coffin needed to be only +about four feet long.</p> + + +<h4>TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL.</h4> + +<p>We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the +most common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite +extensively practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned +the choice of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where +timber abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being +employed.</p> + +<p>From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has +been received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the +Brulé or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are +called <i>Sicaugu</i>, in the Indian tongue <i>Seechaugas</i>, or the +“burned thigh” people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only +on account of its careful attention to details, but from its known +truthfulness of description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig15" id = "fig15"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig15.png" width = "527" height = "335" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 15.</span>—Dakota Scaffold +Burial.</p> + +<h5>FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude boxes, either +burying them when implements for digging can be had, or, when they have +no means of making a grave, placing them on top of the ground on some +hill or other slight elevation, yet this is done in imitation of the +whites, and their general custom, as a people, probably does not differ +in any essential way from that of their forefathers for many generations +in the past. In disposing of the dead, they wrap the body tightly in +blankets or robes (sometimes both) wind it all over with thongs made of +the hide of some animal and place it reclining on the back at full +length, either in the branches of some tree or on a scaffold made for +the purpose. These scaffolds are about eight feet high and made by +planting four forked sticks firmly in the ground, one at each corner and +then placing others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the +body is securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is placed on the +same scaffold, though generally a separate one is made for each +occasion. These Indians being in all things most superstitious, attach a +kind of sacredness to these scaffolds and all the materials used or +about the dead. This superstition is in itself sufficient to prevent any +of their own people from disturbing the dead, and for one of another +nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered an offense not too +severely punished by death. +<span class = "pagenum">159</span> +<a name = "page159" id = "page159"> </a> +The same feeling also prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or any +of the wood which has been used about them, even for firewood, though +the necessity may be very great, for fear some evil consequences will +follow. It is also the custom, though not universally followed, when +bodies have been for two years on the scaffolds to take them down and +bury them under ground.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +All the work about winding up the dead, building the scaffold, and +placing the dead upon it is done by women only, who, after having +finished their labor, return and bring the men, to show them where the +body is placed, that they may be able to find it in future. Valuables of +all kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &c.—in short, +whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and locks of hair +cut from the heads of the mourners at his death, are always bound up +with the body. In case the dead was a man of importance, or if the +family could afford it, even though he were not, one or several horses +(generally, in the former case, those which the departed thought +most of) are shot and placed under the scaffold. The idea in this +is that the spirit of the horse will accompany and be of use to his +spirit in the “happy hunting grounds,” or, as these people express it, +“the spirit land.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death occurs, the +friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and begin crying over the +departed or departing one. This consists in uttering the most +heartrending, almost hideous wails and lamentations, in which all join +until exhausted. Then the mourning ceases for a time until some one +starts it again, when all join in as before and keep it up until unable +to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is removed. This crying is +done almost wholly by women, who gather in large numbers on such +occasions, and among them a few who are professional mourners. These are +generally old women and go whenever a person is expected to die, to take +the leading part in the lamentations, knowing that they will be well +paid at the distribution of goods which follows. As soon as death takes +place, the body is dressed by the women in the best garments and +blankets obtainable, new ones if they can be afforded. The crowd +gathered near continue wailing piteously, and from time to time cut +locks of hair from their own heads with knives, and throw them on the +dead body. Those who wish to show their grief most strongly, cut +themselves in various places, generally in the legs and arms, with their +knives or pieces of flint, more commonly the latter, causing the blood +to flow freely over their persons. This custom is followed to a less +degree by the men.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the desire to get +the dead out of sight, the fear that the disease which caused the death +will communicate itself to others of the family causes them to hasten +the disposition of it as soon as they are certain that death has +actually taken place.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After that is +done, connected with which there seems to be no particular ceremony, the +few women who attend to it return to the lodge and a distribution is +made among them and others, not only of the remaining property of the +deceased, but of all the possessions, even to the lodge itself of the +family to which he belonged. This custom in some cases has been carried +so far as to leave the rest of the family not only absolutely destitute +but actually naked. After continuing in this condition for a time, they +gradually reach the common level again by receiving gifts from various +sources.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the dead, +a strict observance of the ten days following the death, as +follows: They are to rise at a very early hour and work unusually hard +all day, joining in no feast, dance, game, or other diversion, eat but +little, and retire late, that they may be deprived of the usual amount +of sleep as of food. During this they never paint themselves, but at +various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead in loud +cries and lamentations for hours together. After the ten days have +expired they paint themselves again and engage in the usual amusements +of the people as before. The men are expected to mourn and fast for one +day and then go on the war-path against some other tribe, or on some +long journey alone. If he prefers, he can mourn and fast for two or more +<span class = "pagenum">160</span> +<a name = "page160" id = "page160"> </a> +days and remain at home. The custom of placing food at the scaffold also +prevails to some extent. If but little is placed there it is understood +to be for the spirit of the dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If +much is provided, it is done with the intention that those of the same +sex and age as the deceased shall meet there and consume it. If the dead +be a little girl, the young girls meet and eat what is provided; if it +be a man, then men assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never +mention the name of the dead.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig16" id = "fig16"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig16.jpg" width = "321" height = "554" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 16.</span>—Offering Food to the +Dead.</p> + +<h5>“KEEPING THE GHOST.”</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Still another custom, though at the present day by no means generally +followed, is still observed to some extent among them. This is called +<i>wanagee yuhapee</i>, or “keeping the ghost.” A little of the +hair from the head of the deceased being preserved is bound up in calico +and articles of value until the roll is about two feet long and ten +inches or more in diameter, when it is placed in a case made of hide +handsomely ornamented with various designs in different colored paints. +When the family is poor, however, they may substitute for this case blue +or scarlet blanket or cloth. The roll is then swung lengthwise between +two supports made of sticks, placed thus × in front of a lodge which has +been set apart for the purpose. In this lodge are gathered presents of +all kinds, which are given out when a sufficient quantity is obtained. +It is often a year and sometimes several years before this distribution +is made. During all this time the roll containing the hair of the +deceased is left undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they +are brought in are piled in the back part of the lodge, and are not to +be touched until given out. No one but men and boys are admitted to the +lodge unless it be a wife of the deceased, who may go in if necessary +very early in the morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke, +eat, and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their pipes +in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left undisturbed until +after the distribution. When they eat, a portion is always placed +first under the roll outside for the spirit of the deceased. No one is +allowed to take this unless a large quantity is so placed, in which case +it may be eaten by any persons actually in need of food, even though +strangers to the dead. When the proper time comes the friends of the +deceased and all to whom presents are to be given are called together to +the lodge and the things are given out by the man in charge. Generally +this is some near relative of the departed. The roll is now undone and +small locks of the hair distributed with the other presents, which ends +the ceremony.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Sometimes this “keeping the ghost” is done several times, and it is then +looked upon as a repetition of the burial or putting away of the dead. +During all the time before the distribution of the hair, the lodge, as +well as the roll, is looked upon as in a manner sacred, but after that +ceremony it becomes common again and may be used for any ordinary +purpose. No relative or near friend of the dead wishes to retain +anything in his possession that belonged to him while living, or to see, +hear, or own anything which will remind him of the departed. Indeed, the +leading idea in all their burial customs in the laying away with the +dead their most valuable possessions, the giving to others what is left +of his and the family property, the refusal to mention his name, +&c., is to put out of mind as soon and as effectual as possible the +memory of the departed.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they believe each +person to have a spirit which continues to live after the death of the +body. They have no idea of a future life in the body, but believe that +after death their spirits will meet and recognize the spirits of their +departed friends in the spirit land. They deem it essential to their +happiness here, however, to destroy as far as practicable their +recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of death as a sleep, and +of the dead as asleep or having gone to sleep at such a time. These +customs are gradually losing their hold upon them, and are much less +generally and strictly observed than formerly.</p> + +<p><a href = "#fig15">Figure 15</a> furnishes a good example of scaffold +burial. <a href = "#fig16">Figure 16</a>, offering of food and drink to +the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead upon the scaffold.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig17" id = "fig17"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig17.jpg" width = "335" height = "560" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 17.</span>—Depositing the +Corpse.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">161</span> +<a name = "page161" id = "page161"> </a> +<p>A. Delano,<a class = "tag" name = "tag66" id = "tag66" href = +"#note66">66</a> mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he +noticed in Nebraska.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> During the afternoon we passed a +Sioux burying-ground, if I may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a +hackberry tree, elevated about twenty feet from the ground, a kind +of rack was made of broken tent poles, and the body (for there was but +one) was placed upon it, wrapped in his blanket, and a tanned buffalo +skin, with his tin cup, moccasins, and various things which he had used +in life, were placed upon his body, for his use in the land of +spirits.</p> + +<p>Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend +Dr. Washington Matthews, United States Army.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig18" id = "fig18"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig18.jpg" width = "348" height = "563" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 18.</span>—Tree-burial.</p> + +<p>John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the +following account of tree-burial among this tribe:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose the +dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned by the departed, closely +sewed up, and then, if a male or chief, fasten in the branches of a tree +so high as to be beyond the reach of wolves, and then left to slowly +waste in the dry winds. If the body was that of a squaw or child, it was +thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where it soon became the prey of +the wild animals. The weapons, pipes, &c., of men were inclosed, and +the small toys of children with them. The ceremonies were equally +barbarous, the relatives cutting off, according to the depth of their +grief, one or more joints of the fingers, divesting themselves of +clothing even in the coldest weather, and filling the air with their +lamentations. All the sewing up and burial process was conducted by the +squaws, as the men would not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead +body.</p> + +<p>The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and +Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E. H. Alden, United States Indian +agent at Fort Berthold:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but always on a +scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet high, on which the box is +placed, or, if no box is used, the body wrapped in red or blue cloth if +able, or, if not, a blanket of cheapest white cloth, the tools and +weapons being placed directly under the body, and there they remain +forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of them. It would be bad +medicine to touch the dead or anything so placed belonging to him. +Should the body by any means fall to the ground, it is never touched or +replaced on the scaffold. As soon as one dies he is immediately buried, +sometimes within an hour, and the friends begin howling and wailing as +the process of interment goes on, and continue mourning day and night +around the grave, without food sometimes three or four days. Those who +mourn are always paid for it in some way by the other friends of the +deceased, and those who mourn the longest are paid the most. They also +show their grief and affection for the dead by a fearful cutting of +their own bodies, sometimes only in part, and sometimes all over their +whole flesh, and this sometimes continues for weeks. Their hair, which +is worn in long braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They +seem proud of their mutilations. A young man who had just buried +his mother came in boasting of, and showing his mangled legs.</p> + +<p>According to Thomas L. McKenney,<a class = "tag" name = "tag67" id = +"tag67" href = "#note67">67</a> the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis., +buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as +follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place the coffin +or box containing their remains on two cross-pieces, nailed or tied with +wattap to four poles. +<span class = "pagenum">162</span> +<a name = "page162" id = "page162"> </a> +The poles are about ten feet high. They plant near these posts the wild +hop or some other kind of running vine, which spreads over and covers +the coffin. I saw one of these on the island, and as I have +described it. It was the coffin of a child about four years old. It was +near the lodge of the sick girl. I have a sketch of it. +I asked the chief why his people disposed of their dead in that +way. He answered they did not like to put them out of their sight so +soon by putting them under ground. Upon a platform they could see the +box that contained their remains, and that was a comfort to them.</p> + +<p>Figure 19 is copied from McKenney’s picture of this form of +burial.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig19" id = "fig19"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig19.jpg" width = "565" height = "347" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 19.</span>—Chippewa Scaffold +Burial.</p> + +<p>Keating<a class = "tag" name = "tag68" id = "tag68" href = +"#note68">68</a> thus describes burial scaffolds:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high, corpses were +deposited in a box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair was +suspended, which we at first mistook for a scalp, but our guide informed +us that these were locks of hair torn from their heads by the relatives +to testify their grief. In the center, between the four posts which +supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the ground, it was +about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human figures, five of +which had a design of a petticoat indicating them to be females; the +rest amounting to seven, were naked and were intended for male figures; +of the latter four were headless, showing that they had been slain, the +three other male figures were unmutilated, but held a staff in their +hand, which, as our guide informed us designated that they were slaves. +The post, which is an usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports +a warrior’s remains, does not represent the achievements of the +deceased, but those of the warriors that assembled near his remains +danced the dance of the post, and related their martial exploits. +A number of small bones of animals were observed in the vicinity, +which were probably left there after a feast celebrated in honor of the +dead.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that a man could +not lie in them extended at full length, but in a country where boxes +and boards are scarce this is overlooked. After the corpses have +remained a certain time exposed, they are taken down and burned. Our +guide, Renville, related to us that he had been a witness to an +interesting, though painful, circumstance that occurred here. An Indian +who resided on the Mississippi, hearing that his son had died at this +spot, came up in a canoe to take charge of the remains and convey them +down the river to his place of abode but on his arrival he found that +the corpse had already made such progress toward decomposition as +rendered it impossible for it to be removed. He then undertook with a +few friends, to clean off the bones. All the flesh was scraped off and +thrown into the stream, the bones were carefully collected into his +canoe, and subsequently carried down to his residence.</p> + +<p>Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details +is the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M. +Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis, +United States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to +the Cheyennes of Kansas.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the banks of +Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet from the ground by four +notched poles, which were firmly planted in the ground. The unusual care +manifested in the preparation of the case induced Dr. Sternberg to infer +that some important chief was inclosed in it. Believing that articles of +interest were inclosed with the body, and that their value would be +enhanced if the were received at the Museum as left by the Indians, Dr. +Sternberg determined to send the case unopened.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of the +contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced branches of white +willow, about six feet long, +<span class = "pagenum">163</span> +<a name = "page163" id = "page163"> </a> +three feet broad, and three feet high, with a flooring of buffalo thongs +arranged as a net-work. This cradle was securely fastened by strips of +buffalo-hide to four poles of ironwood and cottonwood, about twelve feet +in length. These poles doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of +the vertical poles described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in +two buffalo robes of large size and well preserved. On removing these an +aperture eighteen inches square was found at the middle of the +right-side of the cradle or basket. Within appeared other buffalo robes +folded about the remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes. Five +robes were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we came to a +series of new blankets folded about the remains. There were five in +all—two scarlet, two blue, and one white. These being removed, the +next wrappings consisted of a striped white and gray sack, and of a +United States Infantry overcoat, like the other coverings nearly new. We +had now come apparently upon the immediate envelope of the remains, +which it was now evident must be those of a child. These consisted of +three robes, with hoods very richly ornamented with bead-work. These +robes or cloaks were of buffalo-calf skin about four feet in length, +elaborately decorated with bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered +with rows of blue and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow, +and the third blue and red. All were further adorned by spherical brass +bells attached all about the borders by strings of beads.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar to that used +by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern plains, and upon a +pillow of dirty rags, in which were folded a bag of red paint, bits of +antelope skin, bunches of straps, buckles, &c. The three bead-work +hooded cloaks were now removed, and then we successively unwrapped a +gray woolen double shawl, five yards of blue cassimere, six yards of red +calico, and six yards of brown calico, and finally disclosed the remains +of a child, probably about a year old, in an advanced stage of +decomposition. The cadaver had a beaver-cap ornamented with disks of +copper containing the bones of the cranium, which had fallen apart. +About the neck were long wampum necklaces, with <i>Dentalium</i>, +<i>Unionidæ</i>, and <i>Auriculæ</i>, interspersed with beads. There +were also strings of the pieces of <i>Haliotis</i> from the Gulf of +California, so valued by the Indians on this side of the Rocky +Mountains. The body had been elaborately dressed for burial, the costume +consisting of a red-flannel cloak, a red tunic, and frock-leggins +adorned with bead-work, yarn stockings of red and black worsted, and +deer-skin beadwork moccasins. With the remains were numerous trinkets, +a porcelain image, a China vase, strings of beads, several +toys, a pair of mittens, a fur collar, a pouch of the +skin of <i>Putorius vison</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished +by Dr. L. S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and +relating to the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain +curious mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over +the entire globe:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs can be found +sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding on which to lay the body, +but as such growth is not common in Dakota, the more general practice is +to lay them upon scaffolds from seven to ten feet high and out of the +reach of carnivorous animals, as the wolf. These scaffolds are +constructed upon four posts set into the ground something after the +manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like all labors of a +domestic kind, the preparation for burial is left to the women, usually +the old women. The work begins as soon as life is extinct. The face, +neck, and hands are thickly painted with vermilion, or a species of red +earth found in various portions of the Territory when the vermilion of +the traders cannot be had. The clothes and personal trinkets of the +deceased ornament the body. When blankets are available, it is then +wrapped in one, all parts of the body being completely enveloped. Around +this a dressed skin of buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the flesh +side out, and the whole securely bound with thongs +<span class = "pagenum">164</span> +<a name = "page164" id = "page164"> </a> +of skins, either raw or dressed; and for ornament, when available, +a bright-red blanket envelopes all other coverings, and renders the +general scene more picturesque until dimmed by time and the elements. As +soon as the scaffold is ready, the body is borne by the women, followed +by the female relatives, to the place of final deposit, and left prone +in its secure wrappings upon this airy bed of death. This ceremony is +accompanied with lamentations wild and weird that one must see and hear +in order to appreciate. If the deceased be a brave, it is customary to +place upon or beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads which time has +rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been brave in war some of +his implements of battle are placed on the scaffold or securely tied to +its timbers. If the deceased has been a chief, or a soldier related to +his chief, it is not uncommon to slay his favorite pony and place the +body beneath the scaffold, under the superstition, I suppose, that +the horse goes with the man. As illustrating the propensity to provide +the dead with the things used while living, I may mention that some +years ago I loaned to an old man a delft urinal for the use of his son, +a young man who was slowly dying of a wasting disease. I made +him promise faithfully that he would return it as soon as his son was +done using it. Not long afterwards the urinal graced the scaffold which +held the remains of the dead warrior, and as it has not to this day been +returned I presume the young man is not done using it.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them appear to be of +universal observance, cover considerable ground. The hair, never cut +under other circumstances, is cropped off even with the neck, and the +top of the head and forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole body, are +smeared with a species of white earth resembling chalk, moistened with +water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family possessions except the few +shabby articles of apparel worn by the mourners, are given away and the +family left destitute. Thus far the custom is universal or nearly so. +The wives, mother, and sisters of a deceased man, on the first, second, +or third day after the funeral, frequently throw off their moccasins and +leggings and gash their legs with their butcher-knives, and march +through the camp and to the place of burial with bare and bleeding +extremities, while they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning. +The men likewise often gash themselves in many places, and usually seek +the solitude of the higher point on the distant prairie, where they +remain fasting, smoking, and wailing out their lamentations for two or +three days. A chief who had lost a brother once came to me after +three or four days of mourning in solitude almost exhausted from hunger +and bodily anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both lower +extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from the ankles to +the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed from exposure, and were +suppurating freely. He assured me that he had not slept for several days +or nights. I dressed his wounds with a soothing ointment, and gave +him a full dose of an effective anodyne, after which he slept long and +refreshingly, and awoke to express his gratitude and shake my hand in a +very cordial and sincere manner. When these harsher inflictions are not +resorted to, the mourners usually repair daily for a few days to the +place of burial, toward the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until +it is apparently assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely kept up +for more than four or five days, but is occasionally resorted to, at +intervals, for weeks, or even months, according to the mood of the +bereft. I have seen few things in life so touching as the spectacle +of an old father going daily to the grave of his child, while the +shadows are lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would +move a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight, when, +silent and solemn, he returns to his desolate family. The weird effect +of this observance is sometimes heightened, when the deceased was a +grown-up son, by the old man kindling a little fire near the head of the +scaffold, and varying his lamentations with smoking in silence. The +foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances during a +period of more than six years’ constant intercourse with several +subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may be much which memory has +failed to recall upon a brief consideration.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">165</span> +<a name = "page165" id = "page165"> </a> +<p>Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for +the dead.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig20" id = "fig20"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig20.jpg" width = "353" height = "575" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 20.</span>—Scarification at +Burial.</p> + +<p>Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner’s narrative may not be deemed +inappropriate here.</p> + +<p>Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great +antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to +have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation, +and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &c., +were thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles +supposed or known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also +consumed. The Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese, +Caribs, and many of the tribes of North American Indians followed these +customs. The cutting of hair as a mourning observance is of very great +antiquity, and Tegg relates that among the ancients whole cities and +countries were shaved (<i>sic</i>) when a great man died. The Persians +not only shaved themselves on such occasions, but extended the same +process to their domestic animals, and Alexander, at the death of +Hephæstin, not only cut off the manes of his horses and mules, but took +down the battlements from the city walls, that even towns might seem in +mourning and look bald. Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed +from a remote period of time, having possibly replaced, in the process +of evolution, to a certain extent, the more barbarous practice of +absolute personal sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human +sacrifices have taken place to only a limited extent, but formerly many +victims were immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida +and Carolina Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for +the reason, according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief +or Great Sun descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as +all other members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only +persons of an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among +some tribes of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or +horses is by no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among +the Romans, and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for +at Solutré, in France, the writer saw horses’ bones exhumed from the +graves examined in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with +Indians upon this subject, and they have invariably informed him that +when horses were slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the +band.</p> + +<p>Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the +<ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Colchiens’">Colchians</ins> +enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and +hung them to trees; the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With +regard to the use of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the +dead, it seems somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied +the eastern portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in +this way, which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much +easier method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living +<span class = "pagenum">166</span> +<a name = "page166" id = "page166"> </a> +in sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that +the Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible, +the fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to +the supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the +desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This +desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.</p> + +<p>The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in +loud cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a +greater significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and +on this point Bruhier<a class = "tag" name = "tag69" id = "tag69" href = +"#note69">69</a> seems quite positive, his interpretation being that +such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some +interesting examples, which may be admitted here:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed with comical +remarks and questions to the dead as to why he preferred to leave this +world, having everything to make life comfortable. They place the corpse +on a little seat in a ditch or grave four or five feet deep, and for ten +days they bring food, requesting the corpse to eat. Finally, being +convinced that the dead will neither eat nor return to life, they throw +the food on the head of the corpse and fill up the grave.</p> + +<p>When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the +body, closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received +the last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead, +finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased +by name was known as the <i>conclamation</i>, and was a custom anterior +even to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately +removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater +propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves +on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the +Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number, +performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village +church steeple and again at the grave<a class = "tag" name = "tag70" id += "tag70" href = "#note70">70*</a>. This custom, however, was probably a +remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to prevent premature +burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad spirits.</p> + +<p>W. L. Hardisty<a class = "tag" name = "tag71" id = "tag71" href = +"#note71">71</a> gives a curious example of log-burial in trees, +relating to the Loucheux of British America:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood, and secure it +to two or more trees, about six feet from the ground. A log about +eight feet long is first split in two, and each of the parts carefully +hollowed out to the required size. The body is then inclosed and the two +pieces well lashed together, preparatory to being finally secured, as +before stated, to the trees.</p> + +<p>The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing +scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood<a class = "tag" +name = "tag72" id = "tag72" href = "#note72">72</a> gives a number of +examples of this mode of burial.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig21" id = "fig21"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig21.jpg" width = "554" height = "318" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 21.</span>—Australian Scaffold +Burial.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">167</span> +<a name = "page167" id = "page167"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming the body by +fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make it a peculiarly +conspicuous object. Should a tree grow favorably for their purpose, they +will employ it as the final resting place for the dead body. Lying in +its canoe coffin, and so covered over with leaves and grass that its +shape is quite disguised, the body is lifted into a convenient fork of +the tree and lashed to the boughs, by native ropes. No farther care is +taken of it, and if in process of time it should be blown out of the +tree, no one will take the trouble of replacing it.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an artificial platform +is made for the body, by fixing the ends of stout branches in the ground +and connecting them at their tops by smaller horizontal branches. Such +are the curious tombs which are represented in the illustration. <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span> These strange tombs are mostly placed +among the reeds, so that nothing can be more mournful than the sound of +the wind as it shakes the reeds below the branch in which the corpse is +lying. The object of this aerial tomb is evident enough, namely, to +protect the corpse from the dingo, or native dog. That the ravens and +other carrion-eating birds should make a banquet upon the body of the +dead man does not seem to trouble the survivors in the least, and it +often happens that the traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed +ravens that the body of a dead Australian is lying in the branches over +his head.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old men who have +died a natural death; but when a young warrior has fallen in battle the +body is treated in a very different manner. A moderately high +platform is erected, and upon this is seated the body of the dead +warrior with the face toward the rising sun. The legs are crossed and +the arms kept extended by means of sticks. The fat is then removed, and +after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over the body, which has +previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is done in the ceremony of +initiation. The legs and arms are covered with zebra-like stripes of +red, white, and yellow, and the weapons of the dead man are laid across +his lap.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the platform, and +kept up for ten days or more, during the whole of which time the friends +and mourners remain by the body, and are not permitted to speak. +Sentinels relieve each other at appointed intervals, their duty being to +see that the fires are not suffered to go out, and to keep the flies +away by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu feathers. When a body has +been treated in this manner it becomes hard and mummy-like, and the +strongest point is that the wild dogs will not touch it after it has +been so long smoked. It remains sitting on the platform for two months +or so, and is then taken down and buried, with the exception of the +skull, which is made into a drinking-cup for the nearest relative. <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p>This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as +the process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from +decomposition.</p> + +<p><a href = "#fig21">Figs. 21</a> and 22 represent the Australian +burials described, and are after the original engravings in Wood’s work. +The one representing scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of +our own Indians.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig22" id = "fig22"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig22.jpg" width = "555" height = "319" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 22.</span>—Preparing the Dead.</p> + +<p>With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the +dead, the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are +given:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the dead bodies +of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon scaffolds resembling +trees, instead of burying them in the ground, or burning them and +preserving their ashes in urns, I think we can answer the inquiry +by recollecting that most if not all the tribes of American Indians, as +well as other nations of a higher civilization, believed that the human +soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and nature of a bird, and +as these are essentially +<span class = "pagenum">168</span> +<a name = "page168" id = "page168"> </a> +arboreal in their habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the +soul-bird would have readier access to its former home or dwelling-place +if it was placed upon a tree or scaffold than if it was buried in the +earth; moreover, from this lofty eyrie the souls of the dead could rest +secure from the attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard +like sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones.</p> + +<p>This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the +writer’s possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct +without farther investigation.</p> + + +<h4>PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES.</h4> + +<p>Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first +depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain +for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and +deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by +writers “bone-houses.” Roman<a class = "tag" name = "tag73" id = "tag73" +href = "#note73">73</a> relates the following concerning the +Choctaws:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The following treatment of the dead is very strange. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span> As soon as the deceased is departed, a stage +is erected (as in the annexed plate is represented) and the corpse +is laid on it and covered with a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it +is decorated, and the poles painted red with vermillion and bear’s oil; +if a child, it is put upon stakes set across; at this stage the +relations come and weep, asking many questions of the corpse, such as, +why he left them? did not his wife serve him well? was he not contented +with his children? had he not corn enough? did not his land produce +sufficient of everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &c., and +this accompanied by loud howlings; the women will be there constantly, +and sometimes, with the corrupted air and heat of the sun, faint so as +to oblige the bystanders to carry them home; the men will also come and +mourn in the same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable +times when they are least likely to be discovered.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a certain time, +but not a fixed space; this is sometimes extended to three or four +months, but seldom more than half that time. A certain set of +venerable old Gentlemen, who wear very long nails as a distinguishing +badge on the thumb, fore, and middle finger of each hand, constantly +travel through the nation (when I was there I was told there were but +five of this respectable order) that one of them may acquaint those +concerned, of the expiration of this period, which is according to their +own fancy; the day being come, the friends and relations assemble near +the stage, a fire is made, and the respectable operator, after the +body is taken down, with his nails tears the remaining flesh off the +bones, and throws it with the entrails into the fire, where it is +consumed; then he scrapes the bones and burns the scrapings likewise; +the head being painted red with vermillion is with the rest of the bones +put into a neatly made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and +deposited in the loft of a hut built for that purpose, and called bone +house; each town has one of these; after remaining here one year or +thereabouts, if he be a man of any note, they take the chest down, and +in an assembly of relations and friends they weep once more over him, +refresh the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him to +lasting oblivion.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the earth as one to +be directly forgotten and unworthy the above ceremonial obsequies and +mourning.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">169</span> +<a name = "page169" id = "page169"> </a> +<p>Jones<a class = "tag" name = "tag74" id = "tag74" href = +"#note74">74</a> quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding +the Natchez tribe:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in tombs. These +tombs were located within or very near their temples. They rested upon +four forked sticks fixed fast in the ground, and were raised some three +feet above the earth. About eight feet long and a foot and a half wide, +they were prepared for the reception of a single corpse. After the body +was placed upon it, a basket-work of twigs was woven around and +covered with mud, an opening being left at the head, through which food +was presented to the deceased. When the flesh had all rotted away, the +bones were taken out, placed in a box made of canes, and then deposited +in the temple. The common dead were mourned and lamented for a period of +three days. Those who fell in battle were honored with a more protracted +and grievous lamentation.</p> + +<p>Bartram<a class = "tag" name = "tag75" id = "tag75" href = +"#note75">75</a> gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial +among the Choctaws of Carolina:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the deceased in a very +different manner. As soon as a person is dead, they erect a scaffold 18 +or 20 feet high in a grove adjacent to the town, where they lay the +corps, lightly covered with a mantle; here it is suffered to remain, +visited and protected by the friends and relations, until the flesh +becomes putrid, so as easily to part from the bones; then undertakers, +who make it their business, carefully strip the flesh from the bones, +wash and cleanse them, and when dry and purified by the air, having +provided a curiously-wrought chest or coffin, fabricated of bones and +splints, they place all the bones therein, which is deposited in the +bone-house, a building erected for that purpose in every town; and +when this house is full a general solemn funeral takes place; when the +nearest kindred or friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair +to the bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following one +another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and connections +attending their respective corps, and the multitude following after +them, all as one family, with united voice of alternate allelujah and +lamentation, slowly proceeding on to the place of general interment, +when they place the coffins in order, forming a pyramid;<a class = "tag" +name = "tag76" id = "tag76" href = "#note76">76*</a> and, lastly, cover +all over with earth, which raises a conical hill or mount; when they +return to town in order of solemn procession, concluding the day with a +festival, which is called the feast of the dead.</p> + +<p>Morgan<a class = "tag" name = "tag77" id = "tag77" href = +"#note77">77</a> also alludes to this mode of burial:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding erected +upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to +waste to a skeleton. After this had been effected by the process of +decomposition in the open air, the bones were removed either to the +former house of the deceased, or to a small bark house by its side, +prepared for their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the whole +family were preserved from generation to generation by the filial or +parental affection of the living. After the lapse of a number of years, +or in a season of public insecurity, or on the eve of abandoning a +settlement, it was customary to collect these skeletons from the whole +community around and consign them to a common resting-place.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless to +be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which have been found in such +numbers in various +<span class = "pagenum">170</span> +<a name = "page170" id = "page170"> </a> +parts of the country. On opening these mounds the skeletons are usually +found arranged in horizontal layers, a conical pyramid, those in +each layer radiating from a common center. In other cases they are found +placed promiscuously.</p> + +<p>Dr. D. G. Brinton<a class = "tag" name = "tag78" id = "tag78" href = +"#note78">78</a> likewise gives an account of the interment of collected +bones:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed at stated +periods—usually once in eight or ten years—to collect and +clean the osseous remains of those of its number who had died in the +intervening time, and inter them in one common sepulcher, lined with +choice furs, and marked with a mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such is +the origin of those immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains of +nations and generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent curiosity, +so frequently chances upon in all portions of our territory. Throughout +Central America the same usage obtained in various localities, as early +writers and existing monuments abundantly testify. Instead of interring +the bones, were they those of some distinguished chieftain, they were +deposited in the temples or the council-houses, usually in small chests +of canes or splints. Such were the charnel-houses which the historians +of De Soto’s expedition so often mention, and these are the “arks” Adair +and other authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians +from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient Israelites bore +with them in their migration.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of her +deceased husband wherever she went for four years, preserving them in +such a casket, handsomely decorated with feathers (Rich. Arc. Exp., +p. 200). The Caribs of the mainland adopted the custom for all, +without exception. About a year after death the bones were cleaned, +bleached, painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a wicker +basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling (Gumilla +Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the quantity of these +heirlooms became burdensome they were removed to some inaccessible +cavern and stowed away with reverential care.</p> + +<p>George Catlin<a class = "tag" name = "tag79" id = "tag79" href = +"#note79">79</a> describes what he calls the “Golgothas” of the +Mandans:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty or thirty +feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring or circle is a little +mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rest two buffalo skulls +(a male and female), and in the center of the little mound is +erected “a medicine pole,” of about twenty feet high, supporting +many curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose +have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred arrangement.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort to evince +their further affections for the dead, not in groans and lamentations, +however, for several years have cured the anguish, but fond affection +and endearments are here renewed, and conversations are here held and +cherished with the dead. Each one of these skulls is placed upon a bunch +of wild sage, which has been pulled and placed under it. The wife knows, +by some mark or resemblance, the skull of her husband or her child which +lies in this group, and there seldom passes a day that she does not +visit it with a dish of the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords, +which she sets before the skull at night, and returns for the dish in +the morning. As soon as it is discovered that the sage on which the +skull rests is beginning to decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch and +places the skull carefully upon it, removing that which was +under it.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this +spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold +converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a +pleasant day but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or +lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the most +pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as they were +wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">171</span> +<a name = "page171" id = "page171"> </a> +<p>From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which +have been described by the authors cited were not confined to any +special tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have +prevailed among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.</p> + + +<h4>SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES.</h4> + +<p>The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes, +either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is +common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast.</p> + +<p>The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington +Territory, and may be found in Swan.<a class = "tag" name = "tag80" id = +"tag80" href = "#note80">80</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a celebrated +doctor, were the chief mourners, probably from being the smartest scamps +among the relatives. Their duty was to prepare the canoe for the +reception of the body. One of the largest and best the deceased had +owned was then hauled into the woods, at some distance back of the +lodge, after having been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two large +square holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and stern, for the +twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for further use, and +therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the whites (who are but +too apt to help themselves to these depositories for the dead), and also +to allow any rain to pass off readily.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets, was brought +out, and laid in it on mats previously spread. All the wearing apparel +was next put in beside the body, together with her trinkets, beads, +little baskets, and various trifles she had prized. More blankets were +then covered over the body, and mats smoothed over all. Next, +a small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was placed, bottom +up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with mats. The canoe was +then raised up and placed on two parallel bars, elevated four or five +feet from the ground, and supported by being inserted through holes +mortised at the top of four stout posts previously firmly planted in the +earth. Around these holes were then hung blankets, and all the cooking +utensils of the deceased, pots, kettles, and pans, each with a hole +punched through it, and all her crockery-ware, every piece of which was +first cracked or broken, to render it useless; and then, when all was +done, they left her to remain for one year, when the bones would be +buried in a box in the earth directly under the canoe; but that, with +all its appendages, would never be molested, but left to go to gradual +decay.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and would no +more think of using one than we would of using our own graveyard relics; +and it is, in their view, as much of a desecration for a white man to +meddle or interfere with these, to them, sacred mementoes, as it would +be to us to have an Indian open the graves of our relatives. Many +thoughtless white men have done this, and animosities have been thus +occasioned.</p> + +<p>Figure 23 represents this mode of burial.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig23" id = "fig23"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig23.png" width = "361" height = "533" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 23.</span>—Canoe Burial.</p> + +<p>From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the +Twanas, and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish +Agency, Washington Territory, is selected:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years of age, dead +of consumption. She died in the morning, and in the afternoon I went to +the house to +<span class = "pagenum">172</span> +<a name = "page172" id = "page172"> </a> +attend the funeral. She had then been placed in a Hudson’s Bay Company’s +box for a coffin, which was about 3½ feet long, 1½ wide, and 1½ high. +She was very poor when she died, owing to her disease, or she could not +have been put in this box. A fire was burning near by, where a +large number of her things had been consumed, and the rest was in three +boxes near the coffin. Her mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with +others, and often saying, “My daughter, my daughter, why did you die?” +and similar words. The burial did not take place until the next day, and +I was invited to go. It was an aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was +about 25 feet long. The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were about +a foot wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were placed, on +which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this was done which +was new to me, but the significance of which I did not learn. As fast as +the holes were cut in the posts, green leaves were gathered and placed +over the holes until the posts were put in the ground. The coffin-box +and the three others containing her things were placed in the canoe and +a roof of boards made over the central part, which was entirely covered +with white cloth. The head part and the foot part of her bedstead were +then nailed on to the posts, which front the water, and a dress nailed +on each of these. After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull +and went to the beach except her father, mother, and brother, who +remained ten or fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe and mourning. +They then came down and made a present to those persons who were +there—a gun to one, a blanket to each of two or three others, +and a dollar and a half to each of the rest, including myself, there +being about fifteen persons present. Three or four of them then made +short speeches, and we came home.</p> + +<a name = "fig24" id = "fig24"> </a><br> + +<!-- <p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/fig24.png" width = "435" height = "459" +alt = "see caption"></p> --> + +<div class = "fig24"> +<div class = "sandbag" style = "width: 440px; height: +316px;"> </div> +<div class = "sandbag" style = "width: 208px; height: +143px;"> </div> +<div class = "sandbag" style = "width: 208px; height: auto;"> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 24.</span>—Twana +Canoe-Burial.</p></div> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The reason why she was buried thus is said to be because she is a +prominent woman in the tribe. In about nine months it is expected that +there will be a “<i>pot-latch</i>” or distribution of money near this +place, and as each tribe shall come they will send a +<span class = "pagenum">173</span> +<a name = "page173" id = "page173"> </a> +delegation of two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at +the grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried in the +ground. Shortly after her death both her father and mother cut off their +hair as a sign of their grief.</p> + +<p>Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and +represents the burial mentioned in his narrative.</p> + +<p>The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed +canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by +Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of +the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized +by painstaking attention to detail:</p> + +</div> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I divide this subject into five periods, varying according to time, +though they are somewhat intermingled.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +(<i>a</i>) There are places where skulls and skeletons have been plowed +up or still remain in the ground and near together, in such a way as to +give good ground for the belief which is held by white residents in the +region, that formerly persons were buried in the ground and in irregular +cemeteries. I know of such places in Duce Waillops among the +Twanas, and at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the Clallams. These +graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the present day profess +to have no knowledge as to who is buried in them, except that they +believe, undoubtedly, that they are the graves of their ancestors. +I do not know that any care has ever been exercised by any one in +exhuming these skeletons so as to learn any particulars about them. It +is possible, however, that these persons were buried according to the +(<i>b</i>) or canoe method, and that time has buried them where they now +are.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +(<i>b</i>) Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the forks +of two trees and left there. There was no particular cemetery, but the +person was generally left near the place where the death occurred. The +Skokomish Valley is said to have been full of +<span class = "pagenum">174</span> +<a name = "page174" id = "page174"> </a> +canoes containing persons thus buried. What their customs were while +burying, or what they placed around the dead, I am not informed but +am told that they did not take as much care then of their dead as they +do now. I am satisfied, however, that they then left some articles +around the dead. An old resident informs me that the Clallam Indians +always bury their dead in a sitting posture.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +(<i>c</i>) About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in British +Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region, unprincipled white men +took many of the canoes in which the Indian dead had been left, emptying +them of their contents. This incensed the Indians and they changed their +mode of burial somewhat by burying the dead in one place, placing them +in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by building scaffolds for them +instead of placing them in forks of trees, and in cutting their canoes +so as to render them useless, when they were used as coffins or left by +the side of the dead. The ruins of one such graveyard now remain about +two miles from this agency. Nearly all the remains were removed a few +years ago.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I have drawn. +Fig. 25 shows that at present only one pair of posts remains. +I have supplied the other pair as they evidently were.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig25" id = "fig25"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig25.png" width = "408" height = "318" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 25.</span>—Posts for Burial +Canoes.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part which is covered +with board and cloth incloses the coffin which is on a scaffold.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig26" id = "fig26"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig26.png" width = "407" height = "319" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 26.</span>—Tent on Scaffold.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites they have +learned to bury in the ground, and this is the most common method at the +present time. There are cemeteries everywhere where Indians have resided +any length of time. After a person has died a coffin is made after the +cheaper kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it, and also with +it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes, though occasionally +money. I lately heard of a child being buried with a twenty-dollar +gold piece in each hand and another in its month, but I am not able to +vouch for the truth of it. As a general thing, money is too valuable +with them for this purpose and there is too much temptation for some one +to rob the grave when this is left in it.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">175</span> +<a name = "page175" id = "page175"> </a> + +<p class = "quotation"> +(<i>d</i>) The grave is dug after the style of the whites and the coffin +then placed in it. After it has been covered it is customary though not +universal, to build some kind of an inclosure over it or around it in +the shape of a small house, shed, lodge or fence. These are from 2 to 12 +feet high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet long. Some of +these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to see within and some +are quite open. Occasionally a window is placed in the front side. +Sometimes these enclosures are +<span class = "pagenum">176</span> +<a name = "page176" id = "page176"> </a> +covered with cloth, which is generally white, sometimes partly covered, +and some have none. Around the grave, both outside and inside of the +inclosure, various articles are placed, as guns, canoes, dishes, pails, +cloth, sheets, blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and +occasionally a roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said +that around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few years +ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of these articles are cut +or broken so as to render them valueless to man and to prevent their +being stolen. Poles are also often erected, from 10 to 30 feet long, on +which American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes, and cloths of various +colors are hung. A few graves have nothing of this kind. On some +graves these things are renewed every year or two. This depends mainly +on the number of relatives living and the esteem in which they hold the +deceased.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig27" id = "fig27"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig27.png" width = "405" height = "306" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 27.</span>—House-Burial.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it away particle +by particle to the spirit of the deceased in the spirit land, and also +as these articles decay they are also carried away in a similar manner. +I have never known of the placing food near a grave. Figures 27 and +28 will give you some idea of this class of graves. Figure 27 has a +paling fence 12 feet square around it. Figure 28 is simply a frame over +a grave where there is no enclosure.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig28" id = "fig28"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig28.png" width = "405" height = "307" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 28.</span>—House-Burial.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +(<i>e</i>) <i>Civilized mode.</i>—A few persons, of late, have +fallen almost entirely into the American custom of burying, building a +simple paling fence around it, but placing no articles around it; this +is more especially true of the Clallams.</p> + +<h5>FUNERAL CEREMONIES.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances of sections +(<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>) of the preceding subject I know nothing. In +regard to (<i>c</i>) and (<i>d</i>), they begin to mourn, more +especially the women, as soon as a person dies. Their mourning song +consists principally of the sounds represented by the three English +notes mi mi, do do, la la; those who attend the funeral are expected to +bring some articles to place in the coffin or about the grave as a token +of respect for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this purpose +have been cloth of some kind; a small piece of cloth is returned by +the mourners to the attendants as a token of remembrance. They bury much +sooner after death than white persons do, generally as soon as they can +obtain a coffin. I know of no other native funeral ceremonies. +Occasionally before being taken to the grave, I have held Christian +funeral ceremonies over them, and these services increase from year to +year. One reason which has rendered them somewhat backward about having +these funeral services is, that they are quite superstitions about going +near the dead, fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased +will enter the living and kill them also. Especially are they afraid of +having children go near, being much more fearful of the effect of the +evil spirit on them than on older persons.</p> + +<h5>MOURNING OBSERVANCES.</h5> + +<p class = "quotation"> +They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning, but often +continue it after the burial, though I do not know that they often visit +the grave. If they feel the loss very much, sometimes they will mourn +nearly every day for several weeks; especially is this true when they +meet an old friend who has not been seen since the funeral, or when they +see an article owned by the deceased which they have not seen for a long +time. The only other thing of which I think, which bears on this +subject, is an idea they have, that before a person dies—it may be +but a short time or it may be several months—a spirit from the +spirit land comes and carries off the spirit of the individual to that +place. There are those who profess to discover when this is done, and if +by any of their incantations they can compel that spirit to return, the +person will not die, but if they are not able, then the person will +become dead at heart and in time die, though it may not be for six +months or even twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a +pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has recently been +published by the Department of the Interior, under Prof. F. V. +Hayden, United States Geologist.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">177</span> +<a name = "page177" id = "page177"> </a> +<p>George Gibbs<a class = "tag" name = "tag81" id = "tag81" href = +"#note81">81</a> gives a most interesting account of the burial +ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, which is +here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples of other +modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the narrative +would destroy the thread of the story:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing tribes was in +canoes. These were generally drawn into the woods at some prominent +point a short distance from the village, and sometimes placed between +the forks of trees or raised from the ground on posts. Upon the Columbia +River the Tsinūk had in particular two very noted cemeteries, +a high isolated bluff about three miles below the mouth of the +Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance above, called Coffin +Rock. The former would appear not to have been very ancient. Mr. +Broughton, one of Vancouver’s lieutenants, who explored the river, makes +mention only of <i>several</i> canoes at this place; and Lewis and +Clarke, who noticed the mount, do not speak of them at all, but at the +time of Captain Wilkes’s expedition it is conjectured that there were at +least 3,000. A fire caused by the carelessness of one of his party +destroyed the whole, to the great indignation of the Indians.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Captain Belcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited the river in +1839, remarks: “In the year 1836 [1826] the small-pox made great +ravages, and it was followed a few years since by the ague. Consequently +Corpse Island and Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent shores, were +studded not only with canoes, but at the period of our visit the skulls +and skeletons were strewed about in all directions.” This method +generally prevailed on the neighboring coasts, as at Shoal Water Bay, +&c. Farther up the Columbia, as at the Cascades, a different +form was adopted, which is thus described by Captain Clarke:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +“About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of the woods, +is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of eight vaults, made of +pine cedar boards, closely connected, about 8 feet square and 6 in +height, the top securely covered with wide boards, sloping a little, so +as to convey off the rain. The direction of all these is east and west, +the door being on the eastern side, and partially stopped with wide +boards, decorated with rude pictures of men and other animals. On +entering we found in some of them four dead bodies, carefully wrapped in +skins, tied with cords of grass and bark, lying on a mat in a direction +east and west; the other vaults contained only bones, which in some of +them were piled to a height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults and on +poles attached to them hung brass kettles and frying-pans with holes in +their bottoms, baskets, bowls, sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair +bags of trinkets, and small bones, the offerings of friendship or +affection, which have been saved by a pious veneration from the ferocity +of war or the more dangerous temptation of individual gain. The whole of +the walls as well as the door were decorated with strange figures cut +and painted on them, and besides these were several wooden images of +men, some of them so old and decayed as to have almost lost their shape, +which were all placed against the sides of the vault. These images, as +well as those in the houses we have lately seen, do not appear to be at +all the objects of adoration in this place; they were most probably +intended as resemblances of those whose decease they indicate, and when +we observe them in houses they occupy the most conspicuous part, but are +treated more like ornaments than objects of worship. Near the vaults +which are still standing are the remains of others on the ground, +completely rotted and covered with moss; and as they are formed of the +most durable pine and cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a +very long series of years this retired spot has been the depository for +the Indians near this place.”</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">178</span> +<a name = "page178" id = "page178"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river a few miles +above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The <i>Watlala</i>, a tribe +of the Upper Tsinūk, whose burial place is here described, are now +nearly extinct; but a number of the sepulchers still remain in different +states of preservation. The position of the body, as noticed by Clarke, +is, I believe, of universal observance, the head being always +placed to the west. The reason assigned to me is that the road to the +<i>mé-mel-ūs-illa-hee</i>, the country of the dead, is toward the west, +and if they place them otherwise they would be confused. East of the +Cascade Mountains the tribes whose habits are equestrian, and who use +canoes only for ferriage or transportation purposes, bury their dead, +usually heaping over them piles of stones, either to mark the spot or to +prevent the bodies from being exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the +Yakamas we saw many of their graves placed in conspicuous points of the +basaltic walls which line the lower valleys, and designated by a clump +of poles planted over them, from which fluttered various articles of +dress. Formerly these prairie tribes killed horses over the +graves—a custom now falling into disuse in consequence of the +teachings of the whites.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different localities. Among the +Makah of Cape Flattery the graves are covered with a sort of box, rudely +constructed of boards, and elsewhere on the Sound the same method is +adopted in some cases, while in others the bodies are placed on elevated +scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the Indians upon the water +placed the dead in canoes, while those at a distance from it buried +them. Most of the graves are surrounded with strips of cloth, blankets, +and other articles of property. Mr. Cameron, an English gentleman +residing at Esquimalt Harbor, Vancouver Island, informed me that on his +place there were graves having at each corner a large stone, the +interior space filled with rubbish. The origin of these was unknown to +the present Indians.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very marked; +persons of no consideration and slaves being buried with very little +care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention was particularly attracted +to their methods of disposing of the dead, mentions that at Port +Discovery he saw baskets suspended to the trees containing the skeletons +of young children, and, what is not easily explained, small square +boxes, containing, apparently, food. I do not think that any of +these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor have I been able +to learn from living Indians that they formerly followed that practice. +What he took for such I do not understand. He also mentions seeing in +the same place a cleared space recently burned over, in which the skulls +and bones of a number lay among the ashes. The practice of burning the +dead exists in parts of California and among the Tshimsyan of Fort +Simpson. It is also pursued by the “Carriers” of New California, but no +intermediate tribes, to my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the +Sound do not at present.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It is clear from Vancouver’s narrative that some great epidemic had +recently passed through the country, as manifested by the quantity of +human remains uncared for and exposed at the time of his visit, and very +probably the Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in which the +inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is frequently done. +They almost invariably remove from any place where sickness has +prevailed, generally destroying the house also.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At Penn Cove Mr. Whidbey, one of Vancouver’s officers, noticed several +sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box. Some of them were open, and +contained the skeletons of many young children tied up in baskets. The +smaller bones of adults were likewise noticed, but not one of the limb +bones was found, which gave rise to an opinion that these, by the living +inhabitants of the neighborhood, were appropriated to useful purposes, +such as pointing their arrows, spears, or other weapons.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig29" id = "fig29"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig29.jpg" width = "560" height = "329" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 29.</span>—Canoe Burial.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is altogether foreign +to Indian character. The bones of the adults had probably been removed +and buried elsewhere. The corpses of children are variously disposed of; +sometimes by suspending them, at others by placing in the hollows of +trees. A cemetery devoted to infants is, however, an unusual +occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note much pomp was used in the +<span class = "pagenum">179</span> +<a name = "page179" id = "page179"> </a> +accompaniments of the rite. The canoes were of great size and +value—the war or state canoes of the deceased. Frequently one was +inverted over that holding the body, and in one instance, near +Shoalwater Bay, the corpse was deposited in a small canoe, which again +was placed in a larger one and covered with a third. Among the +<i>Tsinūk</i> and <i>Tsìhalis</i> the <i>tamahno-ūs</i> board of the +owner was placed near him. The Puget Sound Indians do not make these +<i>tamahno-ūs</i> boards, but they sometimes constructed effigies of +their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as possible, dressed in +his usual costume, and wearing the articles of which he was fond. One of +these, representing the Skagit chief Sneestum, stood very conspicuously +upon a high bank on the eastern side of Whidbey Island. The figures +observed by Captain Clarke at the Cascades were either of this +description or else the carved posts which had ornamented the interior +of the houses of the deceased, and were connected with the superstition +of the <i>tamahno-ūs</i>. The most valuable articles of property were +put into or hung up around the grave, being first carefully rendered +unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped to do honor +to the dead. No little self-denial must have been practiced in parting +with articles so precious, but those interested frequently had the least +to say on the subject. The graves of women were distinguished by a cap, +a Kamas stick, or other implement of their occupation, and by +articles of dress.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the deceased. +In some instances they were starved to death, or even tied to the dead +body and left to perish thus horribly. At present this practice has been +almost entirely given up, but till within a very few years it was not +uncommon. A case which occurred in 1850 has been already mentioned. +Still later, in 1853, Toke, a Tsinūk chief living at Shoalwater +Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging to his daughter, who, in +dying, had requested that this might be done. The woman fled, and was +found by some citizens in the woods half starved. Her master attempted +to reclaim her, but was soundly thrashed and warned against another +attempt.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a considerable +length of time the materials and ornaments of the burial-place. With the +common class of persons family pride or domestic affection was satisfied +with the gathering together of the bones after the flesh had decayed and +wrapping them in a new mat. The violation of the grave was always +regarded as an offense of the first magnitude and provoked severe +revenge. Captain Belcher remarks: “Great secrecy is observed in all +their burial ceremonies, partly from fear of Europeans, and as among +themselves they will instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb +or wage war if perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate and +tenaceously bent on revenge should they discover that any act of the +kind has been perpetrated by a white man. It is on record that part of +the crew of a vessel on her return to this port (the Columbia) suffered +because a person who belonged to her (but not then in her) was known to +have taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had become an +object of curiosity.” He adds, however, that at the period of his visit +to the river “the skulls and skeletons were scattered about in all +directions; and as I was on most of their positions unnoticed by the +natives, I suspect the feeling does not extend much beyond their +relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body, goods, and +chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as their canoes are +repainted, decorated, and greater care taken by placing them in +sequestered spots.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on occasion of death +will be referred to in treating of their religious ideas. Wailing for +the dead is continued for a long time, and it seems to be rather a +ceremonial performance than an act of spontaneous grief. The duty, of +course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is usually chosen +for the purpose. They go out alone to some place a little distant from +the lodge or camp and in a loud, sobbing voice repeat a sort of +stereotyped formula; as, for instance, a mother, on the loss of her +child, “<i>A seahb shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud! ad-de-dah</i>,” “Ah +chief!” “My child dead, alas!” When in dreams they see any of their +deceased friends this lamentation is renewed.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">180</span> +<a name = "page180" id = "page180"> </a> +<p>With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned +by Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing +to die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom +has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the +individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states +that—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died, those of +his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved ardently and +so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed themselves and were +interred with him. This they did in order that they might wait upon him +in the land of spirits.</p> + +<p>It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this +revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and +Africa.</p> + + + + +<h3>AQUATIC BURIAL.</h3> + + +<p>As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead +has never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although +occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or +water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes. +Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are +informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy, +living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed +their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred +to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans, +with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or +about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder “the +beautiful,” it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which +was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The +Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to +Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of +room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of +thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the +Cherokees of Tennessee “seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the +river.”</p> + +<p>The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of +sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their +bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J. G. Wood<a class = "tag" +name = "tag82" id = "tag82" href = "#note82">82</a> states that the +Obongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the +course of which has been previously diverted. A deep grave is dug +in the bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over +carefully. Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so +that all traces of the grave are soon lost.</p> + +<p>The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply +sinking the body in some stream.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">181</span> +<a name = "page181" id = "page181"> </a> +<p>Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to +that employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosença, a town of +Calabria, the Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and +having made a grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most +rapid, they interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and +riches. They then caused the river to resume its regular course, and +destroyed all persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic +grave.</p> + +<p>A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De +Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well +weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the +Mississippi.</p> + +<p>After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial, +aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have +been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes, +and is by Capt. J. H. Simpson:<a class = "tag" name = "tag83" id = +"tag83" href = "#note83">83</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, and which +we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my guide over this route +last fall, says derives its name from the number of skulls which have +been found in it, and which have arisen from the custom of the Goshute +Indians burying their dead in springs, which they sank with stones or +keep down with sticks. He says he has actually seen the Indians bury +their dead in this way near the town of Provo, where he resides.</p> + +<p>As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in +another part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they +were obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the +bottom before using the water.</p> + +<div class = "figfloat" style = "width: 150px;"> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig30" id = "fig30"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig30.png" width = "150" height = "435" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 30.</span>—Mourning Cradle.</p> +</div> + +<p>This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and +but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned, +especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is +quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or +springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a +reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to +attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to +poison the springs for white persons.</p> + +<p>The second example is by George Catlin,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag84" id = "tag84" href = "#note84">84</a> and relates to the +Chinook:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> This little cradle has a strap which +passes over the woman’s forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, +and if the child dies during its subjection to this rigid +<span class = "pagenum">182</span> +<a name = "page182" id = "page182"> </a> +mode, its cradle becomes its coffin, forming a little canoe, in which it +lies floating on the water in some sacred pool, where they are often in +the habit of fastening their canoes containing the dead bodies of the +old and young, or, which in often the case, elevated into the branches +of trees, where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry +whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed in their +canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale them out, and +provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they are performing their “long +journey after death to their contemplated hunting grounds,” which these +people think is to be performed in their canoes.</p> + +<p>Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle. +Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her +dead child to the mercy of the elements.</p> + +<p class = "illustration clear"> +<a name = "fig31" id = "fig31"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig31.jpg" width = "349" height = "561" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 31.</span>—Launching the Burial +Cradle.</p> + + + + +<h3>LIVING SEPULCHERS.</h3> + + +<p>This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to +express the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving +friends and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has +already been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is +not believed that the North American Indians followed the custom, +although cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true +that a few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered <ins +class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">apochryphal</ins> in +character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how credulous +were the early writers on American natives.</p> + +<p>That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is +somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies +been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the +statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a +number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial.</p> + +<p>For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the +Massagetics, Padæans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having +previously strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace +and <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Tertulian’">Tertullian </ins> +both affirm that the Irish and ancient +Britons devoured the dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of +South America did the same, esteeming this mode of disposal more +honorable and much to be preferred than to rot and be eaten by +worms.</p> + +<p>J. G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of +Africa devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the +common people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony.</p> + +<p>The following extract is from Lafitau:<a class = "tag" name = "tag85" +id = "tag85" href = "#note85">85</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Dans l’Amérique Méridionale quelque Peuples décharnent les corps de +leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi que je viens de le +dire, et après les avoir consumées, ils conservent pendant quelque temps +leurs cadavres avec respect dans leurs Cabanes, et il portent ces +squeletes dans les combats en guise d’Etendard, pour ranimer leur +courage par cette vue et inspirer de la terreur à leurs ennemis. <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">183</span> +<a name = "page183" id = "page183"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +Il est vrai qu’il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de leurs parens; +mais il est faux qu’elles les mettent à mort dans leur vieillesse, pour +avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de leur chair, et d’en faire un repas. +Quelques Nations de l’Amérique Méridionale, qui ont encore cette coutume +de manger les corps morts de leurs parens, n’en usent ainsi que par +piété, piété mal entenduë à la verité, mais piété colorée néanmoins par +quelque ombre de raison; car ils croyent leur donner une sépulture bien +plus honorable.</p> + +<p>To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice +is not believed to have been practiced by them.</p> + + + + +<h3><a name = "mourning" id = "mourning"> +MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD,<br> +DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES,<br> +AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL.</a></h3> + + +<p>The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them, +particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper, +yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples, +under separate heads.</p> + + +<h4>MOURNING.</h4> + +<p>One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death +of a chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,<a class = +"tag" name = "tag86" id = "tag86" href = "#note86">86</a> who for many +years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction as a +warrior.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the head chief’s +death, and then, burying him according to his directions, we slowly +proceeded homewards. My very soul sickened at the contemplation of the +scenes that would be enacted at my arrival. When we drew in sight of the +village, we found every lodge laid prostrate. We entered amid shrieks, +cries, and yells. Blood was streaming from every conceivable part of the +bodies of all who were old enough to comprehend their loss. Hundreds of +fingers were dismembered; hair torn from the head lay in profusion about +the paths; wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where +unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This fearful mourning +lasted until evening of the next day. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to acquaint them +with the death of our head chief, and request them to assemble at the +Rose Bud, in order to meet our village and devote themselves to a +general time of mourning, there met, in conformity to the summons, over +ten thousand Crows at the place indicated. Such a scene of disorderly, +vociferous mourning, no imagination can conceive nor any pen portray. +Long Hair cut off a large roll of his hair; a thing he was never +known to do before. The cutting and hacking of human flesh exceeded all +my previous experience; fingers were dismembered as readily as twigs, +and blood was poured out like water. Many of the warriors would cut two +gashes nearly the entire length of their arm; then, separating the skin +from the flesh at one end, would grasp it in their other hand, and rip +it asunder to the shoulder. Others would carve various devices upon +<span class = "pagenum">184</span> +<a name = "page184" id = "page184"> </a> +their breasts and shoulders, and raise the skin in the same manner to +make the scars show to advantage after the wound was healed. Some of +their mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at them, +but they would not appear to receive any pain from them.</p> + +<p>It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth’s statements are to +be taken <i>cum <ins class = "correction" title = +"text unchanged: correct form is ‘grano’">grana</ins> salis</i>.</p> + +<p>From I. L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of +Lake Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of +mourning has been received:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and grief for their +dead than they. The young widow mourns the loss of her husband; by day +as by night she is heard silently sobbing; she is a constant visitor to +the place of rest; with the greatest reluctance will she follow the +raised camp. The friends and relatives of the young mourner will +incessantly devise methods to distract her mind from the thought of her +lost husband. She refuses nourishment, but as nature is exhausted she is +prevailed upon to partake of food; the supply is scant, but on every +occasion the best and largest proportion is deposited upon the grave of +her husband. In the mean time the female relatives of the deceased have, +according to custom, submitted to her charge a parcel made up of +different cloths ornamented with bead-work and eagle’s feathers, which +she is charged to keep by her side—the place made vacant by the +demise of her husband—a reminder of her widowhood. She is +therefore for a term of twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery, +neither is she permitted to slicken up and comb her head; this to avoid +attracting attention. Once in a while a female relative of deceased, +commiserating with her grief and sorrow, will visit her and voluntarily +proceed to comb out the long-neglected and matted hair. With a jealous +eye a vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during the term of her +widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to marry, any time during +her widowhood, an unmarried brother or cousin, or a person of the same +<i>Dodem</i> [<ins class = "correction" title = +"notation in original"><i>sic</i></ins>] (family mark) of her husband.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At the expiration of her term, the vows having been faithfully performed +and kept, the female relatives of deceased assemble and, with greetings +commensurate to the occasion, proceed to wash her face, comb her hair, +and attire her person with new apparel, and otherwise demonstrating the +release from her vow and restraint. Still she has not her entire +freedom. If she will still refuse to marry a relative of the deceased +and will marry another, she then has to purchase her freedom by giving a +certain amount of goods and whatever else she might have manufactured +during her widowhood in anticipation of the future now at hand. +Frequently, though, during widowhood the vows are disregarded and an +inclination to flirt and play courtship or form an alliance of marriage +outside of the relatives of the deceased is being indulged, and when +discovered the widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick +braided hair is shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her apparel +and trinkets are torn from her person, and a quarrel frequently results +fatally to some member of one or the other side.</p> + +<p>Thomas L. McKenney<a class = "tag" name = "tag87" id = "tag87" href = +"#note87">87</a> gives a description of the Chippewa widow which differs +slightly from the one above:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls of clothing. +On inquiring what these imported, I learn that they <i>are +widows</i> who carry them, and that these are badges of mourning. It is +indispensable, when a woman of the Chippeway Nation loses her husband, +for her to take of her best apparel—and the whole of it is not +worth a dollar—and roll it up, and confine it by means of her +husband’s sashes; and if he had ornaments, these are generally put on +the top of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth. This +bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is +<span class = "pagenum">185</span> +<a name = "page185" id = "page185"> </a> +never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it with her; if +she sits down in her lodge, she places it by her side. This badge of +widowhood and of mourning the widow is compelled to carry with her until +some of her late husband’s family shall call and take it away, which is +done when they think she has mourned long enough, and which is generally +at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not before, released from +her mourning, and at liberty to marry again. She has the privilege to +take this husband to the family of the deceased and leave it, but this +is considered indecorous, and is seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the +deceased takes the widow for his wife at the grave of her husband, which +is done by a ceremony of walking her over it. And this he has a right to +do; and when this is done she is not required to go into mourning; or, +if she chooses, she has the right <i>to go to him</i>, and he is +<i>bound</i> to support her.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges. The size +varies according to the quantity of clothing which the widow may happen +to have. It is expected of her to put up her <i>best</i> and wear her +<i>worst</i>. The “<i>husband</i>” I saw just now was 30 inches high and +18 inches in circumference.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had been left to +mourn after this fashion for years, none of her husband’s family calling +for the badge or token of her grief. At a certain time it was told her +that some of her husband’s family were passing, and she was advised to +speak to them on the subject. She did so, and told them she had mourned +long and was poor; that she had no means to buy clothes, and her’s being +all in the mourning badge, and sacred, could not be touched. She +expressed a hope that her request might not be interpreted into a wish +to marry; it was only made that she might be placed in a situation to +get some clothes. She got for answer, that “they were going to Mackinac, +and would think of it.” They left her in this state of uncertainty, but +on returning, and finding her faithful still, they took her “husband” +and presented her with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded +for her constancy and made comfortable.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the term of +their grief, which is generally about a year. The Chippeway men mourn by +painting their faces black.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the badge of +mourning, this “<i>husband</i>” comes in for an equal share, as if it +were the living husband.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image of it in the +best manner she is able, and dresses it as she did her living child, and +fixes it in the kind of cradle I have referred to, and goes through the +ceremonies of nursing it as if it were alive, by dropping little +particles of food in the direction of its mouth, and giving it of +whatever the living child partook. This ceremony also is generally +observed for a year.</p> + +<p>Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the +substitute for the dead husband.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig32" id = "fig32"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig32.jpg" width = "319" height = "554" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 32.</span>—Chippewa Widow.</p> + +<p>The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags, +furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other +tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged +to carry around with them, for a variable period, a bundle +containing the bones of the deceased consort.</p> + +<p>Similar observances, according to Bancroft,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag88" id = "tag88" href = "#note88">88</a> were followed by some of +the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and +Mosquitos being as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a year, after +which she took up the bones and carried them with her for another year, +at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and then only was she +allowed to marry again.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">186</span> +<a name = "page186" id = "page186"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is destroyed, +the cocoa palms being cut down, and all who have taken part in the +funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut off the hair, +the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape of the neck to +the forehead. Widows, according to some old writers, after supplying the +grave with food for a year take up the bones and carry them on the back +in the daytime, sleeping with them at night for another year, after +which they are placed at the door or upon the house-top. On the +anniversary of deaths, friends of the deceased hold a feast, called +<i>seekroe</i>, at which large quantities of liquor are drained to his +memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an occasion of this +kind, says that males and females were dressed in <i>ule</i> cloaks +fantastically painted black and white, while their faces were +correspondingly streaked with red and yellow, and they performed a slow +walk around, prostrating themselves at intervals and calling loudly upon +the dead and tearing the ground with their hands. At no other time is +the departed referred to, the very mention of his name being +superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a thread from the house of +death to the grave, carrying it in a straight line over every obstacle. +<ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged: probably error for ‘Fröbel’ or ‘Froebel’">Fröebel</ins> +states that among the Woolwas +all property of the deceased is buried with him, and that both husband +and wife cut the hair and burn the hut on the death of either, placing a +gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time.</p> + +<p>Benson<a class = "tag" name = "tag89" id = "tag89" href = +"#note89">89</a> gives the following account of the Choctaws’ funeral +ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and +dance:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Their funeral is styled by them “the last cry.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the grave, and place +the corpse in it, but do not fill it up. The gun, bow and arrows, +hatchet, and knife are deposited in the grave. Poles are planted at the +head and the foot, upon which flags are placed; the grave is then +inclosed by pickets driven in the ground. The funeral ceremonies now +begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night and morning she will +go to the grave and pour forth the most piteous cries and wailings. It +is not important that any other member of the family should take any +very active part in the “cry,” though they do participate to some +extent.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes to the grave +during one entire moon from the date when the death occurred. On the +evening of the last day of the moon the friends all assemble at the +cabin of the disconsolate widow, bringing provisions for a sumptuous +feast, which consists of corn and jerked beef boiled together in a +kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved wife goes to the +grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her bitter wailings and +lamentations. When the food is thoroughly cooked the kettle is taken +from the fire and placed in the center of the cabin, and the friends +gather around it, passing the buffalo-horn spoon from hand to hand and +from mouth to mouth till all have been bountifully supplied. While +supper is being served, two of the oldest men of the company quietly +withdraw and go to the grave and fill it up, taking down the flags. All +then join in a dance, which not unfrequently is continued till morning; +the widow does not fail to unite in the dance, and to contribute her +part to the festivities of the occasion. This is the “<i>last cry</i>,” +the days of mourning are ended, and the widow is now ready to form +another matrimonial alliance. The ceremonies are precisely the same when +a man has lost his wife, and they are only slightly varied when any +other member of the family has died. (Slaves were buried without +ceremonies.)</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">187</span> +<a name = "page187" id = "page187"> </a> +<h4>SACRIFICE.</h4> + +<p>Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in +connection with another subject, but it is thought others might prove +interesting. The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag90" id = "tag90" href = "#note90">90</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by his wives +and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns took care to follow the +same custom. The law likewise condemned every Natchez to death who had +married a girl of the blood of the Suns as soon as she was expired. On +this occasion I must tell you the history of an Indian who was noways +willing to submit to this law. His name was <i>Elteacteal</i>; he +contracted an alliance with the Suns, but the consequences which this +honor brought along with it had like to have proved very unfortunate to +him. His wife fell sick; as soon as he saw her at the point of death he +fled, embarked in a piragua on the <i>Mississippi</i>, and came to New +Orleans. He put himself under the protection of M. de Bienville, the +then governor, and offered to be his huntsman. The governor accepted his +services, and interested himself for him with the Natchez, who declared +that he had nothing more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he +was accordingly no longer a lawful prize.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Elteacteal</i>, being thus assured, ventured to return to his nation, +and, without settling among them, he made several voyages thither. He +happened to be there when the Sun called the <i>Stung Serpent</i>, +brother to the Great Sun, died. He was a relative of the late wife of +<i>Elteacteal</i>, and they resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de +Bienville had been recalled to France, and the sovereign of the Natchez +thought that the protector’s absence had annulled the reprieve granted +to the protected person, and accordingly he caused him to be arrested. +As soon as the poor fellow found himself in the hut of the grand chief +of war, together with the other victims destined to be sacrificed to the +<i>Stung Serpent</i>, he gave vent to the excess of his grief. The +favorite wife of the late Son, who was likewise to be sacrificed, and +who saw the preparations for her death with firmness, and seemed +impatient to rejoin her husband, hearing <i>Elteacteal’s</i> complaints +and groans, said to him: “Art thou no warrior?” He answered, “Yes: +I am one.” “However,” said she, “thou cryest; life is dear to thee, +and as that is the case, it is not good that thou shouldst go along with +us; go with the women.” <i>Elteacteal</i> replied: “True; life is dear +to me. It would be well if I walked yet on earth till to the death of +the Great Sun, and I would die with him.” “Go thy way,” said the +favorite, “it is not fit thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart +should remain behind on earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee +no more.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<i>Elteacteal</i> did not stay to hear this order repeated to him; he +disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of which were his +relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age and their infirmities had +disgusted them of life; none of them had been able to use their legs for +a great while. The hair of the two that were related to +<i>Elteacteal</i> was no more gray than those of women of fifty-five +years in France. The other old woman was a hundred and twenty years old, +and had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among the +Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin. They were +dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the <i>Stung Serpent</i>, +and the other two upon the place before the temple. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span> A cord is fastened round their necks with a +slip-knot, and eight men of their relations strangle them by drawing, +four one way and four the other. So many are not necessary, but as they +acquire nobility by such executions, there are always more than are +wanting, and the operation is performed in an instant. The generosity of +these women gave <i>Elteacteal</i> +<span class = "pagenum">188</span> +<a name = "page188" id = "page188"> </a> +life again, acquired him the degree of <i>considered</i>, and cleared +his honor, which he had sullied by fearing death. He remained quiet +after that time, and taking advantage of what he had learned during his +stay among the French, he became a juggler and made use of his knowledge +to impose upon his countrymen.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The morning after this execution they made everything ready for the +convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of the ceremonies +appeared at the door of the hut, adorned suitably to his quality. The +victims who were to accompany the deceased prince into the mansion of +the spirits came forth; they consisted of the favorite wife of the +deceased, of his second wife, his chancellor, his physician, his hired +man, that is, his first servant, and of some old women.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were several +Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for the Suns of both +sexes that were her children to appear, and spoke to the following +effect:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +“Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from <ins class += "correction" title = "error unchanged; notation in original">you +(<i>sic</i>)</ins> arms and to follow your father’s steps, who waits for +me in the country of the spirits; if I were to yield to your tears I +would injure my love and fail in my duty. I have done enough for +you by bearing you next to my heart, and by suckling you with my +breasts. You that are descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought +you to shed tears? Rejoice rather that you are <i>Suns</i> and warriors; +you are bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the whole +nation: go, my children, I have provided for all your wants, by +procuring you friends; my friends and those of your father are yours +too; I leave you amidst them; they are the French; they are +tender-hearted and generous; make yourselves worthy of their esteem by +not degenerating from your race; always act openly with them and never +implore them with meanness.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +“And you, Frenchmen,” added she, turning herself towards our officers, +“I recommend my orphan children to you; they will know no other +fathers than you; you ought to protect them.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned to her +husband’s hut with a surprising firmness.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims of her own +accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore the <i>Stung +Serpent</i> to follow him into the other world. The Europeans called her +the <i>haughty</i> lady, on account of her majestic deportment and her +proud air, and because she only frequented the company of the most +distinguished Frenchmen. They regretted her much, because she had the +knowledge of several simples with which she had saved the lives of many +of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with grief and horror. +The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and spoke to them with a +smiling countenance: “I die without fear;” said she, “grief does +not embitter my last hours. I recommend my children to you; +whenever you see them, noble Frenchmen, remember that you have loved +their father, and that he was till death a true and sincere friend of +your nation, whom he loved more than himself. The disposer of life has +been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go and join him; I shall +tell him that I have seen your hearts moved at the sight of his corps; +do not be grieved; we shall be longer friends in the <i>country of the +spirits</i> than here, because we do not die there again.”<a class = +"tag" name = "tag91" id = "tag91" href = "#note91">91*</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French; they were +obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great Sun from killing +himself, for he was inconsolable at the death of his brother, upon whom +he was used to lay the weight of government, he being great chief of war +of the Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies; that prince grew +furious by the resistance he met with; he held his gun by the barrel, +and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by the lock, and caused the +powder to fall out +<span class = "pagenum">189</span> +<a name = "page189" id = "page189"> </a> +of the pan; the hut was full of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables<a class = +"tag" name = "tag92" id = "tag92" href = "#note92">92*</a> but the +French raised their spirits again, by hiding all the arms belonging to +the sovereign, and filling the barrel of his gun with water, that it +might be unfit for use for some time.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign’s life in safety, they thanked +the French, by squeezing their hands, but without speaking; a most +profound silence reigned throughout, for grief and awe kept in bounds +the multitude that were present.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this transaction. +She was asked whether she was ill, and she answered aloud, “Yes, +I am”; and added with a lower voice, “If the Frenchmen go out of +this hut, my husband dies and all the Natches will die with him; stay, +then, brave Frenchmen, because your words are as powerful as arrows; +besides, who could have ventured to do what you have done? But you are +his true friends and those of his brother.” Their laws obliged the Great +Sun’s wife to follow her husband in the grave; this was doubtless the +cause of her fears; and likewise the gratitude towards the French, who +interested themselves in behalf of his life, prompted her to speak in +the above-mentioned manner.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to them: “My +friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief that, though my eyes were +open, I have not taken notice that you have been standing all this +while, nor have I asked you to sit down; but pardon the excess of my +affliction.”</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that they were +going to leave him alone, but that they would cease to be his friends +unless he gave orders to light the fires again,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag93" id = "tag93" href = "#note93">93*</a> lighting his own before +them; and that they should not leave him till his brother was +buried.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: “Since all the chiefs +and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I will do it; +I will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted again immediately, +and I’ll wait till death joins me to my brother; I am already old, +and till I die I shall walk with the French; had it not been for them I +should have gone with my brother, and all the roads would have been +covered with dead bodies.”</p> + +<p>Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been +credited by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers, +and its seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of +similar ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds.</p> + +<p>An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice +is described by Miss A. J. Allen,<a class = "tag" name = "tag94" id += "tag94" href = "#note94">94</a> and refers to the Wascopums, of +Oregon.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words, it was found +that the chief had determined that the deceased boy’s friend, who had +been his companion in hunting the rabbit, snaring the pheasant, and +fishing in the streams, was to be his companion to the spirit land; his +son should not be deprived of his associate in the strange world to +which he had gone; that associate should perish by the hand of his +father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house. This receptacle was +built on a long, black rock in the center of the Columbia River, around +which, being so near the falls, the current was amazingly rapid. It was +thirty feet in length, and perhaps half that in breadth, completely +enclosed and sodded except at one end, where was a +<span class = "pagenum">190</span> +<a name = "page190" id = "page190"> </a> +narrow aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse through. The council +overruled, and little George, instead of being slain, was conveyed +living to the dead-house about sunset. The dead were piled on each side, +leaving a narrow aisle between, and on one of these was placed the +deceased boy; and, bound tightly till the purple, quivering flesh puffed +above the strong bark cords, that he might die very soon, the living was +placed by his side, his face to his till the very lips met, and +extending along limb to limb and foot to foot, and nestled down into his +couch of rottenness, to impede his breathing as far as possible and +smother his cries.</p> + +<p>Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag95" id = "tag95" href = +"#note95">95</a> states that—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and Tarascos were +selected from various trades and professions, and took with them the +most cherished articles of the master and the implements of their trade +wherewith to supply his wants—</p> + +<p>while among certain of the Central American tribe death was +voluntary, wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing +themselves by means of a vegetable poison.</p> + +<p>To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that +self-murder is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why, +if he so wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or +friend to the “happy other world;” and when this is remembered we need +not feel astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self +immolations are related. It is quite likely that among our own people +similar customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down +such proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us, +notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place +on the occasion of the death of a beloved one.</p> + + +<h4>FEASTS.</h4> + +<p>In Beltrami<a class = "tag" name = "tag96" id = "tag96" href = +"#note96">96</a> an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of +the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took +place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor of the +manes of <i>Cloudy Weather’s</i> son-in-law, whose body had remained +with the Sioux, and was suspected to have furnished one of their +repasts. What appeared not a little singular and indeed ludicrous in +this funeral comedy was the contrast exhibited by the terrific +lamentations and yells of one part of the company while the others were +singing and dancing with all their might.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At another funeral ceremony for a member of the <i>Grand Medicine</i>, +and at which as <i>a man of another world</i> I was permitted to attend, +the same practice occurred. But at the feast which took place on that +occasion an allowance was served up for the deceased out of every +article of which it consisted, while others were beating, wounding, and +torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow both over the dead +man and his provisions, thinking possibly that this was the most +palatable seasoning for the latter which they could possibly supply. His +wife furnished out an entertainment present +<span class = "pagenum">191</span> +<a name = "page191" id = "page191"> </a> +for him of all her hair and rags, with which, together with his arms, +his provisions, his ornaments, and his mystic medicine bag, he was +wrapped up in the skin which had been his last covering when alive. He +was then tied round with the bark of some particular trees which they +use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm texture and hold (the +only ones indeed which they have), and instead of being buried in the +earth was hung up to a large oak. The reason of this was that, as his +favorite Manitou was the eagle, his spirit would be enabled more easily +from such a situation to fly with him to Paradise.</p> + +<p>Hind<a class = "tag" name = "tag97" id = "tag97" href = +"#note97">97</a> mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf +which occurred among the Hurons of New York:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of the “feasts +of the dead” at the village of Ossosane, before the dispersion of the +Hurons, relates that the ceremony took place in the presence of 2,000 +Indians, who offered 1,300 presents at the common tomb, in testimony of +their grief. The people belonging to five large villages deposited the +bones of their dead in a gigantic shroud, composed of forty-eight robes, +each robe being made of ten beaver skins. After being carefully wrapped +in this shroud, they were placed between moss and bark. A wall of +stones was built around this vast ossuary to preserve it from +profanation. Before covering the bones with earth a few grains of Indian +corn were thrown by the women upon the sacred relics. According to the +superstitious belief of the Hurons the souls of the dead remain near the +bodies until the “feast of the dead”; after which ceremony they become +free, and can at once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe +to be situated in the regions of the setting sun.</p> + +<p>Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom +of exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting +them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in +Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of +Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a slatted pen containing the remains of +hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and +preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris +afford examples of burial ossuaries.</p> + + +<h4>SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS.</h4> + +<p>The following account is by Dr. S. G. Wright, acting physician to the +Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still adhere to +the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of departed friends; the +object is to feast with the departed; that is, they believe that while +they partake of the visible material the departed spirit partakes at the +same time of the spirit that dwells in the food. From ancient time it +was customary to bury with the dead various articles, such especially as +were most valued in lifetime. The idea was that there was a spirit +dwelling in the article represented by the material article; thus the +war-club contained a spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe, +which could be used by the departed in another world. These several +spiritual implements were supposed, of course, to accompany the soul, to +be used also on the way to its final abode. This habit has now +ceased.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">192</span> +<a name = "page192" id = "page192"> </a> +<h4>FOOD.</h4> + +<p>This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection +with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an +almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to +place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.</p> + + +<h4>DANCES.</h4> + +<p>Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a +death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by +Morgan:<a class = "tag" name = "tag98" id = "tag98" href = +"#note98">98</a></p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +An occasional and very singular figure was called the “dance for the +dead.” It was known as the <i>O-hé-wä.</i> It was danced by the women +alone. The music was entirely vocal, a select band of singers being +stationed in the center of the room. To the songs for the dead which +they sang the dancers joined in chorus. It was plaintive and mournful +music. This dance was usually separate from all councils and the only +dance of the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon after and +continued until towards morning, when the shades of the dead who were +believed to be present and participate in the dance were supposed to +disappear. The dance was had whenever a family which had lost a member +called for it, which was usually a year after the event. In the spring +and fall it was often given for all the dead indiscriminately, who were +believed then to revisit the earth and join in the dance.</p> + +<p>The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers<a +class = "tag" name = "tag99" id = "tag99" href = "#note99">99</a> and +relates to the Yo-kaí-a of California, containing other matters of +importance pertaining to burial:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and finding there a +unique kind of assembly-house, desired to enter and examine it, but was +not allowed to do so until I had gained the confidence of the old sexton +by a few friendly words and the tender of a silver half dollar. The pit +of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5 feet deep, and it was so +heavily roofed with earth that the interior was damp and somber as a +tomb. It looked like a low tumulus, and was provided with a tunnel-like +entrance about 10 feet long and 4 feet high, and leading down to a level +with the floor of the pit. The mouth of the tunnel was closed with +brush, and the venerable sexton would not remove it until he had slowly +and devoutly paced several times to and fro before the entrance.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of peeled +poles painted white and ringed with black and ornamented with rude +devices. The floor was covered thick and green with sprouting wheat, +which had been scattered to feed the spirit of the captain of the tribe, +lately deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the Senèl come up +to condole with the Yo-kaí-a on the loss of their chief, and a dance or +series of dances was held which lasted three days. During this time of +course the Senèl were the guests of the Yo-kaí-a, and the latter were +subjected to a +<span class = "pagenum">193</span> +<a name = "page193" id = "page193"> </a> +considerable expense. I was prevented by other engagements from +being present, and shall be obliged to depend on the description of an +eye-witness, Mr. John Tenney, whose account is here given with a few +changes:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +There are four officials connected with the building, who are probably +chosen to preserve order and to allow no intruders. They are the +assistants of the chief. The invitation to attend was from one of them, +and admission was given by the same. These four wore black vests trimmed +with red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief made no special display +on the occasion. In addition to these four, who were officers of the +assembly-chamber, there were an old man and a young woman, who seemed to +be priest and priestess. The young woman was dressed differently from +any other, the rest dressing in plain calico dresses. Her dress was +white covered with spots of red flannel, cut in neat figure, ornamented +with shells. It looked gorgeous and denoted some office, the name of +which I could not ascertain. Before the visitors were ready to enter, +the older men of the tribe were reclining around the fire smoking and +chatting. As the ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and +young woman were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the +entrance, they inaugurated the exercises by a brief service, which +seemed to be a dedication of the house to the exercises about to +commence. Each of them spoke a few words, joined in a brief chant, and +the house was thrown open for their visitors. They staid at their post +until the visitors entered and were seated on one side of the room. +After the visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all, +though there was plenty of room in the center for the dancing.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe made a brief +speech in which he no doubt referred to the death of the chief of the +Yo-kaí-a, and offered the sympathy of his tribe in this loss. As he +spoke, some of the women scarcely refrained from crying out, and with +difficulty they suppressed their sobs. I presume that he proposed a +few moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole assemblage burst +forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming as if in agony. The whole +thing created such a din that I was compelled to stop my ears. The air +was rent and pierced with their cries. This wailing and shedding of +tears lasted about three or five minutes, though it seemed to last a +half hour. At a given signal they ceased, wiped their eyes, and quieted +down.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the room was set +aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors wens five men, who were +muscular and agile. They were profusely decorated with paint and +feathers, while white and dark stripes covered their bodies. They were +girt about the middle with cloth of bright colors, sometimes with +variegated shawls. A feather mantle hung from the shoulder, +reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the neck, while +their heads were covered with a crown of eagle feathers. They had +whistles in their months as they danced, swaying their heads, bending +and whirling their bodies; every muscle seemed to be exercised, and the +feather ornaments quivered with light. They were agile and graceful as +they bounded about in the sinuous course of the dance.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women, who only +marked time by stepping up and down with short step. They always took +their places first and disappeared first, the men making their exit +gracefully one by one. The dresses of the women were suitable for the +occasion. They were white dresses, trimmed heavily with black velvet. +The stripes were about three inches wide, some plain and others edged +like saw teeth. This was an indication of their mourning for the dead +chief, in whose honor they had prepared that style of dancing. Strings +of haliotis and pachydesma shell beads encircled their necks, and around +their waists were belts heavily loaded with the same material. Their +head-dresses were more showy than those of the men. The head was +encircled with a bandeau of otters’ or beavers’ fur, to which were +attached short wires standing out in all directions, with glass or shell +beads strung on them, and at the tips little feather flags and quail +plumes. Surmounting all was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black, gray, +and scarlet, the top generally +<span class = "pagenum">194</span> +<a name = "page194" id = "page194"> </a> +being a bright scarlet bunch, waving and tossing very beautifully. All +these combined gave their heads a very brilliant and spangled +appearance.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of the Yo-kaí-a +chief who died a short time before. The music was mournful and simple, +being a monotonous chant in which only two tones were used, accompanied +with a rattling of split sticks and stamping on a hollow slab. The +second day the dance was more lively on the part of the men, the music +was better, employing airs which had a greater range of tune, and the +women generally joined in the chorus. The dress of the women was not so +beautiful, as they appeared in ordinary calico. The third day, if +observed in accordance with Indian custom, the dancing was still more +lively and the proceedings more gay, just as the coming home from a +Christian funeral is apt to be much more jolly than the going out.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +A Yo-kaí-a widow’s style of mourning is peculiar. In addition to the +usual evidences of grief, she mingles the ashes of her dead husband with +pitch, making a white tar or unguent, with which she smears a band about +two inches wide all around the edge of the hair (which is previously cut +off close to the head), so that at a little distance she appears to be +wearing a white chaplet.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +It is their custom to “feed the spirits of the dead” for the space of +one year by going daily to places which they were accustomed to frequent +while living, where they sprinkle pinole upon the ground. +A Yo-kaí-a mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year +to some place where her little one played when alive, or to the spot +where the body was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This is +accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling upon +her little one to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and +melancholy chant, and dances with a wild static swaying of the body.</p> + + +<h4>SONGS.</h4> + +<p>It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only +funerals, but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these +chants may no doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful +ejaculation. A writer<a class = "tag" name = "tag100" id = "tag100" +href = "#note100">100</a> mentions it as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of singing, +with no accompaniments, but generally all do not sing the same melody at +the same time in unison. Several may sing the same song and at the same +time, but each begins and finishes when he or she may wish. Often for +weeks, or even months, after the decease of a dear friend, a living +one, usually a woman, will sit by her house and sing or cry by the hour, +and they also sing for a short time when they visit the grave or meet an +esteemed friend whom they have not seen since the decease. At the +funeral both men and women sing. No. 11 I have heard more frequently +some time after the funeral, and No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by +the Twanas. (For song see p. 251 of the magazine quoted.) The words +are simply an exclamation of grief, as our word “alas,” but they also +have other words which they use, and sometimes they use merely the +syllable <i>la</i>. Often the notes are sung in this order, and +sometimes not, but in some order the notes <i>do</i> and <i>la</i>, and +occasionally <i>mi</i>, are sung.</p> + +<p>Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a +peculiar death dirge sung by the Senèl of California, as related by Mr. +Powers. It is as follows:</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>Hel-lel-li-ly,</p> +<p>Hel-lel-lo,</p> +<p>Hel-lel-lo.</p> +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum">195</span> +<a name = "page195" id = "page195"> </a> +<p>Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the +attention of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for +instance, the Basques of Spain ululate thus:</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo,</p> +<p>Lelo il Lelo,</p> +<p>Lelo zarat, Lelo zara,</p> +<p>Il Lelon killed Lelo.</p> +</div> + +<p>This was called the “ululating Lelo.” Mr. Campbell says:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +This again connects with the Linus or Ailinus of the Greeks and +Egyptians <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> which Wilkinson connects +with the Coptic “ya lay-lee-ya lail.” The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard +the South Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek verb +<span class = "greek" title = "ololuzô">ὀλολύζω</span> and the Latin +ululare, with an English howl and wail, are probably derived from this +ancient form of lamentation.</p> + +<p>In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks +describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he +inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost +tribes of Israel.</p> + + +<h4>GAMES.</h4> + +<p>It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those +athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person +which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a +practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which +consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct. +Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed among +the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and interesting +account of what is called the “ghost gamble.” This is played with marked +wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to the Sioux. +Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in which this +game is played.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig33" id = "fig33"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig33.jpg" width = "565" height = "343" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 33.</span>—Ghost Gamble.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take charge of +the effects, and at a stated time—usually at the time of the first +feast held over the bundle containing the lock of hair—they are +divided into many small piles, so as to give all the Indians invited to +play an opportunity to win something. One Indian is selected to +represent the ghost and he plays against all the others, who are not +required to stake anything on the result, but simply invited to take +part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the lodge of the dead +person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing the lock of hair. In +cases where the ghost himself is not wealthy the stakes are furnished by +his rich friends, should he have any. The players are called in one at a +time, and play singly against the ghost’s representative, the gambling +being done in recent years by means of cards. If the invited player +succeeds in beating the ghost, he takes one of the piles of goods and +passes out, when another is invited to play, &c., until all the +piles of goods are won. In cases of men only the men play, and in cases +of women the women only take part in the ceremony.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">196</span> +<a name = "page196" id = "page196"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +Before white men came among these Indians and taught them many of his +improved vices, this game was played by means of figured plum-seeds, the +men using eight and the women seven seeds, figured as follows, and shown +in Figure 34.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig34" id = "fig34"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig34.jpg" width = "316" height = "514" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 34.</span>—Figured Plum Stones.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse containing +nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a small spot of the color +of the seed left in the center, the reverse side having a black spot in +the center, the body being plain. Two seeds have a buffalo’s head on one +side and the reverse simply two crossed black lines. There is but one +seed of this kind in the set used by the women. Two seeds have half of +one side blackened and the rest left plain, so as to represent a half +moon; the reverse has a black longitudinal line crossed at right angles +by six small ones. There are six throws whereby the player can win, and +five that entitle him to another throw. The winning throws are as +follows, each winner taking a pile of the ghost’s goods:</p> + +<table class = "picture" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig35" id = "fig35"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig35.png" width = "235" height = "211" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig36" id = "fig36"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig36.png" width = "259" height = "197" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 35.</span>—Winning Throw No. 1. +</td> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 36.</span>—Winning Throw No. 2. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig37" id = "fig37"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig37.png" width = "254" height = "198" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig38" id = "fig38"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig38.png" width = "263" height = "202" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 37.</span>—Winning Throw No. 3. +</td> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 38.</span>—Winning Throw No. 4. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig39" id = "fig39"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig39.png" width = "227" height = "198" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig40" id = "fig40"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig40.png" width = "223" height = "195" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 39.</span>—Winning Throw No. 5. +</td> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 40.</span>—Winning Throw No. 6. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo’s head up, and +two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two black with +natural spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones up, and the +transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two +black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the transversely +crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two black with natural +spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo’s head up wins a pile. Two +plain ones up, two with black spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones +up, and the transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain ones up, +two with black spots up, buffalo’s head up, and two long crossed up wins +a pile. The following auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to win: +two plain ones up, two with black spots up, one half moon up, one +longitudinally crossed one up, and buffalo’s head up gives another +throw, and on this throw, if the two plain ones up and two with black +spots with either of the half moons or buffalo’s head up, the player +takes a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons +up, and the transversely crossed +<span class = "pagenum">197</span> +<a name = "page197" id = "page197"> </a> +one up entitles to another throw, when, if all of the black sides come +up, excepting one, the throw wins. One of the plain ones up and all the +rest with black sides up gives another throw, and the same then turning +up wins. One of the plain black ones up with that side up of all the +others having the least black on gives another throw, when the same +turning up again wins. One half moon up, with that side up of all the +others having the least black on gives another throw, and if the throw +is then duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men, has its +place in their game whenever its facings are mentioned above. +I transmit with this paper a set of these figured seeds, which can +be used to illustrate the game if desired. These seeds are said to be +nearly a hundred years old, and sets of them are now very rare.</p> + +<table class = "picture" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig41" id = "fig41"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig41.png" width = "223" height = "200" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig42" id = "fig42"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig42.png" width = "235" height = "191" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 41.</span>—Auxiliary Throw No. 1. +</td> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 42.</span>—Auxiliary Throw No. 2. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig43" id = "fig43"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig43.png" width = "259" height = "194" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig44" id = "fig44"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig44.png" width = "197" height = "189" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 43.</span>—Auxiliary Throw No. 3. +</td> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 44.</span>—Auxiliary Throw No. 4. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration" colspan = "2"> +<a name = "fig45" id = "fig45"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig45.png" width = "250" height = "200" +alt = "see caption"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 45.</span>—Auxiliary throw No 5. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges +his indebtedness to Dr. C. C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton +Indian Agency.</p> + +<p>Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the +different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones +sent by Dr. McChesney.</p> + + +<h4>POSTS.</h4> + +<p>These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends, +and have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his +family, certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not +the achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and +danced at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently +plant poles near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags, +horses’ tails, &c. The custom among the present Indians does not +exist to any extent. Beltrami<a class = "tag" name = "tag101" id = +"tag101" href = "#note101">101</a> speaks of it as follows:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was surmounted by +a cross, whilst upon another close to it a trunk of a tree was raised, +covered with hieroglyphics recording the number of enemies slain by the +tenant of the tomb and several of his tutelary Manitous.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig46" id = "fig46"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig46.png" width = "408" height = "498" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 46.</span>—Grave Posts.</p> + +<p>The following extract from Schoolcraft<a class = "tag" name = +"tag102" id = "tag102" href = "#note102">102</a> relates to the burial +posts used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 46 is after the picture +given by this author in connection with the account quoted:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +Among the Sioux and Western Chippewas, after the body had been wrapped +in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then placed on a scaffold or in +a tree until the flesh is entirely decayed, after which the bones are +buried and grave-posts fixed. At the head of the grave a tubular piece +of cedar or other wood, called the <i>adjedatig</i>, is set. This +grave-board contains the symbolic or representative figure, which +records, if it be a warrior, his totem, that is to say the symbol of his +family, or surname, and such arithmetical or other devices as seem to +denote how many times the deceased has been in war parties, and how many +scalps he has taken from the enemy—two facts from which his +reputation is essentially to be derived. It is seldom that more is +attempted in the way of inscription. Often, however, distinguished +chiefs have their war flag, +<span class = "pagenum">198</span> +<a name = "page198" id = "page198"> </a> +or, in modern days, a small ensign of American fabric, displayed on +a standard at the head of their graves, which is left to fly over the +deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps of their enemies, +feathers of the bald or black eagle, the swallow-tailed falcon, or some +carnivorous bird, are also placed, in such instances, on the +<i>adjedatig</i>, or suspended, with offerings of various kinds, on a +separate staff. But the latter are superadditions of a religious +character, and belong to the class of the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig +(<i>ante</i>, No. 4). The building of a funeral fire on recent +graves is also a rite which belongs to the consideration of their +religious faith.</p> + + +<h4>FIRES.</h4> + +<p>It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building +fires on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the +soul thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that +demons were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford +light to the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer +states that—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the grave was to +light the spirit on its journey. By a coincidence to be explained by the +universal sacredness of the number, both Algonkins and Mexicans +maintained it for four nights consecutively. The former related the +tradition that one of their ancestors returned from the spirit land and +informed their nation that the journey thither consumed just four days, +and that collecting fuel every night added much to the toil and fatigue +the soul encountered, all of which could be spared it.</p> + +<p>So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also +intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast.</p> + +<p>Stephen Powers<a class = "tag" name = "tag103" id = "tag103" href = +"#note103">103</a> gives a tradition current among the Yurok of +California as to the use of fires:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the vicinity of +the grave. They hold and believe, at least the “Big Indians” do, that +the spirits of the departed are compelled to cross an extremely +attenuated greasy pole, which bridges over the chasm of the debatable +land, and that they require the fire to light them on their darksome +journey. A righteous soul traverses the pole quicker than a wicked +one, hence they regulate the number of nights for burning a light +according to the character for goodness or the opposite which the +deceased possessed in this world.</p> + +<p>Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that +a somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux.</p> + +<p>Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one +of the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig47" id = "fig47"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig47.jpg" width = "318" height = "546" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 47.</span>—Grave Fire.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">199</span> +<a name = "page199" id = "page199"> </a> +<h4>SUPERSTITIONS.</h4> + +<p>An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an +account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the +Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by +various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but +in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be +provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a +few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,<a +class = "tag" name = "tag104" id = "tag104" href = "#note104">104</a> +and relates to the Hidatsa:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around the camp or +village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge of his departed +kindred in the “village of the dead.” When he has arrived there he is +rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on earth by receiving +the same regard in the one place as in the other, for there as here the +brave man is honored and the coward despised. Some say that the ghosts +of those that commit suicide occupy a separate part of the village, but +that their condition differs in no wise from that of the others. In the +next world human shades hunt and live in the shades of buffalo and other +animals that have here died. There, too there are four seasons, but they +come in an inverse order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four +nights that the ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, +those who disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from +the shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins which they leave at +the door of the lodge. The smell of the burning leather they claim keeps +the ghost out; but the true friends of the dead man take no such +precautions.</p> + +<p>From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the +Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the +spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather +should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to +speculate on.</p> + +<p>The next account, by Keating,<a class = "tag" name = "tag105" id = +"tag105" href = "#note105">105</a> relating to the Chippewas, shows a +slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already +alluded to:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence entirely distinct +from the body; they call it <i>Ochechag</i>, and appear to supply to it +the qualities which we refer to the soul. They believe that it quits the +body it the time of death, and repairs to what they term +<i>Chekechekchekawe</i>; this region is supposed to be situated to the +south, and on the shores of the great ocean. Previous to arriving there +they meet with a stream which they are obliged to cross upon a large +snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those who die from drowning +never succeed in crossing the stream; they are thrown into it and remain +there forever. Some souls come to the edge of the stream, but are +prevented from passing by the snake, which threatens to devour them; +these are the souls of the persons in a lethargy or trance. Being +refused a passage these souls return to their bodies and reanimate them. +They believe that animals have souls, and even that inorganic +substances, such as kettles, &c., have in them a similar +essence.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">200</span> +<a name = "page200" id = "page200"> </a> +<p class = "quotation"> +In this land of souls all are treated according to their merits. Those +who have been good men are free from pain; they have no duties to +perform, their time is spent in dancing and singing, and they feed upon +mushrooms, which are very abundant. The souls of bad men are haunted by +the phantom of the persons or things that they have injured; thus, if a +man has destroyed much property the phantoms of the wrecks of this +property obstruct his passage wherever he goes; if he has been cruel to +his dogs or horses they also torment him after death. The ghosts of +those whom during his lifetime he wronged are there permitted to avenge +their injuries. They think that when a soul has crossed the stream it +cannot return to its body, yet they believe in apparitions, and +entertain the opinion that the spirits of the departed will frequently +revisit the abodes of their friends in order to invite them to the other +world, and to forewarn them of their approaching dissolution.</p> + +<p>Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number +of examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following +relates to the Karok of California:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the dead is shown +by the fact that the highest crime one can commit is the +<i>pet-chi-é-ri</i> the mere mention of the dead relative’s name. It is +a deadly insult to the survivors, and can be atoned for only by the same +amount of blood-money paid for willful murder. In default of that they +will have the villain’s blood. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> At +the mention of his name the mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and +groans. They do not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place. +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> They believe that the soul of a good +Karok goes to the “happy western land” beyond the great ocean. That they +have a well-grounded assurance of an immortality beyond the grave is +proven, if not otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical custom of +whispering a message in the ear of the dead. <span class = +"ellipsis">***</span> Believe that dancing will liberate some relative’s +soul from bonds of death, and restore him to earth.</p> + +<p>According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies +away with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk +will catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he +was good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states +that—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the memory of the +dead which is common to the Northern Californian tribes. When I asked +the chief Tahhokolli to tell me the Indian words for “father” and +“mother” and certain others similar, he shook his head mournfully and +said, “All dead,” “All dead,” “No good.” They are forbidden to mention +the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult to the relatives, <span +class = "ellipsis">***</span> and that the Mat-tóal hold that the good +depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the great ocean, but the +soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into a grizzly bear, which they +consider, of all animals, the cousin-german of sin.</p> + +<p>The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows +regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> It has always been one of the most +passionate desires among the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the +Shastika, to live, die, and be buried where they were born. Some of +their usages in regard to the dead and their burial may be gathered from +an incident that occurred while the captives of 1873 were on their way +from the Lava Beds to Fort Klamath, as it was described by an +eye-witness. Curly-headed Jack, a prominent warrior, committed +suicide with a pistol. His mother and female friends gathered about him +and set up a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood +and endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life. The mother +took his head in her lap and scooped the blood from his ear, another old +woman placed her hand upon his heart, and a third blew in his face. The +sight of the group—these poor old women, whose grief was +unfeigned, and the dying man—was terrible in its sadness. +<span class = "pagenum">201</span> +<a name = "page201" id = "page201"> </a> +Outside the tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim, +Steamboat Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had been the dying +man’s companions from childhood, all affected to tears. When he was +lowered into the grave, before the soldiers began to cover the body, +Huka Jim was seen running eagerly about the camp trying to exchange a +two-dollar bill of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior that +amount of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency would be +of any use to him in the other world—sad commentary on our +national currency!—and desired to have the coin instead. Procuring +it from one of the soldiers he cast it in and seemed greatly relieved. +All the dead man’s other effects, consisting of clothing, trinkets, and +a half dollar, were interred with him, together with some root-flour as +victual for the journey to the spirit land.</p> + +<p>The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead +may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.<a class = "tag" +name = "tag106" id = "tag106" href = "#note106">106</a> It regards the +natives of Washington Territory:</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is this: It is the +universal custom with these Indians never to live in a lodge where a +person has died. If a person of importance dies, the lodge is usually +burned down, or taken down and removed to some other part of the bay; +and it can be readily seen that in the case of the Palux Indians, who +had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before stated, their +relatives chose at once to leave for some other place. This objection to +living in a lodge where a person has died is the reason why their sick +slaves are invariably carried out into the woods, where they remain +either to recover or die. There is, however, no disputing the fact that +an immense mortality has occurred among these people, and they are now +reduced to a mere handful.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead person, and +their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes give rise to a difficulty +as to who shall perform the funeral ceremonies; for any person who +handles a dead body must not eat of salmon or sturgeon for thirty days. +Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I have known them leave the +corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in two instances that +came to my knowledge, the whites had to burn the lodges, with the bodies +in them, to prevent infection.</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had buried +Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could be seen. All kept +in their lodges, singing and drumming to keep away the spirits of the +dead.</p> + +<p>According to Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag107" id = "tag107" +href = "#note107">107</a>—</p> + +<p class = "quotation"> +The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after death +transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while the nobler became +stars and beautiful birds.</p> + +<p>The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and +superstitiously avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard +resembling those of our own country.</p> + +<p>Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought, +to enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed +final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and +while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on +hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire +for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper, +that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of +the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to +induce further investigation and contribution from careful and +conscientious +<span class = "pagenum">202</span> +<a name = "page202" id = "page202"> </a> +observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and correspondence +given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in short, most of +them may serve as copies for preparation of similar material.</p> + +<p>To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are +also given.</p> + +<p><i>1st.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Name of the tribe</span>; +present appellation; former, if differing any; and that used by the +Indians themselves.</p> + +<p><i>2d.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Locality, present and +former.</span>—The response should give the range of the tribe and +be full and geographically accurate.</p> + +<p><i>3d.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Deaths and funeral +ceremonies</span>; what are the important and characteristic facts +connected with these subjects? How is the corpse prepared after death +and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it spoken to after death as +if alive? when and where? What is the character of the addresses? What +articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food put in the grave, or in +or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an ancient custom? Are persons +of the same gens buried together; and is the clan distinction obsolete, +or did it ever prevail?</p> + +<p><i>4th.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Manner of burial, ancient and +modern; structure and position of the graves; +cremation.</span>—Are burials usually made in high and dry +grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the +dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies +placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was +practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of +custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the +survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are +scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction +of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in +skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are +suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the +water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be +given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial +posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of +position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation, +or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of +remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if +any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been +used, describe them.</p> + +<p><i>5th.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Mourning +observances.</span>—Is scarification practiced, or personal +mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead +lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry +symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are +sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are +fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long?</p> + +<p><i>6th.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Burial traditions and +superstitions.</span>—Give in full all that +<span class = "pagenum">203</span> +<a name = "page203" id = "page203"> </a> +can be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very +important.</p> + +<p>In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and +correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and +full as possible.</p> + +<p>One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is +the “why” and “wherefore” for every rite and custom; for, as a rule, +observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact, +but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for it.</p> + +<p>Any material the result of careful observation will be most +gratefully received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer +must here confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have +already contributed, a number so large that limited space precludes +a mention of their individual names.</p> + +<p>Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those +interested in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in +general. Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with +curious forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.</p> + +<p>The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos. +Sinclair & Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made +by Mr. W. H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended +their preparation.</p> + +</div> +<!-- end div maintext --> + + +<div class = "footnote"> + +<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4> + +<p><a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a> +Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1853, pt. 3, p. 193.</p> + +<p><a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a> +Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.</p> + +<p><a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a> +Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.</p> + +<p><a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a> +Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p. 270.</p> + +<p><a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a> +Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.</p> + +<p><a name = "note6" id = "note6" href = "#tag6">6.</a> +Voy. dans l’Arizona, in Bull. Soc. de Géographie, 1877.</p> + +<p><a name = "note7" id = "note7" href = "#tag7">7.</a> +Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. 1, p. 555.</p> + +<p><a name = "note8" id = "note8" href = "#tag8">8.</a> +Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.</p> + +<p><a name = "note9" id = "note9" href = "#tag9">9.</a> +L’incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1, p. 439.</p> + +<p><a name = "note10" id = "note10" href = "#tag10">10.</a> +Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.</p> + +<p><a name = "note11" id = "note11" href = "#tag11">11.</a> +Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States, 1853, Pt. 3, +p. 140.</p> + +<p><a name = "note12" id = "note12" href = "#tag12">12.</a> +U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.</p> + +<p><a name = "note13" id = "note13" href = "#tag13">13.</a> +Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841, p. 252.</p> + +<p><a name = "note14" id = "note14" href = "#tag14">14.</a> +Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.</p> + +<p><a name = "note15" id = "note15" href = "#tag15">15.</a> +Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to Knowledge. No. 259, +1876. Pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55, 82.</p> + +<p><a name = "note16" id = "note16" href = "#tag16">16.</a> +Pop. Sc. Month., Sept., 1877, p. 577.</p> + +<p><a name = "note17" id = "note17" href = "#tag17">17.</a> +Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, p. 780.</p> + +<p><a name = "note18" id = "note18" href = "#tag18">18.</a> +A detailed account of this exploration, with many illustrations, will be +found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, +1878.</p> + +<p><a name = "note19" id = "note19" href = "#tag19">19.</a> +Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 <i>et seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name = "note20" id = "note20" href = "#tag20">20.</a> +American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.</p> + +<p><a name = "note21" id = "note21" href = "#tag21">21.</a> +Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.</p> + +<p><a name = "note22" id = "note22" href = "#tag22">22.</a> +Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 513.</p> + +<p><a name = "note23" id = "note23" href = "#tag23">23.</a> +Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 515.</p> + +<p><a name = "note24" id = "note24" href = "#tag24">24.</a> +A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida, 1775.</p> + +<p><a name = "note25" id = "note25" href = "#tag25">25.</a> +Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp. 241-243.</p> + +<p><a name = "note26" id = "note26" href = "#tag26">26.</a> +Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i, p. 464.</p> + +<p><a name = "note27" id = "note27" href = "#tag27">27.</a> +Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.</p> + +<p><a name = "note28" id = "note28" href = "#tag28">28.</a> +Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p. 62.</p> + +<p><a name = "note29" id = "note29" href = "#tag29">29.</a> +Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.</p> + +<p><a name = "note30" id = "note30" href = "#tag30">30.</a> +Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.</p> + +<p><a name = "note31" id = "note31" href = "#tag31">31.</a> +Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp. 155 <i>et +seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name = "note32" id = "note32" href = "#tag32">32.</a> +Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.</p> + +<p><a name = "note33" id = "note33" href = "#tag33">33.</a> +Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll. Amer. Antiq. Soc., +1820, vol. 1, p. 318.</p> + +<p><a name = "note34" id = "note34" href = "#tag34">34.</a> +A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age, discovered in Kentucky, +is now in the cabinet of the American Antiquarian Society. It is a +female. Several human bodies were found enwrapped carefully in skins and +cloths. They were inhumed below the floor of the cave; <i>inhumed</i>, +and not lodged in catacombs.</p> + +<p><a name = "note35" id = "note35" href = "#tag35">35.</a> +Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.</p> + +<p><a name = "note36" id = "note36" href = "#tag36">36.</a> +Billings’ Exped., 1802, p. 161.</p> + +<p><a name = "note37" id = "note37" href = "#tag37">37.</a> +Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.</p> + +<p><a name = "note38" id = "note38" href = "#tag38">38.</a> +Rawlinson’s Herodotus, Book i, chap. 198, <i>note</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note39" id = "note39" href = "#tag39">39.</a> +Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 455 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name = "note40" id = "note40" href = "#tag40">40.</a> +Manners, Customs, &c., of North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii, +p. 5.</p> + +<p><a name = "note41" id = "note41" href = "#tag41">41.</a> +Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p. 483.</p> + +<p><a name = "note42" id = "note42" href = "#tag42">42.</a> +Hist. de l’Amérique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii, p. 43.</p> + +<p><a name = "note43" id = "note43" href = "#tag43">43.</a> +Pioneer Life, 1872.</p> + +<p><a name = "note44" id = "note44" href = "#tag44">44.</a> +I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was undoubtedly an +exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island) the bluffs on the +peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River (three miles distant) were +thickly studded with Indian grave mounds, showing conclusively that +subterranean was the usual mode of burial. In making roads, streets, and +digging foundations, skulls, bones, trinkets, beads, etc., in great +numbers, were exhumed, proving that many things (according to the wealth +or station of survivors) were deposited in the graves. In 1836 I +witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner stated.—<span +class = "smallcaps">P. Gregg</span>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note45" id = "note45" href = "#tag45">45.</a> +Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist. Soc. (1879?), +p. 107.</p> + +<p><a name = "note46" id = "note46" href = "#tag46">46.</a> +Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.</p> + +<p><a name = "note47" id = "note47" href = "#tag47">47.</a> +The Last Act, 1876.</p> + +<p><a name = "note48" id = "note48" href = "#tag48">48.</a> +Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.</p> + +<p><a name = "note49" id = "note49" href = "#tag49">49.</a> +Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part IV, +p. 224.</p> + +<p><a name = "note50" id = "note50" href = "#tag50">50.</a> +Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831, vol. ii, p. 387.</p> + +<p><a name = "note51" id = "note51" href = "#tag51">51.</a> +Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.</p> + +<p><a name = "note52" id = "note52" href = "#tag52">52.</a> +Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part iii, +p. 112.</p> + +<p><a name = "note53" id = "note53" href = "#tag53">53.</a> +Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.</p> + +<p><a name = "note54" id = "note54" href = "#tag54">54.</a> +Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878<ins class = "correction" +title = "text has . for ,">, </ins>p. 753.</p> + +<p><a name = "note55" id = "note55" href = "#tag55">55.</a> +Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-’76, p. 64.</p> + +<p><a name = "note56" id = "note56" href = "#tag56">56.</a> +Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 149.</p> + +<p><a name = "note57" id = "note57" href = "#tag57">57.</a> +Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874, p. 168.</p> + +<p><a name = "note58" id = "note58" href = "#tag58">58.</a> +Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.</p> + +<p><a name = "note59" id = "note59" href = "#tag59">59.</a> +Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah, 1852, +p. 43.</p> + +<p><a name = "note60" id = "note60" href = "#tag60">60.</a> +Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol. i, +p. 332.</p> + +<p><a name = "note61" id = "note61" href = "#tag61">61.</a> +Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. i, p. 780.</p> + +<p><a name = "note62" id = "note62" href = "#tag62">62.</a> +Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p. 286.</p> + +<p><a name = "note63" id = "note63" href = "#tag63">63.</a> +Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol. i, p. 69.</p> + +<p><a name = "note64" id = "note64" href = "#tag64">64.</a> +Travels in Alaska, 1869, p. 100.</p> + +<p><a name = "note65" id = "note65" href = "#tag65">65.</a> +Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145.</p> + +<p><a name = "note66" id = "note66" href = "#tag66">66.</a> +Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.</p> + +<p><a name = "note67" id = "note67" href = "#tag67">67.</a> +Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.</p> + +<p><a name = "note68" id = "note68" href = "#tag68">68.</a> +Long’s Exped. to the St. Peter’s River, 1824, p. 332.</p> + +<p><a name = "note69" id = "note69" href = "#tag69">69.</a> +L’incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome i, p. 475, <i>et +seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name = "note70" id = "note70" href = "#tag70">70.</a> +The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that the custom still +prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the Moravian settlement of +Salem, N.C.</p> + +<p><a name = "note71" id = "note71" href = "#tag71">71.</a> +Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 319.</p> + +<p><a name = "note72" id = "note72" href = "#tag72">72.</a> +Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. ii, p. 774, <i>et +seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name = "note73" id = "note73" href = "#tag73">73.</a> +Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.</p> + +<p><a name = "note74" id = "note74" href = "#tag74">74.</a> +Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.</p> + +<p><a name = "note75" id = "note75" href = "#tag75">75.</a> +Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 516.</p> + +<p><a name = "note76" id = "note76" href = "#tag76">76.</a> +“Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have given it as their +opinion that all those pyramidal artificial hills, usually called Indian +mounds, were raised on this occasion, and are generally sepulchers. +However, I am of different opinion.”</p> + +<p><a name = "note77" id = "note77" href = "#tag77">77.</a> +League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.</p> + +<p><a name = "note78" id = "note78" href = "#tag78">78.</a> +Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.</p> + +<p><a name = "note79" id = "note79" href = "#tag79">79.</a> +Hist. N. A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.</p> + +<p><a name = "note80" id = "note80" href = "#tag80">80.</a> +Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.</p> + +<p><a name = "note81" id = "note81" href = "#tag81">81.</a> +Cont. N. A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p. 200.</p> + +<p><a name = "note82" id = "note82" href = "#tag82">82.</a> +Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p. 483.</p> + +<p><a name = "note83" id = "note83" href = "#tag83">83.</a> +Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859, p. 48.</p> + +<p><a name = "note84" id = "note84" href = "#tag84">84.</a> +Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii, p. 141.</p> + +<p><a name = "note85" id = "note85" href = "#tag85">85.</a> +Mœurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.</p> + +<p><a name = "note86" id = "note86" href = "#tag86">86.</a> +Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.</p> + +<p><a name = "note87" id = "note87" href = "#tag87">87.</a> +Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.</p> + +<p><a name = "note88" id = "note88" href = "#tag88">88.</a> +Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731, 744.</p> + +<p><a name = "note89" id = "note89" href = "#tag89">89.</a> +Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.</p> + +<p><a name = "note90" id = "note90" href = "#tag90">90.</a> +Bossu’s Travels (Forster’s translation), 1771, p. 38.</p> + +<p><a name = "note91" id = "note91" href = "#tag91">91.</a> +At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the victims swallow +little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make them giddy, and as it +were to take the sensation of pain from them; after that they were all +strangled and put upon mats, the favorite on the right, the other wife +on the left, and the others according to their rank.</p> + +<p><a name = "note92" id = "note92" href = "#tag92">92.</a> +The established distinctions among these Indians were as follows: The +Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the highest rank; next come the +Nobles; after them the Honorables; and last of all the common people, +who were very much despised. As the nobility was propagated by the +women, this contributed much to multiply it.</p> + +<p><a name = "note93" id = "note93" href = "#tag93">93.</a> +The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the fires, which is only +done at the death of the sovereign.</p> + +<p><a name = "note94" id = "note94" href = "#tag94">94.</a> +Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.</p> + +<p><a name = "note95" id = "note95" href = "#tag95">95.</a> +Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.</p> + +<p><a name = "note96" id = "note96" href = "#tag96">96.</a> +Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.</p> + +<p><a name = "note97" id = "note97" href = "#tag97">97.</a> +Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii, p. 164.</p> + +<p><a name = "note98" id = "note98" href = "#tag98">98.</a> +League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.</p> + +<p><a name = "note99" id = "note99" href = "#tag99">99.</a> +Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.</p> + +<p><a name = "note100" id = "note100" href = "#tag100">100.</a> +Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.</p> + +<p><a name = "note101" id = "note101" href = "#tag101">101.</a> +Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.</p> + +<p><a name = "note102" id = "note102" href = "#tag102">102.</a> +Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851, part i, p. 356.</p> + +<p><a name = "note103" id = "note103" href = "#tag103">103.</a> +Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.</p> + +<p><a name = "note104" id = "note104" href = "#tag104">104.</a> +Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr., +1877, p. 409.</p> + +<p><a name = "note105" id = "note105" href = "#tag105">105.</a> +Long’s Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.</p> + +<p><a name = "note106" id = "note106" href = "#tag106">106.</a> +Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.</p> + +<p><a name = "note107" id = "note107" href = "#tag107">107.</a> +Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.</p> + +</div> + +<div class = "index"> + +<span class = "pagenum">[739]</span> +<a name = "page739" id = "page739"> </a> +<h3><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX</a></h3> + + + +<p>Abiquiu, Ancient cemetery of <a href = "#page111">111</a></p> + +<p>Acaxers and Yaquis, cairn burial <a href = +"#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>“Adjedatig” <a href = "#page197">197</a></p> + +<p>Aerial burial in canoes, Chinooks <a href = +"#page171">171</a></p> +<p class = "indent">sepulture, <a href = "#page152">152</a></p> + +<p>Alaric’s burial <a href = "#page181">181</a></p> + +<p>Alaska cave burial <a href = "#page129">129</a></p> + +<p>Alaskan mummies <a href = "#page134">134</a>, <a href = +"#page135">135</a></p> + +<p>Alden, E. H., Scaffold burial <a href = "#page161">161</a></p> + +<p>Aleutian Islanders, embalmment <a href = "#page135">135</a>, +<a href = "#page136">136</a></p> + +<p>Algonkins, Burial fires of the <a href = +"#page198">198</a></p> + +<p>Alibamans, Aquatic burial of suicides by <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Allen, Miss A. J., Burial sacrifice <a href = +"#page189">189</a></p> + +<p>Ancient burial customs of barbaric tribes <a href = +"#page152">152</a></p> +<p class = "indent">cemetery of Abiquiu <a href = +"#page111">111</a></p> +<p class = "indent">nations, Tree burial of <a href = +"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p> + +<p>Ancients, Curious mourning observances <a href = +"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p> + +<p>Antiquity of cremation <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Apingi burial <a href = "#page125">125</a>, <a href = +"#page126">126</a></p> + +<p>Aquatic burial, Alibamans, of suicides <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Cherokees <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Chinooks <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Gosh-Utes <a href = "#page181">181</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Hyperboreans <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Ichthyophagi <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Itzas <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Kavague <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Lotophagians <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Obongo <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Ascena or Timber Indians <a href = "#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Atwater, Caleb, Burial mounds <a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Australian scaffold burial <a href = "#page167">167</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[740]</span> +<a name = "page740" id = "page740"> </a> + +<p>Aztecs and Taracos, Burial sacrifice <a href = +"#page190">190</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_B" id = "index_B">Baldwin</a>, C. C., Pottawatomie +surface burial <a href = "#page141">141</a></p> + +<p>Balearic Islanders, Cairn burial <a href = +"#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Bancroft, H. H., Burial sacrifice <a href = +"#page190">190</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Canoe burial in ground <a href = +"#page112">112</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Costa Rica hut burial <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Doracho cist burial <a href = +"#page115">115</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux burial boxes <a href = +"#page155">155</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Mourning, Central Americans <a href = +"#page185">185</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Pima burial <a href = "#page098">98</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Superstitions regarding dead <a href = +"#page201">201</a></p> + +<p>Barbaric tribes, Ancient burial customs of <a href = +"#page152">152</a></p> + +<p>Barber, E. A., Burial urns <a href = "#page138">138</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Partial cremation <a href = +"#page151">151</a></p> + +<p>Bari of Africa, burial <a href = "#page125">125</a></p> + +<p>Bartram, John, Cabin burial <a href = "#page122">122</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Choctaw ossuary <a href = +"#page120">120</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Partial scaffold burial <a href = +"#page169">169</a></p> + +<p>Bechuana burial <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> + +<p>Beckwourth, James, Crow mourning <a href = +"#page183">183</a></p> + +<p>Beechey, Capt. F. W., Lodge burial <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> + +<p>Beltrami, J. C., Burial feast <a href = "#page190">190</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Burial posts <a href = +"#page197">197</a></p> + +<p>Benson, H. C., Choctaw burial <a href = "#page186">186</a></p> + +<p>Bessels, Dr. Emil, Esquimaux superstition <a href = +"#page198">198</a></p> + +<p>Beverly, Robert, Virginia mummies <a href = +"#page131">131</a></p> + +<p>Birgan, Meaning of word <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> + +<p>Blackbird’s burial <a href = "#page139">139</a></p> + +<p>Blackfeet burial lodges <a href = "#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">cairn burial <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">tree burial <a href = "#page161">161</a></p> + +<p>Bonaks, Cremation <a href = "#page144">144</a></p> + +<p>Bone cleaning of the dead <a href = "#page168">168</a></p> + +<p>Boner, J. H., Moravian mourning <a href = +"#page166">166</a></p> + +<p>Bossu, M., Burial denied to suicides <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Boteler, Dr. W. C., Oto burial ceremonies <a href = +"#page096">96</a></p> + +<p>Box burial, Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee <a href = +"#page155">155</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux <a href = "#page155">155</a>, +<a href = "#page156">156</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Talomeco River <a href = +"#page155">155</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Innuits and Ingaliks <a href = +"#page156">156</a>, <a href = "#page158">158</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Kalosh <a href = "#page156">156</a></p> + +<p>Bransford, Dr. J. C., U.S.N., Burial urns discovered by +<a href = "#page138">138</a></p> + +<p>Brebeuf, Pere de, Burial feast <a href = +"#page191">191</a></p> + +<p>Brice, W. A., Surface burial <a href = "#page141">141</a></p> + +<p>Brinton, Dr. D. G., Burial of collected bones <a href = +"#page170">170</a></p> + +<p>Bruhier, J. J., Corsican customs <a href = +"#page147">147</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Persian burial <a href = +"#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Brule Sioux, tree and scaffold burial <a href = +"#page158">158</a>, <a href = "#page160">160</a></p> + +<p>Burchard, J. L., Pit burial <a href = "#page124">124</a></p> + +<p>Butterfield, H., Shoshone cairn burial <a href = +"#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Burial, Apingi <a href = "#page125">125</a>, <a href = +"#page126">126</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Aquatic <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">canoes and houses <a href = +"#page177">177-179</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Bari of Africa <a href = +"#page125">125</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Bechuanas <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> +<p class = "indent">beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses +<a href = "#page122">122</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Box <a href = "#page155">155</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Carolina tribes <a href = +"#page093">93</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Caddos <a href = "#page103">103</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Cairn <a href = "#page142">142</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Cairn, Ute <a href = "#page142">142</a></p> +<p class = "indent">case, Cheyenne <a href = "#page162">162</a>, +<a href = "#page163">163</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Cave <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Chieftain, of the <a href = +"#page110">110</a>, <a href = "#page111">111</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Classification of <a href = +"#page092">92-93</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Damara <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> +<p class = "indent">dance, Yo-kaí-a <a href = "#page192">192</a>, +<a href = "#page194">194</a></p> +<p class = "indent">dances <a href = "#page193">193</a></p> +<p class = "indent">feast, Description of, by Beltrami <a href = +"#page190">190</a>, <a href = "#page191">191</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Hurons, of the <a href = +"#page191">191</a></p> +<p class = "indent">feasts <a href = "#page190">190</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, superstitions regarding <a href = +"#page191">191</a></p> +<p class = "indent">fires, Algonkins <a href = +"#page198">198</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Yurok <a href = "#page198">198</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Esquimaux <a href = "#page198">198</a></p> +<p class = "indent">food <a href = "#page192">192</a></p> +<p class = "indent">games <a href = "#page195">195</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Grave <a href = "#page101">101</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Ground, in canoes <a href = +"#page112">112</a></p> +<p class = "indent">in logs <a href = "#page138">138</a>, <a href += "#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">in mounds <a href = "#page115">115</a></p> +<p class = "indent">in standing posture <a href = +"#page151">151</a>, <a href = "#page152">152</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Virginia <a href = +"#page125">125</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Iroquois <a href = "#page140">140</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Kaffir <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Klamath and Trinity Indians <a href = +"#page106">106</a>, <a href = "#page107">107</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Latookas <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Lodge <a href = "#page152">152</a></p> +<p class = "indent">lodges, Blackfeet <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Cheyenne <a href = "#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Shoshone <a href = "#page153">153</a>, +<a href = "#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Muscogulges <a href = "#page122">122</a>, +<a href = "#page123">123</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Meaning and derivation of word <a href = +"#page093">93</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Moquis, <a href = "#page114">114</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Navajo, <a href = "#page123">123</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Obongo, <a href = "#page139">139</a>, +<a href = "#page140">140</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Alaric, <a href = "#page181">181</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Blackbird, <a href = +"#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of De Soto, <a href = "#page181">181</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Long Horse, <a href = +"#page153">153</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Ouray, <a href = "#page128">128</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Parsee, <a href = "#page105">105</a>, +<a href = "#page106">106</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Pit, <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Pitt River Indians, <a href = +"#page151">151</a></p> +<p class = "indent">posts, Sioux and Chippewa, <a href = +"#page197">197</a>, <a href = "#page198">198</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Round Valley Indians, <a href = +"#page124">124</a></p> +<p class = "indent">sacrifice, Aztecs and Tarascos, <a href = +"#page190">190</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Northwest, <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Panama, <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Natchez, <a href = "#page187">187</a>, +<a href = "#page189">189</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Tsinūk, <a href = "#page179">179</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Wascopums, <a href = "#page189">189</a>, +<a href = "#page190">190</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Sacs and Foxes, <a href = +"#page094">94</a>, <a href = "#page095">95</a></p> +<p class = "indent">scaffolds, <a href = "#page162">162</a></p> +<p class = "indent">song, Schiller’s, <a href = +"#page110">110</a>, <a href = "#page111">111</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">of Basques and others, <a href = +"#page195">195</a></p> +<p class = "indent">superstitions, Chippewas, <a href = +"#page199">199</a>, <a href = "#page200">200</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Washington Territory, <a href = +"#page201">201</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Karok, <a href = "#page200">200</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Kelta, <a href = "#page200">200</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Modocs, <a href = "#page200">200</a>, +<a href = "#page201">201</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Mosquito Indians, <a href = +"#page201">201</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Tlascaltecs, <a href = +"#page201">201</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Tolowa, <a href = "#page200">200</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Surface, <a href = "#page138">138</a>, +<a href = "#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Urn, <a href = "#page137">137</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">and cover, Georgia, <a href = +"#page138">138</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, New Mexico, <a href = +"#page138">138</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_C" id = "index_C">Cabins</a>, wigwams, or houses, +Burial beneath or in, <a href = "#page122">122</a></p> + +<p>Caddos, Burial, <a href = "#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Cairn burial, Acaxers and Yaquis, <a href = +"#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Balearic Islanders, <a href = +"#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Blackfeet, <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux, <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Kiowas and Comanches, <a href = +"#page142">142</a>, <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Pi-Utes, <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Reasons for, <a href = +"#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Shoshonis, <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Calaveras Cave, <a href = "#page128">128</a>, <a href = +"#page129">129</a></p> + +<p>California steatite burial urn, <a href = +"#page138">138</a></p> + +<p>Campbell, John, Burial songs, <a href = "#page195">195</a></p> + +<p>Canes sepulchrales, <a href = "#page104">104</a></p> + +<p>Canoe burial in ground, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Mosquito Indians, <a href = +"#page112">112</a>, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Santa Barbara, <a href = +"#page112">112</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Clallam, <a href = "#page173">173</a>, +<a href = "#page174">174</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Twana, <a href = "#page171">171</a>, +<a href = "#page173">173</a></p> + +<p>Canoes and houses, Burial, <a href = +"#page177">177-179</a></p> + +<p>Canoes, Superterrene and aerial burial in, <a href = +"#page171">171</a></p> + +<p>Caraibs, Verification of death, <a href = +"#page146">146</a></p> + +<p>Carolina tribes, Burial among, <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> + +<p>Catlin, George, Burial of Blackbird, <a href = +"#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Golgotha of Mandans, <a href = +"#page170">170</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Mourning cradle, <a href = +"#page181">181</a></p> + +<p>Cave burial, <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Alaska, <a href = "#page129">129</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Calaveras, <a href = "#page128">128</a>, +<a href = "#page129">129</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Utes, <a href = "#page127">127</a>, <a href += "#page128">128</a></p> + +<p>Cherokee aquatic burial, <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Cheyenne burial case, <a href = "#page162">162</a>, <a href = +"#page163">163</a></p> +<p class = "indent">lodges, <a href = "#page154">154</a></p> + +<p>Chillicothe mound, <a href = "#page117">117</a>, <a href = +"#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Chinook aerial burial in canoes, <a href = +"#page171">171</a></p> +<p class = "indent">aquatic burial, <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mourning cradle, <a href = +"#page181">181</a>, <a href = "#page182">182</a></p> + +<p>Chippewa burial superstitions, <a href = "#page199">199</a>, +<a href = "#page200">200</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mourning, <a href = "#page184">184</a></p> +<p class = "indent">scaffold burial, <a href = +"#page161">161</a>, <a href = "#page162">162</a></p> +<p class = "indent">widow, <a href = "#page184">184</a>, <a href += "#page185">185</a></p> + +<p>Choctaw mound burial, <a href = "#page120">120</a></p> +<p class = "indent">scaffold burial, <a href = +"#page169">169</a></p> + +<p>Choctaws funeral ceremonies, <a href = "#page186">186</a></p> + +<p>Cist burial, Doracho, <a href = "#page115">115</a></p> +<p class = "indent">graves, Kentucky, <a href = +"#page114">114</a>, <a href = "#page115">115</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Illinois, <a href = +"#page114">114</a></p> + +<p>Cists or stone graves, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Solutré, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Tennessee, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Clallam canoe burial, <a href = "#page173">173</a>, <a href = +"#page174">174</a></p> +<p class = "indent">house burial, <a href = +"#page175">175</a></p> + +<p>Classification of burial, <a href = "#page092">92</a></p> + +<p>Cleveland, Wm. J., Tree and scaffold burial, <a href = +"#page158">158</a></p> + +<p>Collected bones, Interment of, <a href = +"#page170">170</a></p> + +<p>Comanche inhumation, <a href = "#page099">99</a>, <a href = +"#page100">100</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[742]</span> +<a name = "page742" id = "page742"> </a> + +<p>Congaree and Santee Indians, embalmment <a href = +"#page132">132</a>, <a href = "#page133">133</a></p> + +<p>Corsican funeral custom <a href = "#page147">147</a></p> + +<p>Cox, Ross, Cremation <a href = "#page144">144</a></p> + +<p>Coyotero Apaches, Inhumation <a href = "#page111">111</a>, +<a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Cradle, mourning, Illustration of <a href = +"#page181">181</a></p> + +<p>Crock, Choctaw, and Cherokee box burial <a href = +"#page155">155</a></p> + +<p>Creeks and Seminoles, Inhumation <a href = "#page095">95</a>, +<a href = "#page096">96</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, “Hallelujah” of the <a href = +"#page195">195</a></p> + +<p>Cremation, Antiquity of <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Bonaks <a href = "#page144">144</a></p> +<p class = "indent">furnace <a href = "#page149">149</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Clear Lake <a href = +"#page147">147</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Southern Utah <a href = +"#page149">149</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mound, Florida <a href = "#page148">148</a>, +<a href = "#page149">149</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Nishinams <a href = "#page144">144</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Partial <a href = "#page150">150</a>, +<a href = "#page151">151</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Se-nél <a href = "#page147">147</a>, +<a href = "#page148">148</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Tolkotins <a href = +"#page144">144-146</a></p> + +<p>Crow lodge burial <a href = "#page153">153</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mourning <a href = "#page183">183</a>, +<a href = "#page184">184</a></p> + +<p>Curious mourning observances of ancients <a href = +"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p> + +<p>Curtiss, E., Exploration by <a href = "#page115">115</a>, +<a href = "#page116">116</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_D" id = "index_D">Dakhnias</a> <a href = +"#page104">104</a></p> + +<p>Dall, W. H., Burial boxes <a href = "#page156">156</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Cave burial <a href = +"#page129">129</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Mummies <a href = "#page134">134</a></p> + +<p>Damara burial <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> + +<p>Dance for the dead <a href = "#page192">192</a></p> + +<p>Dances, Burial <a href = "#page192">192</a></p> + +<p>Danish burial logs <a href = "#page139">139</a></p> + +<p>Dead, Dance for the <a href = "#page192">192</a></p> + +<p>Delano, A., Tree burial <a href = "#page161">161</a></p> + +<p>Description of burial feast <a href = "#page190">190</a>, +<a href = "#page191">191</a></p> + +<p>De Soto’s burial <a href = "#page181">181</a></p> + +<p>Devouring the dead, Fans of Africa <a href = +"#page182">182</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of South America <a href = +"#page182">182</a>, <a href = "#page183">183</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Massageties, Padæns, and others <a href = +"#page182">182</a></p> + +<p>Dolmens in Japan <a href = "#page115">115</a></p> + +<p>Doracho cist burial <a href = "#page115">115</a></p> + +<p>Drew, Benjamin, Schiller’s burial song <a href = +"#page110">110</a></p> + +<p>Dumont, M. Butel de, House burial <a href = +"#page124">124</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_E" id = "index_E">Eells</a>, Rev. M., Canoe burial + <a href = "#page171">171</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[743]</span> +<a name = "page743" id = "page743"> </a> + +<p>Embalmment, Aleutian Islanders. <a href = "#page135">135</a>, +<a href = "#page136">136</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Congaree and Santee Indians <a href = +"#page132">132</a>, <a href = "#page133">133</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, or mummification <a href = +"#page130">130</a></p> + +<p>Engelhardt, Prof. C. <a href = "#page139">139</a></p> + +<p>Esquimaux box burial <a href = "#page155">155</a>, <a href = +"#page156">156</a></p> +<p class = "indent">burial fires <a href = "#page198">198</a></p> +<p class = "indent">cairn burial <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">lodge burial <a href = "#page154">154</a></p> + +<p>European ossuaries <a href = "#page191">191</a></p> + +<p>Excavation of Indian mound, North Carolina <a href = +"#page120">120-122</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_F" id = "index_F">Fans</a> of Africa devour the dead + <a href = "#page182">182</a></p> + +<p>Feasts, Burial <a href = "#page190">190</a></p> + +<p>Fires, Burial <a href = "#page198">198</a></p> + +<p>Fiske, Moses, Cists <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Florida cremation mound <a href = "#page148">148</a>, <a href += "#page149">149</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mound burial <a href = "#page119">119</a>, +<a href = "#page120">120</a></p> + +<p>Food, Burial <a href = "#page192">192</a></p> + +<p>Ford, Lieut. Geo. E., U.S.A., Cabin burial <a href = +"#page123">123</a></p> + +<p>Foreman, Dr. E., Burial urns <a href = "#page138">138</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Cremation <a href = "#page149">149</a></p> + +<p>Foster, J. W., Urn burial <a href = "#page137">137</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Cremation <a href = "#page150">150</a></p> + +<p>Funeral ceremonies, Choctaws <a href = "#page186">186</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Twanas and Clallams <a href = +"#page176">176</a></p> +<p class = "indent">custom, Corsican <a href = +"#page147">147</a></p> + +<p>Furnace, Cremation <a href = "#page149">149</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_G" id = "index_G">Gageby</a>, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Box +burial <a href = "#page155">155</a></p> + +<p>Games, Burial <a href = "#page195">195</a></p> + +<p>Gardner, Dr. W., U.S.A., Theory of scaffold burial <a href = +"#page167">167</a></p> + +<p>Ghost gamble <a href = "#page195">195-197</a></p> + +<p>Gianque, Florian, Mound burial <a href = +"#page120">120</a></p> + +<p>Gibbs, George <a href = "#page106">106</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Burial canoes and houses <a href = +"#page177">177</a></p> + +<p>Gilbert, G. K., Klamath burial <a href = +"#page147">147</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Moquis burial <a href = +"#page114">114</a></p> + +<p>Gillman, Henry, Exploration of mound <a href = +"#page148">148</a></p> + +<p>Given, Dr. O. G., Cairn burial <a href = +"#page142">142</a></p> + +<p>“Golgothas,” Mandans <a href = "#page170">170</a></p> + +<p>Gosh-Utes, Aquatic burial amongst <a href = +"#page181">181</a></p> + +<p>Grave burial <a href = "#page101">101</a></p> + +<p>Gregg, Dr. P., Surface burial <a href = "#page140">140</a></p> + +<p>Grinnell, Dr. Fordyce, Comanche inhumation <a href = +"#page099">99</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Wichita burial customs <a href = +"#page102">102</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[744]</span> +<a name = "page744" id = "page744"> </a> + +<p>Grossman, Capt. F. E., Pima burial <a href = +"#page098">98</a></p> + +<p>Gros Ventres and Mandans, Scaffold burial <a href = +"#page161">161</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +“Hallelujah” of the Creeks <a href = "#page195">195</a></p> + +<p>Hammond, Dr. J. F., Burial lodges <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> + +<p>Hardisty, W. L., Log burial in trees <a href = +"#page166">166</a></p> + +<p>Hidatsa superstitions <a href = "#page199">199</a></p> + +<p>Hind, Henry Youle, Burial feast <a href = +"#page191">191</a></p> + +<p>Hoffman, Dr. W. J. <a href = "#page099">99</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Drawing of Pima burial <a href = +"#page111">111</a>, <a href = "#page153">153</a></p> + +<p>Holbrook, W. C., Burial mounds <a href = +"#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Holmes, W. H., Drawings by <a href = "#page106">106</a>, +<a href = "#page203">203</a></p> + +<p>Hough, Franklin B., Canoe burial in the ground <a href = +"#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>House burial, Clallams <a href = "#page175">175</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Paskagoulas and Billoxis <a href = +"#page124">124</a>, <a href = "#page125">125</a></p> + +<p>Hurons, Burial feast of <a href = "#page191">191</a></p> + +<p>Hyperboreans, aquatic burial <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_I" id = "index_I">Ichthyophagi</a>, aquatic burial + <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Illinois mounds <a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Indian mound in North Carolina, Excavation of <a href = +"#page120">120-122</a></p> + +<p>Indians of Bellingham Bay, lodge burial <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Clear Lake, cremation <a href = +"#page147">147</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Costa Rica, lodge burial <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Illinois, cist burial <a href = +"#page114">114</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Northwest, burial sacrifice <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Panama, burial sacrifice <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of South America devour the dead <a href = +"#page182">182</a>, <a href = "#page183">183</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Southern Utah, cremation <a href = +"#page149">149</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Talomeco River, box burial <a href = +"#page155">155</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Taos, inhumation <a href = +"#page101">101</a>, <a href = "#page102">102</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Virginia, burial <a href = +"#page125">125</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of Washington Territory, burial superstition +<a href = "#page201">201</a></p> + +<p>Inhumation <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Comanches <a href = "#page099">99</a>, +<a href = "#page100">100</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Coyotero Apaches <a href = +"#page111">111</a>, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Creeks and Seminoles <a href = +"#page095">95</a>, <a href = "#page096">96</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Taos <a href = +"#page101">101</a>, <a href = "#page102">102</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Mohawks <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Otoe and Missouri Indians. <a href = +"#page096">96</a>, <a href = "#page097">97</a>, <a href = +"#page098">98</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Pimas <a href = "#page098">98</a>, <a href += "#page099">99</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux <a href = +"#page107">107-110</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Wichitas <a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Yuki <a href = "#page099">99</a></p> + +<p>Innuit and Ingalik box burial <a href = +"#page156">156-158</a></p> + +<p>Interment of collected bones <a href = "#page170">170</a></p> + +<p>Iroquois scaffold burial <a href = "#page169">169</a>, <a href += "#page170">170</a></p> +<p class = "indent">surface burial <a href = +"#page140">140</a></p> + +<p>Itzas, Aquatic burial <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_J" id = "index_J">Japan</a> dolmens <a href = +"#page115">115</a></p> + +<p>Jenkes, Col. C. W., Partial cremation <a href = +"#page150">150</a></p> + +<p>Johnston, Adam, Cremation myth <a href = +"#page144">144</a></p> + +<p>Jones, Dr. Charles C., Stone graves of Tennessee <a href = +"#page114">114</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Natchez burial <a href = +"#page169">169</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[745]</span> +<a name = "page745" id = "page745"> </a> + +<p>Joseph, Judge Anthony, Inhumation of Taos Indians <a href = +"#page101">101</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_K" id = "index_K">Kaffir</a> burial <a href = +"#page126">126</a></p> + +<p>Kalosh box burial <a href = "#page156">156</a></p> + +<p>Kavague aquatic burial <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Kaw-a-wāh <a href = "#page142">142</a></p> + +<p>Keating, William H., Burial scaffolds <a href = +"#page162">162</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Burial superstitions <a href = +"#page199">199</a></p> + +<p>“Keeping the Ghost” <a href = "#page160">160</a></p> + +<p>Kent, M. B., Sac and Fox burial <a href = +"#page094">94</a></p> + +<p>Kentucky cist graves <a href = "#page114">114</a>, <a href = +"#page115">115</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mummies <a href = "#page133">133</a></p> + +<p>Kiowa and Comanche cairn burial <a href = "#page142">142</a>, +<a href = "#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Kitty-ka-tats <a href = "#page102">102</a></p> + +<p>Klamath and Trinity Indians, burial <a href = +"#page106">106</a>, <a href = "#page107">107</a></p> + +<p>Klingbeil, William, Partial cremation <a href = +"#page151">151</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_L" id = "index_L">Lafitau</a>, J. F. <a href = +"#page182">182</a></p> + +<p>“Last cry” <a href = "#page186">186</a></p> + +<p>Latookas burial <a href = "#page126">126</a></p> + +<p>Lawson, John, Partial embalmment <a href = +"#page132">132</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Pit burial <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> + +<p>List of illustrations, Burial customs <a href = +"#page087">87</a></p> + +<p>Living sepulchers <a href = "#page182">182</a></p> + +<p>Lodge burial <a href = "#page152">152</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Crow <a href = "#page153">153</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux <a href = "#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Bellingham Bay <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Costa Rica <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Sioux <a href = "#page152">152</a>, <a href += "#page153">153</a></p> + +<p>Log burial <a href = "#page138">138</a>, <a href = +"#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Danish <a href = "#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">in trees, Loucheux <a href = +"#page166">166</a></p> + +<p>Long Horse, burial of <a href = "#page153">153</a></p> + +<p>Lotophagians, Aquatic burial <a href = "#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Loucheux, log burial in trees <a href = "#page166">166</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_M" id = "index_M">McChesney</a>, Dr. Charles E. +<a href = "#page107">107-111</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, “Ghost gamble” <a href = +"#page195">195</a></p> + +<p>McDonald, Dr. A. J., Rock fissure burial <a href = +"#page127">127</a></p> + +<p>McKenney, Thomas L., <ins class = "correction" title = +"text reads ‘Scafford’">Scaffold</ins> burial +<a href = "#page161">161</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Chippewa widow <a href = "#page184">184</a></p> + +<p>Macrobrian Ethiopians, Preservation of the dead <a href = +"#page136">136</a>, <a href = "#page137">137</a></p> + +<p>Mahan, I. L., Chippewa mourning <a href = +"#page184">184</a></p> + +<p>Mandan “Golgothas” <a href = "#page170">170</a></p> + +<p>Matthews, Dr. Washington, U.S.A., Hidatsa superstition <a href += "#page199">199</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Tree burial <a href = +"#page161">161</a></p> + +<p>Menard, Dr. John, Navajo burial <a href = +"#page123">123</a></p> + +<p>Miami Valley mound burial <a href = "#page120">120</a></p> + +<p>Midawan, a ceremony of initiation <a href = +"#page122">122</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[746]</span> +<a name = "page746" id = "page746"> </a> + +<p>Miller, Dr. C. C., Assistance from <a href = +"#page197">197</a></p> + +<p>Mitchell, Dr. Samuel L., Kentucky mummies <a href = +"#page133">133</a>, <a href = "#page134">134</a></p> + +<p>Mohawks, Inhumation <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> + +<p>Moquis burial <a href = "#page114">114</a></p> + +<p>Moravian mourning <a href = "#page166">166</a></p> + +<p>Morgan, Lewis H., Burial dance <a href = +"#page192">192</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Partial scaffold burial <a href = +"#page169">169</a></p> + +<p>Morse, E. S., Dolmens in Japan <a href = +"#page115">115</a></p> + +<p>Mortuary customs of Parthians, Medes, etc. <a href = +"#page104">104</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Persians <a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page104">104</a></p> + +<p>Mosquito Indians, Burial superstition of <a href = +"#page201">201</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, canoe burial in ground <a href = +"#page112">112</a>, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Mound burial <a href = "#page115">115</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Choctaws <a href = "#page120">120</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Florida <a href = "#page119">119</a>, +<a href = "#page120">120</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Miami Valley <a href = +"#page120">120</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Ohio <a href = "#page117">117</a>, <a href += "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Mounds, Illinois <a href = "#page118">118</a>, <a href = +"#page119">119</a></p> +<p class = "indent">of stone <a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Mourning ceremonies, Sioux <a href = "#page109">109</a>, +<a href = "#page110">110</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Chippewa <a href = "#page184">184</a></p> +<p class = "indent">cradle, Chinook <a href = "#page181">181</a>, +<a href = "#page182">182</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, engraving of <a href = +"#page181">181</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Crows <a href = "#page183">183</a>, <a href = +"#page184">184</a></p> +<p class = "indent">customs of widows <a href = +"#page185">185</a>, <a href = "#page186">186</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of Northwest <a href = +"#page179">179</a></p> +<p class = "indent">Moravian <a href = "#page166">166</a></p> +<p class = "indent">observances, Twana and Clallams <a href = +"#page176">176</a></p> +<p class = "indent">sacrifice, feasts, food, etc <a href = +"#page183">183</a></p> + +<p>Mummies, Alaskan <a href = "#page134">134</a>, <a href = +"#page135">135</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Kentucky <a href = "#page133">133</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Northwest coast <a href = +"#page135">135</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Virginia <a href = "#page131">131</a>, +<a href = "#page132">132</a></p> + +<p>Mummification or embalmment <a href = "#page130">130</a></p> + +<p>Mummification, Theories regarding <a href = +"#page130">130</a></p> + +<p>Muret, Pierre, Living sepulchres <a href = +"#page182">182</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Persian mortuary customs <a href = +"#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Muscogulge burial <a href = "#page122">122</a>, <a href = +"#page123">123</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_N" id = "index_N">Natchez</a> burial sacrifice +<a href = "#page187">187-189</a></p> +<p class = "indent">scaffold burial <a href = +"#page169">169</a></p> + +<p>Navajo burial <a href = "#page123">123</a></p> + +<p>Norm <a href = "#page142">142</a></p> + +<p>New Mexico burial urn <a href = "#page138">138</a></p> + +<p>Nishinams, Cremation among the <a href = +"#page144">144</a></p> + +<p>Norris, P. W., lodge burial <a href = "#page153">153</a></p> + +<p>North Carolina Indians, Partial cremation <a href = +"#page150">150</a>, <a href = "#page151">151</a></p> + +<p>Northwest coast mummies <a href = "#page135">135</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Indians of, mourning <a href = +"#page179">179</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[747]</span> +<a name = "page747" id = "page747"> </a> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_O" id = "index_O">Obongo</a> aquatic burial +<a href = "#page180">180</a></p> +<p class = "indent">surface burial <a href = "#page139">139</a>, +<a href = "#page140">140</a></p> + +<p>Observers, Queries for, regarding burial <a href = +"#page202">202</a>, <a href = "#page203">203</a></p> + +<p>Ohio mound burial <a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Oh-sah-ke-uck <a href = "#page094">94</a></p> + +<p>Ojibwa and Cree surface burial <a href = +"#page141">141</a></p> + +<p>Ossuaries, European <a href = "#page191">191</a></p> + +<p>Otis, Dr. George A., U.S.A., Burial case <a href = +"#page162">162</a></p> + +<p>Oto and Missouri Indians, Inhumation <a href = +"#page096">96-98</a></p> + +<p>Ouray, Burial of <a href = "#page128">128</a></p> + +<p>Owsley, Dr. W. J., Cist graves <a href = +"#page114">114</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_P" id = "index_P">Partial</a> cremation <a href += "#page150">150</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, North Carolina Indians <a href = +"#page150">150</a>, <a href = "#page151">151</a></p> +<p class = "indent">scaffold burial and ossuaries <a href = +"#page168">168</a></p> + +<p>Parsee burial <a href = "#page105">105</a>, <a href = +"#page106">106</a></p> + +<p>Paskagoulas and Billoxis, House burial <a href = +"#page124">124</a>, <a href = "#page125">125</a></p> + +<p>Persians, Mortuary customs of the <a href = +"#page103">103</a>, <a href = "#page104">104</a></p> + +<p>Pimas, Inhumation among <a href = "#page098">98</a>, <a href = +"#page099">99</a></p> + +<p>Pinart, M. Alphonse, Pima burial <a href = +"#page098">98</a></p> + +<p>Pinkerton, John, Virginia mummies <a href = +"#page131">131</a></p> + +<p>Piros <a href = "#page101">101</a></p> + +<p>Pit burial <a href = "#page093">93</a></p> + +<p>Pitt River Indians, Burial and cremation <a href = +"#page151">151</a></p> + +<p>Pi-Ute cairn burial <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Posts, Burial <a href = "#page197">197</a></p> + +<p>Potherie, De la M., Surface burial <a href = +"#page140">140</a></p> + +<p>Powell, J. W., Stone graves or cists <a href = +"#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Powers, Stephen, Burial dance <a href = "#page192">192</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Burial song <a href = +"#page194">194</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Origin of cremation <a href = +"#page144">144</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Se-nél cremation <a href = +"#page147">147</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Yuki burial <a href = "#page099">99</a></p> + +<p>Preparation of dead, Similarity of, between Comanches and African +tribes <a href = "#page100">100</a></p> + +<p>Preservation of dead, Macrobrian Ethiopians <a href = +"#page136">136</a>, <a href = "#page137">137</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Werowance of Virginia <a href = +"#page131">131</a>, <a href = "#page132">132</a></p> + +<p>Priest, Josiah, Box burial <a href = "#page155">155</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[748]</span> +<a name = "page748" id = "page748"> </a> + +<p>Putnam, F. W., Stone graves or cists <a href = +"#page115">115</a>, <a href = "#page116">116</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_Q" id = "index_Q">Queries</a> for observers regarding +burial <a href = "#page202">202</a>, <a href = +"#page203">203</a></p> + +<p>Quiogozon or ossuary <a href = "#page094">94</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_R" id = "index_R">Reason</a> for cairn burial +<a href = "#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Remarks, Final <a href = "#page203">203</a></p> + +<p>Review of Turner’s narrative <a href = "#page165">165</a></p> + +<p>Robertson, R. S., Surface burial <a href = +"#page139">139</a></p> + +<p>Roman, Bernard, Choctaw hone houses <a href = +"#page168">168</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Funeral customs of Chickasaws <a href = +"#page123">123</a></p> + +<p>Round Valley Indians, burial among <a href = +"#page124">124</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_S" id = "index_S">Sacrifice</a> <a href = +"#page187">187</a></p> + +<p>Sacs and Foxes, burial among <a href = "#page094">94</a>, +<a href = "#page095">95</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, surface burial <a href = +"#page140">140</a>, <a href = "#page141">141</a></p> + +<p>Sauer, Martin, Aleutian mummies <a href = +"#page135">135</a></p> + +<p>Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies, surface burial among <a href += "#page151">151</a></p> + +<p>Scaffold burial, Australia <a href = "#page167">167</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Chippewas <a href = "#page161">161</a>, +<a href = "#page162">162</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Choctaw <a href = "#page169">169</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Gros-Ventres and Mandans <a href = +"#page161">161</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Iroquois <a href = "#page169">169</a>, +<a href = "#page170">170</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Natchez <a href = "#page169">169</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Sioux <a href = "#page163">163</a>, +<a href = "#page164">164</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Tent burial on <a href = +"#page174">174</a></p> + +<p>Scaffolds, Theory regarding <a href = "#page167">167</a>, +<a href = "#page168">168</a></p> + +<p>Schiller’s burial song <a href = "#page110">110</a></p> + +<p>Schoolcraft, Henry R., Burial posts <a href = +"#page197">197</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Cremation myth <a href = +"#page144">144</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Mohawk burial <a href = "#page093">93</a>, +<a href = "#page095">95</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Partial embalmment <a href = +"#page132">132</a></p> + +<p>Seechaugas <a href = "#page158">158</a></p> + +<p>Sellers, George Escoll, Cist burial <a href = +"#page114">114</a></p> + +<p>Se-nél, Cremation among the <a href = "#page147">147</a>, +<a href = "#page148">148</a></p> + +<p>Sepulture, Aerial <a href = "#page152">152</a></p> + +<p>Sheldon, William, Caraib burial customs <a href = +"#page146">146</a></p> + +<p>Shoshone burial lodges <a href = "#page153">153</a>, <a href = +"#page154">154</a></p> +<p class = "indent">cairn burial <a href = "#page143">143</a></p> + +<p>Sicaugu <a href = "#page158">158</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[749]</span> +<a name = "page749" id = "page749"> </a> + +<p>Simpson, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Aquatic burial <a href = +"#page181">181</a></p> + +<p>Sioux and Chippewa burial posts <a href = "#page197">197</a>, +<a href = "#page198">198</a></p> +<p class = "indent">lodge burial <a href = "#page152">152</a>, +<a href = "#page153">153</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mourning ceremonies <a href = +"#page109">109</a>, <a href = "#page110">110</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[750]</span> +<a name = "page750" id = "page750"> </a> + +<p>Sioux, scaffold burial of the <a href = "#page163">163</a>, +<a href = "#page164">164</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, tree burial of the <a href = +"#page161">161</a></p> + +<p>Solutré cists <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Songs, Burial <a href = "#page194">194</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, of Basques and others <a href = +"#page195">195</a></p> + +<p>Southern Indians, Urn burial among <a href = +"#page137">137</a></p> + +<p>Spainhour, Dr. J. Mason, Curious burial <a href = +"#page120">120</a></p> + +<p>Spencer, J. W., Partial surface burial <a href = +"#page140">140</a></p> + +<p>Standing posture, Burial in <a href = "#page151">151</a>, +<a href = "#page152">152</a></p> + +<p>Stansbury, Capt. H., U.S.A., Lodge burial <a href = +"#page152">152</a></p> + +<p>Steatite burial urn, California <a href = +"#page138">138</a></p> + +<p>Sternberg, Dr. George M., U.S.A., Grave mounds <a href = +"#page119">119</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Burial case discovered <a href = +"#page162">162</a></p> + +<p>Stone graves or cists <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> +<p class = "indent">mounds <a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Superstition, Hidatsa <a href = "#page199">199</a></p> +<p class = "indent">regarding burial feasts <a href = +"#page191">191</a></p> + +<p>Superstitions, Burial <a href = "#page199">199</a></p> + +<p>Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes <a href = +"#page171">171</a></p> + +<p>Surface burial <a href = "#page138">138</a>, <a href = +"#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Ojibways and Crees <a href = +"#page141">141</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Sacs and Foxes <a href = +"#page140">140</a>, <a href = "#page141">141</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies <a href = +"#page141">141</a></p> + +<p>Swan, James G., Canoe burial <a href = "#page171">171</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Klamath burial <a href = +"#page106">106</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Superstitions <a href = +"#page201">201</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_T" id = "index_T">Tāh-zee</a> <a href = +"#page142">142</a></p> + +<p>Tegg, William, Antiquity of cremation <a href = +"#page143">143</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Towers of silence <a href = +"#page104">104</a></p> + +<p>Tennessee cists <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Tent burial on scaffold <a href = "#page174">174</a></p> + +<p>Theories regarding mummification or embalmment <a href = +"#page130">130</a></p> +<p class = "indent">regarding use of scaffolds <a href = +"#page176">176</a>, <a href = "#page168">168</a></p> + +<p>Tiffany, A. S., Cremation furnace <a href = +"#page149">149</a></p> + +<p>Timberlake, H., Aquatic burial <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Tolkotin cremation <a href = "#page144">144</a>, <a href = +"#page146">146</a></p> + +<p>Tompkins, Gen. Chas. H., U.S.A., Partial cremation <a href = +"#page151">151</a></p> + +<p>Towers of silence, Description of <a href = +"#page104">104-106</a></p> + +<p>Tree and scaffold burial <a href = "#page158">158</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Brulé Sioux <a href = "#page158">158</a>, +<a href = "#page160">160</a></p> +<p class = "indent">burial, ancient nations <a href = +"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Blackfeet <a href = "#page101">101</a></p> +<p class = "indent2">, Sioux <a href = "#page101">101</a></p> + +<p>Tsinūk burial sacrifice <a href = "#page179">179</a></p> + +<p>Turner, Dr. L. S., Scaffold burial <a href = +"#page163">163</a></p> + +<p>Turner’s narrative, Review of <a href = "#page165">165</a></p> + +<p>Twana and Clallam mourning observances <a href = +"#page176">176</a></p> +<p class = "indent">canoe burial <a href = +"#page171">171-173</a></p> + +<p>Twanas and Clallams, funeral ceremonies <a href = +"#page176">176</a></p> +<span class = "pagenum">[751]</span> +<a name = "page751" id = "page751"> </a> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_U" id = "index_U">Urn</a> burial by Southern Indians + <a href = "#page137">137</a></p> + +<p>Ute cairn burial <a href = "#page142">142</a></p> +<p class = "indent">cave burial <a href = "#page127">127</a>, +<a href = "#page128">128</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_V" id = "index_V">Van</a> Camper, Moses. Mode of burial +of Indians inhabiting Pennsylvania <a href = +"#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Van Vliet, Gen. Stewart, U.S.A., Tree and scaffold burial +<a href = "#page153">153</a></p> + +<p>Verification of death, Caraibs <a href = +"#page146">146</a></p> + +<p>Virginia mummies <a href = "#page131">131</a>, <a href = +"#page132">132</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_W" id = "index_W">Wah-peton</a> and Sisseton Sioux, +Inhumation among <a href = "#page107">107-110</a></p> + +<p>Wascopums, Burial sacrifice of <a href = "#page189">189</a>, +<a href = "#page190">190</a></p> + +<p>Wee-ka-nahs <a href = "#page101">101</a></p> + +<p>Welch, H., Surface burial <a href = "#page141">141</a></p> + +<p>Werowance of Virginia, preservation of the dead <a href = +"#page131">131</a>, <a href = "#page132">132</a></p> + +<p>Whitney, J. D., burial cave, Description of a <a href = +"#page128">128</a></p> + +<p>Whymper, Frederic, Burial boxes <a href = +"#page156">156</a></p> + +<p>Wichitas, Inhumation among the <a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Widow, Chippewa <a href = "#page184">184</a>, <a href = +"#page185">185</a></p> + +<p>Widows, Mourning customs of <a href = "#page185">185</a>, +<a href = "#page186">186</a></p> + +<p>Wilcox, E., Partial cremation <a href = "#page150">150</a></p> + +<p>Wilkins, Charles, Kentucky mummies <a href = +"#page133">133</a></p> + +<p>Williams, Monier, Parsee burial <a href = +"#page104">104</a></p> + +<p>Wood, Rev. J. G., African surface burial <a href = +"#page139">139</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Bari burial <a href = +"#page125">125</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Fans of Africa devour the dead <a href = +"#page182">182</a></p> +<p class = "indent">, Obongo aquatic burial <a href = +"#page180">180</a></p> + +<p>Wright, Dr. S. G., Superstitions regarding burial feasts +<a href = "#page191">191</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_Y" id = "index_Y">Yo-kaí-a</a> burial dance +<a href = "#page192">192-194</a></p> + +<p>Young, John, Tree burial <a href = "#page161">161</a></p> + +<p>Yuki inhumation <a href = "#page099">99</a></p> + +<p>Yurok burial fires <a href = "#page198">198</a></p> + +</div> + + +<div class = "mynote"> +<h4><a name = "endnote" id = "endnote">Note on Illustrations</a> +</h4> + +<p>BAE Annual Report 1 did not distinguish between Plates (full page, +unpaginated) and Figures (inline). In the present article, most +illustrations were full-page plates.</p> + +<p>For this e-text, Plates were rescaled to 25% by pixel count, while +most Figures were rescaled to 33%. The original is strongly sepia-toned, +so the distinction between color and grayscale illustrations reflects +the transcriber’s judgement rather than a clear difference in the +original.</p> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11398 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/11398-h/images/fig1.png b/11398-h/images/fig1.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9129b82 --- /dev/null +++ b/11398-h/images/fig1.png diff --git a/11398-h/images/fig10.jpg b/11398-h/images/fig10.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae444fd --- /dev/null +++ b/11398-h/images/fig10.jpg diff --git a/11398-h/images/fig11.png b/11398-h/images/fig11.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2e75ee --- /dev/null +++ b/11398-h/images/fig11.png diff --git a/11398-h/images/fig12.jpg b/11398-h/images/fig12.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4235bae --- /dev/null +++ b/11398-h/images/fig12.jpg diff --git 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