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diff --git a/old/11385.txt b/old/11385.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7595c21 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11385.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4671 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 446, +July 19, 1884, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 446, July 19, 1884 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 1, 2004 [EBook #11385] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPP. 446 *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Niehof, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 446 + + + + +NEW YORK, JULY 19, 1884 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 446. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + +I. CHEMISTRY.--Tin in Canned Foods.--By Prof. ATTFIELU.--Small + amount of tin found.--Whence come these small particles.--No + cause for alarm. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Windmill.--By JAMES + W. HILL.--The Eclipse wind.--Other wind mills.--Their operation, + use, etc. + + The Pneumatic Dynamite Gun.--With engraving of pneumatic + dynamite gun torpedo vessel. + + Rope Pulley Friction Brake.--3 figures. + + Wire Rope Towage.--Treating of the system of towage by hauling + in a submerged wire rope as used on the River Rhine, boats + employed, etc.--With engraving of wire rope tug boat. + + Improved Hay Rope Machine.--With engraving. + + The Anglesea Bridge, Cork.--With engraving. + + Portable Railways.--By M DECAUVILLE.--Narrow gauge roads + in Great Britain.--M. Decauvilie's system.--Railways used at the + Panama Canal, in Tunis, etc. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--Improved Pneumatic Filtering Presses, and the + Processes in which they are employed.--2 engravings. + + Pneumatic Malting. + + A New Form of Gas Washer.--Manner in which it is used.--By + A. BANDSEPT.--2 figures. + +IV. ELECTRICITY, HEAT, ETC.--Gerard's Alternating Current + Machine.--2 engravings. + + Automatic Fast Speed Telegraphy.--By THEO. F. TAYLOR.--Speed + determined by resistance and static capacity.--Experiments + Taylor's system.--With diagram. + + Theory of the Action of the Carbon Microphone.--What is it? + --2 figures. + + The Dembinski Telephone Transmitter.--3 figures. + + New Gas Lighters.--Electric lighters.--3 engravings. + + Distribution of Heat which is developed by Forging. + +V. ARCHITECTURE, ART. ETC.--Villa at Dorking.--An engraving. + + Arm Chair in the Louvre Collection. + +VI. GEOLOGY.--The Deposition of Ores.--By J.S. NEWBERRY.--Mineral + Veins.--Bedded veins.--Theories of ore deposit.--Leaching + of igneous rocks. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY, ETC.--Habits of Burrowing Crayfishes + in the U.S.--Form and size of the burrows and mounds.--Obtaining + food.--Other species of crayfish.--3 figures. + + Our Servants, the Microbes.--What is a microbe?--Multiplication. + --Formation of spores.--How they live.--Different groups + of bacteria.--Their services. + +VIII. HORTICULTURE.--A New Stove Climber.--_(Ipomaea thomsoniana)_ + + Sprouting of Palm Seeds. + + History of Wheat. + +IX. MISCELLANEOUS.--Technical Education in America.--Branches + of study most prominent in schools of different States. + + The Anaesthetics of Jugglers.--Fakirs of the Indies.--Processes + employed by them.--Anaesthetic plants. + + Epitaphium Chymicum.--An epitaph written by Dr. GODFREY. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED FILTER PRESSES. + + +Hitherto it has been found that of all the appliances and methods for +separating the liquid from the solid matters, whether it is in the case +of effluents from tanneries and other manufactories, or the ocherous and +muddy sludges taken from the settling tanks in mines, some of which +contain from 90 to 95 per cent. of water, the filter press is the best +and the most economical, and it is to this particular process that +Messrs. Johnson's exhibits at the Health Exhibition, London, chiefly +relate. Our engravings are from _The Engineer_. A filter press consists +of a number of narrow cells of cast iron, shown in Figs. 3 and 4, held +together in a suitable frame, the interior frames being provided with +drainage surfaces communicating with outlets at the bottom, and covered +with a filtering medium, which is generally cloth or paper. The interior +of the cells so built up are in direct communication with each other, or +with a common channel for the introduction of the matter to be filtered, +and as the only exit is through the cloth or paper, the solid portion is +kept back while the liquid passes through and escapes by the drainage +surfaces to the outlets. The cells are subjected to pressure, which +increases as the operation goes on, from the growing resistance offered +by the increasing deposit of solid matter on the cloths; and it is +therefore necessary that they should be provided with a jointing strip +around the outside, and be pressed together sufficiently to prevent any +escape of liquid. In ordinary working both sides of the cell are exposed +to the same pressure, but in some cases the feed passages become choked, +and destroy the equilibrium. This, in the earlier machines, gave rise to +considerable annoyance, as the diaphragms, being thin, readily collapsed +at even moderate pressures; but recently all trouble on this head has +been obviated by introducing the three projections near the center, as +shown in the cuts, which bear upon each other and form a series of stays +from one end of the cells to the other, supporting the plates until the +obstruction is forced away. We give an illustration below showing the +arrangement of a pair of filter presses with pneumatic pressure +apparatus, which has been successfully applied for dealing with sludge +containing a large amount of fibrous matter and rubbish, which could not +be conveniently treated with by pumps in the ordinary way. The sludge is +allowed to gravitate into wrought iron receivers placed below the floor, +and of sufficient size to receive one charge. From these vessels it is +forced into the presses by means of air compressed to from 100 lb. to +120 lb. per square inch, the air being supplied by the horizontal pump +shown in the engraving. The press is thus almost instantaneously filled, +and the whole operation is completed in about an hour, the result being +a hard pressed cake containing about 45 per cent. of water, which can be +easily handled and disposed of as required. The same arrangement is in +use for dealing with sewage sludge, and the advantages of the compressed +air system over the ordinary pumps, as well as the ready and cleanly +method of separating the liquid, will probably commend itself to many of +our readers. We understand that from careful experiments on a large +scale, extending over a period of two years, the cost of filtration, +including all expenses, has been found to be not more than about 6d. per +ton of wet sludge. A number of specimens of waste liquors from factories +with the residual matters pressed into cakes, and also of the purified +effluents, are exhibited. These will prove of interest to many, all the +more so since in some instances the waste products are converted into +materials of value, which, it is stated, will more than repay for the +outlay incurred. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3. Fig 4.] + +Another application of the filter press is in the Porter-Clark process +of softening water, which is shown in operation. We may briefly state +that the chief object is to precipitate the bicarbonates of lime and +magnesia held in solution by the water, and so get rid of what is known +as the temporary hardness. To accomplish this, strong lime water is +introduced in a clear state to the water to be softened, the quantity +being regulated according to the amount of bicarbonates in solution. The +immediate effect of this is that a proportion of the carbonic acid of +the latter combines with the invisible lime of the clear lime water, +forming a chalky precipitate, while the loss of this proportion of +carbonic acid also reduces the invisible bicarbonates into visible +carbonates. The precipitates thus formed are in the state of an +impalpable powder, and in the original Clark process many hours were +required for their subsidence in large settling tanks, which had to be +in duplicate in order to permit of continuous working. By Mr. Porter's +process, however, this is obviated by the use of filter presses, through +which the chalky water is passed, the precipitate being left behind, +while, by means of a special arrangement of cells, the softened and +purified water is discharged under pressure to the service tanks. Large +quantities can thus be dealt with, within small space, and in many cases +no pumping is required, as the resistance of the filtering medium being +small, the ordinary pressure in the main is but little reduced. One of +the apparatus exhibited is designed for use in private mansions, and +will soften and filter 750 gallons a day. In such a case, where it would +probably be inconvenient to apply the usual agitating machinery, special +arrangements have been made by which all the milk of lime for a day's +working is made at one time in a special vessel agitated by hand, on the +evening previous to the day on which it is to be used. Time is thus +given for the particles of lime to settle during the night. The clear +lime water is introduced into the mixing vessel by means of a charge of +air compressed in the top of a receiver, by the action of water from the +main, the air being admitted to the milk of lime vessel through a +suitable regulating valve. A very small filter suffices for removing the +precipitate, and the clear, softened water can either be used at once, +or stored in the usual way. The advantages which would accrue to the +community at large from the general adoption of some cheap method of +reducing the hardness of water are too well known to need much comment +from us. + + * * * * * + + + + +PNEUMATIC MALTING. + + +According to K. Lintner, the worst features of the present system of +malting are the inequalities of water and temperature in the heaps and +the irregular supplies of oxygen to, and removal of carbonic acid from, +the germinating grain. The importance of the last two points is +demonstrated by the facts that, when oxygen is cut off, alcoholic +fermentation--giving rise to the well-known odor of apples--sets in in +the cells, and that in an atmosphere with 20 per cent. of carbonic acid, +germination ceases. The open pneumatic system, which consists in drawing +warm air through the heaps spread on a perforated floor, should yield +better results. All the processes are thoroughly controlled by the eye +and by the thermometer, great cleanliness is possible, and the space +requisite is only one-third of that required on the old plan. Since May, +1882, this method has been successfully worked at Puntigam, where plant +has been established sufficient for an annual output of 7,000 qrs. of +malt. The closed pneumatic system labors under the disadvantages that +from the form of the apparatus germination cannot be thoroughly +controlled, and cleanliness is very difficult to maintain, while the +supply of oxygen is, as a rule, more irregular than with the open +floors. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED PNEUMATIC FILTERING PRESSES.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FORM OF GAS WASHER. + +By A. BANDSEPT, of Brussels. + + +The washer is an appliance intended to condense and clean gas, which, on +leaving the hydraulic main, holds in suspension a great many properties +that are injurious to its illuminating power, and cannot, if retained, +be turned to profitable account. This cleaning process is not difficult +to carry out effectually; and most of the appliances invented for the +purpose would be highly efficacious if they did not in other respects +present certain very serious inconveniences. The passage of the gas +through a column of cold water is, of course, sufficient to condense it, +and clear it of these injurious properties; but this operation has for +its immediate effect the presentation of an obstacle to the flow of the +gas, and consequently augmentation of pressure in the retorts. In order +to obviate this inconvenience (which exists notwithstanding the use of +the best washers), exhausters are employed to draw the gas from the +retorts and force it into the washers. There is, however, another +inconvenience which can only be remedied by the use of a second +exhauster, viz., the loss of pressure after the passage of the gas +through the washer--a loss resulting from the obstacle presented by this +appliance to the steady flow of the gas. Now as, in the course of its +passage through the remaining apparatus, on its way to the holder, the +gas will have to suffer a considerable loss of pressure, it is of the +greatest importance that the washer should deprive it of as little as +possible. It will be obvious, therefore, that a washer which fulfills +the best conditions as far as regards the cleaning of the gas will be +absolutely perfect if it does not present any impediment to its flow. +Such an appliance is that which is shown in the illustration on next +page. Its object is, while allowing for the washing being as vigorous +and as long-continued as may be desired, to draw the gas out of the +retorts, and, having cleansed it perfectly from its deleterious +properties, to force it onward. The apparatus consequently supplies the +place of the exhauster and the scrubber. + +The new washer consists of a rectangular box of cast iron, having a +half-cylindrical cover, in the upper part of which is fixed a pipe to +carry off the gas. In the box there is placed horizontally a turbine, +the hollow axis of which serves for the conveyance of the gas into the +vessel. For this purpose the axis is perforated with a number of small +holes, some of which are tapped, so as to allow of there being screwed +on to the axis, and perpendicularly thereto, a series of brooms made of +dog grass, and having their handles threaded for the purpose. These +brooms are arranged in such a way as not to encounter too great +resistance from contact with the water contained in the vessel, and so +that the water cast up by them shall not be all thrown in the same +direction. To obviate these inconveniences they are fixed obliquely to +the axis of the central pipe, and are differently arranged in regard to +each other. A more symmetrical disposition of them could, however, be +adopted by placing them zigzag, or in such a way as to form two helices, +one of which would move in a particular direction, and the other in a +different way. The central pipe, furnished with its brooms, being set in +motion by means of a pulley fixed upon its axis (which also carries a +flywheel), the gas, drawn in at the center, and escaping by the holes +made in the pipe, is forced to the circumference of the vessel, where it +passes out. + +The effect of this washer is first, to break up the current of gas, and +then force it violently into the water; at the same time sending into it +the spray of water thrown up by the brooms. This double operation is +constantly going on, so that the gas, having been saturated by the +transfusion into it of a vigorous shower of water (into the bulk of +which it is subsequently immersed), is forced, on leaving the water, to +again undergo similar treatment. The same quantity of gas is therefore +several times submitted to the washing process, till at length it finds +its way to the outlet, and makes its escape. The extent to which the +washing of the gas is carried is, consequently, only limited by the +speed of the apparatus, or rather by the ratio of the speed to the +initial pressure of the gas. This limit being determined, the operation +may be continued indefinitely, by making the gas pass into several +washers in succession. There is, therefore, no reason why the gas should +not, after undergoing this treatment, be absolutely freed of all those +properties which are susceptible of removal by water. In fact, all that +is requisite is to increase the dimensions of the vessel, so as to +compel the gas to remain longer therein, and thus cause it to undergo +more frequently the operation of washing. These dimensions being fixed +within reasonable limits, if the gas is not sufficiently washed, the +speed of the apparatus may be increased; and the degree of washing will +be thereby augmented. If this does not suffice, the number of turbines +may be increased, and the gas passed from one to the other until the gas +is perfectly clean. This series of operations would, however, with any +kind of washer, result in thoroughly cleansing the gas. The only thing +that makes such a process practically impossible is the very +considerable or it may be even total loss of pressure which it entails. +By the new system, the loss of pressure is _nil_, inasmuch as each +turbine becomes in reality an exhauster. The gas, entering the washer at +the axis, is drawn to the circumference by the rotatory motion of the +brooms, which thus form a ventilator. It follows, therefore, that on +leaving the vessel the gas will have a greater pressure than it had on +entering it; and this increase of pressure may be augmented to any +desired extent by altering the speed of rotation of the axis, precisely +as in the case of an exhauster. + +Forcing the gas violently into water, and at the same time dividing the +current, is evidently the most simple, rational, and efficient method of +washing, especially when this operation is effected by brooms fixed on a +shaft and rotated with great speed. Therefore, if there had not been +this loss of pressure to deal with--a fatal consequence of every violent +operation--the question of perfect washing would probably have been +solved long ago. The invention which I have now submitted consists of an +arrangement which enables all loss of pressure to be avoided, inasmuch +as it furnishes the apparatus with the greatest number of valuable +qualities, whether regarded from the point of view of washing or that of +condensation. + +[Illustration: Longitudinal Section. Elevation. Transverse Section.] + +Referring to the illustration, the gas enters the washer by the pipe, A, +which terminates in the form of a [Symbol: inverted T]. One end (a) of +this pipe is bolted to the center of one of the sides of the cylindrical +portion of the case, in which there is a hole of similar diameter to the +pipe; the other (a') being formed by the face-plate of a stuffing-box, +B, through which passes the central shaft, C, supported by the +plummer-block, D, as shown. This shaft has upon its opposite end a plate +perforated with holes, E, which is fixed upon the flange of a horizontal +pipe, F. This pipe is closed at the other end by means of a plate, E', +furnished with a spindle, supported by a stuffing-box, B', and carrying +a fly-wheel, G. The central pipe, F, is perforated with a number of +small holes. The gas entering by the pipe, A, makes its way into the +central pipe through the openings in the plate, E, and passes into the +cylindrical case through the small holes in the central pipe, which +carries the brooms, H. These are caused to rotate rapidly by means of +the pulley, I; and thus a constant shower of water is projected into the +cylindrical case. When the gas has been several times subjected to the +washing process, it passes off by the pipe, K. Fresh cold water is +supplied to the vessel by the pipe, L; and M is the outlet for the +tar.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WIND MILL. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Engineers' Club of St. Louis, 1884.] + +By JAMES W. HILL. + + +In the history of the world the utilization of the wind as a motive +power antedates the use of both water and steam for the same purpose. + +The advent of steam caused a cessation in the progress of wind power, +and it was comparatively neglected for many years. But more recently +attention has been again drawn to it, with the result of developing +improvements, so that it is now utilized in many ways. + +The need in the West of a motive power where water power is rare and +fuel expensive has done much to develop and perfect wind mills. + +Wind mills, as at present constructed in this country, are of recent +date. + +The mill known as the "Eclipse" was the first mill of its class built. +It is known as the "solid-wheel, self-regulating pattern," and was +invented about seventeen years ago. The wind wheel is of the rosette +type, built without any joints, which gives it the name "solid wheel," +in contradistinction to wheels made with loose sections or fans hinged +to the arms or spokes, and known as "section wheel mills." + +The regulation of the Eclipse mill is accomplished by the use of a small +adjustable side vane, flexible or hinged rudder vane, and weighted +lever, as shown in Plate 1 (on the larger sizes of mills iron balls +attached to a chain are used in place of the weighted lever). The side +vane and weight on lever being adjustable, can be set to run the mill at +any desired speed. + +Now you will observe from the model that the action of the governing +mechanism is automatic. As the velocity of the wind increases, the +pressure on the side vane tends to carry the wind wheel around edgewise +to the wind and parallel to the rudder vane, thereby changing the angle +and reducing the area exposed to the wind; at the same time the lever, +with adjustable weight attached, swings from a vertical toward a +horizontal position, the resistance increasing as it moves toward the +latter position. This acts as a counterbalance of varying resistance +against the pressure of the wind on the side vane, and holds the mill at +an angle to the plane of the wind, insuring thereby the number of +revolutions per minute required, according to the position to which the +governing mechanism has been set or adjusted. + +If the velocity of the wind is such that the pressure on the side vane +overcomes the resistance of the counter weight, then the side vane is +carried around parallel with the rudder vane, presenting only the edge +of the wind wheel or ends of the fans to the wind, when the mill stops +running. + +This type of mill presents more effective wind receiving or working +surface when in the wind, and less surface exposed to storms when out of +the wind, than any other type of mill. It is at all times under the +control of an operator on the ground. + +A 22-foot Eclipse mill presents 352 square feet of wind receiving and +working surface in the wind, and only 91/2 square feet of wind resisting +surface when out of the wind. + +Solid-wheel mills are superseding all others in this country, and are +being exported largely to all parts of the world, in sizes from 10 to 30 +feet in diameter. Many of these mills have withstood storms without +injury, where substantial buildings in the immediate vicinity have been +badly damaged. I will refer to some results accomplished with pumping +mills: + +In the spring of 1881 there was erected for Arkansas City, Kansas, a +14-foot diameter pumping wind mill; a 32,000-gallon water tank, resting +on a stone substructure 15 feet high, the ground on which it stands +being 4 feet higher than the main street of the town. One thousand four +hundred feet of 4-inch wood pipe was used for mains, with 1,200 feet of +11/2-inch wrought iron pipe. Three 3-inch fire hydrants were placed on the +main street. The wind mill was located 1,100 feet from the tank, and +forced the water this distance, elevating it 50 feet. We estimate that +this mill is pumping from 18,000 to 20,000 gallons of water every +twenty-four hours. We learned that these works have saved two buildings +from burning, and that the water is being used for sprinkling the +streets, and being furnished to consumers at the following rates per +annum: Private houses, $5; stores, $5; hotels, $10; livery stables, $15. +At these very low rates, the city has an income of $300 per annum. The +approximate cost of the works was $2,000. This gives 15 per cent. +interest on the investment, not deducting anything for repairs or +maintenance, which has not cost $5 per annum so far. + +[Illustration: Plate 2. THE ECLIPSE WIND MILL.] + +In June, 1883, a wind water works system was erected for the city of +McPherson, Kansas, consisting of a 22-foot diameter wind mill on a +75-foot tower, which pumps the water out of a well 80 feet deep, and +delivers it into a 60,000-gallon tank resting on a substructure 43 feet +above the ground. Sixteen hundred feet of 6-inch and 300 feet of 4-inch +cast iron pipe furnish the means of distribution; eight 21/2-inch double +discharge fire hydrants were located on the principal streets. A gate +valve was placed in the 6-inch main close to the elbow on lower end of +the down pipe from the tank. This pipe is attached to the bottom of the +tank; another pipe was run up through the bottom of tank 9 feet (the +tank being 18 feet deep), and carried down to a connection with the main +pipe just outside the gate valve. The operation of this arrangement is +as follows: + +The gate valve being closed, the water cannot be drawn below the 9-foot +level in tank, which leaves about 35,000 gallons in store for fire +protection, and is at once available by opening the gate valve referred +to. The tank rests on ground about 5 feet above the main streets, which +gives a head of 57 feet when the tank is half full. The distance from +tank to the farthest hydrant being so short, they get the pressure due +to this head at the hydrant, when playing 2-inch, or 1-1/8-inch streams, +with short lines of 21/2-inch hose; this gives fair fire streams for a +town with few if any buildings over two stories high. It is estimated +that this mill is pumping from 30,000 to 38,000 gallons on an average +every twenty-four hours. There is an automatic device attached to this +mill, which stops it when the tank is full, but as soon as the water in +the tank is lowered, it goes to pumping again. The cost of these works +complete to the city was a trifle over $6,000. + +In November last a wind mill 18 feet in diameter was erected over a coal +mine at Richmond, in this State. The conditions were as follows: + +The mine produces 11,000 gallons of water every twenty-four hours. The +sump holds 11,000 gallons. Two entries that can be dammed up give a +storage of 16,500 gallons, making a total storage capacity of 27,500 +gallons. It takes sixty hours for the mine to produce this quantity of +water, which allows for days that the wind does not blow. The average +elevation that the water has to be raised is 65 feet, measuring from +center of sump to point of delivery. A record of ninety days shows that +this mill has kept the mine free from water with the exception of 6,000 +gallons, which was raised in the boxes that the coal is raised in. The +location is not good for a wind mill, as it stands in a narrow ravine or +valley a short distance from its mouth, which terminates at the bottom +lands of the Missouri River. This, taken in connection with the fact +that the grit in the water cuts the pump plunger packing so fast that in +a short time the pump will not work up to its capacity, accounts for the +apparent small amount of power developed by this mill. + +There has been some discussion of late in regard to the horse power of +wind mills, one party claiming that they were capable of doing large +amounts of grinding and showing a development of power that was +surprising to the average person unacquainted with wind mills, while the +other party has maintained that they were not capable of developing any +great amount of power, and has cited their performance in pumping water +to sustain his argument. My experience has has led me to the conclusion +that pumping water with a wind mill is not a fair test of the power that +it is capable of developing, for the following reasons: + +A pumping wind mill is ordinarily attached to a pump of suitable size to +allow the mill to run at a mean speed in an 8 to 10 mile wind. Now, if +the wind increases to a velocity of 16 to 20 miles per hour, the mill +will run up to its maximum speed and the governor will begin to act, +shortening sail before the wind attains this velocity. Therefore, by a +very liberal estimate, the pump will not throw more than double the +quantity that it did in the 8 to 10 mile wind, while the power of the +mill has quadrupled, and is capable of running at least two pumps as +large as the one to which it is attached. As the velocity of the wind +increases, this same proportion of difference in power developed to work +done holds good. + +St. Louis is not considered a very windy place, therefore the following +table may be a surprise to some. This table was compiled from the +complete record of the year 1881, as recorded by the anemometer of the +United States Signal Office on the Mutual Life Insurance Building, +corner of Sixth and Locust streets, this city. It gives the number of +hours each month that the wind blew at each velocity, from 6 to 20 miles +per hour during the year; also the maximum velocity attained each month. + +_Complete Wind Record at St. Louis for the Year 1881._ + +_______________________________________________________________________________ + |No. |No. |No. |No. |No. |No. |No. |No. | + |hours |hours |hours |hours |hours |hours |hours |hours |Maximum + |wind |wind |wind |wind |wind |wind |wind |wind |velocity +YEAR |blew 6 |blew 8 |blew 10|blew 12|blew 14|blew 16|blew 18|blew 20|during +1881. |miles |miles |miles |miles |miles |miles |miles |miles |each +MONTHS|or over|or over|or over|or over|or over|or over|or over|or over|month. +______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|____ + |H. M.|H. M.|H. M.|H. M.|H. M.|H. M.| H. M.| H. M.| +Jan. | 545 45| 429 45| 289 00| 198 15| 131 30| 87 15| 56 00| 38 45| 31 +Feb. | 619 30| 533 15| 449 15| 374 15| 287 00| 207 15| 151 15| 110 30| 32 +March.| 604 15| 534 30| 449 45| 368 45| 296 30| 243 45| 191 00| 158 45| 37 +April.| 577 15| 468 45| 342 45| 359 30| 175 00| 121 00| 62 45| 36 00| 28 +May. | 553 00| 375 00| 226 15| 138 00| 74 45| 42 30| 23 45| 11 30| 31 +June. | 614 15| 463 45| 303 30| 215 15| 123 45| 76 30| 29 45| 17 45| 32 +July. | 556 45| 378 00| 228 15| 136 15| 55 30| 22 30| 6 00| 2 30| 22 +Aug. | 536 30| 345 00| 176 00| 80 30| 35 45| 22 15| 17 15| 15 00| 34 +Sept. | 564 15| 445 45| 326 45| 224 45| 145 30| 96 45| 70 00| 46 45| 30 +Oct. | 617 30| 501 45| 368 45| 363 00| 170 00| 93 45| 40 30| 27 45| 27 +Nov. | 642 45| 537 30| 428 45| 328 30| 226 00| 151 45| 100 30| 74 00| 30 +Dec. | 592 15| 516 30| 390 00| 308 45| 224 45| 167 45| 110 45| 67 00| 30 +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----- +Totals|7,024 |5,529 |3,981 |2,995 |1,946 |1,335 | 868 | 606 | -- + | 00| 30| 00| 45| 00| 00| 30| 15| +Max. | | | | | | | | | +for | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | 37 +year | | | | | | | | | +______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|_______|____ + +The location of a mill has a great deal to do with the results attained. +Having had charge of the erection of a large number of these mills for +power purposes, I will refer to a few of them in different States, +giving the actual results accomplished, and leaving you to form your own +opinion as to the power developed. + +In 1877 a 25-foot diameter mill was erected at Dover, Kansas, a few +miles southwest of Topeka. It was built to do custom flour and feed +grinding, also corn shelling, and is in successful operation at the +present time. We have letters frequently from the owner; one of recent +date states that it has stood all of the "Kansas zephyrs," never having +been damaged as yet. On an average it shells and grinds from 6 to 10 +bushels of corn per hour, and runs a 14 inch burr stone, grinding wheat +at the same time. During strong winds it has shelled and ground as high +as 30 bushels of corn per hour. Plate 2 is from a photograph of this +mill and building as it stands. One bevel pinion is all the repairs this +mill has required. + +In the spring of 1880 there was erected a 25-foot diameter mill at +Harvard, Clay County, Neb. After this mill had been running nineteen +months, we received the following report from the owner: + +"During the nineteen months we have been running the wind mill, it has +cost us nothing for repairs. We run it with a two-hole corn sheller, a +set of 16-inch burr stones, and an elevator. We grind all kinds of feed, +also corn meal and Graham flour. We have ground 8,340 bushels, and would +have ground much more if corn had not been a very poor crop here for the +past two seasons; besides, we have our farm to attend to, and cannot +keep it running all the time that we have wind. We have not run a full +day at any time, but have ground 125 bushels in a day. When the burr is +in good shape we can grind 20 bushels an hour, and shell at the same +time in the average winds that we have. The mill has withstood storms +without number, even one that blew down a house near it, and another +that blew down many smaller mills. It is one of the best investments any +one can make." + +The writer saw this mill about sixty days ago, and it is in good shape, +and doing the work as stated. The only repairs that it has required +during four years was one bevel pinion put on this spring. + +The owner of a 16-foot diameter mill, erected at Blue Springs. Neb., +says that "with a fair wind it grinds easily 15 bushels of corn per hour +with a No. 3 grinder, also runs a corn-sheller and pump at the same +time, and that it works smoothly and is entirely self-regulating." + +The No. 3 grinder referred to has chilled iron burrs, and requires from +3 to 4 horse-power to grind 15 bushels of corn per hour. Of one of these +16-foot mills that has been running since 1875 in Northern Illinois, the +owner writes: "In windy days I saw cord-wood as fast as the wood can be +handled, doing more work than I used to accomplish with five horses." + +The owner of one of these mills, 20 feet in diameter, running in the +southwestern part of this State, writes that he has a corn-sheller and +two iron grinding mills with 8-inch burrs attached to it; also a bolting +device; that this mill is more profitable to him than 80 acres of good +corn land, and that it is easily handled and has never been out of +order. The following report on one of these 16-foot mills, running in +northern Illinois, may be of interest: This mill stands between the +house and barn. A connection is made to a pump in a well-house 25 feet +distant, and is also arranged to operate a churn and washing machine. By +means of sheaves and wire cable, power is transmitted to a circular saw +35 feet distant. In this same manner power is transmitted to the barn +200 feet distant, where connection is made to a thrasher, corn-sheller, +feed-cutter, and fanning-mill. The corn-sheller is a three horse-power, +with fan and sacker attached. Three hundred bushels per day has been +shelled, cleaned, and sacked. The thrashing machine is a two horsepower +with vibrating attachment for separating straw from grain. One man has +thrashed 300 bushels of oats per day, and on windy days says the mill +would run a thrasher of double this capacity. The saw used is 18 inches +diameter, and on windy days saws as much wood as can be done by six +horses working on a sweep power. The owner furnishes the following +approximate cost of mill with the machinery attached and now in use on +his place: + + 1 16-foot power wind mill, shafting, and tower. $385 + 1 Two horse thrasher. 70 + 1 Three horse sheller. 38 + 1 Feed grinder. 50 + 1 18-inch saw, frame and arbor. 40 + 1 Fanning mill. 25 + 1 Force pump. 27 + 1 Churn. 5 + 1 Washing machine. 15 + Belting, cables, and pulleys. 45 + ---- + Total. $700 + +The following facts and figures furnished by the owner will give a fair +idea of the economic value of this system, as compared with the usual +methods of doing the same work. On the farm where it is used, there are +raised annually an average of sixty acres of oats, fifty acres of corn, +twenty acres of rye, ten acres of buckwheat. + + Bushels. + The oats average, say 30 bushels per acre. 1,800 + Corn " 30 " " 1,500 + Rye " 20 " " 400 + Buckwheat " 20 " " 200 + Grinding for self and others. 1,000 + + It will cost to thrash this grain, shell the corn, and + grind the feed with steam power. $285 + And sawing wood, 121/2 cords. 18 + Pumping, one hour per day, 365 days. 36 + Churning, half hour per day, 200 days. 10 + Washing, half day per week, 26 days. 26 + ---- + Total. $375 + +This amount is saved, and more too, as one man, by the aid of the wind +mill, will do this work in connection with the chores of the farm, and +save enough in utilizing foul weather to more than offset his extra +labor, cost of oil, etc., for the machinery. The amount saved each year +is just about equal to the cost of a good man. Cost of outfit, +$700--just about equal to the cost of a good man for two years, +consequently, it will pay for itself in two years. Fifteen years is a +fair estimate for the lifetime of mill with ordinary repairs. + +The solid-wheel wind mill has never been built larger than 30 feet in +diameter. For mills larger than this, the latest improved American mill +is the "Warwick" pattern. + +A 30-foot mill of this pattern, erected in 1880, in northwestern Iowa, +gave the following results, as reported by the owner: + +"Attachments as follows: One 22-inch burr; one No. 4 iron feed-mill; one +26-inch circular saw; one two-hole corn-sheller; one grain elevater; a +bolting apparatus for fine meal, buckwheat and graham, all of which are +run at the same time in good winds, except the saw or the iron mill; +they being run from the same pulley can run but one at a time. With all +attached and working up to their full capacity, the sails are often +thrown out of the wind by the governors, which shows an immense power. +The machines are so arranged that I can attach all or separately, +according to the wind. With the burr alone I have ground 500 bushels in +48 consecutive hours, 100 bushels of it being fine meal. I have also +ground 24 full bushels of fine meal for table use in two hours. This +last was my own, consequently was not tolled. This was before I bought +the iron mill, and now I can nearly double that amount. I saw my fire +wood for three fires; all my fence posts, etc. My wood is taken to the +mill from 12 to 15 feet long, and as large as the saw will cut by +turning the stick, consequently the saw requires about the same power as +the burrs. With a good sailing breeze I have all the power I need, and +can run all the machinery with ease. Last winter I ground double the +amount of any water mill in this vicinity. I have no better property +than the mill." + +A 40-foot mill, erected at Fowler, Indiana, in 1881, is running the +following machinery: + +"I have a universal wood worker, four side, one 34-inch planer, jig saw, +and lathe, also a No. 4 American grinder, and with a good, fair wind I +can run all the machines at one time. I can work about four days and +nights each week. It is easy to control in high winds." + +A 60-foot diameter mill of similar pattern was erected in Steel County, +Minnesota, in 1867. The owner gives the following history of this mill: + +"I have run this wind flouring mill since 1867 with excellent success. +It runs 3 sets of burrs, one 4 feet, one 31/2 feet, and one 33 inches. +Also 2 smutters, 2 bolts, and all the necessary machinery to make the +mill complete. A 15-mile wind runs everything in good shape. One wind +wheel was broken by a tornado in 1870, and another in 1881 from same +cause. Aside from these two, which cost $250 each, and a month's lost +time, the power did not cost over $10 a year for repairs. In July, 1833, +a cyclone passed over this section, wrecking my will as well as +everything else in its track, and having (out of the profits of the wind +mill) purchased a large water and steam flouring mill here, I last fall +moved the wind mill out to Dakota, where I have it running in +first-class shape and doing a good business. The few tornado wrecks make +me think none the less of wind mills, as my water power has cost me four +times as much in 6 years as the wind power has in 16 years." + +There are very few of these large mills in use in this country, but +there are a great many from 14 to 30 feet in diameter in use, and their +numbers are rapidly increasing as their merits become known. The field +for the use of wind mills is almost unlimited, and embraces pumping +water, drainage, irrigation, elevating, grinding, shelling, and cleaning +grain, ginning cotton, sawing wood, churning, running stamp mills, and +charging electrical accumulators. This last may be the solution of the +St. Louis gas question. + +In the writer's opinion the settlement of the great tableland lying +between the Mississippi Valley and the Rocky Mountains, and extending +from the Gulf of Mexico to the Red River of the North, would be greatly +retarded, if not entirely impracticable, in large sections where no +water is found at less than 100 to 500 feet below the surface, if it +were not for the American wind mill; large cattle ranges without any +surface water have been made available by the use of wind mills. Water +pumped out of the ground remains about the same temperature during the +year, and is much better for cattle than surface water. It yet remains +in the future to determine what the wind mill will not do with the +improvements that are being made from to time. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PNEUMATIC DYNAMITE GUN. + + +It is here shown as mounted on a torpedo launch and ready for action. +The shell or projectile is fired by compressed air, admitted from an air +reservoir underneath by a simple pressure of the gunner's finger over +the valve. The air passes up through the center of the base, the pipe +connecting with one of the hollow trunnions. The valve is a continuation +of the breech of the gun. The smaller cuts illustrate Lieutenant +Zalinski's plan for mounting the gun on each side of the launch, by +which plan the gun after being charged may have the breech containing +the dynamite depressed, and protected from shots of the enemy by its +complete immersion alongside the launch; and, if necessary, may be +discharged from this protected position. The gun is a seamless brass +tube of about forty feet in length, manipulated by the artillerist in +the manner of an ordinary cannon. Its noiseless discharge sends the +missile with great force, conveying the powerful explosive within it, +which is itself discharged internally upon contact with the deck of a +vessel or other object upon which it strikes, through the explosion of a +percussion fuse in the point of the projectile. A great degree of +accuracy has been obtained by the peculiar form of the projectile. + +[Illustration: PNEUMATIC DYNAMITE GUN TORPEDO VESSEL.] + +The projectile consists of a thin metal tube, into which the charge is +inserted, and a wooden sabot which closes it at the rear and flares out +until its diameter equals that of the bore of the gun. The forward end +of the tube is pointed with some soft material, in which is embedded the +firing pin, a conical cap closing the end. A cushion of air is +interposed at the rear end of the dynamite charge, to lessen the shock +of the discharge and prevent explosion, until the impact of the +projectile forces the firing pin in upon the dynamite and explodes it. +Many charges have been successfully fired at Fort Hamilton, N.Y. As the +center of gravity is forward of the center of figure in the projectile, +a side wind acting upon the lighter rear part would tend to turn the +head into the wind and thus keep it in the line of its trajectory. A +range of 11/4 miles has been attained with the two inch gun, with a +pressure of 420 lb. to the square inch, and one of three miles is hoped +for with the larger gun and a pressure of 2,000 lb. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROPE PULLEY FRICTION BRAKE. + + +A novel device in connection with rope pulley blocks is illustrated in +the annexed engravings, the object of the appliance being to render it +possible to leave a weight suspended from a block without making the +tail of the rope fast to some neighboring object. By this arrangement +the danger of the rope slipping loose is avoided, and absolute security +is attained, without the necessity of lowering the weight to the ground. +The device itself is a friction brake, constructed in the form of a clip +with holes in it for the three ropes to pass through. It is made to span +the block, and is secured partly by the pin or bolt upon which the +sheaves run, and partly by the bottom bolt, which unites the cheeks of +the block. Thus the brake is readily attachable to existing blocks. The +inner half of the clip or brake is fixed solidly to the block, while the +outer half is carried by two screws, geared together by spur-wheels, and +so cut that although rotating in opposite directions, their movements +are equal and similar. One of the screws carries a light rope-wheel, by +which it can be rotated, the motion being communicated to the second +screw by the toothed wheels. When the wheel is rotated in the right +direction the loose half of the clip is forced toward the other half, +and grips the ropes passing between the two so powerfully that any +weight the blocks are capable of lifting is instantly made secure, and +is held until the brake is released. + +A light spiral spring is placed on each of the screws, in order to free +the brake from the rope the moment the pressure is released. The hand +rope has a turn and a half round the pulley, and this obviates the need +of holding both ends of it, and thus leaves one hand free to guide the +descending weight, or to hold the rope of the pulley blocks. +_Engineering_ says these brakes are very useful in raising heavy +weights, as the lift can be secured at each pull, allowing the men to +move hands for another pull, and as they are made very light they do not +cause any inconvenience in moving or carrying the blocks about. +Manufactured by Andrew Bell & Co., Manchester. + + * * * * * + + + + +WIRE ROPE TOWAGE. + + +We have from time to time given accounts in this journal of the system +of towage by hauling on a submerged wire rope, first experimented upon +by Baron O. De Mesnil and Mr. Max Eyth. On the river Rhine the system +has been for many years in successful operation; it has also been used +for several years on the Erie Canal in this State. We publish from +_Engineering_ a view of one of the wire rope tug boats of the latest +pattern adopted for use on the Rhine. + +The Cologne Central Towing Company (Central Actien-Gesellschaft fuer +Tauerei und Schleppschifffahrt), by whom the wire rope towage on the +Rhine is now carried on, was formed in 1876, by an amalgamation of the +Ruehrorter und Mulheimer Dampfschleppshifffahrt Gesellschaft and the +Central Actien-Gesellschaft fur Tauerei, and in 1877 it owned eight wire +rope tugs (which it still owns) and seventeen paddle tugs. The company +so arranges its work that the wire rope tugs do the haulage up the rapid +portion of the Rhine, from Bonn to Bingen, while the paddle tugs are +employed on the quieter portion of the river extending from Rotterdam to +Bonn, and from Bingen to Mannheim. + +[Illustration: ROPE PULLEY FRICTION BRAKE.] + +The leading dimensions of the eight wire rope tugs now worked by the +company are as follows: + + Tugs No. I. to Tugs No. V. to + IV. VIII. + Meters. ft. in. Meters. ft. in. + Length between + perpendiculars 39 = 126 0 42 = 137 10 + Length over all 42.75 = 140 3 45.75 = 150 1 + Extreme breadth 7.2 = 28 8 7.5 = 24 5 + Height of sides 2.38 = 7 11 2.38 = 7 11 + Depth of keel 0.12 = 0 5 0.15 = 0 6 + +All the boats are fitted with twin screws, 1.2 meters (3 feet 111/4 +inches) in diameter, these being used on the downstream journey, and +also for assisting in steering while passing awkward places during the +journey up stream. They are also provided with water ballast tanks, and +under ordinary circumstances they have a draught of 1.3 to 1.4 meters (4 +feet 3 inches to 4 feet 7 inches), this draught being necessary to give +proper immersion to the screws. When the water in the Rhine is very low, +however, the water ballast is pumped out and the tugs are then run with +a draught of 1 meter (3 feet 3 3/8 inches), it being thus possible to +keep them at work when all other towing steamers on the Rhine are +stopped. This happened in the spring of 1882. + +Referring to our engraving, it will be seen that the wire rope rising +from the bed of the river passes first over a large guide pulley, the +axis of which is carried by a substantial wrought iron swinging bracket, +this bracket being so pivoted that while the pulley is free to swing +into the line on which the rope is approached by the vessel, yet the +rope on leaving the pulley is delivered in a line which is tangential to +a second guide pulley placed further aft and at a lower level. This last +named guide pulley does not swing, and from it the rope is delivered to +the clip drum, over which it passes. From the clip drum the rope passes +under a third guide pulley; this pulley swings on a bracket having a +vertical axis. This third pulley projects down below the keel of the tug +boat, so that the rope on leaving it can pass under the vessel without +fouling. Suitable recesses are formed in the side of the tug boat to +accommodate the swinging pulleys, while the bow of the boat is sloped +downward nearly to the water line, as shown, so as to allow of the +rising part of the rope swinging over it if necessary. + +The hauling gear with which the tug is fitted consists of a pair of +condensing engines with cylinders 14.17 inches in diameter and 23.62 +inches stroke, the crankshaft carrying a pinion which gears into a spur +wheel on an intermediate shaft, this shaft again carrying a pinion which +gears into a large spur wheel fixed on the shaft which carries the clip +drum. In the arrangement of hauling gear above described the ratio of +the gear is 1:8.44, in the case of tugs Nos. I. to IV.; while in tugs +Nos. V. to VIII. the proportion has been made 1:11.82. In tugs I. to IV. +the diameter of the clip drum is 2.743 meters (9 feet), while in the +remaining tugs it is 3.056 meters (10 feet). + +From some interesting data which have been placed at our disposal by Mr. +Thomas Schwarz, the manager of the Central Actien-Gesellschaft fur +Tauerei und Schleppschifffahrt, we learn that in the tugs Nos. I. to IV. +the hauling machine develops on an average 150 indicated horse, while in +the tugs No. V. to VIII. the power developed averages 180 indicated +horse power. The tugs forming the first named group haul on an average +2,200 tons of cargo, contained in four wooden barges, at a speed of 41/2 +kilometers (2.8 miles) per hour, against a stream running at the rate of +61/2 kilometers (4.05 miles) per hour, while the tugs Nos. V. to VIII. +will take a load of 2,600 tons of cargo in the same number of wooden +barges at the same speed and against the same current. In iron barges, +about one and a half times the quantity of useful load can be drawn by a +slightly less expenditure of power. + +The average consumption of coal per hour is, for tugs Nos. I. to IV., 5 +cwt, and for tugs Nos. V. to VIII., 6 cwt.; and of this fuel a small +fraction (about one-sixth) is consumed by the occasional working of the +screw propellers at sharp bends. The fuel consumption of the wire rope +tugs contrasts most favorably with that of the paddle and screw tugs +employed on the Rhine, the best paddle tugs (with compound engines, +patent wheels, etc.) burning three and a half times as much; the older +paddle tugs (with low pressure non-compound engines), four and a half +times as much; and the latest screw tugs, two and a half times as much +coal as the wire rope tugs when doing the same work under the same +circumstances. The screw tugs just mentioned have a draught of 21/2 meters +(8 feet 21/2 inches), and are fitted with engines of 560 indicated horse +power. + +During the years 1879, 1880, and 1881, the company had in use fourteen +paddle tugs and ten eight-wire rope tugs, both classes being--owing to +the state of trade--about equally short of work. The results of the +working during these years were as follows: + + ================================================================ + | | Freight | Cost of | Degree + | | hauled | haulage in | of + Class of tugs. | Year. | in | pence per | occupation. + | | ton-miles. | ton-mile. | + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + Paddle | 1879 | 31,862,858 | 0.1272 | 0.686 + " | 1880 | 31,467,422 | 0.1305 | 0.638 + " | 1881 | 28,627,049 | 0.1245 | 0.537 + Wire Rope | 1879 | 15,407,935 | 0.1167 | 0.614 + " | 1880 | 17,289,706 | 0.1056 | 0.615 + " | 1881 | 17,593,181 | 0.0893 | 0.536 + ================================================================ + +The last column in the above tabular statement, headed "Degree of +Occupation," may require some explanation. It is calculated on the +assumption that a tug could do 3,000 hours of work per annum, and this +is taken as the unit, the time of actual haulage being counted as full +time, and of stoppages as half time. The expenses included in the +statement of cost of haulage include all working expenses, repairs, +general management, and depreciation. The accounts for 1882, which are +not completely available at the time we are writing, show much better +results than above recorded, there being a considerable reduction of +cost, while the freight hauled amounted to a total of 54,921,965 +ton-miles. + +[Illustration: WIRE ROPE TUG BOAT, RIVER RHINE.] + +As regards the wear of the rope, we may state that the relaying of the +first rope between St. Goar and Bingen was taken in hand in September, +1879, while that between Obercassel and Bingen was partially renewed the +same year, the renewal being completed in May, 1880, after the rope had +been in use since the beginning of 1876. The second rope between Bonn +and Bingen, a length of 743/4 miles, is of galvanized wire, has now been +23/4 years in use, during which time there have been but three fractures. +The first rope laid was not galvanized, and it suffered nine fractures +during the first three years of its use. The first rope, we may mention, +was laid in lengths of about a mile spliced together, while the present +rope was supplied in long lengths of 71/2 miles each, so that the number +of splices is greatly reduced. According to the report of the company +for the year 1880, the old rope when raised realizes about 16 per cent. +of its original value, and allowing for this, it is calculated that an +allowance of 18.7 per cent. per annum will cover the cost of rope +depreciation and renewals. Altogether the results obtained on the Rhine +show that in a rapid stream the economic performances of wire rope tugs +compare most favorably with those of either paddle or screw tug boats, +the more rapid the current to be contended against the greater being the +advantage of the wire rope haulage. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED HAY-ROPE MACHINE. + + +Hay-ropes are used for many purposes, their principal use being in the +foundry for core-making; but they also find a large application for +packing ironmongery and furniture. The inventor is James Pollard, of the +Atlas Foundry, Burnley. + +[Illustration: HAY ROPE MACHINE.] + +The chief part of the mechanism is carried in an open frame, having +journals attached to its two ends, which revolve in bearings. The frame +is driven by the rope pulley. The journal at the left hand is hollow; +the pinion upon it is stationary, being fixed to the bracket of bearing. +The pinion gearing into it is therefore revolved by the revolution of +the frame, and through the medium of bevel wheels actuates a transverse +shaft, parallel to which rollers, and driven by wheels off it, is a +double screw, which traverses a "builder" to and fro across the width of +frame. The builder is merely the eye through which the band passes, and +its office is to lay the band properly on the bobbin. The latter is +turned to coil on the band by a pitch chain from the builder screw, the +motion being given through a friction clutch, to allow for slip as the +bobbin or coil gets larger, for obviously the bobbin as it gets larger +is not required to turn so fast to coil up the band produced as when it +is smaller. If the action is studied, it will be seen that the twist is +put in between the bobbin and the hollow journal, and every revolution +of the frame puts in one turn for the twist. The hay is fed to the +machine through the hollow journal already mentioned. By suitably +proportioning the speed of feed-rollers and the revolutions of the +frame, which is easily accomplished by varying the wheels on the left +hand of frame, bands of any degree of hardness or softness may be +produced. The machine appears to be simple and not liable to get +deranged. It may be after a little practice attended to by a laborer, +and is claimed by its maker to be able to produce 400 yards of band per +hour. The frame makes about 180 revolutions per minute, that is, this is +the number of turns put into the twist in this time. The machine can +make a bundle about 200 yards long, which can be removed off the bobbin +without unwinding with the greatest facility.--_Mech. World._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ANGLESEA BRIDGE, CORK. + + +The river Lee flows through the city of Cork in two branches, which +diverge just above the city, and are reunited at the Custom House, the +central portion of the city being situated upon an island between the +two arms of the river, both of which are navigable for a short distance +above the Custom House, and are lined with quays on each side for the +accommodation of the shipping of the port. + +The Anglesea bridge crosses the south arm of the river about a quarter +of a mile above its junction with the northern branch, and forms the +chief line of communication from the northern and central portions of +the city to the railway termini and deep-water quays on the southern +side of the river. + +[Illustration: THE NEW ANGLESEA BRIDGE, CORK.] + +The new swing bridge occupies the site of an older structure which had +been found inadequate to the requirements of the heavy and increasing +traffic, and the foundations of the old piers having fallen into an +insecure condition, the construction of a new opening bridge was taken +in hand jointly by the Corporation and Harbor Commissioners of Cork. + +The new bridge, which has recently been completed, is of a somewhat +novel design, and the arrangement of the swing-span in particular +presents some original and interesting features, which appear to have +been dictated by a careful consideration of the existing local +conditions and requirements. + +On each side of the river, both above and below the bridge, the quays +are ordinarily lined with vessels berthed alongside each of the quays, +and as the river is rather narrow at this point, the line of fairway for +vessels passing through the bridge is confined nearly to the center of +the river. This consideration, together with some others connected with +the proposed future deepening of the fairway, rendered it very desirable +to locate the opening span nearly in the center of the river, as shown +in the general plan of the situation, which we publish herewith. At the +same time it was necessary to avoid any encroachment upon the width of +the existing quays, which form important lines of communication for +vehicular and passenger traffic along each side of the river, and to and +from the railway stations. Again, it was necessary to preserve the full +existing width of waterway in the river itself, which is sometimes +subjected to heavy floods. + +These considerations evidently precluded the construction of a central +pier and double-armed swing bridge, and on the other hand they also +precluded the construction of any solid masonry substructure for the +turntable, either upon the quay or projected into the river. To meet +these several conditions the bridge has been designed in the form of a +three-span bridge, that is to say, it is only supported by the two +abutments and two intermediate piers, each consisting of a pair of +cast-iron cylinders or columns, as shown by the dotted circles upon the +general plan. + +The central opening is that which serves for the passage of vessels. The +swing bridge extends over two openings, or from the north abutment to +the southern pier, its center of revolution being situated over the +center of the northern span, and revolves upon a turntable, which is +carried upon a lower platform or frame of girders extending across the +northern span of the bridge. The southern opening is spanned by an +ordinary pair of lattice girders in line with the girders and +superstructure of the swing bridge. + +We propose at an early date to publish further details of this bridge, +and the hydraulic machinery by which it is worked. + +We present a perspective view of the bridge as seen from the entrance to +the exhibition building, which is situated in close proximity to the +southern end of the bridge.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PORTABLE RAILWAYS. + +[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.] + +By M. DECAUVILLE, Aine, of Petit-Bourg (Seine and Oise), France. + + +Narrow gauge railways have been known for a very long time in Great +Britain. The most familiar lines of this description are in Wales, and +it is enough to instance the Festiniog Railway (2 feet gauge), which has +been used for the carriage of passengers and goods for nearly half a +century. The prosperous condition of this railway, which has been so +successfully improved by Mr. James Spooner and his son, Mr. Charles +Spooner, affords sufficient proof that narrow gauge railways are not +only of great utility, but may be also very remunerative. + +In Wales the first narrow gauge railway dates from 1832. It was +constructed merely for the carriage of slates from Festiniog to +Port-Madoc, and some years later another was built from the slate +quarries at Penrhyn to the port of Bangor. As the tract of country +traversed by the railways became richer by degrees, the idea was +conceived of substituting locomotives for horses, and of adapting the +line to the carriage of goods of all sorts, and finally of passengers +also. + +But these railways, although very economical, are at the same time very +complicated in construction. Their arrangements are based upon the same +principles as railways of the ordinary gauge, and are not by any means +capable of being adapted to agriculture, to public works, or to any +other purpose where the tracks are constantly liable to removal. These +permanent narrow gauge lines, the laying of which demands the service of +engineers, and the maintenance of which entails considerable expense, +suggested to M. Decauville, Aine, farmer and distiller at Petit-Bourg, +near Paris, the idea of forming a system of railways composed entirely +of metal, and capable of being readily laid. Cultivating one of the +largest farms in the neighborhood of Paris, he contemplated at first +nothing further than a farm railroad; and he contrived an extremely +portable plant, adapted for clearing the land of beetroot, for spreading +manure, and for the other needs of his farm. + +From the beginning in his first railroads, the use of timber materials +was rigidly rejected by him; and all parts, whether the straight or +curved rails, crossings, turntables, etc., were formed of a single +piece, and did not require any special workman to lay them down. By +degrees he developed his system, and erected special workshops for the +construction of his portable plant; making use of his farm, and some +quarries of which he is possessed in the neighborhood, as experimental +areas. At the present time this system of portable railways serves all +the purposes of agriculture, of commerce, of manufactures, and even +those of war. + +Within so limited a space it would be impossible to give a detailed +description of the rails and fastenings used in all these different +modes of application. The object of this paper is rather to direct the +attention of mechanical engineers to the various uses to which narrow +gauge portable railways may be put, to the important saving of labor +which is effected by their adoption, and to the ease with which they are +worked. + +The success of the Decauville railway has been so rapid and so great +that many inventors have entered the same field, but they have almost +all formed the idea of constructing the portable track with detachable +sleepers. There are thus, at present, two systems of portable tracks: +those in which the sleepers are capable of being detached, and those in +which they are not so capable. + +The portable track of the Decauville system is not capable of so coming +apart. The steel rails and sleepers are riveted together, and form only +one piece. The chief advantage of these railways is their great +firmness; besides this, since the line has only to be laid on the +surface just as it stands, there are not those costs of maintenance +which become unavoidable with lines of which the sleepers are fixed by +means of bolts, clamps, or other adjuncts, only too liable to be lost. +Moreover, tracks which are not capable of separation are lighter and +therefore more portable than those in which the sleepers are detachable. + +With regard to sleepers, a distinction must be drawn between those which +project beyond the rails and those which do not so project. M. +Decauville has adopted the latter system, because it offers sufficient +strength, while the lines are lighter and less cumbersome. Where at +first he used flat iron sleepers, he now fits his lines with dished +steel sleepers, in accordance with Figs. 1 and 2. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.] + +This sleeper presents very great stiffness, at the same time preserving +its lightness; and the feature which specially distinguishes this +railway from others of the same class is not only its extreme strength, +but above all its solidity, which results from its bearing equally upon +the ground by means of the rail base and of the sleepers. + +In special cases, M. Decauville provides also railroads with projecting +sleepers, whether of flat steel beaten out and rounded, or of channel +iron; but the sleeper and the rail are always inseparable, so as not to +lessen the strength, and also to facilitate the laying of the line. If +the ground is too soft, the railway is supported by bowl sleepers of +dished steel, Figs. 3 and 4, especially at the curves; but the necessity +for using these is but seldom experienced. The sleepers are riveted +cold. The rivets are of soft steel, and the pressure with which this +riveting is effected is so intense that the sleepers cannot be separated +from the rails, even after cutting off both heads of the rivets, unless +by heavy blows of the hammer, the rivets being driven so thoroughly into +the holes made in the rails and sleepers that they fill them up +completely. + +The jointing of the rails is excessively simple. The rail to the right +hand is furnished with two fish-plates; that to the left with a small +steel plate riveted underneath the rail and projecting 11/4 in. beyond it. +It is only necessary to lay the lengths end to end with one another, +making the rail which is furnished with the small plate lie between the +two fish-plates, and the junction can at once be effected by fish-bolts. +A single fish-bolt, passing through the holes in the fish-plates, and +through an oval hole in the rail end, is sufficient for the purpose. + +With this description of railway it does not matter whether the curves +are to the right or to the left. The pair of rails are curved to a +suitable radius, and can only need turning end for end to form a curve +in the direction required. The rails weigh 9 lb., 14 lb., 19 lb., and 24 +lb. per running yard, and are very similar to the rails used on the main +railways of France, except that their base has a proportionally greater +width. As to the strength of the rail, it is much greater in proportion +to the load than would at first sight be thought; all narrow-gauge +railways being formed on the principle of distributing the load over a +large number of axles, and so reducing the amount on each wheel. For +instance, the 9 lb. rail used for the portable railway easily bears a +weight of half a ton for each pair of wheels. + +The distance between the rails differs according to the purpose for +which they are intended. The most usual gauges are 16in., 20 in., and +24in. The line of 16 in. gauge, with 9 lb. rails, although extremely +light, is used very successfully in farming, and in the interior of +workshops. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.] + +A length of 16 ft. 5 in. of 9 lb. steel rail, to 16 in. gauge, with +sleepers, etc., scarcely weighs more than 1 cwt., and may therefore be +readily carried by a man placing himself in the middle and taking a rail +in each hand. + +Those members of the Institution who recently visited the new port of +Antwerp will recollect having seen there the portable railway which +Messrs. Couvreux and Hersetit had in use; and as it was these works at +the port of Antwerp that gave rise to the idea of this paper, it will be +well to begin with a description of this style of contractor's plant. + +The earth in such works may be shifted by hand, horsepower, or +locomotive. For small works the railway of 16 in. gauge, with the 9 lb. +rails, is commonly used, and the trucks carry double equilibrium +tipping-boxes, containing 9 to 11 cubic feet. These wagons, having +tipping-boxes without any mechanical appliances, are very serviceable; +since the box, having neither door nor hinge, is not liable to need +repairs. + +This box keeps perfectly in equilibrium upon the most broken up roads. +To tip it up to the right or the left, it must simply be pushed from the +opposite side, and the contents are at once emptied clean out. In order +that the bodies of the wagons may not touch at the top, when several are +coupled together, each end of the wagon is furnished with a buffer, +composed of a flat iron bar cranked, and furnished with a hanging hook. + +Plant of this description is now being used in an important English +undertaking at the port of Newhaven, where it is employed not only on +the earthworks, but also for transporting the concrete manufactured with +Mr. Carey's special concrete machine. + +These little wagons, of from 9 to 11 cubic feet capacity, run along with +the greatest ease, and a lad could propel one of them with its load for +300 yards at a cost of 3d. per cube yard. In earthworks the saving over +the wheel-barrow is 80 per cent., for the cost of wagons propelled by +hand comes to 0.1d. per cube yard, carried 10 yards, and to go this +distance with a barrow costs 1/2d. A horse draws without difficulty, +walking by the side of the line, a train of from eight to ten trucks on +the level, or five on an incline of 7 per cent. (1 in 14). + +One mile of this railway, 16 in. gauge and 9 lb. steel rail, with +sixteen wagons, each having a double equilibrium tipping box containing +11 cubic feet, and all accessories, represents a weight of 20 tons--a +very light weight, if it is considered that all the materials are +entirely of metal. Its net cost price per mile is 450_l_., the wagons +included. + +Large contracts for earthwork with horse haulage are carried on to the +greatest advantage with the railway of 20 in. gauge and 14 lb. rails. +The length of 16 ft. 5 in. of this railway weighs 170 lb., and so can +easily be carried by two men, one placing himself at each end. The +wagons most in use for these works are those with double equilibrium +tipping boxes, holding 18 cubic feet. These are at present employed in +one of the greatest undertakings of the age, namely, the cutting of the +Panama Canal, where there are used upward of 2,700 such wagons, and more +than 35 miles of track. + +A mile of these rails of 20 in. gauge with 14 lb. rails, together with +sixteen wagons of 18 cubic feet capacity, with appurtenances, costs +about 660_1_., and represents a total weight of 33 tons. + +This description of material is used for all contracts exceeding 20,000 +cubic yards. + +A very curious and interesting use of the narrow-gauge line, and the +wagons with double equilibrium tipping-box, was made by the Societe des +Chemins de Fer Sous-Marins on the proposed tunnel between France and +England. The line used is that of 16 in. gauge, with 9 lb. rails. + +The first level of the tunnel, which was constructed by means of a +special machine by Colonel Beaumont, had only a diameter of 2.13 m. (7 +ft.); the tipping boxes have therefore a breadth of only 2 ft., and +contain 71/4 cubic feet. The boxes are perfectly balanced, and are most +easily emptied. The wagons run on two lines, the one being for the +loaded trains, and the other for the empty trains. + +The engineers and inspectors, in the discharge of their duties, make use +of the Liliputian carriages. The feet of the travelers go between the +wheels, and are nearly on a level with the rails; nevertheless, they are +tolerably comfortable. They are certainly the smallest carriages for +passengers that have ever been built; and the builder even prophesies +that these will be the first to enter into England through the Channel +Tunnel. + +One of the most important uses to which a narrow gauge line can be put +is that of a military railway. The Dutch, Russian, and French +Governments have tried it for the transporting of provisions, of war +material, and of the wounded in their recent campaigns. In Sumatra, in +Turkestan, and in Tunis these military railroads have excited much +interest, and have so fully established their value that this paper may +confine itself to a short description. + +The campaign of the Russians against the Turcomans presented two great +difficulties; these were the questions of crossing districts in which +water was extremely scarce or failed entirely, and of victualing the +expeditionary forces. This latter object was completely effected by +means of 67 miles of railway, 20 in. gauge, 14 lb. steel rails, with 500 +carriages for food, water, and passengers. The rails were laid simply on +the sand, so that small locomotives could not be used, and were obliged +to be replaced by Kirghiz horses, which drew with ease from 1,800 lb. to +2,200 lb. weight for 25 miles per day. + +In the Tunisian war this railroad of 20 in. gauge, 14 lb. rail, was +replaced by that of two ft. gauge, with 14 lb. and 19 lb. rails. There +were quite as great difficulties as in the Turcoman campaign, and the +country to be crossed was entirely unknown. The observations made before +the war spoke of a flat and sandy country. In reality a more uneven +country could not be imagined; alternating slopes of about 1 in 10 +continually succeeded each other; and before reaching Kairouan 71/2 miles +of swamp had to be crossed. Nevertheless the horses harnessed to the +railway carriages did on an average twelve to seventeen times the work +of those working ordinary carriages. In that campaign also, on account +of the steep ascents, the use of locomotives had to be given up. The +track served not only for the conveying of victuals, war material, and +cannon, but also of the wounded; and a large number of the survivors of +this campaign owe their lives to this railway, which supplied the means +of their speedy removal without great suffering from the temporary +hospitals, and of carrying the wounded to places where more care could +be bestowed upon them. + +The carriages which did duty in this campaign are wagons with a platform +entirely of metal, resting upon eight wheels. The platform is 13 ft. 1 +in. in length, and 3 ft. 11 in. in width. The total length with buffers +is 14 ft. 9 in. This carriage may be at will turned into a goods wagon +or a passenger carriage for sixteen persons, with seats back to back, or +an ambulance wagon for eight wounded persons. + +For the transport of cannon the French military engineers have adopted +small trucks. A complete equipage, capable of carrying guns weighing +from 3 to 9 tons, is composed of trucks with two or three axles, each +being fitted with a pivot support, by means of which it is made possible +to turn the trucks, with the heaviest pieces of ordnance, on turntables, +and to push them forward without going off the rails at the curves. + +The trucks which have been adopted for the service of the new forts in +Paris are drawn by six men, three of whom are stationed at each end of +the gun, and these are capable of moving with the greatest ease guns +weighing 9 tons. + +The narrow-gauge railway was tested during the war in Tunis more than in +any preceding campaign, and the military authorities decided, after +peace had been restored in that country, to continue maintaining the +narrow-gauge railways permanently; this is a satisfactory proof of their +having rendered good service. The line from Sousse to Kairouan is still +open to regular traffic. In January, 1883, an express was established, +which leaves Sousse every morning and arrives at Kairouan--a distance of +forty miles--in five hours, by means of regularly organized relays. The +number of carriages and trucks for the transport of passengers and goods +is 118. + +The success thus attained by the narrow-gauge line goes far to prove how +unfounded is the judgment pronounced by those who hold that light +railways will never suffice for continuous traffic. These opinions are +based on certain cases in the colonies, where it was thought fit to +adopt a light rail weighing about 18 lb. to 27 lb. per yard, and keeping +the old normal gauge. It is nevertheless evident that it is impossible +to construct cheap railways on the normal gauge system, as the +maintenance of such would-be light railways is in proportion far more +costly than that of standard railways. + +The narrow gauge is entirely in its right place in countries where, as +notably in the case of the colonies, the traffic is not sufficiently +extensive to warrant the capitalization of the expenses of construction +of a normal gauge railway. + +Quite recently the Eastern Railway Company of the province of Buenos +Ayres have adopted the narrow gauge for connecting two of their +stations, the gauge being 24 in. and the weight of the rails 19 lb. per +yard. This company have constructed altogether six miles of narrow-gauge +road, with a rolling stock of thirty passenger carriages and goods +trucks and two engines, at a net cost price of 7,500l., the engines +included. This line works as regularly as the main line with which it is +connected. The composite carriages in use leave nothing to be desired +with regard to their appearance and the comforts they offer. Third-class +carriages, covered and open, and covered goods wagons, are also +employed. + +All these carriages are constructed according to the model of those of +the Festiniog Railway. The engines weigh 4 tons, and run at 121/2 miles +per hour for express trains with a live load of 16 tons; while for goods +trains carrying 35 tons the rate is 71/2 miles an hour. + +Another purpose for which the narrow-gauge road is of the highest +importance in colonial commerce is the transport of sugar cane. There +are two systems in use for the service of sugar plantations: + +1. Traction by horses, mules, or oxen. + +2. Traction by steam-engine. + +In the former case, the narrow gauge, 20 in. with 14 lb. rails, is used, +with platform trucks and iron baskets 3 ft. 3 in. long. + +The use of these wagons is particularly advantageous for clearing away +the sugar cane from the fields, because, as the crop to be carried off +is followed by another harvest, it is important to prevent the +destructive action of the wheels of heavily laden wagons. The baskets +may be made to contain as much as 1,300 lb. of cane for animal traction, +and 2,000 lb. for steam traction. In those colonies where the cane is +not cut up into pieces, long platform wagons are used entirely made of +metal, and on eight wheels. When the traction is effected by horses or +mules, a chain 141/2 ft. long is used, and the animals are driven +alongside the road. Oxen are harnessed to a yoke, longer by 20 in. to 24 +in. than the ordinary yoke, and they are driven along on each side of +the road. + +On plantations where it is desirable to have passenger carriages, or +where it is to be foreseen that the narrow-gauge line maybe required for +the regular transport of passengers and goods, the 20 in. line is +replaced by one of 24 in. + +The transport of the refuse of sugar cane is effected by means of +tilting basket carts; the lower part of which consists of plate iron as +in earthwork wagons, while the upper part consists of an open grating, +offering thus a very great holding capacity without being excessively +heavy. The content of these wagons is 90 cubic feet (2,500 liters). To +use it for the transport of earth, sand, or rubbish, the grating has +merely to be taken off. In the case of the transport of sugar cane +having to be effected by steam power, the most suitable width of road is +24 in., with 19 lb. rails; and this line should be laid down and +ballasted most carefully. The cost of one mile of the 20 in. gauge road, +with 14 lb. rails, thirty basket wagons, and accessories for the +transport of sugar cane, is 700l., and the total weight of this plant +amounts to 35 tons. + +Owing to the great lightness of the portable railways, and the facility +with which they can be worked, the attention of explorers has repeatedly +been attracted by them. The expedition of the Ogowe in October, 1880, +that of the Upper Congo in November, 1881, and the Congo mission under +Savorgnan de Brazza, have all made use of the Decauville narrow-gauge +railway system. + +During these expeditions to Central Africa, one of the greatest +obstacles to be surmounted was the transport of boats where the river +ceased to be navigable; for it was then necessary to employ a great +number of negroes for carrying both the boats and the luggage. The +explorers were, more or less, left to the mercy of the natives, and but +very slow progress could be made. + +On returning from one of these expeditions in Africa, Dr. Balay and M. +Mizon conceived the idea of applying to M. Decauville for advice as to +whether the narrow-gauge line might not be profitably adapted for the +expedition. M. Decauville proposed to them to transport their boats +without taking them to pieces, or unloading them, by placing them on two +pivot trollies, in the same manner as the guns are transported in +fortifications and in the field. The first experiments were made at +Petit-Bourg with a pleasure yacht. The hull, weighing 4 tons, was placed +on two gun trollies, and was moved about easily across country by means +of a portable line of 20 in. gauge, with 14 lb. rails. The length of the +hull was about 45 ft., depth 6 ft. 7 in., and breadth of beam 8 ft. 2 +in., that is to say, five times the width of the narrow-gauge, and +notwithstanding all this the wheels never came off the line. The +sections of line were taken up and replaced as the boat advanced, and a +speed of 1,100 yards per hour was attained. Dr. Balay and M. Mizon +declared that the result obtained exceeded by far their most sanguine +hopes, because during their last voyage, the passage of the rapids had +sometimes required a whole week for 1,100 yards (1 kilometer), and they +considered themselves very lucky indeed if they could attain a speed of +one kilometer per day. The same narrow gauge system has since been three +times adopted by African explorers, on which occasions it was found that +the 20 in. line, with 9 lb. or 14 lb. rails, was the most suitable for +scientific expeditions of this nature. + +The trucks used are of the kind usually employed for military purposes, +with wheels, axles, and pivot bearings of steel; on being dismounted the +bodies of the two trucks form a chest, which is bolted together and +contains the wheels, axles, and other accessories. The total weight of +the 135 yards of road used by Dr. Balay and M. Mizon during their first +voyage was 2,900 lb., and the wagons weighed 5,000 lb. Hence the +expedition had to carry a supplementary weight of 31/2 tons; but at any +given moment the material forming this burden became the means of +transporting, in its turn, seven boats, representing a total weight of +20 tons. + +It is impossible to enumerate in this paper all the various kinds of +wagons and trucks suitable for the service of iron works, shipyards, +mines, quarries, forests, and many other kinds of works; and we +therefore limit ourselves to mentioning only a few instances which +suffice to show that the narrow gauge can be applied to works of the +most varied nature and under the most adverse circumstances possible. + +It therefore only remains to mention the various accessories which have +been invented for the purpose of completing the system. They consist of +off-railers, crossings, turntables, etc. + +The off railer is used for establishing a portable line, at any point, +diverging to the right or left of a permanent line, and for transferring +traffic to it without interruption. It consists of a miniature inclined +plane, of the same height at one end as the rail, tapering off regularly +by degrees toward the other end. It is only necessary to place the +off-railer (which, like all the lengths of rail of this system, forms +but one piece with its sleepers and fish-plates) on the fixed line, +adding a curve in the direction it is intended to go, and push the +wagons on to the off-railer, when they will gradually leave the fixed +line and pass on the new track. + +The switches consist of a rail-end 49 in. in length, which serves as a +movable tongue, placed in front of a complete crossing, the rails of +which have a radius of 4, 6, or 8 meters; a push with the foot suffices +to alter the switch. There are four different models of crossings +constructed for each radius, viz.: + +1. For two tracks with symmetrical divergence. + +2. For a curve to the right and a straight track. + +3. For a curve to the left and a straight track. + +4. For a meeting of three tracks. + +When a fixed line is used, it is better to replace the movable switch by +a fixed cast-iron switch, and to let the workmen who drive the wagon +push it in the direction required. Planed switch tongues are also used, +having the shape of those employed on the normal tracks, especially for +the passage of small engines; the switches are, in this case, completed +by the application of a hand lever. + +The portable turntable consists of two faced plates laid over the other, +one of thick sheet iron, and the other of cast iron. The sheet-iron +plate is fitted with a pivot, around which the cast iron one is made to +revolve; these plates may either be smooth, or grooved for the wheels. +The former are used chiefly when it is required to turn wagons or trucks +of light burden, or, in the case of earthworks, for trucks of moderate +weight. These plates are quite portable; their weight for the 16 in. +gauge does not exceed 200 lb. For engineering works a turntable plate +with variable width of track has been designed, admitting of different +tracks being used over the same turntable. + +When turntables are required for permanent lines, and to sustain heavy +burdens, turntables with a cast iron box are required, constructed on +the principle of the turntables of ordinary railways. The heaviest +wagons may be placed on these box turntables, without any portion +suffering damage or disturbing the level of the ground. In the case of +coal mines, paper mills, cow houses with permanent lines, etc., fixed +plates are employed. Such plates need only be applied where the line is +always wet, or in workshops where the use of turntables is not of +frequent occurrence. This fixed plate is most useful in farmers' +stables, as it does not present any projection which might hurt the feet +of the cattle, and is easy to clean. + +The only accident that can happen to the track is the breaking of a +fish-plate. It happens often that the fish-plates get twisted, owing to +rough handling on the part of the workmen, and break in the act of being +straightened. In order to facilitate as much as possible the repairs in +such cases, the fish-plates are not riveted by machinery, but by hand; +and it is only necessary to cut the rivets with which the fish-plate is +fastened, and remove it if broken: A drill passed through the two holes +of the rail removes all burrs that may be in the way of the new rivet. +No vises are required for this operation; the track to be repaired is +held by two workmen at a height of about 28 in. above the ground, care +being taken to let the end under repair rest on a portable anvil, which +is supplied with the necessary appliances. The two fish-plates are put +in their place at the same time, the second rivet being held in place +with one finger, while the first is being riveted with a hammer; if it +is not kept in its place in this manner it may be impossible to put it +in afterward, as the blows of the hammer often cause the fish-plate to +shift, and the holes in the rail are pierced with great precision to +prevent there being too much clearance. No other accident need be feared +with this line, and the breakage described above can easily be repaired +in a few minutes without requiring any skilled workman. + +The narrow-gauge system, which has recently received so great a +development on the Continent, since its usefulness has been +demonstrated, and the facility with which it can be applied to the most +varied purposes, has not yet met in England with the same universal +acceptance; and those members of this Institution who crossed the sea to +go to Belgium were, perhaps, surprised to see so large a number of +portable railways employed for agricultural and building purposes and +for contractors' works. But in the hands of so practical a people it may +be expected that the portable narrow gauge railway will soon be applied +even to a larger number of purposes than is the case elsewhere. + + * * * * * + + + + +GERARD'S ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINE. + + +The machine represented in the annexed engravings consists of a movable +inductor, whose alternate poles pass in front of an armature composed of +a double number of oblong and flat bobbins, that are affixed to a circle +firmly connected with the frame. There is a similar circle on each side +of the inductor. The armature is stationary, and the wires that start +from the bobbins are connected with terminals placed upon a wooden +support that surmounts the machine. + +[Illustration: GERARD'S ALTERNATING ELECTRIC MACHINE.] + +This arrangement allows of every possible grouping of the currents +according to requirements. Thus, the armature may be divided into two +currents, so as to allow of carbons 30 mm. in diameter being burned, or +else so as to have four, eight, twelve, twenty-four, or even forty-eight +distinct circuits capable of being used altogether or in part. + +This machine has been studied with a view of rendering the lamps +independent; and there may be produced with it, for example, a voltaic +arc of an intensity of from 250 to 600 carcels for the lighting of a +courtyard, or it may be used for producing arcs of less intensity for +shops, or for supplying incandescent lamps. As each of the circuits is +independent, it becomes easy to light or extinguish any one of the lamps +at will. Since the conductors are formed of ordinary simple wires, the +cost attending the installation of 12 or 24 lamps amounts to just about +the same as it would in the case of a single cable. + +[Illustration: GERARD'S 250 H.P. DIRECT CONNECTION ALTERNATING CURRENT +STEAM DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE.] + +One of the annexed cuts represents a Corliss steam engine connected +directly with an alternating current machine of the system under +consideration. According to the inventor, this machine is capable of +supplying 1,000 lamps of a special kind, called "slide lamps," and a +larger number of incandescent ones.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +AUTOMATIC FAST SPEED TELEGRAPHY. + +By THEO. F. TAYLOR. + + +Since 1838 much has been done toward increasing the carrying capacity of +a single wire. In response to your invitation I will relate my +experience upon the Postal's large coppered wire, in an effort to +transmit 800 words per minute over a 1,000 mile circuit, and add my mite +to the vast sum of knowledge already possessed by electricians. + +As an introduction, I shall mention a few historical facts, but do not +propose to write in this article even a short account of the different +automatic systems, and I must assume that my readers are familiar with +modern automatic machines and appliances. + +In 1870, upon the completion of the Automatic Company's 7 ohm wire +between New York and Washington, it happened that Prof. Moses G. Farmer +was in the Washington office when the first message was about to be +sent, and upon being requested, he turned the "crank" and transmitted +the message to New York, at the rate of 217 words per minute. + +Upon his return to New York he co-operated with Mr. Prescott in +experiments on W.U. wires, their object being to determine what could be +done on iron wires with the Bain system. A good No. 8 wire running from +New York to Boston was selected, reinsulated, well trimmed, and put in +first-class electrical condition, previous to the test. The "Little" +chemical paper was used. + +The maximum speed attained on this wire was 65 words per minute. + +About the same time George H. Grace used an electro magnet on the +automatic line with such good effect that the speed on the New +York-Washington circuit was increased to 450 words per minute. + +Then a platina stylus or pen was substituted for the iron pen in +connection with iodide paper, and the speed increased to 900 words per +minute. + +In 1880, upon the completion of the Rapid Company's 6 ohm wire, between +New York and Boston, 1,200 words per minute were transmitted between the +cities above named. + +In 1882, I was employed by the Postal Telegraph Company to put the Leggo +automatic system into practical shape, and, if possible, transmit 800 +words per minute between New York and Chicago. + +It was proposed to string a steel-copper wire, the copper on which was +to weigh 500 lb. to the mile. + +When complete, the wire was rather larger than No. 3, English gauge, but +varied in diameter, some being as large as No. 1, and it averaged 525 +lb. of copper per mile and = 1.5 ohms. The surface of this wire was, +however, large. + +Dr. Muirhead estimated its static capacity at about 10 M.F., which +subsequent tests proved to be nearly correct. + +It will be understood that this static capacity stood in the way of fast +transmission. + +Resistance and static capacity are the two factors that determine speed +of signaling. + +The duration of the variable state is in proportion to the square of the +length of the conductor, so that the difficulties increase very greatly +as the wire is extended beyond ordinary limits. According to Prescott, +"The duration of the variable condition in a wire of 500 miles is +250,000 times as long as in a wire of 1 mile." + +In other words, a long line _retains a charge_, and time must be allowed +for at least a falling off of the charge to a point indicated by the +receiving instrument as zero. + +In the construction of the line care was taken to insure the _lowest +possible resistance_ through the circuit, even to the furnishing of the +river cables with conductors weighing 500 lb. per mile. + +Ground wires were placed on every tenth pole. + +When the first 100 miles of wire had been strung, I was much encouraged +to find that we could telegraph without any difficulty past the average +provincial "ground," provided the terminal grounds were good. + +When the western end of this remarkable wire reached Olean, N.Y., 400 +miles from New York, my assistant, Mr. S.K. Dingle, proceeded to that +town with a receiving instrument, and we made the first test. + +I found that 800 words, or 20,000 impulses, per minute, could be +transmitted in Morse characters over that circuit _without compensation_ +for static. + +In other words, the old Bain method was competent to telegraph 800 words +per minute on the 400 miles of 1.5 ohm wire. + +The trouble began, however, when the wire reached Cleveland, O., about +700 miles from New York. + +Upon making a test at Cleveland, I found the signals made a continuous +black line upon the chemical paper. I then placed both ends of the wire +to earth through 3,000 ohms resistance, and introduced a small auxiliary +battery between the chemical paper and earth. + +The auxiliary or opposing battery was placed in the same circuit with +the transmitting battery, and the currents which were transmitted from +the latter through the receiving instrument reached the earth by passing +directly through the opposing battery. + +The circuit of the opposing battery was permanently completed, +independently of the transmitting apparatus, through both branch +conductors and artificial resistances. + +The auxiliary battery at the receiving station normally maintained upon +the main line a continuous electric current of a negative polarity, +which did not produce a mark upon the chemical paper. + +When the transmitting battery was applied thereto, the excessive +electro-motive force of the latter overpowered the current from the +auxiliary battery and exerted, by means of a positive current, an +electro-chemical action upon the chemical receiving paper, producing a +mark. + +Immediately upon the interruption of the circuit of the transmitting +battery, the unopposed current from the auxiliary battery at the +receiving station flowed back through the paper and into the main line, +thereby both neutralizing the residual or inductive current, which +tended to flow through the receiving instrument, and serving to clear +the main line from electro-static charge. + +The following diagram illustrates my method: + +Referring to this diagram, A and B respectively represent a transmitting +and a receiving station of an automatic telegraph. These stations are +united in the usual manner by a main line, L. At the transmitting +station, A, is placed a transmitting battery, E, having its positive +pole connected by a conductor, 2, with the metallic transmitting drum, +T. The negative pole of the battery, E, is connected with the earth at G +by a conductor, 1. A metallic transmitting stylus, t, rests upon the +surface of the drum, T, and any well known or suitable mechanism may be +employed for causing an automatic transmitting pattern slip, P, to pass +between the stylus and the drum. The transmitting or pattern slip, P, is +perforated with groups of apertures of varying lengths and intervals as +required to represent the dispatch which it is desired to transmit, by +an arbitrary system of signs, such, for example, as the Morse +telegraphic code. + +At the receiving station, B, is placed a recording apparatus, M, of any +suitable or well known construction. A strip of chemically prepared +paper, N, is caused to pass rapidly and uniformly between the drum, M', +and the stylus, m, of this instrument in a well known manner. The drum, +M', is connected with the earth by conductors, 4 and 3, between which is +placed the auxiliary battery, E, the positive or marking pole of this +battery being connected with the drum and the negative pole with the +earth. The electro-motive force of the battery, E', is preferably made +about one-third as great as that of the battery, E. + +[Illustration] + +Extending from a point, o, in the main line, near the transmitting +station, to the earth at G, is a branch conductor, l, containing an +adjustable artificial resistance, R. A similar conductor, ll, extends +from a point, o', near the receiving terminal of the line, L, to the +conductor, 3, in which an artificial resistance, R', is also included, +this resistance being preferably approximately equal to the resistance, +R. The proportions of the resistance of the main line and the artificial +resistances which I prefer to employ may be approximately indicated as +follows: Assuming the resistance of the main line to be 900 ohms, the +resistance, R, and R', should be each about 3,000 ohms. The main +battery, E, should then comprise about 90 cells, and the auxiliary +battery, E', 30 cells. + +The operation of my improved system is as follows: While the apparatus +is at rest a constant current from the battery, E', traverses the line, +L, and the branch conductors, l, and ll, dividing itself between them, +in inverse proportion to their respective resistances, in accordance +with the well-known law of Ohm. When the transmitting pattern strip, P, +is caused to pass between the roller, T, and the stylus, t, electric +impulses will be transmitted upon the line, L, from the positive pole of +the battery, E, which will traverse the main line, L, the two branch +lines, l, and ll, and their included resistances, and also the receiving +instrument, M. The greater portion of this current will, however, on +account of the less resistance offered, traverse the receiving +instrument, M, and the auxilary battery, E'. The current from the +last-named battery will thus be neutralized and overpowered, and the +excess of current from the main battery, E, will act upon the chemically +prepared paper and record in the form of dots and dashes or like +arbitrary characters the impulses which are transmitted. + +Immediately on the cessation of each impulse, the auxiliary battery, E', +again acts to send an impulse of positive polarity through the receiving +paper and stylus in the reverse direction and through the line, L, which +returns to the negative pole of the battery by way of the artificial +resistances, R and R'. Such an impulse, following immediately upon the +interruption of the circuit of the transmitting battery, acts to destroy +the effect of the "tailing" or static discharge of the line, L, upon the +receiving instrument, and also to neutralize the same throughout the +line. By thus opposing the discharge of the line by a reverse current +transmitted directly through the chemical paper, a sharply defined +record will in all cases be obtained; and by transmitting the opposing +impulse through the line, the latter will be placed in a condition to +receive the next succeeding impulse and to record the same as a sharply +defined character. + +This arrangement was made on the New York-Cleveland circuit, and the +characters were then clearly defined and of uniform distinctness. The +speed of transmission on this circuit was from 1,000 to 2,000 words per +minute. + +Upon the completion of the wire to Chicago, total distance 1,050 miles, +including six miles of No. 8 iron wire through the city, the maximum +speed was found to be 1,200 words per minute, and to my surprise the +speed was not affected by the substitution of an underground conductor +for the overhead wire. + +The underground conductor was a No. 16 copper wire weighing 67 pounds +per mile, in a Patterson cable laid through an iron pipe. + +I used 150 cells of large Fuller battery on the New York-Chicago +circuit, and afterward with 200 cells in first class condition, +transmitted 1,500 words, or 37,000 impulses, per minute from 49 +Broadway, New York, to our test office at Thirty-ninth Street, Chicago. + +The matter was always carefully counted, and the utmost care taken to +obtain correct figures. + +It may be mentioned as a curious fact that we not only send 1,200 words +per minute through 1,050 miles of overhead wire and five miles of +underground cable, but also through a second conductor in No. 2 cable +back to Thirty-ninth Street, and then connected to a third underground +conductor in No. 1 cable back to Chicago main office, in all about +fifteen miles of underground, through which we sent 1,200 words per +minute and had a splendid margin.--_Electrical World_. + + * * * * * + +[ELECTRICAL REVIEW]. + + + + +THEORY OF THE ACTION OF THE CARBON MICROPHONE--WHAT IS IT? + + +A careful examination of the opinions of scientific men given in the +telephone cases--before Lord McLaren in Edinburgh and before Mr. Justice +Fry in London--leads me to the conclusion that scientific men, at least +those whose opinions I shall quote, are not agreed as to what is the +action of the carbon microphone. + +In the Edinburgh case, Sir Frederick Bramwell said: "The variations of +the currents are effected so as to produce with remarkable fidelity the +varied changes which occur, according as the carbon is compressed or +relieved from compression by the gentle impacts of the air set in motion +by the voice." + +"The most prominent quality of carbon is its capability, under the most +minute differences of pressure, to enormously increase or decrease the +resistances of the circuit." "That the varying pressure of the black +tension-regulator (Edison's) is sufficient to cause a change in the +conducting power." Sir Frederick also said "he could not believe that +the resistance was varied by a jolting motion; could not conceive a +jolting motion producing variation and difference of pressure, and such +an instrument could not be relied on, and therefore would be practically +useless." + +Sir William Thomson, in the same case, said: "The function of the carbon +is to give rise to diminished resistance by pressure; it possesses the +quality of, under slight degrees of pressure, decreasing the resistance +to the passage of the electric current;" and, also, "the jolting motion +would be a make-and-break, and the articulate sounds would be impaired. +There can be no virtue in a speaking telephone having a jolting motion." +"Delicacy of contact is a virtue; looseness of contact is a vice." +"Looseness of contact is a great virtue in Hughes' microphone;" and "the +elements which work advantages in Hughes' are detrimental to the good +working of the articulating instrument." + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +Mr. Falconer King said: "There would be no advantage in having a jolting +motion; the jolting motion would break the circuit and be a defect in +the speaking telephone," and "you must have pressure and partially +conducting substances." + +Professor Fleeming Jenkin said, "The pressure of the carbons is what +favors the transmission of sound." + +All the above named scientific men agree that variations of a current +passing through a carbon microphone are produced by _pressure_ of the +carbons against one another, and they also agree that a jolting motion +could not be relied upon to reproduce articulate speech. + +Mr. Conrad Cooke said, "The first and most striking principle of Hughes' +microphone is a shaking and variable contact between the two parts +constituting the microphone." "The shaking and variable contact is +produced by the movable portion being effected by sound." "Under Hughes' +system, where gas carbon was used, the instruments could not possibly +work upon the principle of pressure." "I am satisfied that it is not +pressure in the sense of producing a change of resistance." "I do not +think pressure has anything to do with it." + +Professor Blyth said: "The Hughes microphone depends essentially upon +the looseness or delicacy of contact." "I have heard articulate speech +with such an instrument without a diaphragm." "There is no doubt that to +a certain extent there must be a change in the number of points of +surface contact when the pencil is moved." "The action of the Hughes +microphone depends more or less upon the looseness or delicacy of the +contact and upon the changes in the number of points of surface contact +when the pencil is moved." + +Mr. Oliver Heaviside, in _The Electrician_ of 10th February last, +writes: "There should be no jolting or scraping." "Contacts, though +light, should not be loose." + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +A writer, who signs "W.E.H.," in _The Electrician_ of 24th February +last, says: "The variation of current arises from a variation of +conductivity between the electrodes, consequent upon the variation of +the closeness or pressure of contact;" and also, "there must be a +variation of pressure between the electrodes when the transmitter is in +action." + +It seems, then, that some scientific men agree that variation of +pressure is required to produce action in a microphone, and some of them +admit that a microphone with loose contacts will transmit articulate +speech, while others deny it, and some admit that a jolting or shaking +motion of the parts of the microphone does not interfere with articulate +speech, while others say such motion would break the circuit, and cannot +be relied on. + +I will now describe two microphones in which there is a shaking or +jolting motion, and loose contacts, and no variation of pressure of the +carbons against one another, and both of these microphones when used +with an induction coil and battery give most excellent articulation. One +of these microphones is made as follows: Two flat plates of carbon are +secured to a block of cork, insulated from each other; into a hole of +each carbon a pin of carbon fits loosely, projecting above the carbons; +another flat piece of carbon, having two holes in it, bridges over the +two lower carbons, being kept in its place by the pins of carbon which +fit loosely in the holes in it, the bottom carbons being connected with +the battery; a block of cork has a flat side of it cut out so as when +secured to the lower cork the carbons will not come in contact with it, +yet be close enough to it to keep the carbons from falling apart. The +cork covering the carbons forms a dome. + +Any good telephone receiver when used in connection with this +microphone, reproduces articulate speech with remarkable distinctness, +especially hissing sounds, and with a loud and full tone. + +A description of this microphone was published in _La Lumiere +Electrique_, of 15th April, 1882, and a drawing thereof on 29th April of +same year. + +Another form of microphone is made as follows: Two blocks of gas carbon, +C, B, each about one and a half inches long and one inch square, having +each a circular hole one and a quarter inches deep and half inch in +diameter; these two blocks are embedded in a block of cork, C, about +one-quarter of an inch apart, these holes facing each other, each block +forming a terminal of the battery and induction coil; a pencil of +carbon, C, P, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and two inches +long, having a ring of ebonite, V, fixed around its center, is placed in +the holes of the two fixed blocks; the ebonite ring fitting loosely in +between the two blocks so as to prevent the pencil from touching the +bottom of the holes in the blocks. The space between the blocks is +closed with wax, W, to exclude the air, but not to touch the ring on the +pencil. A block of cork fitting close to the carbon blocks on all sides +is then firmly secured to the other block of cork. The microphone should +lie horizontally or at a slight angle. + +This microphone produces in any good telephone perfect articulation in a +loud and full tone. In these microphones there is certainly "looseness +and delicacy of contact," and there is a "jolting or shaking motion," +and it does not seem possible that there can be any "pressure of one +carbon against another." + +I repeat the question I asked at the beginning of this communication, +and hope that it may elicit from you, or some of our scientific men, an +explanation of the theory of the action of this form of microphone. + +W.C. BARNEY. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DEMBINSKI MICROPHONIC TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER. + + +This apparatus, which is shown by Figs. 1, 2, and 3, consists of a +wooden case, A, of oblong shape, closed by a lid fixed by hinges to the +top or one side of the case. The lid is actually a frame for holding a +piece of wire gauze, L L, through which the sound waves from the voice +can pass. In the case a flat shallow box, E F (or several boxes), is +placed, on the lid of which the carbon microphone, D C (Figs. 1 and 3), +which is of the ordinary construction, is placed. The box is of thin +wood, coated inside with petroleum lamp black, for the purpose of +increasing the resonance. It is secured in two lateral slides, fixed to +the case. The bottom of the box is pierced with two openings, resembling +those in a violin (Fig. 2). Lengthwise across the bottom are stretched a +series of brass spiral springs, G G G, which are tuned to a chromatic +scale. On the bottom of the case a similar series of springs, not shown, +are secured. The apparatus is provided with an induction coil, J, which +is connected to the microphone, battery, and telephone receiver (which +may be of any known description) in the usual manner. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +The inventors claim that the use of the vibrating springs give to the +transmitter an increased power over those at present in use. They state +that the instrument has given very satisfactory results between Ostende +and Arlon, a distance of 314 kilometers (about 200 miles). It does not +appear, however, that microphones of the ordinary Gower-Bell type, for +example, were tried in competition with the new invention, and in the +absence of such tests the mere fact that very satisfactory results were +obtained over a length of 200 miles proves very little. With reference +to a statement that whistling could be very clearly heard, we may remark +that experience has many times proved that the most indifferent form of +transmitter will almost always respond well and even powerfully to such +forms of vibration.--_Electrical Review_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GAS LIGHTERS. + + +We are going to make known to our readers two new styles of electric +lighters whose operation is sure and quick, and the use of which is just +as economical as that of those quasi-incombustible little pieces of wood +that we have been using for some years under the name of matches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--MODE OF USING THE GAS LIGHTER.] + +The first of these is a portable apparatus designed for lighting gas +burners, and is based upon the calorific properties of the electric +spark produced by the induction bobbin. Its internal arrangement is such +as to permit of its being used with a pile of very limited power and +dimensions. The apparatus has the form of a rod of a length that may be +varied at will, according to the height of the burner to be lighted, and +which terminates at its lower part in an ebonite handle about 4 +centimeters in width by 20 in length (Fig. 1). This handle is divided +into two parts, which are shown isolatedly in Fig. 2, and contains the +pile and bobbin. The arrangement of the pile, A, is kept secret, and all +that we can say of it is that zinc and chloride of silver are employed +as a depolarizer. It is hermetically closed, and carries at one of its +extremities a disk, B, and a brass ring, C, attached to its poles and +designed to establish a communication between the pile and bobbin when +the two parts of the apparatus are screwed together. To this end, two +elastic pieces, D and E, fit against B and C and establish a contact. It +is asserted that the pile is capable of being used 25,000 times before +it is necessary to recharge it. H is an ebonite tube that incloses and +protects the induction bobbin, K, whose induced wire communicates on the +one hand with the brass tube, L, and on the other with an insulated +central conductor, M, which terminates at a point very near the +extremity of the brass tube. The currents induced in this wire produce a +series of sparks between the tube, L, and the rod, M, which light the +gas when the extremity of the apparatus is placed in proximity with the +burner. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. MECHANISM OR THE INDUCTION SPARK GAS LIGHTER.] + +The ingenious and new part of the system lies in the mode of exciting +the induced currents. When the extremity of the tube, L, is brought near +the gas burner that is to be lighted, it is only necessary to shove the +botton, F, from left to right in order to produce a _limited_ number of +sparks sufficient to effect the lighting. The motion of the button has +not for effect, as might be believed, the closing of the circuit of the +pile upon the inducting circuit of the bobbin. In fact in its normal +position, the vibrator is distant from its contact, and the closing of +the circuit would produce no action. The motion of F produces a +_mechanical_ motion of the spring of the vibrator, which latter acts for +a few instants and produces a certain number of contacts that give rise +to an equal number of sparks. Owing to this arrangement, the expenditure +of electric energy required by each lighting is limited; and, an another +hand, the vibrator, which would be incapable of operating if it had to +be set in motion by the direct current from the pile, can be actuated +_mechanically_. As the motion of the vibrator is derived from the hand +of the operator, and not from the pile, it will be comprehended that the +latter can, everything being equal, produce a larger number of lightings +than an ordinary bobbin and vibrator. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--INCANDESCENT GAS LIGHTER.] + +Dr. Naret's _Fiat Lux_ (Fig. 3) is simpler in its operation, and cheaper +of application, since it takes its current from the ordinary piles that +supply domestic call-bells. It consists essentially of a fine platinum +wire supported by a tilting device in connection with the two poles of a +pile composed of three Leclanche elements. Upon exerting a vertical +pressure on the button placed to the left of the apparatus, either +directly or by means of a cord, we at the same time turn the cock and +cause the platinum spiral to approach, and the latter then becomes +incandescent as a consequence of the closing of the circuit of the pile. +After the burner is lighted it is only necessary to leave the apparatus +to itself. The cock remains open, the spiral recedes from the burner, +the circuit opens anew, and the burner remains lighted until the gas is +turned off. This device, then, is particularly appropriate in all cases +where there is a pressing need of light, for a single maneuver suffices +to open the cock and effect a lighting of the burner.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT WHICH IS DEVELOPED BY FORGING. + + +On the 8th of June. 1874, Tresca presented to the French Academy some +considerations respecting the distribution of heat in forging a bar of +platinum, and stated the principal reasons which rendered that metal +especially suitable for the purpose. He subsequently experimented, in a +similar way, with other metals, and finally adopted Senarmont's method +for the study of conductibility. A steel or copper bar was carefully +polished on its lateral faces, and the polished portion covered with a +thin coat of wax. The bar thus prepared was placed under a ram, of known +weight, P, which was raised to a height, H, where it was automatically +released so as to expend upon the bar the whole quantity of work _T=PH,_ +between the two equal faces of the ram and the anvil. A single shock +sufficed to melt the wax upon a certain zone and thus to limit, with +great sharpness, the part of the lateral faces which had been raised +during the shock to the temperature of melting wax. Generally the zone +of fusion imitates the area comprised between the two branches of an +equilateral hyperbola, but the fall can be so graduated as to restrict +this zone, which then takes other forms, somewhat different, but always +symmetrical. If A is the area of this zone, b the breadth of the bar, d +the density of the metal, c its capacity for heat, and t-t0 the excess +of the melting temperature of wax over the surrounding temperature, it +is evident that, if we consider A as the base of a horizontal prism +which is raised to the temperature t, the calorific effect may be +expressed by: + + Ab x d x C(t-t0); + +and on multiplying this quantity of heat by 425 we find, for the value +of its equivalent in work, + + T' = 425 AbdC(t-t0). + +On comparing T' to T we may consider the experiment as a mechanical +operation, having a minimum of: + + T'/T = (425/PH)AbdC(t-t0). + +After giving diagrams and tables to illustrate the geometrical +disposition of the areas of fusion, Tresca feels justified in concluding +that the development of heat depends upon the form of the faces and the +intensity of the shock; that the points of greatest heat correspond to +the points of greatest flow of the metal, and that this flow is really +the mechanical phenomenon which gives rise to the calorific phenomenon; +that for action sufficiently energetic and for bars of sufficient +dimensions, about 0.8 of the labor expended on the blow may be found +again in the heat; that the figures formed in the melted wax for shocks +of less intensity furnish a kind of diagram of the distribution of the +heat and of the deformation in the interior of the bar, but that the +calculation of the coefficient of efficiency does not yield satisfactory +results in the case of moderate blows.--_Comptes Rendus_. + + * * * * * + + + + +TIN IN CANNED FOODS. + +[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, +March 5, 1884.] + +By PROFESSOR ATTFIELD, F.R.S., ETC. + + +From time to time, during the past twelve years, paragraphs have +appeared in newspapers and other periodicals tending in effect to warn +the public at least against the indiscriminate use of canned foods. And +whenever there has been any foundation in fact for such cautions, it has +commonly rested on the alleged presence and harmfulness of tin in the +food. At the worst, the amount of tin present has been absurdly small, +affording an opportunity for one literary representative of medicine to +state that before a man could be seriously affected by the tin, even if +it occurred in the form of a compound of the metal, he would have to +consume at a meal ten pounds of the food containing the largest amount +of tin ever detected. + +But the greatest proportions of tin thus referred to are, according to +my experiments, far beyond those ever likely to be actually present in +the food itself in the form of a compound of tin; present, that is to +say, on account of the action of the fluids or juices of the food on the +tin of the can. Such action and such consequent solution of the tin, and +consequent admixture of a possibly assimilable compound of tin with the +food, in my opinion never occurs to an extent which in relation to +health has any significance whatever. The occurrence of tin, not as a +compound, but as the metal itself, is, if possible, still less +important. + +During the last fifteen years I have frequently examined canned foods, +not only with respect to the food itself as food, and to the process of +canning, but with regard to the relation of the food to, or the +influence if any of the metal of, the can itself. So lately as within +the past two or three months I have examined sixteen varieties of canned +food for metals, with the following results: + + Decimal parts of + a grain of tin + (or other foreign + metal) present in + Name of article a quarter of a lb. + examined. + + Salmon none. + Lobsters none. + Oysters 0.004 + Sardines none. + Lobster paste none. + Salmon paste none. + Bloater paste 0.002 + Potted beef none. + Potted tongue none. + Potted "Strasbourg" none. + Potted ham 0.002 + Luncheon tongue 0.003 + Apricots 0.007 + Pears 0.003 + Tomatoes 0.007 + Peaches 0.004 + +These proportions of metal are, I say, undeserving of serious notice. I +question whether they represent more than the amounts of tin we +periodically wear off tin saucepans in preparing food--a month ago I +found a trace of tin in water which had been boiled in a tin kettle--or +the silver we wear off our forks and spoons. There can be little doubt +that we annually pass through our systems a sensible amount of such +metals, metallic compounds, and other substances that do not come under +the denomination of food; but there is no evidence that they ever did or +are ever likely to do harm or occasion us the slightest inconvenience. +Harm is far more likely to come to us from noxious gases in the air we +breathe than from foreign substances in the food we eat. + +But whence come the much less minute amounts of tin--still harmless, be +it remembered--which have been stated to be occasionally present in +canned foods? They come from the minute particles of metal chipped off +from the tin sheets in the operations of cutting, bending, or hammering +the parts of the can, or possibly melted off in the operations necessary +for the soldering together of the joints of the can. Some may, perhaps, +be cut, off by the knife in opening a can. At all events I not +unfrequently find such minute particles of metal on carefully washing +the external surfaces of a mass of meat just removed from a can, or on +otherwise properly treating canned food with the object of detecting +such particles. The published processes for the detection of tin in +canned food will not reveal more than the amounts stated in the table, +or about those amounts; that is to say, a few thousandths or perhaps two +or three hundredths of a grain, if this precaution be adopted. If such +care be not observed, the less minute amounts may be found. I did not +detect any metallic particles in the twelve samples of canned food just +mentioned, but during the past few years I have occasionally found small +pieces of metal, perhaps amounting in some of the cases to a few tenths +of a grain per pound. Now and then small shot-like pieces of tin, or +possibly solder, may be met with; but no one has ever found, to my +knowledge, such a quantity of actual metallic tin, tinned iron, or +solder as, from the point of view of health, can have any significance +whatever. + +The largest amount of tin I ever detected in actual solution in food was +in some canned soup, containing a good deal of lemon juice. It amounted +to only three-hundredths of a grain in a half pint of the soup as sent +to table. Now, Christison says that quantities of 18 to 44 grains of the +very soluble chloride of tin were required to kill dogs in from one to +four days. Orfila says that several persons on one occasion dressed +their dinner with chloride of tin, mistaking it for salt. One person +would thus take not less than 20 to 30 grains of this soluble compound +of tin. Yet only a little gastric and bowel disturbance followed, and +from this all recovered in a few days. Pereira says that the dose of +chloride of tin as an antispasmodic and stimulant is from 1/16 to 1/2 a +grain repeated two or three times daily. Probably no article of canned +food, not even the most acid fruit, if in a condition in which it can be +eaten, has ever contained, in an ordinary table portion, as much of a +soluble salt of tin as would amount to a harmless or useful medicinal +dose. + +Metallic particles of tin are without any effect on man. A thousand +times the quantity ever found in a can of tinned food would do no harm. + +Food as acid as say ordinary pickles would dissolve tin. Some +manufacturers once proposed using tin stoppers to their bottles of +pickles. But the tin was slowly dissolved by the acid of the vinegar. +These pickles, however, had a distinctly nasty "metallic" flavor. The +idea was abandoned. Probably any article of food containing enough tin +to disagree with the system would be too nasty to eat. Purchasers of +food may rest assured that the action taken by this firm would be that +usually followed. It is not to the interest of manufacturers or other +venders to offend the senses of purchasers, still less to do them actual +harm, even if no higher motive comes into force. + +In the early days of canning, it is just possible that the use of +"spirits of salt" in soldering may have resulted in the presence of a +little stannous, plumbous, or other chloride in canned food; but such a +fault would soon be detected and corrected, and as a matter of fact, +resin-soldering is to my knowledge more generally employed--indeed, for +anything I know to the contrary, is exclusively employed--in canning +food. Any resin that trained access would be perfectly harmless. It is +just possible, also, that formerly the tin itself may have contained +lead, but I have not found any lead in the sheet tin used for canning of +late years. + +In conclusion: 1. I have never been able to satisfy myself that a can of +ordinary tinned food contains even a useful medicinal dose of such a +true soluble _compound_ of tin as is likely to have any effect on man. +2. As for the metal itself, that is the filings or actual metallic +particles or fragments, one ounce is a common dose as a vermifuge; +harmless even in that quantity to man, and not always so harmful as +could be desired to the parasites for whose disestablishment it is +administered. One ounce might be contained in about four hundredweight +of canned food. 3. If a possibly harmful quantity of a soluble compound, +of tin be placed in a portion of canned food, the latter will be so +nasty and so unlike any ordinary nasty flavor, so "metallic," in fact, +that no sane person will eat it. 4. Respecting the globules of solder +(lead and tin) that are occasionally met with in canned food, I believe +most persons detect them in the mouth and remove them, as they would +shots in game. But if swallowed, they do no harm. Pereira says that +metallic lead is probably inert, and that nearly a quarter of a pound +has been administered to a dog without any obvious effects. He goes on +to say that as it becomes oxidized it occasionally acquires activity, +quoting Paulini's statement that colic was produced in a patient who had +swallowed a leaden bullet. To allay alarm in the minds of those who fear +they might swallow pellets of solder, I may add that Pereira cites +Proust for the assurance that an alloy of tin and lead is less easily +oxidized than pure lead. 5. Unsoundness in meat does not appear to +promote the corrosion or solution of tin. I have kept salmon in cans +till it was putrid, testing it occasionally for tin. No trace of tin was +detected. Nevertheless, food should not be allowed to remain for a few +days, or even hours, in saucepans, metal baking pans, or opened tins or +cans, otherwise it _may_ taste metallic. 6. Unsound food, canned or +uncanned, may, of course, injure health, and where canned food really +has done harm, the harm has in all probability been due to the food and +not to the can. 7. What has been termed idiosyncrasy must also be borne +in mind. I know a man to whom oatmeal is a poison. Some people cannot +eat lobsters, either fresh or tinned. Serious results have followed the +eating of not only oatmeal or shell fish, but salmon and mutton; +_hydrate_ (misreported _nitrate_) of tin being gratuitously suggested as +being contained in the salmon in one case. Possibly there were cases of +idiosyncrasy in the eater, possibly the food was unsound, possibly other +causes altogether led to the results, but certainly, to my mind, the tin +had nothing whatever to do with the matter. + +In my opinion, given after well weighing all evidence hitherto +forthcoming, the public have not the faintest cause for alarm respecting +the occurrence of tin, lead, or any other metal in canned foods.--_Phar. +Jour, and Trans., March 8, 1884, p. 719_. + +[In reference to Prof. Attfield's statement contained in the closing +paragraph, we remark: It is well known that mercury is an ingredient of +the solder used in some canning concerns, as it makes an easier melting +and flowing solder. In THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN for May 27, 1876, in a +report of the proceedings of the New York Academy of Science, will be +seen the statement of Prof. Falke, who found metallic mercury in a can +of preserved corn beef, together with a considerable quantity of +albuminate of mercury.--EDS. S.A.] + + * * * * * + + + + +VILLA AT DORKING. + + +The house shown in the illustration was lately erected from the designs +of Mr. Charles Bell, F.R.I.B.A. Although sufficiently commodious, the +cost has been only about 1,050_l_.--_The Architect_. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHTECTURE.--AN ENGLISH COTTAGE. COST, +$5,250.] + + * * * * * + +Valerianate of cerium in the vomiting of pregnancy is recommended by Dr. +Blondeau in a communication to the _Societe de Therapeutique_. He gives +it in doses of 10 centigrammes three times a day.--_Medical Record_. + + * * * * * + + +[Illustration: ARM CHAIR IN THE LOUVRE COLLECTION, PARIS; FLENISH +RENAISSANCE.--_From The Workshop._] + + * * * * * + + + + +TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA. + + +If there is one point more than another in which the exuberant youth and +vitality of the American nation is visible it is in that of education, +the provision for which is on a most generous scale, carried out with a +determination at which the older countries of the Eastern Hemisphere +have only arrived by slow degrees and painful experience. Of course the +Americans, being young, and having come to the fore, so to speak, +full-fledged, have been able to profit by the lessons which they have +derived from their neighbors--though it is none the less to their credit +that they have profited so well and so quickly. Technical and industrial +education has received a more general recognition, and been developed +more rapidly, than the general education of the country, partly for the +reason that there is no uniform system of the latter throughout the +States, but that each individual State and Territory does that which is +right in its own eyes. The principal reason, however, is that to possess +the knowledge, how to work is the first creed of the American, who +considers that the right to obtain that knowledge is the birthright of +every citizen, and especially when the manual labor has to be +supplemented by a vigorous use of brains. The Americans as a rule do not +like heavy or coarse manual labor, thinking it beneath them; and, +indeed, when they can get Irish and Chinese to do it for them, perhaps +they are not far wrong. But the idea of idleness and loafing is very far +from the spirit of the country, and this is why we see the necessity for +industrial education so vigorously recognized, both as a national duty, +and by private individuals or communities of individuals. + +From whatever source it is provided, technical education in the United +States comes mainly within the scope of two classes of institutions, +viz., agricultural and mechanical colleges; although the two are, as +often as not, combined under one establishment, and particularly it +forms the subject of a national grant. Indeed, it may be said that the +scope of industrial education embraces three classes: the farmer, the +mechanic, and the housekeeper; and in the far West we find that +provision is made for the education of these three classes in the same +schools, it being an accepted idea in the newer States that man and +woman (the housekeeper) are coworkers, and are, therefore, entitled to +equal and similar educational privileges. On the other hand, in the more +conservative East and South, we find that the sexes are educated +distinct from each other. In the East, there is generally, also, a +separation of subjects. In Massachusetts, for instance, the colleges of +agriculture and mechanics are separate affairs, the students being +taught in different institutions, viz., the agricultural college and the +institute of technology. In Missouri the separation is less defined, the +School of Mines and Metallurgy being the, only part that is distinct +from the other departments of the University. + +One of the chief reasons for the necessity for hastening the extension +of technical education in America was the almost entire disappearance of +the apprenticeship system, which, in itself, is mainly due to the +subdivision of labor so prevalent in the manufacture of everything, from +pins to locomotives. The increased use of machinery, the character of +which is such as often to put an end to small enterprises, has promoted +this subdivision by accumulating workmen in large groups. The beginner, +confining himself to one department, is soon able to earn wages, and so +he usually continues as he begins. Mr. C.B. Stetson has written on this +subject with great force and earnestness, and it will not be amiss to +quote a sentence as to the advantages enjoyed by the technically +workman. He says that "it is the rude or dexterous workman, rather than +the really skilled one, who is supplanted by machinery. Skilled labor +requires thinking; but a machine never thinks, never judges, never +discriminates. Though its employment does, indeed, enable rude laborers +to do many things now which formerly could only be done by dexterous +workmen, it is clear that its use has decidedly increased the relative +demand for skilled labor as compared with unskilled, and there is +abundant room for an additional increase, if it is true, as declared by +the most eminent authority, that the power now expended can be readily +made to yield three or four times its present results, and ultimately +ten or twenty times, when masters and workmen can be had with sufficient +intelligence and skill for the direction and manipulation of the tools +and machinery that would be invented." + +The establishment of colleges and universities by the aid of national +grants has depended very much for their character upon the industrial +tendencies of the respective States, it being understood that the land +grants have principally been given to those of the newer States and +Territories which required development, although some of the +institutions of the older States on the Atlantic seaboard have also been +recipients of the same fund, which in itself only dates from an act of +Congress in 1862. In California and Missouri, both States abounding in +mineral resources, there are courses in mining and metallurgy provided +in the institutions receiving national aid. In the great grain-producing +sections of the Mississippi Valley the colleges are principally devoted +to agriculture, whereas the characteristic feature of the Iowa and +Kansas schools is the prominence given to industries. + +We need not devote attention to the aims and arrangements of the +agricultural colleges proper, but will pass at once to those which deal +with the mechanical arts, dealing first of all with those that are +assisted by the national land grant. Taking them alphabetically, we have +first the State Agricultural College of Colorado, in the mechanical and +drawing department of which shops for bench work in wood and iron and +for forging have been recently erected, this institution being one of +the newest in America. In the Illinois Industrial University the student +of mechanical engineering receives practice in five shops devoted to +pattern-making, blacksmithing, moulding and founding, benchwork for +iron, and machine tool-work for iron. In the first shop the practice +consists of planing, chiseling, turning, and the preparation of patterns +for casting. The ordinary blacksmithing operations take place in the +second shop, and those of casting in the third. In the fourth there is, +first of all, a course of freehand benchwork, and afterward the fitting +of parts is undertaken. In the fifth shop all the fundamental operations +on iron by machinery are practiced, the actual work being carefully +outlined beforehand by drawings. This department of the University +consists, in point of fact, of three separate schools, destined to +qualify the student for every kind of engineering--mining, railway, +mechanical, and architectural. In addition to the shops and machine +rooms, there are well furnished cabinets of geological and mineralogical +specimens, chemical laboratories for assaying and metallurgy, stamp +mill, furnaces, etc., and, in fact, every known vehicle for practical +instruction. The school of architecture prepares students for the +building profession. Among the subjects in this branch are office work +and shop practice, constructing joints in carpentry and joinery, cabinet +making and turning, together with modeling in clay. The courses in +mathematics, mechanics and physics are the same as those in the +engineering school; but the technical studies embrace drawing from +casts, wood, stone, brick, and iron construction, turners' work, +slating, plastering, painting, and plumbing, architectural drawing and +designing, the history and aesthetics of architecture, estimates, +agreements specification, heating, lighting, draining, and ventilation. +The student's work from scale drawing occupies three terms, carpentry +and joinery being taught in the first year, turning and cabinet making +in the second, metal and stone work in the third. A more condensed +course, known as the builder's course, is given to those who can only +stop one year. The machine shop has a steam engine of 16 horse power, +two engines and three plain lathes, a planer, a large drill press, a +pattern shop, a blacksmith's shop, all of the machinery having been +built on the spot. The carpenter's shop is likewise supplied with +necessary machine tools, such as saws, planers, tenoning machine, +whittlers, etc., the power being furnished by the machine shop. At the +date of the last University report, there were 41 students in the +courses of mechanical engineering, 41 in those of civil engineering, 3 +in mining engineering, and 14 in architecture. Tuition is free in all +the University classes, though each student has to pay a matriculation +fee of $10, and the incidental expenses amount to about $23 annually. He +is charged for material used or apparatus broken, but not for the +ordinary wear and tear of instruments. It should be mentioned that the +endowment of the Illinois Industrial University is from scrip received +from the Government for 480,000 acres of land, of which 454,460 have +been sold for $319,178. The real estate of the University, partly made +up by donations and partly by appropriations made in successive sessions +by the State of Illinois, is estimated at $450,000. + +The Purdue University in Indiana, named after its founder, who gave +$150,000, which was supplemented by another $50,000 from the State and a +bond grant of 390,000 acres, also provides a very complete mechanical +course, with shop instruction, divided as follows: + + Bench working in wood for 12 weeks, or 120 hours. + Wood-turning " 4 " " 40 " + Pattern-making " 12 " " 120 " + Vise-work in iron " 10 " " 100 " + Forging in iron and steel " 18 " " 180 " + Machine tool-work in iron " 20 " " 200 " + +The course in carpentry and joinery embraces: 1. Exercising in sawing +and planing to dimensions. 2 Application, or box nailed together. 3 +Mortise and tenon joints; a plain mortise and tenon; an open dovetailed +mortise and tenon (dovetailed halving); a dovetailed keyed mortise and +tenon. 4. Splices. 5. Common dovetailing. 6. Lap dovetailing and +rabbeting. 7. Blind or secret dovetail. 8. Miter-box. 9. Carpenter's +trestle. 10. Panel door. 11. Roof truss. 12. Section of king-post truss +roof. 13. Drawing model. + +The course in wood turning includes: 1. Elementary principles: first, +straight turning; second, cutting in; third, convex curves with the +chisel; fourth, compound curves formed with the gouge. 2. File and +chisel handles. 3. Mallets. 4. Picture frames (chuck work). 5. Card +receiver (chuck work). 6. Watch safe (chuck work). 7. Ball. + +In the pattern-making course the student is supposed to have some skill +in bench and lathe work, which will be increased; the direct object +being to teach what forms of pattern are in general necessary, and how +they must be constructed in order to get a perfect mould from them. The +character of the work differs each year. For instance, for the last +year, besides simpler patterns easily drawn from the sand, such as +glands, ball-cranks, etc., there were a series of flanged pipe-joints +for 21/2 in. pipes, including the necessary core boxes; also pulley +patterns from 6 in. to 10 in. diameter, built in segments for strength, +and to prevent warping and shrinkage; and, lastly, a complete set of +patterns for a three horse-power horizontal steam engine, all made from +drawings of the finished piece. In the vise work in iron, the chief +requirements are these: 1, given a block of cast iron 4 in. by 2 in. by +11/2 in. in thickness, to reduce the thickness 1/4 in. by chipping, and then +finishing with the file; 2, to file a round hole square; 3, to file a +round hole into elliptical; 4, given a 3 in. cube of wrought iron, to +cut a spline 3 in. by 3/8 in. by 1/4 in., and second, when the under side +is a one half round hollow--these two cuts involve the use of the cope +chisel and the round nose chisel, and are examples of very difficult +chipping; 5, round tiling or hand-vise work; 6, scraping; 7, special +examples of fitting. In the forging classes are elementary processes, +driving, bending, and upsetting; courses in welding; miscellaneous +forging; steel forging, including hardening and tempering in all its +details. + +It is worth mentioning that in the industrial art school of the Purdue +University there were 13 of the fair sex as students, besides one in the +chemical school, and two going through the mechanical courses just +detailed, showing that the scope of woman's industry is less limited in +America than in England. The Iowa State Agricultural College has also +two departments of mechanical and civil engineering, the former +including a special course of architecture. The workshop practice, which +occupies three forenoons of 21/2 hours each per week, is, however, of more +general character, and is not pursued with such a regard to any special +calling as in the case of the Purdue University. + +The Kansas State Agricultural College has a course of carpentry, though +designed rather more to meet the everyday necessities of a farmer's +life. In fact, all the students are obliged to attend these classes, and +take the same first lessons in sawing, planing, lumber dressing, making +mortises, tenons, and joints, and in general use of tools--just the kind +of instruction that every English lad should have before he is shipped +off to the Colonies. This farmer's course in the Kansas College provides +for a general training in mechanical handiwork, but facilities are given +also to those who wish to follow out the trade, and special instruction +is provided in the whole range of work, from framing to stair-building, +as also in iron work, such as ordinary forging, filing, tempering, etc. +Of the students attending this college, 75 percent, are from farmers' +homes, and the majority of the remainder from the families of mechanics +and tradesmen. + +The State College of Maine provides courses for both civil and +mechanical engineers, and has two shops equipped according to the +Russian system. Forge and vise work are taught in them, though it is not +the object of the college so much to teach the details of any one trade +as to qualify students by general knowledge to undertake any of them +afterward. A much more complete and thorough technical education is +given in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Boston, where +there are distinct classes for civil, mechanical, mining, geological, +and architectural engineering. The following are the particulars of the +instruction in the architectural branch, which commences in the +student's second year, with Greek, Roman, and Mediaeval architectural +history, the Orders and their applications, drawing, sketching, and +tracing, analytic geometry, differential calculus, physics, descriptive +geometry, botany, and physical geography. In the third year the course +is extended to the theory of decoration, color, form, and proportion; +conventionalism, symbolism, the decorative arts, stained glass, fresco +painting, tiles, terra-cotta, original designs, specifications, integral +calculus, strength of materials, dynamics, bridges and roofs, +stereotomy. In the fourth year the student is turned out a finished +architect, after a course of the history of ornament, the theory of +architecture, stability of structure, flow of gases, shopwork +(carpentry), etc. + +The number of students in this very comprehensive Institute of +Technology was, by the latest report, 390, of whom 138 were undergoing +special courses, 39 were in the schools of mechanical art, and 49 in the +Lowell School of Practical Design. Tuition is charged at the rate of 200 +dols. for the institute proper, and 150 dols. for the mechanical +schools, the average expenses per student being about 254 dols. There +are 10 free scholarships, of which two are given for mechanical art. The +Lowell School has been established by the trustee of the Lowell +Institute to afford free technical education, under the auspices of the +Institute of Technology, to both sexes--a large number of young women +availing themselves of it in connection with their factory work at +Lowell. The courses include practical designs for manufactures, and the +art of making patterns for prints, delaines, silks, paperhangings, +carpets, oilcloth, etc., and the school is amply provided with pattern +looms. Indeed, the whole of the appliances for practical teaching at the +Institute are on such a complete scale that at the risk of being a +little tedious it is as well to enumerate them. They comprise +laboratories devoted to chemistry, mineralogy, metallurgy, and +industrial chemistry; there are also microscopic, spectroscopic, and +organic laboratories. In other branches there are laboratories and +museums of steam engineering, mining, and metallurgy, biology and +architecture, together with an observatory, much used in connection with +geodesy and practical astronomy. The steam engineering laboratory +provides practice in testing, adjusting, and managing steam machinery. +The appliances in connection with mining and metallurgy include a +five-stamp battery, Blake crusher, automatic machine jigs, an engine +pulverizer, a Root and a Sturtevant blower, with blast reverberating, +wasting, cupellation, and fusion furnaces, and all other means for +reducing ores. The architectural museum contains many thousand casts, +models, photographs, and drawings. The shops for handwork are large and +well arranged, and include a vise-shop, forge shop, machine, tool, and +lathe shops, foundry, rooms for pattern making, weaving, and other +industrial institutions. The vise-shop contains four heavy benches, with +32 vises attached, giving a capacity for teaching 128 students the +course every ten weeks, or 640 in a year of fifty weeks. The forge-shop +has eight forges. The foundry has 16 moulding benches, an oven for core +baking, and a blast furnace of one-half ton capacity. The +pattern-weaving room is provided with five looms, one of them in +20-harness, and 4-shuttle looms, and another an improved Jacquard +pattern loom. It may safely be said that there is nor an establishment +in the world better equipped for industrial and technical education than +this Institute of Massachusetts.--_London Building News_. + + * * * * * + +IVORY GETTING SCARCE.--The stock of ivory in London is estimated at +about forty tons in dealers' private warehouses, whereas formerly they +usually held about one hundred tons. One fourth of all imported into +England goes to the Sheffield cutlers. No really satisfactory substitute +for ivory has been found, and millions await the discoverer of one. The +existing substitutes will not take the needed polish. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ANAESTHETICS OF JUGGLERS. + + +Fakirs are religious mendicants who, for the purpose of exciting the +charity of the public, assume positions in which it would seem +impossible that they could remain, submit themselves to fearful +tortures, or else, by their mode of living, their abstinence, and their +indifference to inclement weather and to external things, try to make +believe that, owing to their sanctity, they are of a species superior to +that of common mortals. + +In the Indies, these fakirs visit all the great markets, all religious +fetes, and usually all kinds of assemblages, in order to exhibit, +themselves. If one of them exhibits some new peculiarity, some curious +deformity, a strange posture, or, finally, any physiological curiosity +whatever that surpasses those of his confreres, he becomes the +attraction of the fete, and the crowd surrounds him, and small coin and +rupees begin to fall into his bowl. + +Fakirs, like all persons who voluntarily torture themselves, are curious +examples of the modifications that will, patience, and, so to speak, +"art" can introduce into human nature, and into the sensitiveness and +functions of the organs. If these latter are capable of being improved, +of having their functions developed and of acquiring more strength (as, +for example, the muscles of boxers, the breast of foot racers, the voice +of singers, etc.), these same organs, on the contrary, can be atrophied +or modified, and their functions be changed in nature. It is in such +degradation and such degeneration of human nature that fakirs excel, and +it is from such a point of view that they are worth studying. + +We may, so to speak, class these individuals according to the grades of +punishments that they inflict upon themselves, or according to the +deformities that they have caused themselves to undergo. But, as we have +already said, the number of both of these is extremely varied, each +fakir striving in this respect to eclipse his fellows. It is only +necessary to open a book of Indian travel to find descriptions of fakirs +in abundance; and such descriptions might seem exaggerated or unlikely +were they not so concordant. The following are a few examples: + +_Immovable fakirs_.--The number of these is large. They remain immovable +in the spot they have selected, and that too for an exceedingly long +period of time. An example of one of these is cited who remained +standing for twelve years, his arms crossed upon his breast, without +moving and without lying or sitting down. In such cases charitable +persons always take it upon themselves to prevent the fakir from dying +of starvation. Some remain sitting, immovable, and apparently lifeless, +while others, who lie stretched out upon the ground, look like corpses. +It may be easily imagined what a state one of these beings is in after a +few months or years of immobility. He is extremely lean, his limbs are +atrophied, his body is black with filth and dust, his hair is long and +dishevelled, his beard is shaggy, his finger and toe nails have become +genuine claws, and his aspect is frightful. This, however, is a +character common to all fakirs. + +We may likewise class among the immovables those fakirs who cause +themselves to be interred up to the neck, and who remain thus with their +head sticking out of the ground either during the entire time the fair +or fete lasts or for months and years. + +_Anchylotic Fakirs_.--The number of fakirs who continue to hold one or +both arms outstretched is very large in India. The following description +of one of them is given by a traveler: "He was a goussain--a religious +mendicant--who had dishevelled hair and beard, and horrible tattooings +upon his face, and, what was most hideous, was his left arm, which, +withered and anchylosed, stuck up perpendicularly from the shoulder. His +closed hand, surrounded by straps, had been traversed by the nails, +which, continuing to grow, had bent like claws on the other side. +Finally, the hollow of this hand, which was filled with earth, served as +a pot for a small sacred myrtle." + +Other fakirs hold their two arms above their head, the hands crossed, +and remain perpetually in such a position. Others again have one or both +arms extended. Some hang by their feet from the limb of a tree by means +of a cord, and remain head downward for days at a time, with their face +uncongested and their voice clear, counting their beads and mumbling +prayers. + +One of the most remarkable peculiarities of fakirs is the faculty that +certain of them possess of remaining entirely buried in vaults and +boxes, and inclosed in bags, etc., for weeks and months, and, although +there is a certain deceit as regards the length of their absolute +abstinence, it nevertheless seems to be a demonstrated fact that, after +undergoing a peculiar treatment, they became plunged into a sort of +lethargy that allows them to remain for several days or weeks without +taking food. Certain fakirs that have been interred under such +conditions have, it appears, passed ten months or a year in their grave. + +_Tortured Fakirs_.--Fakirs that submit themselves to tortures are very +numerous. Some of them perform exercises analogous to those of the +Aissaoua. Mr. Rousselet, in his voyage to the Indies, had an opportunity +of seeing some of these at Bhopal, and the following is the picturesque +description that he gives of them: "I remarked some groups of religious +mendicants of a frightfully sinister character. They were Jogins, who, +stark naked and with dishevelled hair, were walking about, shouting, and +dancing a sort of weird dance. In the midst of their contortions they +brandished long, sharp poniards, of a special form, provided with steel +chains. From time to time, one of these hallucinated creatures would +drive the poniard into his body (principally into the sides of his +chest), into his arms, and into his legs, and would only desist when, in +order to calm his apparent fury, the idlers who were surrounding him +threw a sufficient number of pennies to him." + +At the time of the feast of the Juggernaut one sees, or rather one _did_ +see before the English somewhat humanized this ceremony, certain fakirs +suspended by their flesh from iron hooks placed along the sides of the +god's car. Others had their priests insert under their shoulder blades +two hooks, that were afterward fixed to a long pole capable of pivoting +upon a post. The fakirs were thus raised about thirty feet above ground, +and while being made to spin around very rapidly, smilingly threw +flowers to the faithful. Others, again, rolled over mattresses garnished +with nails, lance-points, poniards, and sabers, and naturally got up +bathed in blood. A large number cause 120 gashes (the sacred number) to +be made in their back and breast in honor of their god. Some pierce +their tongue with a long and narrow poniard, and remain thus exposed to +the admiration of the faithful. Finally, many of them are content to +pass points of iron or rods made of reed through folds in their skin. It +will be seen from this that fakirs are ingenious in their modes of +exciting the compassion and charity of the faithful. + +Elsewhere, among a large number of savage tribes and half-civilized +peoples, we find aspirants to the priesthood of the fetiches undergoing, +under the direction of the members of the religious caste that they +desired to enter, ordeals that are extremely painful. Now, it has been +remarked for a long time that, among the neophytes, although all are +prepared by the same hands, some undergo these ordeals without +manifesting any suffering, while others cannot stand the pain, and so +run away with fright. It has been concluded from this that the object of +such ordeals is to permit the caste to make a selection from among their +recruits, and that, too, by means of anesthetics administered to the +chosen neophytes. + +In France, during the last two centuries, when torturing the accused was +in vogue, some individuals were found to be insensible to the most +fearful tortures, and some even, who were plunged into a species of +somnolence or stupefaction, slept in the hands of the executioner. + +What are the processes that permit of such results being reached? +Evidently, we cannot know them all. A certain number are caste, sect, or +family secrets. Many are known, however, at least in a general way. The +processes naturally vary, according to the object to be attained. Some +seem to consist only in an effort of the will. Thus, those fakirs who +remain immovable have no need of any special preparation to reach such a +result, and the same is the case with those who are interred up to the +neck, the will alone sufficing. Fakirs probably pass through the same +phases that invalids do who are forced to keep perfectly quiet through a +fracture or dislocation. During the first days the organism revolts +against such inaction, the constraint is great, the muscles contract by +starts, and then the patient gets used to it; the constraint becomes +less and less, the revolt of the muscles becomes less frequent, and the +patient becomes reconciled to his immobility. It is probable that after +passing several months or years in a state of immobility fakirs no +longer experience any desire to change their position, and even did they +so desire, it would be impossible owing to the atrophy of their muscles +and the anchylosis of their joints. + +Those fakirs who remain with one or several limbs immovable and in an +abnormal position have to undergo a sort of preparation, a special +treatment; they have to enter and remain two or three mouths in a sort +of cage or frame of bamboo, the object of which is to keep the limb that +is to be immobilized in the position that it is to preserve. This +treatment, which is identical with the one employed by surgeons for +curing affections of the joints, has the effect of soldering or +anchylosing the articulation. When such a result is reached, the fakir +remains, in spite of himself and without fatigue, with outstretched +arms, and, in order to cause them to drop, he would have to undergo a +surgical operation. + +As for those voluntary tortures that cause an effusion of blood, the +insensibility of those who are the victims of it is explainable when we +reflect that _India_ is _the_ country _par excellence_ of anaesthetic +plants. It produces, notably, Indian hemp and poppy, the first of which +yields hashish and the other opium. Now it is owing to these two +narcotics, taken in a proper dose, either alone or combined according to +a formula known to Hindoo fakirs and jugglers, but ignored by the lower +class, that the former are able to become absolutely insensible +themselves or make their adepts so. + +[Illustration: INDIAN FAKIRS IN VARIOUS POSITIONS.] + +There is, especially, a liquor known in the Indian pharmacopoeia under +the name of _bang_, that produces an exciting intoxication accompanied +with complete insensibility. Now the active part of bang consists of a +mixture of opium and hashish. It was an analogous liquor that the +Brahmins made Indian widows take before leading them to the funeral +pile. This liquor removed from the victims not only all consciousness of +the act that they were accomplishing, but also rendered them insensible +to the flames. Moreover, the dose of the anaesthetic was such that if, by +accident, the widow had escaped from the pile (something that more than +once happened, thanks to English protection), she would have died +through poisoning. Some travelers in Africa speak of an herb called +_rasch_, which is the base of anaesthetic preparations employed by +certain Arabian jugglers and sorcerers. + +It was hashish that the Old Man of the Mountain, the chief of the sect +of Assassins, had recourse to for intoxicating his adepts, and it was, +it is thought, by the use of a virulent solanaceous plant--henbane, +thornapple, or belladonna--that he succeeded in rendering them +insensible. We have unfortunately lost the recipe for certain +anaesthetics that were known in ancient times, some of which, such as the +_Memphis stone_, appear to have been used in surgical operations. We are +also ignorant of what the wine of myrrh was that is spoken of in the +Bible. + +We are likewise ignorant of the composition of the anaesthetic soap, the +use of which became so general in the 15th and 16th centuries that, +according to Taboureau, it was difficult to torture persons who were +accused. The stupefying recipe was known to all jailers, who, for a +consideration, communicated it to prisoners. It was this use of +anaesthetics that gave rise to the rule of jurisprudence according to +which partial or general insensibility was regarded as a certain sign of +sorcery. We may cite a certain number of preparations, which vary +according to the country, and to which is attributed the properly of +giving courage and rendering persons insensible to wounds inflicted by +the enemy. In most cases alcohol forms the base of such beverages, +although the _maslach_ that Turkish soldiers drink just before a battle +contains none of it, on account of a religious precept. It consists of +different plant-juices, and contains, especially, a little opium. +Cossacks and Tartars, just before battle, take a fermented beverage in +which has been infused a species of toadstool (_Agaricus muscarius_), +and which renders them courageous to a high degree. + +As well known, the old soldiers of the First Empire taught the young +conscripts that in order to have courage and not feel the blows of the +enemy, it was only necessary to drink a glass of brandy into which +gunpowder had been poured.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + +[SCHOOL OF MINES QUARTERLY.] + + + + +THE DEPOSITION OF ORES. + +By J.S. NEWBERRY. + +MINERAL VEINS. + + +In the _Quarterly_ for March, 1880, a paper was published on "The Origin +and Classification of Ore Deposits," which treated, among other things, +of mineral veins. These were grouped in three categories, namely: 1. +Gash Veins; 2. Segregated Veins; 3. Fissure Veins; and were defined as +follows: + +_Gash Veins_.--Ore deposits confined to a single bed or formation of +_limestone_, of which the joints, and sometimes planes of bedding, +enlarged by the solvent power of atmospheric water carrying carbonic +acid, and forming crevices, galleries, or caves, are lined or filled +with ore leached from the surrounding rock, e.g., the lead deposits of +the Upper Mississippi and Missouri. + +_Segregated Veins_.--Sheets of quartzose matter, chiefly lenticular and +conforming to the bedding of the inclosing rocks, but sometimes filling +irregular fractures across such bedding, found only in metamorphic +rocks, limited in extent laterally and vertically, and consisting of +material indigenous to the strata in which they occur, separated in the +process of metamorphism, e.g., quartz ledges carrying gold, copper, iron +pyrites, etc., in the Alleghany Mountains, New England, Canada, etc. + +_Fissure Veins_.--Sheets of metalliferous matter filling fissures caused +by subterranean force, usually in the planes of faults, and formed by +the deposit of various minerals brought from a lower level by water, +which under pressure and at a high temperature, having great solvent +power, had become loaded with matters leached from different rocks, and +deposited them in the channels of escape as the pressure and temperature +were reduced. + +Since that article was written, a considerable portion of several years +has been spent by the writer continuing the observations upon which it +was based. During this time most of the mining centers of the Western +States and Territories, as well as some in Mexico and Canada, were +visited and studied with more or less care. Perhaps no other portion of +the earth's surface is so rich in mineral resources as that which has +been covered by these observations, and nowhere else is to be found as +great a variety of ore deposits, or those which illustrate as well their +mode of formation. This is so true that it maybe said without +exaggeration that no one can intelligently discuss the questions that +have been raised in regard to the origin and mode of formation of ore +bodies without transversing and studying the great mining belt of our +Western States and Territories. + +The observations made by the writer during the past four years confirm +in all essentials the views set forth in the former article in the +_Quarterly_, and while a volume might be written describing the +phenomena exhibited by different mines and mining districts, the array +of facts thus presented would be, for the most part, simply a +re-enforcement of those already given. + +The present article, which must necessarily be short, would hardly have +a _raison d'etre_ except that it affords an opportunity for an addition +which should be made to the classes of mineral veins heretofore +recognized in this country, and it seems called for by the recent +publication of theories on the origin of ore deposits which are +incompatible with those hitherto presented and now held by the writer, +and which, if allowed to pass unquestioned, might seem to be +unquestionable. + + +BEDDED VEINS. + +Certain ore deposits which have recently come under my observation +appear to correspond very closely with those that Von Cotta has taken as +types of his class of "bedded veins," and as no similar ones have been +noticed by American writers on ore deposits they have seemed to me +worthy of description. + +These are zones or layers of a sedimentary rock, to the bedding of which +they are conformable, impregnated with ore derived from a foreign +source, and formed long subsequent to the deposition of the containing +formation. Such deposits are exemplified by the Walker and Webster, the +Pinon, the Climax, etc., in Parley's Park, and the Green-Eyed Monster, +and the Deer Trail, at Marysvale, Utah. These are all zones in quartzite +which have been traversed by mineral solutions that have by substitution +converted such layers into ore deposits of considerable magnitude and +value. + +The ore contained in these bedded veins exhibits some variety of +composition, but where unaffected by atmospheric action consists of +argentiferous galena, iron pyrites carrying gold, or the sulphides of +zinc and copper containing silver or gold or both. The ore of the Walker +and Webster and the Pinon is chiefly lead-carbonate and galena, often +stained with copper-carbonate. That of the Green Eyed Monster--now +thoroughly oxidized as far as penetrated--forms a sheet from twenty to +forty feet in thickness, consisting of ferruginous, sandy, or talcose +soft material carrying from twenty to thirty dollars to the ton in gold +and silver. The ore of the Deer Trail forms a thinner sheet containing +considerable copper, and sometimes two hundred to three hundred dollars +to the ton in silver. + +The rocks which hold these ore deposits are of Silurian age, but they +received their metalliferous impregnation much later, probably in the +Tertiary, and subsequent to the period of disturbance in which they were +elevated and metamorphosed. This is proved by the fact that in places +where the rock has been shattered, strings of ore are found running off +from the main body, crossing the bedding and filling the interstices +between the fragments, forming a coarse stock-work. + +Bedded veins may be distinguished from fissure veins by the absence of +all traces of a fissure, the want of a banded structure, slickensides, +selvages, etc.; from gash veins and the floors of ore which often +accompany them, as well as from segregated veins, they are distinguished +by the nature of the inclosing rock and the foreign origin of the ore. +Sometimes the plane of junction between two contiguous sheets of rock +has been the channel through which has flowed a metalliferous solution, +and the zone where the ore has replaced by substitution portions of one +or both strata. These are often called blanket veins in the West, but +they belong rather to the category of contact deposits as I have +heretofore defined them. Where such sheets of ore occupy by preference +the planes of contact between adjacent strata, but sometimes desert such +planes, and show slickensided walls, and banded structure, like the +great veins of Bingham, Utah, these should be classed as true fissure +veins. + + +THEORIES OF ORE DEPOSIT. + +The recently published theories of the formation of mineral veins, to +which I have alluded, are those of Prof. Von Groddek[1] and Dr. +Sandberger,[2] who attribute the filling of veins to exudations of +mineral solutions from the wall rocks (i.e., lateral secretions), and +those of Mr. S.F. Emmons,[3] and Mr. G.F. Becker,[4] who have been +studying, respectively, the ore deposits of Leadville and of the +Comstock, by whom the ores are credited to the leaching of adjacent +_igneous_ rocks. + +[Footnote 1: Die Lehre von den Lagerstatten der Erze, von Dr. Albrecht +von Groddek, Leipzig. 1879.] + +[Footnote 2: Untersuchungen uber Erzgange, von Fridolin Sandberger, +Weisbaden, 1882.] + +[Footnote 3: Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, Annual Report, +Director U.S. Geol. Surv., 1881.] + +[Footnote 4: Geology of the Comstock Lode and Washoe District, G.F. +Becker, Washington, 1883. + +It is but justice to Messrs. Becker and Emmons to say that theirs are +admirable studies, thorough and exhaustive, of great interest and value +to both mining engineers and geologists, and most creditable to the +authors and the country. No better work of the kind has been done +anywhere, and it will detract little from its merit even if the views of +the authors on the theoretical question of the sources of the ores shall +not be generally adopted.] + +The lack of space must forbid the full discussion of these theories at +the present time, but I will briefly enumerate some of the facts which +render it difficult for me to accept them. + +First, _the great diversity of character exhibited by different sets of +fissure veins which cut the same country rock_ seems incompatible with +any theory of lateral secretion. These distinct systems are of different +ages, of diversified composition, and have evidently drawn their supply +of material from different sources. Hundreds of cases of this kind could +be cited, but I will mention only a few; among others the Humboldt, the +Bassick, and the Bull Domingo, near Rosita and Silver Cliff, Colorado. +These are veins contained in the same sheet of eruptive rock, but the +ores are as different as possible. The Humboldt is a narrow fissure +carrying a thin ore streak of high grade, consisting of sulphides of +silver, antimony, arsenic, and copper; the Bassick is a great +conglomerate vein containing tellurides of silver and gold, +argentiferous galena, blende, and yellow copper; the Bull Domingo is +also a great fissure filled with rubbish containing ore chimneys of +galena with tufts of wire silver. I may also cite the Jordan, with its +intersecting and yet distinct and totally different veins; the Galena, +the Neptune, and the American Flag, in Bingham Canon, Utah; and the +closely associated yet diverse system of veins the Ferris, the +Washington, the Chattanooga, the Fillmore, etc., in Bullion Canon at +Marysvale. In these and many other groups which have been examined by +the writer, the same rocks are cut by veins of different ages, having +different bearings, and containing different ores and veinstones. It +seems impossible that all these diversified materials should have been +derived from the same source, and the only rational explanation of the +phenomena is that which I have heretofore advocated, the ascent of +metalliferous solutions from different and deep seated sources. + +Another apparently unanswerable argument against the theory of lateral +secretion is furnished by the cases _where the same vein traverses a +series of distinct formations, and holds its character essentially +unaffected by changes in the country rock_. One of many such may be +cited in the Star vein at Cherry Creek, Nevada, which, nearly at right +angles to their strike, cuts belts of quartzite, limestone, and slate, +maintaining its peculiar character of ore and gangue throughout. + +This and all similar veins have certainly been filled with material +brought from a distance, and not derived from the walls. + + +LEACHING OF IGNEOUS ROCKS. + +The arguments against the theory that mineral veins have been produced +by the leaching of superficial _igneous_ rocks are in part the same as +those already cited against the general theory of lateral secretion. +They may be briefly summarized as follows: + +1. Thousands of mineral veins in this and other countries occur in +regions remote from eruptive rocks. Into this category come most of +those of the eastern half of the Continent, viz., Canada, New England, +the Alleghany belt, and the Mississippi Valley. Among those I will refer +only to a few selected to represent the greatest range of character, +viz., the Victoria lead mine, near Sault Ste. Marie, the Bruce copper +mine on Lake Huron, the gold-bearing quartz veins of Madoc, the Gatling +gold vein of Marmora, the Acton and the Harvey Hill copper mines of +Canada, the copper veins of Ely, Vermont, and of Blue Hills, Maine, the +silver-bearing lead veins of Newburyport, Mass.; most of the segregated +gold veins of the Alleghany belt, the lead veins of Rossie, Ellenville, +and at other localities farther South; the copper bearing veins of +Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee; the veins carrying +argentiferous galena in Central Kentucky and in Southern Illinois; the +silver, copper, and antimony veins of Arkansas; and the lead and zinc +deposits of Missouri and the Upper Mississippi. + +In these widely separated localities are to be found fissure, +segregated, and gash veins, and a great diversity of ores, which have +been derived, sometimes from the adjacent rocks--as in the segregated +veins of the Alleghany belt and the gash veins of the Mississippi +region--and in other cases--where they are contained in true fissure +veins--from a foreign source, but all deposited without the aid of +superficial igneous rocks, either as contributors of matter or force. + +2. In the great mineral belt of the Far West, where volcanic emanations +are so abundant, and where they have certainly played an important part +in the formation of ore deposits, the great majority of veins are not in +immediate contact with trap rocks, and they could not, therefore, have +furnished the ores. + +A volume might be formed by a list of the cases of this kind, but I can +here allude to a few only, most of which I have myself examined, viz.: + +_(a.)_ The great ore chambers of the San Carlos Mountains in Chihuahua, +the largest deposits of ore of which I have any knowledge. These are +contained in heavy beds of limestone, which are cut in various places by +trap dikes, which, as elsewhere, have undoubtedly furnished the stimulus +to chemical action that has resulted in the formation of the ore bodies, +but are too remote to have supplied the material. + +_(b.)_ The silver mines of Santa Eulalia, in Chihuahua, from which +during the last century one hundred and twelve millions of dollars were +taken, opened on ore deposits situated in Cretaceous limestones like +those of San Carlos, and apparently similar ore-filled chambers; an +igneous rock caps the hills in the vicinity, but is nowhere in contact +or even proximity to the ore bodies. (See Kimball, _Amer. Jour. Sci,_. +March, 1870.) + +_(c.)_ The great chambers of Tombstone, and the copper veins of the +Globe District, the Copper Queen, etc., in Arizona. + +_(d.)_ The large bodies of silver-ore at Lake Valley, New Mexico; +chambers in limestone, like _c_. + +_(e.)_ The Black Hawk group of gold mines, the Montezuma, Georgetown, +and other silver mines in the granite belt of Colorado. + +_(f.)_ The great group of veins and chambers in the Bradshaw, Lincoln, +Star, and Granite districts of Southern Utah, where we find a host of +veins of different character in limestone or granite, with no trap to +which the ores can be credited. + +_(g.)_ The Crismon Mammoth vein of Tintic. + +_(h.)_ The group of mines opened on the American Fork, on Big and Little +Cottonwood, and in Parley's Park, including the Silver Bell, the Emma, +the Vallejo, the Prince of Wales, the Kessler, the Bonanza, the Climax, +the Pinon, and the Ontario. (The latter, the greatest silver mine now +known in the country, lies in quartzite, and the trap is near, but not +in contact with the vein.) + +_(i.)_ In Nevada, the ore deposits of Pioche, Tempiute, Tybo, Eureka, +White Pine, and Cherry Creek, on the east side of the State, with those +of Austin, Belmont, and a series too great for enumeration in the +central and western portions. + +_(j.)_ In California, the Bodie, Mariposa, Grass Valley, and other +mines.[1] + +_(k.)_ In Idaho, those of the Poor Man in the Owyhee district, the +principal veins of the Wood River region, the Ramshorn at Challis, the +Custer and Charles Dickens, at Bonanza City, etc. + +[Footnote 1: See Redmond's Report _(California Geol. Survey Mining +Statistics, No 1),_ where seventy-seven mines are enumerated, of which +three are said to be in "porphyritic schist," all the others in granite, +mica schist, clay, slate, etc.] + +In nearly all these localities we may find evidence not only that the +ore deposits have not been derived from the leaching of igneous rocks, +but also that they have not come from those of any kind which form the +walls of the veins. + +The gold-bearing quartz veins of Deadwood are so closely associated with +dikes of porphyry, that they may have been considered as illustrations +of the potency of trap dikes in producing concentration of metals. But +we have conclusive evidence that the gold was there in Archaean times, +while the igneous rocks are all of modern, probably of Tertiary, date. +This proof is furnished by the "Cement mines" of the Potsdam sandstone. +This is the beach of the Lower Silurian sea when it washed the shores of +an Archaean island, now the Black Hills. The waves that produced this +beach beat against cliffs of granite and slate containing quartz veins +carrying gold. Fragments of this auriferous quartz, and the gold beaten +out of them and concentrated by the waves, were in places buried in the +sand beach in such quantity as to form deposits from which a large +amount of gold is now being taken. Without this demonstration of the +origin and antiquity of the gold, it might very well have been supposed +to be derived from the eruptive rock. + +Strong arguments against the theory that the leaching of superficial +igneous rocks has supplied the materials filling mineral veins, are +furnished by the facts observed in the districts where igneous rocks are +most prevalent, viz.: (1.) _Such districts are proverbially barren of +useful minerals_. (2.) _Where these occur, the same sheet of rock may +contain several systems of veins with different ores and gangues._ + +The great lava plain of Snake River, the Pedrigal country of eastern +Oregon, Northern California and Mexico are without valuable ore +deposits. The same may be said of the Pancake Range and other mountain +chains of igneous rock in Nevada, while the adjacent ranges composed of +sedimentary rocks are rich in ore deposits of various kinds. A still +stronger case is furnished by the Cascade Mountains, which, north of the +California line, are composed almost exclusively of erupted material, +and yet in all this belt, so far as now known, not a single valuable +mine has been opened. In contrast with this is the condition of things +in California, where the Sierra Nevada is composed of metamorphic rocks +which have been shown to be the repositories of vast quantities of gold, +silver, and copper. Cases belonging to this category may be found at +Rosita and Silver Cliff, where the diversity in the ores of the mines +already enumerated can hardly be reconciled with the theory of a common +origin. At Lake City the prevailing porphyry holds the veins of the Ute +and Ulay and the Ocean Wave mines, which are similar, and the Hotchkiss, +the Belle, etc., entirely different. + +We have no evidence that any volcanic eruption has drawn its material +from zones or magmas especially rich in metals or their ores, and on the +contrary, volcanic districts, like those mentioned, and regions, such as +the Sandwich Islands, where the greatest, eruptions have taken place, +are poorest in metalliferous deposits. + +All the knowledge we have of the subject justifies the inference that +most of the igneous rocks which have been poured out in our Western +Territories are but fused conditions of sediments which form the +substructure of that country. Over the great mineral belt which lies +between the Sierra Nevada and the front range of the Rocky Mountains, +and extends not only across the whole breadth of our territory, but far +into Mexico, the surface was once underlain by a series of Palaeozoic +sedimentary strata not less than twenty to thirty thousand feet in +thickness; and beneath these, at the sides, and doubtless below, were +Archaeun rocks, also metamorphosed sediments. Through these the ores of +the metals were generally though sparsely distributed. In the +convulsions which have in recent times broken up this so long quiet and +stable portion of the earth's crust (and which have resulted in +depositing in thousands of cracks and cavities the ores we now mine), +portions of the old table-land were in places set up at high angles +forming mountain chains, and doubtless extending to the zone of fusion +below. Between these blocks of sedimentary rocks oozed up through the +lines of fracture quantities of fused material, which also sometimes +formed mountain chains; and it is possible and even probable that the +rocks composing the volcanic ridges are but phases of the same materials +that form the sedimentary chains There is, therefore, no _a priori_ +reason why the leaching of one group should furnish more ore than the +other; but, as a matter of fact, the unfused sediments are much the +richer in ore deposits. This can only be accounted for, in my judgment, +by supposing that they have been the receptacles of ore brought from a +foreign source; and we can at least conjecture where and how gathered. +We can imagine, and we are forced to conclude, that there has been a +zone of solution below, where steam and hot water, under great pressure, +have effected the leaching of ore-bearing strata, and a zone of +deposition above, where cavities in pre-existent solidified and +shattered rocks became the repositories of the deposits made from +ascending solutions, when the temperature and pressure were diminished. +Where great masses of fused material were poured out, these must have +been for along time too highly heated to become places of deposition; so +long indeed that the period of active vein formation may have passed +before they reached a degree of solidification and coolness that would +permit their becoming receptacles of the products of deposition. On the +contrary, the masses of unfused and always relatively cool sedimentary +rocks which form the most highly metalliferous mountain ranges (White +Pine, Toyabe, etc.) were, throughout the whole period of disturbance, in +a condition to become such repositories. Certainly highly heated +solutions forced by an irresistible _vis a tergo_ through rocks of any +kind down in the heated zone, would be far more effective leaching +agents than cold surface water with feeble solvent power, moved only by +gravity, percolating slowly through superficial strata. + +Richthofen, who first made a study of the Comstock lode, suggests that +the mineral impregnation of the vein was the result of a process like +that described, viz., the leaching of deep-seated rocks, perhaps the +same that inclose the vein above, by highly heated solutions which +deposited their load near the surface. On the other hand, Becker +supposes the concentration to have been effected by surface waters +flowing laterally through the igneous rocks, gathering the precious +metals and depositing them in the fissure, as lateral secretion produces +the accumulation of ore in the limestone of the lead region. But there +are apparently good reasons for preferring the theory of Richthofen: +viz., first, the veinstone of the Comstock is chiefly quartz, the +natural and common precipitate of _hot_ waters, since they are far more +powerful solvents of silica than cold. On the contrary, the ores +deposited from lateral secretion, as in the Mississippi lead region, at +low temperature contain comparatively little silica; second, the great +mineral belt to which reference has been made above is now the region +where nearly all the hot springs of the continent are situated. It is, +in fact, a region conspicuous for the number of its hot springs, and it +is evident that these are the last of the series of thermal phenomena +connected with the great volcanic upheavals and eruptions, of which this +region has been the theater since the beginning of the Tertiary age. The +geysers of Yellowstone Park, the hot springs of the Wamchuck district in +Oregon, the Steamboat Springs of Nevada, the geysers of California, the +hot springs of Salt Lake City, Monroe, etc., in Utah, and the Pagosa in +Colorado, are only the most conspicuous among thousands of hot springs +which continue in action at the present time. The evidence is also +conclusive that the number of hot springs, great as it now is in this +region, was once much greater. That these hot springs were capable of +producing mineral veins by material brought up in and deposited from +their waters, is demonstrated by the phenomena observable at the +Steamboat Springs, and which were cited in my former article as +affording the best illustration of vein formation. + +The temperature of the lower workings of the Comstock vein is now over +150 deg.F., and an enormous quantity of hot water is discharged through the +Sutro Tunnel. This water has been heated by coming in contact with hot +rocks at a lower level than the present workings of the Comstock lode, +and has been driven upward in the same way that the flow of all hot +springs is produced. As that flow is continuous, it is evident that the +workings of the Comstock have simply opened the conduits of hot springs, +which are doing to-day what they have been doing in ages past, but much +less actively, i.e., bringing toward the surface the materials they have +taken into solution in a more highly heated zone below. Hence it seems +much more natural to suppose that the great sheets of ore-bearing quartz +now contained in the Comstock fissure were deposited by ascending +currents of hot alkaline waters, than by descending currents of those +which were cold and neutral The hot springs are there, though less +copious and less hot than formerly, and the natural deposits from hot +waters are there. Is it not more rational to suppose with Richthofen +that these are related as cause and effect, rather than that cold water +has leached the ore and the silica from the walls near the surface? Mr. +Becker's preference for the latter hypothesis seems to be due to the +discovery of gold and silver in the igneous rocks adjacent to the vein, +and yet, except in immediate contact with it, these rocks contain no +more of the precious metals than the mere trace which by refined tests +may be discovered everywhere. If, as we have supposed, the fissure was +for a long time filled with a hot solution charged with an unusual +quantity of the precious metals, nothing would be more natural than that +the wall rocks should be to some extent impregnated with them. + +It will perhaps illuminate the question to inquire which of the springs +and water currents of this region are now making deposits that can be +compared with those which filled the Comstock and other veins. No one +who has visited that country will hesitate to say the hot and not the +cold waters. The immense silicious deposits, carrying the ores of +several metals, formed by the geysers of the Yellowstone, the Steamboat +Springs, etc., show what the hot waters are capable of doing; but we +shall search in vain for any evidence that the cold surface waters have +done or can do this kind of work. + +At Leadville the case is not so plain, and yet no facts can be cited +which really _prove_ that the ore deposits have been formed by the +leaching of the overlying porphyry rather than by an outflow of heated +mineral solutions along the plane of junction between the porphyry and +the limestone. Near this plane the porphyry is often thoroughly +decomposed, is somewhat impregnated with ore, and even contains sheets +of ore within itself; but remote from the plane of contact with the +limestone, it contains little diffused and no concentrated ore. It is +scarcely more previous than the underlying limestones, and why a +solution that could penetrate and leach ores from it should be stopped +at the upper surface of the blue limestone is not obvious; nor why the +plane of junction between the porphyry and the _blue limestone_ should +be the special place of deposit of the ore. + +If the assays of the porphyry reported by Mr. Emmons were accurately +made, and they shall be confirmed by the more numerous ones necessary to +settle the question, and the estimates he makes of the richness of that +rock be corroborated, an unexpected result will be reached, and, as I +think, a remarkable and exceptional case of the diffusion of silver and +lead through an igneous rock be established. + +It is of course possible that the Leadville porphyries are only phases +of rocks rich in silver, lead, and iron, which underlie this region, and +which have been fused and forced to the surface by an ascending mass of +deeper seated igneous rock; but even if the argentiferous character of +the porphyry shall be proved, it will not be proved that such portions +of it as here lie upon the limestone have furnished the ore by the +descending percolation of cold surface waters. Deeper lying masses of +this same silver, lead, and iron bearing rock, digested in and leached +by _hot_ waters and steam under great pressure, would seem to be a more +likely source of the ore. If the surface porphyry is as rich in silver +as Mr. Emmous reports it to be, it is too rich, for the rock that has +furnished so large a quantity of ores as that which formed the ore +bodies which I saw in the Little Chief and Highland Chief mines, +respectively 90 feet and 162 feet thick, should be poor in silver and +iron and lead, and should be rotten from the leaching it had suffered, +but except near the ore-bearing contact it is compact and normal. + +Such a digested, kaolinized, desilicated rock as we would naturally look +for we find in the porphyry _near the contact_; and its condition there, +so different from what it is remote from the contact, seems to indicate +an exposure to local and decomposing influences, such indeed as a hot +chemical solution forced up from below along the plane of contact would +furnish. + +It is difficult to understand why the upper portions of the porphyry +sheet should be so different in character, so solid and homogeneous, +with no local concentrations or pockets of ore, if they have been +exposed to the same agencies as those which have so changed the under +surface. + +Accepting all the facts reported by Mr. Emmons, and without questioning +the accuracy of any of his observations, or depreciating in any degree +the great value of the admirable study he has made of this difficult and +interesting field, his conclusion in regard to the source of the ore +cannot yet be insisted on as a logical necessity. In the judgment of the +writer, the phenomena presented by the Leadville ore deposits can be as +well or better accounted for by supposing that the plane of contact +between the limestone and porphyry has been the conduit through which +heated mineral solutions coming from deep seated and remote sources have +flowed, removing something from both the overlying and underlying +strata, and by substitution depositing sulphides of lead, iron, silver, +etc., with silica. + +The ore deposits of Tybo and Eureka in Nevada, of the Emma, the Cave, +and the Horn Silver [1] mines in Utah, have much in common with those of +Leadville, and it is not difficult to establish for all of the former +cases a foreign and deep seated source of the ore. The fact that the +Leadville ore bodies are sometimes themselves excavated into chambers, +which has been advanced as proof of the falsity of the theory here +advocated, has no bearing on the question, as in the process of +oxidation of ores which were certainly once sulphides, there has been +much change of place as well as character; currents of water have flowed +through them which have collected and redeposited the cerusite in sheets +of "hard carbonate" or "sand carbonate," and have elsewhere produced +accumulations of kerargyrite, perhaps thousands of years after the +deposition of the sulphide ores had ceased and the oxidation had begun. +In the leaching and rearrangement of the ore bodies, nothing would be +more natural than that accumulations in one place should be attended by +the formation of cavities elsewhere. + +[Footnote 1: The Horn Silver ore body lies in a fault fissure between a +footwall of limestone and a hanging wall of trachyte, and those who +consider the Leadville ores as teachings of the overlying porphyry would +probably also regard the ore of the Horn Silver mine as derived from the +trachyte hanging wall; but three facts oppose the acceptance of this +view, viz., let, the trachyte, except in immediate contact with the ore +body, seems to be entirely barren; 2d, the Horn Silver ore "chimney," +perhaps fifty feet thick, five hundred feet wide, and of unknown depth, +is the only mass of ore yet found in a mile of well marked fissure; and +3d, the Carbonate mine opened near by in a strong fissure with a bearing +at right angles to that of the Horn Silver, and lying entirely within +the trachyte, yields ore of a totally different kind. Both are opened to +the depth of seven hundred feet with no signs of change or exhaustion. +If the ore were derived from the trachyte, it should be at least +somewhat alike in the two mines, should be more generally distributed in +the Horn Silver fissure, and might be expected to give out at, no great +depth. + +If deposited by solutions coming from deep and different sources, the +observed differences in character would be natural; it would accumulate +as we find it in the channels of outflow, and would be as time will +probably prove it, perhaps variable in quantity, but indefinitely +continuous in depth.] + +Another question which suggests itself in reference to the Leadville +deposits is this: If the Leadville ore was once a mass of sulphides +derived from the overlying porphyry by the percolation of surface +waters, why has the deposit ceased? The deposition of galena, blende, +and pyrite in the Galena lead mines still continues. If the leaching of +the Leadville porphyry has not resulted in the formation of alkaline +sulphide solutions, and the ore has come from the porphyry in the +condition of carbonate of lead, chloride of silver, etc., then the +nature of the deposition was quite different from that of the similar +ones of Tybo, Eureka, Bingham, etc., which are plainly gossans, and +indeed is without precedent. But if the process was similar to that in +the Galena lead region, and the ores were originally sulphides, their +formation should have continued and been detected in the Leadville +mines. + +For all these reasons the theory of Mr. Emmons will be felt to need +further confirmation before it is universally adopted. + +From what has gone before it must not be inferred that lateral secretion +is excluded by the writer from the list of agencies which have filled +mineral veins, for it is certain that the nature of the deposit made in +the fissure has frequently been influenced by the nature of the adjacent +wall rock. Numerous cases may be cited where the ores have increased or +decreased in quantity and richness, or have otherwise changed character +in passing from one formation to another; but even here the proof is +generally wanting that the vein materials have been furnished by the +wall rocks opposite the places where they are found. + +The varying conductivity of the different strata in relation to heat and +electricity may have been an important factor. Trap dikes frequently +enrich veins where they approach or intersect them, and they have often +been the _primum mobile_ of vein formation, but chiefly, if not only, by +supplying heat, the mainspring of chemical action. The proximity of +heated masses of rock has promoted chemical action in the same way as do +the Bunsen burners or the sand baths in the laboratory; but no case has +yet come under my observation where it was demonstrable that the filling +of a fissure vein had been due to secretion from igneous or sedimentary +wall rocks. + +In the Star District of Southern Utah the country rock is Palaeozoic +limestone, and it is cut by so great a number and variety of mineral +veins that from the Harrisburg, a central location, a rifle shot would +reach ten openings, all on as many distinct and different veins (viz., +the Argus, Little Bilk, Clean Sweep, Mountaineer, St. Louis, Xenia, +Brant, Kannarrah, Central, and Wateree). The nearest trap rock is half a +mile or more distant, a columnar dike perhaps fifteen feet in thickness, +cutting the limestone vertically. On either side of this dike is a vein +from one to three feet in thickness, of white quartz with specks of ore. +Where did that quartz come from? From the limestone? But the limestone +contains very little silica, and is apparently of normal composition +quite up to the vein. From the trap? This is compact, sonorous basalt, +apparently unchanged; and that could not have supplied the silica +without complete decomposition. + +I should rather say from silica bearing hot waters that flowed up along +the sides of the trap, depositing there, as in the numerous and varied +veins of the vicinity, mineral matters brought from a zone of solution +far below. + +To summarize the conclusions reached in this discussion. I may repeat +that the results of all recent as well as earlier observations has been +to convince me that Richthofen's theory of the filling of the Comstock +lode is the true one, and that the example and demonstration of the +formation of mineral veins furnished by the Steamboat Springs is not +only satisfactory, but typical. + + * * * * * + +[NATURE.] + + + + +HABITS OF BURROWING CRAYFISHES IN THE UNITED STATES. + + +On May 13, 1883, I chanced to enter a meadow a few miles above +Washington, on the Virginia side of the Potomac, at the head of a small +stream emptying into the river. It was between two hills, at an +elevation of 100 feet above the Potomac, and about a mile from the +river. Here I saw many clayey mounds covering burrows scattered over the +ground irregularly both upon the banks of the stream and in the adjacent +meadow, even as far as ten yards from the bed of the brook. My curiosity +was aroused, and I explored several of the holes, finding in each a +good-sized crayfish, which Prof. Walter Faxon identified as _Cambarus +diogenes_, Girard _(C. obesus_, Hagen), otherwise known as the burrowing +crayfish. I afterward visited the locality several times, collecting +specimens of the mounds and crayfishes, which are now in the United +States National Museum, and making observations. + +At that time of the year the stream was receding, and the meadow was +beginning to dry. At a period not over a month previous, the meadows, at +least as far from the stream as the burrows were found, had been covered +with water. Those burrows near the stream were less than six inches +deep, and there was a gradual increase in depth as the distance from the +stream became greater. Moreover, the holes farthest from the stream were +in nearly every case covered by a mound, while those nearer had either a +very small chimney or none at all, and subsequent visits proved that at +that time of year the mounds were just being constructed, for each time +I revisited the place the mounds were more numerous. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 Section of Crayfish burrow] + +The length, width, general direction of the burrows, and number of the +openings were extremely variable, and the same is true of the mounds. +Fig. 1 illustrates a typical burrow shown in section. Here the main +burrow is very nearly perpendicular, there being but one oblique opening +having a very small mound, and the main mound is somewhat wider than +long. Occasionally the burrows are very tortuous, and there are often +two or three extra openings, each sometimes covered by a mound. There is +every conceivable shape and size in the chimneys, ranging from a mere +ridge of mud, evidently the first foundation, to those with a breadth +one-half the height. The typical mound is one which covers the +perpendicular burrow in Fig. 1, its dimensions being six inches broad +and four high. Two other forms are shown in Fig. 2. The burrows near the +stream were seldom more than six inches deep, being nearly +perpendicular, with an enlargement at the base, and always with at least +one oblique opening. The mounds were usually of yellow clay, although in +one place the ground was of fine gravel, and there the chimneys were of +the same character. They were always circularly pyramidal in shape, the +hole inside being very smooth, but the outside was formed of irregular +nodules of clay hardened in the sun and lying just as they fell when +dropped from the top of the mound. A small quantity of grass and leaves +was mixed through the mound, but this was apparently accidental. + +The size of the burrows varied from half an inch to two inches in +diameter, being smooth for the entire distance, and nearly uniform in +width. Where the burrow was far distant from the stream, the upper part +was hard and dry. In the deeper holes I invariably found several +enlargements at various points in the burrow. Some burrows were three +feet deep, indeed they all go down to water, and, as the water in the +ground lowers, the burrow is undoubtedly projected deeper. The diagonal +openings never at that season of the year have perfect chimneys, and +seldom more than a mere rim. In no case did I find any connection +between two different burrows. In digging after the inhabitants I was +seldom able to secure a specimen from the deeper burrows, for I found +that the animal always retreated to the extreme end, and when it could +go no farther would use its claws in defense. Both males and females +have burrows, but they were never found together, each burrow having but +a single individual. There is seldom more than a pint of water in each +hole, and this is muddy and hardly suitable to sustain life. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2 Crayfish Mound] + +The neighboring brooks and springs were inhabited by another species of +crayfish, _Cambaras bartonii_, but although especial search was made for +the burrowing species, in no case was a single specimen found outside of +the burrows. _C. bartonii_ was taken both in the swiftly running +portions of the stream and in the shallow side pools, as well as in the +springs at the head of small rivers. It would swim about in all +directions, and was often found under stones and in little holes and +crevices, none of which appeared to have been made for the purpose of +retreat, but were accidental. The crayfishes would leave these little +retreats whenever disturbed, and swim away down stream out of sight. +They were often found some distance from the main stream under rocks +that had been covered by the brook at a higher watermark; but although +there was very little water under the rocks, and the stream had not +covered them for at least two weeks, they showed no tendency to burrow. +Nor have I ever found any burrows formed by the river species _Cumbarus +affinis._ although I have searched over miles of marsh land on the +Potomac for this purpose. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2 Crayfish Mound (shorter)] + +The brook near where my observations were made was fast decreasing in +volume, and would probably continue to do so until in July its bed would +be nearly dry. During the wet seasons the meadow is itself covered. Even +in the banks of the stream, then under water, there were holes, but they +all extended obliquely without exception, there being no perpendicular +burrows and no mounds. The holes extended in about six inches, and there +was never a perpendicular branch, nor even an enlargement at the end. I +always found the inhabitant near the mouth, and by quickly cutting off +the rear part of the hole could force him out, but unless forcibly +driven out it would never leave the hole, not even when a stick was +thrust in behind it. It was undoubtedly this species that Dr. Godman +mentioned in his "Rambles of a Naturalist," and which Dr. Abbott _(Am. +Nal.,_ 1873, p. 81) refers to _C. bartonii_. Although I have no proof +that this is so, I am inclined to believe that the burrowing crayfishes +retire to the stream in winter and remain there until early spring, when +they construct their burrows for the purpose of rearing their young and +escaping the summer droughts. My reason for saying this is that I found +one burrow which on my first visit was but six inches deep, and later +had been projected to a depth at least twice as great, and the +inhabitant was an old female. + +I think that after the winter has passed, and while the marsh is still +covered with water, impregnation takes place and burrows are immediately +begun. I do not believe that the same burrow is occupied for more than +one year, as it would probably fill up during the winter. At first it +burrows diagonally, and as long as the mouth is covered with water is +satisfied with this oblique hole. When the water recedes, leaving the +opening uncovered, the burrow must be dug deeper, and the economy of a +perpendicular burrow must immediately suggest itself. From that time the +perpendicular direction is preserved with more or less regularity. +Immediately after the perpendicular hole is begun, a shorter opening to +the surface is needed for conveying the mud from the nest, and then the +perpendicular opening is made. Mud from this, and also from the first +part of the perpendicular burrow, is carried out of the diagonal opening +and deposited on the edge. If a freshet occurs before this rim of mud +has had a chance to harden, it is washed away, and no mound is formed +over the oblique burrow. + +After the vertical opening is made, as the hole is bored deeper, mud is +deposited on the edge, and the deeper it is dug the higher the mound. I +do not think that the chimney is a necessary part of the nest, but +simply the result of digging. I carried away several mounds, and in a +week revisited the place, and no attempt had been made to replace them; +but in one case, where I had in addition partly destroyed the burrow by +dropping mud into it, there was a simple half rim of mud around the +edge, showing that the crayfish had been at work; and as the mud was dry +the clearing must have been done soon after my departure. That the +crayfish retreats as the water in the ground falls lower and lower is +proved by the fact that at various intervals there are bottled-shaped +cavities marking the end of the burrow at an earlier period. A few of +those mounds farthest from the stream had their mouths closed by a +pellet of mud. It is said that all are closed during the summer months. + +How these animals can live for months in the muddy, impure water is to +me a puzzle. They are very sluggish, possessing none of the quick +motions of their allied _C. bartonii,_ for when taken out and placed +either in water or on the ground, they move very slowly. The power of +throwing off their claws when these are grasped is often exercised. +About the middle of May the eggs hatch, and for a time the young cling +to the mother, but I am unable to state how long they remain thus. After +hatching they must grow rapidly, and soon the burrow will be too small +for them to live in, and they must migrate. It would be interesting to +know more about the habits of this peculiar species, about which so +little has been written. An interesting point to settle would be how and +where it gets its food. The burrow contains none, either animal or +vegetable. Food must be procured at night, or when the sun is not +shining brightly. In the spring and fall the green stalks of meadow +grasses would furnish food, but when these become parched and dry they +must either dig after and eat the roots, or search in the stream. I feel +satisfied that they do not tunnel among the roots, for if they did so +these burrows would be frequently met with. Little has as yet been +published upon this subject, and that little covers only two spring +months--April and May--and it would be interesting if those who have an +opportunity to watch the species during other seasons, or who have +observed them at any season of the year, would make known their results. + +RALPH S. TARR + + * * * * * + + + + +OUR SERVANTS, THE MICROBES. + + +Who of us has not, in a partially darkened room, seen the rays of the +sun, as they entered through apertures or chinks in the shutters, +exhibit their track by lighting up the infinitely small corpuscles +contained in the air? Such corpuscles always exist, except in the +atmosphere of lofty mountains, and they constitute the dust of the air. +A microscopic examination of them is a matter of curiosity. Each flock +is a true museum (Fig. 1), wherein we find grains of mineral substances +associated with organic debris, and germs of living organisms, among +which must be mentioned the _microbes_. + +Since the splendid researches of Mr. Pasteur and his pupils on +fermentation and contagious diseases, the question of microbes has +become the order of the day. + +In order to show our readers the importance of the study of the +microbes, and the results that may be reached by following the +scientific method created by Mr. Pasteur, it appears to us indispensable +to give a summary of the history of these organisms. In the first place, +what is a microbe? Although much employed, the word has not been well +defined, and it would be easy to find several definitions of it. In its +most general sense, the term microbe designates certain colorless algae +belonging to the family Bacteriaceae, the principal forms of which are +known under the name of _Micrococcus. Bacterium, Bacillus. Vibrio, +/Spirillum, etc_. + +In order to observe these different forms of Bacteriaceae it is only +necessary to examine microscopically a drop of water in which organic +matter has been macerated, when there will be seen _Micrococci_ (Fig. 2, +I.)looking like spherical granules, _Bacteria_ in the form of very short +rods, _Bacilli_ (Fig. 2, V.), _Vibriones_ (Fig. 2, IV.,) moving their +straight or curved filaments, and _Spirilli_ (Fig. 2, VI.), rolled up +spirally. These varied forms are not absolutely constant, for it often +happens in the course of its existence that a species assumes different +shapes, so that it is difficult to take the form of these algae as a +basis for classifying them, when all the phases of their development +have not been studied. + +The Bacteriaceae are reproduced with amazing rapidity. If the temperature +is proper, a limpid liquid such as chicken or veal broth will, in a few +hours, become turbid and contain millions of these organisms. +Multiplication is effected through fission, that is to say, each globule +or filament, after elongating, divides into two segments, each of which +increases in its turn, to again divide into two parts, and so on (Fig. +2, I. b). But multiplication in this way only takes place when the +bacteria are placed in a proper nutritive liquid; and it ceases when the +liquid becomes impoverished and the conditions of life become difficult. +It is at this moment that the formation of _spores_ occurs--reproductive +bodies that are destined to permit the algae to traverse, without +perishing, those phases where life is impossible. The spores are small, +brilliant bodies that form in the center or at the extremity of each +articulation or globule of the bacterium (Fig. 2, II. l), and are set +free through the breaking up of the joints. There are, therefore, two +phases to be distinguished in the life of microbes--that of active life, +during which they multiply with great rapidity, are most active, and +cause sicknesses or fermentations, and that of retarded life, that is to +say, the state, of resting spores in which the organisms are inactive +and consequently harmless. It is curious to find that the resistance to +the two causes of destruction is very different in the two cases. + +In the state of active life the bacterides are killed by a temperature +of from 70 to 80 degrees, while the spores require the application of a +temperature of from 100 to 120 degrees to kill them. Oxygen of a high +pressure, which is, as well known from Bert's researches, a poison for +living beings, kills many bacteria in the state of active life, but has +no influence upon their spores. + +In a state of active life the bacteriae are interesting to study. The +absence of green matter prevents them from feeding upon mineral matter, +and they are therefore obliged to subsist upon organic matter, just as +do plants that are destitute of chlorophyl (such as fungi, broomrapes, +etc.). This is why they are only met with in living beings or upon +organic substances. The majority of these algae develop very well in the +air, and then consume oxygen and exhale carbonic acid, like all living +beings. If the supply of air be cut off, they resist asphyxia and take +the oxygen that they require from the compounds that surround them. The +result is a complete and rapid decomposition of the organic materials, +or a fermentation. Finally, there are even certain species that die in +the presence of free oxygen, and that can only live by protecting +themselves from contact with this gas through a sort of jelly. These are +ferments, such as _Bacillus amylobacter,_ or butyric ferment, and _B. +septicus_, or ferment of the putrefaction of nitrogenized substances. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ATMOSPHERIC DUST.] + +These properties explain the regular distribution of bacteria in liquids +exposed to the air. Thus, in water in which plants have been macerated +the surface of the liquid is occupied by _Bacillus subtilis_. which has +need of free oxygen in order to live, while in the bulk of the liquid, +in the vegetable tissues, we find other bacteria, notably _B. +amylobacter_, which lives very well by consuming oxygen in a state of +combination. Bacteria, then, can only live in organic matters, now in +the presence and now in the absence of air. + +What we have just said allows us to understand the process of +cultivating these organisms. When it is desired to obtain these algae, +we must take organic matters or infusions of such. These liquids or +substances are heated to at least 120 deg. in order to kill the germs that +they may contain, and this is called "sterilizing." In this sterilized +liquid are then sown the bacteria that it is desired to study, and by +this means they can be obtained in a state of very great purity. + +The Bacteriaceae are very numerous. Among them we must distinguish those +that live in inert organic matters, alimentary substances, or debris of +living beings, and which cause chemical decompositions called +fermentations. Such are _Mycoderma aceti_, which converts the alcohol of +fermented beverages into vinegar; _Micrococcus ureae_, which converts +the urea of urine into carbonate of ammonia, and _Micrococcus +nitrificans,_ which converts nitrogenized matters into intrates, etc. +Some, that live upon food products, produce therein special coloring +matters; such are the bacterium of blue milk, and _Micrococcus +prodigiosus_ (Fig. 2, I.), a red alga that lives upon bread and forms +those bloody spots that were formerly considered by the superstitious as +the precursors of great calamities. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.--VARIOUS MICROBES. (Highly magnified.)] + +Another group of bacteria has assumed considerable importance in +pathology, and that is the one whose species inhabit the tissues of +living animals, and cause more or less serious alterations therein, and +often death. Most contagious diseases and epidemics are due to algae of +this latter group. To cite only those whose origin is well known, we may +mention the bacterium that causes charbon, the micrococcus of chicken +cholera, and that of hog measles. + +It will be seen from this sketch how important the study of these +organisms is to man, since be must defend his body against their +invasions or utilize them for bringing about useful chemical +modifications in organic matters. + +_Our Servants._--We scarcely know what services microbes may render us, +yet the study of them, which has but recently been begun, has already +shown, through the remarkable labors of Messrs. Pasteur, Schloesing and +Muntz, Van Tieghem, Cohn, Koch, etc., the importance of these organisms +in nature. All of us have seen wine when exposed to air gradually sour, +and become converted into vinegar, and we know that in this case the +surface of the liquid is covered with white pellicles called "mother of +vinegar." These pellicles are made up of myriads of globules of +_Mycoderma aceti_. This mycoderm is the principal agent in the +acidification of wine, and it is it that takes oxygen from the air and +fixes it in the alcohol to convert it into vinegar. If the pellicle that +forms becomes immersed in the liquid, the wine will cease to sour. + +The vinegar manufacturers of Orleans did not suspect the role of the +mother of vinegar in the production of this article when they were +employing empirical processes that had been established by practice. The +vats were often infested by small worms ("vinegar eals") which disputed +with the mycoderma for the oxygen, killed it through submersion, and +caused the loss of batches that had been under troublesome preparation +for months. Since Mr. Pasteur's researches, the _Mycoderma aceti_ has +been sown directly in the slightly acidified wine, and an excellent +quality of vinegar has thus been obtained, with no fear of an occurrence +of the disasters that accompanied the old process. + +Another example will show us the microbes in activity in the earth. Let +us take a pinch of vegetable mould, water it with ammonia compounds, and +analyze it, and we shall find nitrates therein. Whence came these +nitrates? They came from the oxidation of the ammonia compounds brought +about by moistening, since the nitrogen of the air does not seem to +combine under normal conditions with the surrounding oxygen. This +oxidation of ammonia compounds is brought about, as has been shown by +Messrs. Schloesing and Muntz, by a special ferment, the _Micrococcus +nitrificans_, that belongs to the group of Bacteriacae. In fact, the +vapors of chloroform, which anesthetize plants, also prevent +nitrification, since they anaesthetize the nitric ferment. So, too, when +we heat vegetable humus to 100 deg., nitrification is arrested, because the +ferment is killed. Finally, we may sow the nitric ferment in calcined +earth and cause nitrification to occur therein as surely as we can bring +about a fermentation in wine by sowing _Mycoderma aceti_ in it. + +The nitric ferment exists in all soils and in all latitudes, and +converts the ammoniacal matters carried along by the rain into nitrates +of a form most assimilable by plants. It therefore constitutes one of +the important elements for fertilizing the earth. + +Finally, we must refer to the numerous bacteria that occasion +putrefaction in vegetable or animal organisms. These microbes, which +float in the air, fall upon dead animals or plants, develop thereon, and +convert into mineral matters the immediate principles of which the +tissues are composed, and thus continually restore to the air and soil +the elements necessary for the formation of new organic substances. +Thus, _Bacillus amylobacter_ (Fig. 2, II.), as Mr. Van Tieghem has +shown, subsists upon the hydrocarbons contained in plants, and +disorganizes vegetable tissues in disengaging hydrogen, carbonic acid, +and vegetable acids. _Bacterium roseopersicina_ forms, in pools, rosy or +red pellicles that cover vegetable debris and disengage gases of an +offensive odor. This bacterium develops in so great quantity upon low +shores covered with fragments of algae as to sometimes spread over an +extent of several kilometers. These microbes, like many others, +continuously mineralize organic substances, and thus exhibit themselves +as the indispensable agents of the movement of the matter that +incessantly circulates from the mineral to the organic world, and _vice +versa_.--_Science et Nature._ + + * * * * * + +Palms sprouted from seeds kept warm by contact of the vessel with the +water boiler of a kitchen range are grown by a man in New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +EPITAPHIUM CHYMICUM. + + +The following epitaph was written by a Dr. Godfrey, who died in Dublin +in 1755: + + Here lieth, to _digest macerate_, and _amalgamate_ into clay, + _In Batneo Arenae_, + _Stratum super Stratum_ + The _Residuum, Terra damnata_ and _Caput Mortuum_, + Of BOYLE GODFREY, Chymist and M.D. + A man who in this Earthly Laboratory pursued various + _Processes_ to obtain _Arcanum Vitae_, + Or the Secret to Live; + Also _Aurum Vitae_, + or the art of getting rather than making gold. + _Alchymist_-like, all his Labour and _Projection_, + as _Mercury_ in the Fire, _Evaporated_ in _Fume_ when he + _Dissolved_ to his first principles. + He _departed_ as poor + as the last drops of an _Alembic_; for Riches are not + poured on the _Adepts_ of this world. + Though fond of News, he carefully avoided the + _Fermentation, Effervescence_, and _Decrepitation_ of this + life. Full seventy years his _Exalted Essence_ + was _hermetically_ sealed in its _Terrene Matrass_; but the + Radical Moisture being _exhausted_, the _Elixir Vitae_ spent, + And _exsiccate_ to a _Cuticle_, he could not _suspend_ + longer in his _Vehicle_, but _precipitated Gradatim, per_ + _Campanam_, to his original dust. + May that light, brighter than _Bolognian Phosphorus_, + Preserve him from the _Athanor, Empyreuma_, and _Reverberatory + Furnace_ of the other world, + Depurate him from the _Faeces_ and _Scoria_ of this, + Highly _Rectify_ and _Volatilize_, his _aethereal_ spirit, + Bring it over the _Helm_ of the _Retort_ of this Globe, place + in a proper _Recipient_ or _Crystalline_ orb, + Among the elect of the _Flowers of Benjamin_; never to + be _saturated_ till the General _Resuscitation, Deflagration, + Calcination,_ and _Sublimation_ of all things. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW STOVE CLIMBER. + +(_Ipomaea thomsoniana_.) + + +The first time we saw flowers of this beautiful new climbing plant +(about a year ago) we thought that it was a white-flowered variety of +the favorite old Ipomaea Horsfalliae, as it so nearly resembles it. It +has, however, been proved to be a distinct new species, and Dr. Masters +has named it in compliment to Mr. Thomson of Edinburgh. It differs from +I. Horsfalliae in having the leaflets in sets of threes instead of fives, +and, moreover, they are quite entire. The flowers, too, are quite double +the size of those of Horsfalliae, but are produced in clusters in much +the same way; they are snow-white. This Ipomaea is indeed a welcome +addition to the list of stove-climbing plants, and will undoubtedly +become as popular as I. Horsfalliae, which may be found in almost every +stove. It is of easy culture and of rapid growth, and it is to be hoped +that it is as continuous in flowering as Horsfalliae. It is among the new +plants of the year now being distributed by Mr. B.S. Williams, of the +Victoria Nurseries, Upper Holloway.--_The Garden_. + +[Illustration: A NEW STOVE CLIMBER. IPOMAEA THOMSONIANA.] + + * * * * * + + + + +HISTORY OF WHEAT. + + +Isis was supposed to have introduced wheat into Egypt, Demeter into +Greece, and the Emperor Chin-Wong into China, about 3000 B.C. In Europe +it was cultivated before the period of history, as samples have been +recovered from the lacustrine dwellings of Switzerland. + +The first wheat raised in the "New World" was sown by the Spaniards on +the island of Isabella, in January, 1494, and on March the 30th the ears +were gathered. The foundation of the wheat harvest of Mexico is said to +have been three or four grains carefully cultivated in 1530, and +preserved by a slave of Cortez. The first crop of Quito was raised by a +Franciscan monk in front of the convent. Garcilasso de la Vega affirms +that in Peru, up to 1658, wheaten bread had not been sold in Cusco. +Wheat was first sown by Goshnold Cuttyhunk, on one of the Elizabeth +Islands in Buzzard's Bay, off Massachusetts, in 1602, when he first +explored the coast. In 1604, on the island of St. Croix, near Calais, +Me., the Sieur de Monts had some wheat sown which flourished finely. In +1611 the first wheat appears to have been sown in Virginia. In 1626, +samples of wheat grown in the Dutch Colony at New Netherlands were shown +in Holland. It is probable that wheat was sown in the Plymouth Colony +prior to 1629, though we find no record of it, and in 1629 wheat was +ordered from England to be used as seed. In 1718 wheat was introduced +into the valley of the Mississippi by the "Western Company." In 1799 it +was among the cultivated crops of the Pimos Indians of the Gila River, +New Mexico. + + * * * * * + + + + +DETERMINATION OF STARCH. + + +According to Bunzener and Fries _(Zeitschrift fur das gesammte +Brauwesen_), a thick, sirupy starch paste prepared with a boiling one +per cent solution of salicylic acid is only very slowly saccharified, +and on cooling deposits crystalline plates of starch. For the +determination of starch in barley the finely-ground sample is boiled for +three-quarters of an hour with about thirty times its weight of a one +per cent solution of salicylic acid, the resulting colorless opalescent +liquid filtered with the aid of suction, and the starch therein inverted +by means of hydrochloric acid. The dextrose formed is estimated by +Fehling's solution. The results are one to two per cent higher than when +the starch is brought into solution by water at 135 deg. C. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. 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