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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 415,
+December 15, 1883, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, December 15, 1883
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 27, 2004 [EBook #11344]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. NO. 415 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Produced by Josephine Paolucci, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland,
+Charles Franks and the DP Team
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+Scientific American Supplement No. 415
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in Steel.
+
+      Heat developed in Forging.
+
+      Recent Studies on the Constitution of Alkaloids.--Extract from
+      a lecture delivered before the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.
+      --By SAML.P. SADTLER.
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for Extracting
+      Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving.
+
+      A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By Prof. E.J.
+      HALLOCK. 1 figure.
+
+      A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description and numerous
+      engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD.
+
+      The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With engraving.
+
+      A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic Reaction--Figures showing
+      plan and side views of the steamer.
+
+      A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. W.C.
+      UNWIN. 4 figures.
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and Opals.--By
+      A. GOODALL.
+
+      The Manufacture and Characteristics of Photographic Lenses.
+
+      Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. EDER.
+
+      The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By Prof. REDWOOD.
+
+      Anti-Corrosion Paint.
+
+      Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different kilns used.
+
+IV.   ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHAEOLOGY.--The German
+      National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of
+      Peace and War.
+
+      The Art Aspects of Modern Dress.
+
+      Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With engraving.
+
+      Discovery of Ancient Church In Jerusalem.
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With engraving.
+
+      Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 engravings showing
+      Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. Electrolyzing
+      Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens Machine.
+
+VI.   GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and around New
+      York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON.
+
+VII.  NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's Gardens, London.--With
+      full page engravings showing the new Reptile House, and the
+      Babiroussa family.
+
+VIII. HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra Australis.--
+      With engraving.
+
+      How to Successfully Transplant Trees.
+
+IX.  MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of Congestive
+     Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING.
+
+     The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of Pulmonary
+     Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN.
+
+     Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon the Bile.
+
+     Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of engravings.
+
+     Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful as well as
+     inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By Dr. A. BAER,
+     Berlin.
+
+     Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD.
+
+     Danger from Flies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE.
+
+
+In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full
+description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," lately
+unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now present, as
+beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two statues, War and
+Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental facade. These figures
+are about twenty feet high. The statue of War represents an allegorical
+character, partly Mercury, partly mediaeval knight, with trumpet in one
+hand, sword in the other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and
+modest maiden, holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn
+of peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a
+magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." Here
+the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, surrounded by a
+noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, commanders, and
+statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped to found the
+empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German nation.
+
+[Illustration: WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A writer in the London _Lancet_ ridicules a habit of being in great
+haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among all classes of
+commercial men, and argues that in most cases there is not the least
+cause for it, and that it is done to convey a notion of the tremendous
+volume of business which almost overwhelms the house. The writer further
+says that, when developed into a confirmed habit, it is fertile in
+provoking nervous maladies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS.
+
+
+At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic Society,
+Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having expressed his belief
+that mere considerations of health would never dethrone fashion, the
+lecturer said he should endeavor to show on art principles how those who
+were open to conviction could have all the variety Fashion promised,
+together with far greater elegance than that goddess could bestow, while
+health received the fullest attention. Two excellent societies, worthy
+of encouragement up to a certain point, had been showing us the folly
+and wickedness of fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body,
+crippled the feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the
+limbs, and even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been
+more successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with
+excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or might
+not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the zero of
+artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. We were
+inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without rules to guide
+us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris fashions and those of
+Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, choose the former. Let it be
+shown that the substitute was both sanitary and beautiful, capable of an
+infinite variety in color and in form--in colors and forms which never
+violated art principle, and in which the wearer, and not some Paris
+liner, could exercise her taste, and the day would have been gained.
+This was the task he had set himself to formulate, and so doing he
+should divide his subject in two--Color and Form.
+
+In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the meaning
+of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured nation like the
+English should be so generally ignorant of the laws of color harmony. We
+were nicely critical of music, yet in color were constantly committing
+the gravest solecisms. He did not think there were seventeen interiors
+in London that the educated eye could wander over without pain. Yet what
+knowledge was so useful? We were not competent to buy a picture, choose
+a dress, or furnish a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say
+nothing of the facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on
+porcelain, art needlework, and a hundred occupations.
+
+An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the effect
+they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be worn in dark
+shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was commonly called, olive
+green, went well together; but a dress of full red or yellow would be
+painful to behold. The rule for full primaries was, employ them
+sparingly, and contrast them only with black or gray. He might notice in
+passing that when people dressed in gray or black the entire dress was
+usually of the one color unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that
+would lend beauty to any color placed upon it.
+
+Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing widely in
+hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating itself to sudden
+changes, and a species of color discord was the consequence. But if the
+colors, even though primaries, were of some very dark or very light
+shade, they become harmonious. All very dark shades of color went well
+with black and with each other, and all very light shades went well with
+white and each other.
+
+A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my complexion?"
+The generally received opinion was that the complexion was pink, either
+light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, working dire
+confusion. But no one living ever had a pink complexion unless a painted
+one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade were pink, and their pink dresses
+were in harmony. No natural complexion whatever was improved by pink;
+but gray would go with any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence
+to the dominant hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce
+flesh color he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The
+skin of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color
+that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea green,
+tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color always
+subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination near it.
+Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside pink altered it
+to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as to have a muddy
+complexion, the worst color they could wear would be their own
+complexion's complementary--the best would be mud color, for it would
+clear their complexion.
+
+Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer urged
+that the proper function of dress was to drape the human figure without
+disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of Miss Mary Anderson,
+attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was exhibited, and the lecturer
+observed that while the dress once worn by Greek women was unequaled for
+elegance, Greek women were not in the habit of tying their skirts in
+knots round the knees, and the nervous pose of the toes suggested a more
+habitual acquaintance with shoes and stockings.
+
+An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as illustrating
+the principles of artistic and natural costume--costume which permitted
+the waist to be the normal size, and allowed the drapery to fall in
+natural folds--costume which knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays
+and "improvers"--costume which was very symbolization and embodiment of
+womanly grace and modesty.
+
+A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from _Myra's Journal_, dated
+June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference of the waist was but 123/4
+in., involving an utter exclusion of the liver from that part of the
+organization, and the attitude was worthy of a costume which was the _ne
+plus ultra_ of formal ugliness.
+
+Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected from a
+recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, Why did women
+think small waists beautiful? Was it because big-waisted women were so
+frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A young girl had no waist, and
+did not need stays. As the figure matured the hips developed, and it was
+this development which formed the waist. The slightest artificial
+compression of the waist destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the
+grown woman should never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken
+the muscles of the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A
+waist really too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress
+was designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses
+were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner garment
+should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress should be as
+thin as possible, that it might drape itself into natural folds. Velvet,
+from its texture, was ill adapted for this. When worn, it should be in
+close fitting garments, and in dark colors only. It was most effective
+when black.
+
+Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the lecturer
+suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto had been the
+too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could be artistic
+without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without clothes fairly in
+fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive color their tailor
+pleased. He would suggest that any reformation should begin with color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY.
+
+
+The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent feature in
+the progress of building in the metropolis, and speculative builders who
+work on a smaller scale would do well not to ignore the fact. The
+Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings Company (Limited) has been
+conspicuously successful in rearing large blocks of dwellings for
+artisans, clerks, and others whose means necessitates the renting of a
+convenient house at as low a rental as it is possible to find it. We
+give an illustration of a terrace of first-class houses built by the
+above company, who deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal
+manner in which they are going to work on this the third of their London
+estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at Shaftesbury
+and Queen's Parks they have already built about three thousand houses,
+employing therein a capital of considerably over a million sterling,
+while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an estate of one hundred
+acres, which will contain, when completed, no less than two thousand six
+hundred houses, to be let at weekly rentals varying from 6s. to 11s.
+6d., rates and taxes all included. The object has been to provide
+separate cottages, each in itself complete, and in so doing they have
+not made any marked departure from the ordinary type of suburban terrace
+plan, but adopting this as most favorable to economy, have added many
+improvements, including sanitary appliances of the latest and most
+approved type.
+
+The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, a road
+60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of the estate. On
+either side of this road the houses are set back 15 ft., in front of
+which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a suitable growth are
+being planted, as also on all other roads on the estate. About the
+center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has been reserved as a site for
+a church, and a space of five acres in another portion of the estate has
+been set apart to be laid out as a recreation ground, should the
+development of the estate warrant such an outlay. The remaining streets
+are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in width, clear of the garden space in front
+of the houses. Shops will be erected as may be required.
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE
+DWELLINGS.]
+
+The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, the
+surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. Nowhere have
+these drains been carried through the houses, but they are taken
+directly into drains at the back, having specially ventilated manholes
+and being brought through at the ends of terraces into the road sewers;
+the ventilating openings in the roads have been converted into inlet
+ventilators by placing upcast shafts at short intervals, discharging
+above the houses. This system of ventilation was adopted on the
+recommendation of Mr. W.A. De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the
+Tottenham Local Board.
+
+All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the whole
+area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every room is
+specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in order to prevent
+the passage of sound. A constant water supply is laid on, there being no
+cisterns but those to the water-waste preventers to closets. All water
+pipes discharge over open trapped gullies outside.
+
+The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta sills, the
+roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the purpose of forming
+an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some cases the central
+houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over porches being similarly
+treated. The houses are simply but effectively designed, and the general
+appearance of the finished portion of the estate is bright and cheerful.
+All end houses of terraces have been specially treated, and in some
+cases having rather more accommodation than houses immediately
+adjoining, a slightly increased rental is required. There are five
+different classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate
+this week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth,
+and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, kitchen,
+scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and water-closet on
+ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The water-closet is entered from
+the outside, but in many first-class houses another water-closet has
+been provided on the first floor, and one room on this floor is provided
+with a small range, so that if two families live in the one house they
+will be entirely separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to
+11s. 6d. per week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square,
+W., is the architect.--_Building and Engineering Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS.
+
+By A. GOODALL.
+
+[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland Photographic
+Association.]
+
+
+The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or enlargements
+on paper or opal has been before the public for two or three years now,
+and cannot be called new; but still it is neither so well known nor
+understood as such a facile and easy process deserves to be, and I may
+just say here that after a pretty extensive experience in the working of
+it I believe there is no other enlarging process capable of giving
+better results than can be got by this process when properly understood
+and wrought, as the results that can be got by it are certainly equal to
+those obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with
+which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead of
+any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino bromide
+enlargement on opal.
+
+[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 opal,
+using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for two and
+a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant opal was the
+result.]
+
+We now come to the paper process, and most effective enlargements can be
+made by it also; indeed, as a basis for coloring, nothing could well be
+better. Artists all over the country have told me that after a few
+trials they prefer it to anything else, while excellent and effective
+plain enlargements are easily made by it if only carefully handled. A
+very good enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just
+done, with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and
+afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have the
+appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture adhering
+to the glass, however, and at the same time to give greater brilliancy,
+it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 grain solution of clear
+gelatine before squeezing it down. The one fault or shortcoming of the
+plain argentic paper is the dullness of the surface when dry, and this
+certainly makes it unsuitable for small work, such as the rapid
+production of cartes or proofs from negatives wanted in a hurry; the
+tone of an argentic print is also spoken of sometimes as being
+objectionable; but my impression is, that it is not so much the tone as
+the want of brilliancy that is the fault there, and if once the public
+were accustomed to the tones of argentine paper, they might possibly
+like them twice as well as the purples and browns with which they are
+familiar, provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and
+some time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the
+_Photographic News_, I set about trying to produce this result by
+enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating it with
+the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were successful, and we
+now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which the prints stand out with
+brilliancy equal to those on albumenized paper. I here show you
+specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures enlarged from
+C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic.
+
+[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from landscape and
+portrait negatives, which it would have been difficult to distinguish
+from prints on double albumenized paper.]
+
+I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which an
+argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion transfer,
+for instance; but there is another and more important point to be
+considered between the two, and that is, their durability and
+permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, unless most
+particular care be taken in the washing of it (and those who have made
+them will well know what a delicate, not to say difficult, job it is to
+get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, and at the same time preserve
+the film intact), there is no permanence in a collodion transfer, and
+that practically in nine cases out of ten they have the elements of
+decay in them from the first day of their existence. I know, at least in
+Glasgow, where an enormous business has been done within the last few
+years by certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being
+a collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are
+literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more has
+been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at the
+present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the picture in
+disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a collodion
+transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, unless an amount
+of care be taken in the making of it which is neither compatible nor
+consistent with the popular price and extensive output. How now stands
+the case with an argentic enlargement? Of course it may be said that
+there is scarcely time yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic
+enlargements are still only on their trial.
+
+I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset that seven
+or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and failed, but got one
+or two results which I retained as curiosities till only a month or two
+ago; but up to that time I cannot say they had faded in the least, and I
+have here a specimen made three years ago, which I have purposely
+subjected to very severe treatment. It has been exposed without any
+protection to the light and damp and all the other noxious influences of
+a Glasgow atmosphere, and although certainly tarnished, I think you will
+find that it has not faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have
+lost nothing of their original strength. I here show you the picture
+referred to, a 12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here
+state, in short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads
+me to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are
+the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. Chromotypes
+and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, but their
+permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment employed, and
+associated with the chromated gelatine in which they are produced, most
+of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, being unable to
+withstand the bleaching action of the light for more than a few weeks.
+Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent according to the degree in
+which the coloring matter employed is capable of resisting the
+decolorizing action of light. But there is no pigment in an argentic
+print, nothing but the silver reduced by the developer after the action
+of light; and that has been shown by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a
+very stable and not easily decomposed nature; while if the pictures are
+passed through a solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine
+also is so acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to
+the action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to carbon
+pictures without carbon.
+
+I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes met with
+in working this process; and first in regard to the yellowing of the
+whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of purity in the whites,
+especially in vignetted enlargements, and I believe that this almost
+always arises from one or other of the two following causes:
+
+First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate developer;
+and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is more in
+suspension than solution, and in the course of development it is
+deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the gelatinous film.
+
+The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated solution
+of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has been
+recommended by the highest and almost only scientific authority on the
+subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of potassic oxalate to 1 part
+of ferrous sulphate.
+
+Now while these proportions may be the best for the development of a
+negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best for
+gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that potassic
+oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the ferrous sulphate
+solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold in proper solution for
+any length of time the compound salt formed when the two are mixed.
+
+The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and vignetted
+enlargements especially, should always be fresh and pretty strong, so
+that the picture will clear rapidly before any deposit has time to take
+place, as it will be observed that very shortly after even one iron
+developed print has been fixed in it a deposit of some kind begins to
+take place, so that although it may be used a number of times for fixing
+prints that are meant to be colored afterward it is best to take a small
+quantity of fresh hypo for every enlargement meant to be finished in
+black and white. The proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of
+water. Almost the only other complaints I now hear are traceable to
+over-exposure or lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the
+paper. The operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo,
+or pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing
+cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up by
+blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black stains and
+smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent enlargements,
+but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently developed, and
+cleanly and carefully handled.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic
+Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced his
+lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by describing the
+method by which the necessary curves were computed in order to obtain a
+definite focal length. The varieties of optical glass were next
+discussed, and specimens (both in the rough and partly shaped state)
+were handed round for examination. The defects frequently met with in
+glass, such as striae and tears, were then treated upon; specimens of
+lenses defective from this cause were submitted to inspection, and the
+mode of searching for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and
+polishing lenses of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a
+collection of glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross &
+Co., and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to
+the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were gone
+into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the processes
+was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which he placed upon
+the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of photographic
+lenses, and explained the influence of particular constructions in
+producing certain results; positive and negative spherical aberration,
+and the manner in which they are made to balance each other, was also
+described by the aid of diagrams, as was also chromatic aberration. He
+next spoke of the question of optical center of lenses, and said that
+that was not, as had been hitherto generally supposed, the true place
+from which to measure the focus of a lens or combination. This place was
+a point very near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss"
+point, from the name of the eminent German mathematician who had
+investigated and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was
+of the greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was
+drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a
+bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of
+lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For this
+drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo Schroeder, now
+with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer congratulated the
+newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John Stuart, for his
+enterprise in securing for this country a man of such profound
+acquirements. The subject of distortion was next treated of, and the
+manner in which the idea of a non distorting doublet could be evolved
+from a single bi-convex lens by division into two plano-convex lenses
+with a central diaphragm was shown. The influence of density of glass
+was illustrated by a description of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent
+of the large family of rapid doublets now known under various names. The
+effect of thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious
+method of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected
+spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of
+portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative
+element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then
+referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large angle by
+pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in the manner of
+the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by requesting a careful
+examination of the valuable exhibits upon the table, kindly lent for the
+occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES.
+
+By Dr. Eder.
+
+
+We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved formulas given
+below as translated by him for the _Photographic Times_.
+
+Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention to the
+soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer certain
+advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage becomes
+particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, which
+frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, or a fog of
+clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by transmitted light.
+Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of that kind; so do soda
+and potassa developers.
+
+For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure
+crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this
+solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, without
+the addition of any bromide.
+
+More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. No. 1:
+Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; sodium
+sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 11/2 gr.; sodium sulphite,
+25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is for its better keeping
+qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's solution.[A] The solutions when in
+well stoppered bottles keep well for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c.
+of water with 40 min. of No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears
+quickly and more vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable
+to decrease the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water.
+The negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine
+grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between
+developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as
+effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of
+saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative a
+deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which excludes
+all possible necessities of an after intensification.
+
+[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; 1 gr.
+salicylic acid.]
+
+The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that when
+iron developer is used, frequently even greater.
+
+The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. Bromides
+in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce the
+sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing power
+almost entirely.
+
+Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution of
+potassium bromide is quite sufficient.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY.
+
+[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of
+Great Britain, November 7, 1883.]
+
+By Professor REDWOOD.
+
+
+I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases,"
+communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at its
+recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more particularly
+attracted my attention is that which relates to prepared lard. Reference
+is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared in different ways, and it
+appears from the results of his experiments that when made according to
+the process of the British Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from
+rancidity for so long a time as some of the samples do which have been
+otherwise prepared. The general tendency of the discussion, as far as
+related to this part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same
+direction; but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the
+question of the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so
+specially referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be.
+
+When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society,
+suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which consisted in
+removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, by first
+thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after breaking up the
+tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat at a moderate heat,
+this method of operating seemed to be generally approved. It was adopted
+by men largely engaged in "rendering" fatty substances for use in
+pharmacy and for other purposes for which the fat was required to be as
+free as possible from flavor and not unduly subject to become rancid. It
+became the process of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it
+formed the basis of a process, which was patented in Paris and this
+country by Hippolite Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste
+and odor, and suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter.
+Mege's process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers,
+together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." This
+process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty substance
+called oleomargarine.
+
+But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I have
+been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the effect that
+the washing of the flare before melting the fat was rather hurtful than
+beneficial. I have reason to believe that this opinion has been gaining
+ground among those who have carefully inquired into the properties of
+the products obtained by the various methods which have been suggested
+for obtaining animal fat in its greatest state of purity.
+
+I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make many
+experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, and at the
+same time have been brought into communication with manufacturers of
+oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of which experience has
+been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of the Pharmacopeia process.
+I have found that in the method now generally adopted by manufacturers
+of oleomargarine, which is produced in immense quantities, the use of
+water, for washing the fat before melting it, is not only omitted but
+specially avoided. The parts of the process to which most importance is
+attached are: First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural
+fat, which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus
+becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the freshly
+slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and adhering
+portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; after which it
+is cut up and passed through a machine in which it is mashed so as to
+completely break up the membraneous vesicles in which the fat is
+inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a deep jacketed pan heated
+by warm water, and the fat is melted at a temperature not exceeding
+130 deg.F.
+
+If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be easily
+melted away from the membraneous matter at 120 deg.F., or even below that,
+and no further continuance of the heat is required beyond what is
+necessary for effecting a separation of the melted fat from the
+membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete separation of all
+suspended matter is obviously important, and therefore nitration seems
+desirable, where practicable; which however is not on the large scale.
+
+My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described is that
+best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in pharmacy. There is,
+however, a point connected with this or any other method of preparing
+lard which is deserving of more attention than it has, I believe,
+usually received, and that is, the source from which the flare has been
+derived. Everybody knows how greatly the quality of pork depends upon
+the manner in which the pig has been fed, and this applies to the fat as
+well as other parts of the animal. Some time ago I had some pork
+submitted to me for the expression of opinion upon it, which had a
+decided fishy flavor, both in taste and smell. This flavor was present
+in every part, fat and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from
+that fat would not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been
+prescribed a fish diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a
+better variety of lard.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANTI-CORROSION PAINT.
+
+
+The _Neueste Erfinderung_ describes an anti-corrosion paint for iron. It
+states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even baryta, or
+strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil paint, and then
+enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, the free acid of the
+paint will be neutralized, while the iron will be protected by the
+permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to be buried in damp earth
+may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts of resin (colophony), 25
+parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of paraffin, to which 20 parts of
+magnesia and some mineral oil have been added.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBON IN STEEL.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was read
+entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in Steel," by
+Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering.
+
+Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks of steel
+2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. They were all
+cut from the same strip of metal, but some were "cold-rolled," some
+"annealed," and some "hardened." The total carbon was found to be:
+"cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, 1.128 per cent.; and annealed,
+0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of the disks were submitted to the action
+of an oxidizing solution consisting of a cold saturated solution of
+potassium bichromate with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated
+sulphuric acid. In all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left
+undissolved. These residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks
+employed, had the following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039
+per cent.; iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent.
+Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by treatment
+with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the carbon remains
+undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, but only about
+one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in the case of the
+hardened disk. The authors then give a _resume_ of previous work on the
+subject. In the second part they have investigated the action of
+bichromate solutions of various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about
+0.098 inch thick, which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per
+cent.; silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four
+solutions were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of
+bichromate and 9 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4} by weight; the second was
+eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the fourth about
+one and a half times as strong. In all cases the amount of solution
+employed was considerably in excess of the amount required to dissolve
+the steel used. A residue was obtained as before. With solution 1, the
+residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. 2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the
+atomic ratio of iron to carbon was Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe),
+2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 per 100 of steel. The authors conclude
+that the carbon in cold rolled steel exists not simply diffused
+mechanically through the mass of steel but in the form of an iron
+carbide, Fe_{3}C, a definite product, capable of resisting the action of
+an oxidizing solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a
+rapid solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is
+distributed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES.
+
+
+In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed cuts
+(Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the washer, C,
+slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which reduces them to a fine
+pulp under the action of a continuous current of water led in by the
+pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into the iron reservoir, B, from whence a
+pump, P, forces it through the pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is
+suspended by four bars and has a backward and forward motion. By means
+of a rose, c, water is sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve
+and separates the fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged
+with fine particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through
+the tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while
+the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. This
+latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that have not
+been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through the tube, h,
+into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is completely separated
+from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried by means of a helix, i, to
+a revolving perforated drum at e. From this, the milky starch flows into
+the jacket, N, while the pulp (ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the
+apparatus through the aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o.
+
+[Illustration: ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.]
+
+The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, which,
+like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward motion, and
+which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to separate the very
+finest impurities from the milky starch. The refined liquid then flows
+into the reservoir, m, and the impure mass of sediment runs into the
+pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, forces the milky liquid from the
+reservoir, m, to the settling back, while the pulp is forced by a pump,
+u, from the receptacle, o, into a large pulp-reservoir.
+
+The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, a, into
+the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, r, into the
+different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion by two
+shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred revolutions per
+minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is but fifty
+revolutions.--_Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de l'Indust_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES.
+
+By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK.
+
+
+A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be
+constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a
+straight piece of wood about 1/4 inch wide by 1/8 inch thick and 13 inches
+long. Beginning 1/2 inch from the end, bore a row of small holes only
+large enough for a darning needle to pass through and half an inch
+apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the third 1, the fifth 2, and so on
+to 12, so that the numbers represent the distance from O in inches. A
+small slit may be made in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A,
+but a better plan is to attach a small clip on one side.
+
+[Illustration: ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.]
+
+Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet long; pass
+it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it until it forms a
+single cord. Pass the needle _upward_ through the hole marked 0, and tie
+a knot in the end of the thread to prevent its slipping through. The
+apparatus is now ready for immediate use. It only remains to set it to
+the size of the oval desired.
+
+Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer diameter of
+which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 inches. Insert a
+pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 and 7, which is distant
+6-1/2 inches from O. Pass the needle through hole 5, allowing the thread
+to pass around the tack or pin; draw it tightly and fasten it in the
+slit or clip at the end. Lay the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper,
+place the point of a pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it
+around and describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two
+ends of the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief
+advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied to
+metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On drawings
+it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with pins.
+
+As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by the
+string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a crochet
+needle.
+
+As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given width
+and length, but does not know what the distance between the foci must be
+to produce this effect, a few directions on this point may be useful:
+
+It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance between
+the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the sides of a
+right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the greater diameter.
+Hence in order to find the distance between the foci, when the length
+and width of the ellipse are known, these two are squared and the lesser
+square subtracted from the greater, when the square root of the
+difference will be the quantity sought. For example, if it be required
+to describe an ellipse that shall have a length of 5 inches and a width
+of 3 inches, the distance between the foci will be found as follows:
+
+  (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4)
+  or                   __
+     25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4.
+
+In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying a foot
+rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch the figure
+marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then bringing the figure
+on the rule that represents the greater diameter to the edge of the
+square; the figure on the square at this point is the distance sought.
+Unfortunately they rarely represent whole numbers. We present herewith a
+table giving the width to the eighth of an inch for several different
+ovals when the length and distance between foci are given.
+
+
+    Length.     Distance between foci.   Width.
+    Inches.          Inches.            Inches.
+
+      2              1                     13/4
+      2              11/2                    11/4
+
+      21/2             1                     21/4
+      21/2             11/2                    2
+      21/2             2                     11/2
+
+      3              1                     11/2
+      3              11/2                    2-7/8
+      3              2                     2-5/8
+      3              21/2                    21/4
+
+      31/2             1                     3-3/8
+      31/2             11/2                    3-1/8
+      31/2             2                     2-7/8
+      31/2             21/2                    21/2
+      31/2             3                     13/4
+
+      4              2                     31/2
+      4              21/2                    3-1/8
+      4              3                     2-5/8
+      4              31/2                    2
+
+      5              3                     4
+      5              4                     3
+
+For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus for 7 and
+4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to 31/2 and 2, which
+is twice 2-7/8, or 53/4. It will be noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are
+interchangeable.
+
+To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the length of
+the desired oval in the first column of the table, and the width most
+nearly corresponding to that desired in the third column. The
+corresponding number in the middle column tells which hole the needle
+must be passed through. The tack D, _around_ which the string must pass,
+is so placed that the total length of the string AD + DC, or its equal
+AE + EC, shall equal the greater diameter of the ellipse. In the figure
+it is placed 61/2 inches from A, and 11/2 inches from C, making the total
+length of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long
+and 61/4 inches wide.
+
+The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals by
+fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is recommended in all
+the text books on the subject. On the other hand, the instrument may be
+set "by guess" when no particular accuracy is required.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS.
+
+
+The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years ago, after
+a series of experiments made in poorly constructed furnaces, to be
+unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most writers with the
+remark, that in order to use the method economically the products of
+distillation, both liquid and gaseous, must be collected. T. Egleston,
+Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New York, has read a paper on the subject
+before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, from which we extract
+as follows: As there are many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke
+cannot be had at such a price as will allow of its being used, and where
+the ores are of such a nature that wood cannot be used in a
+reverberatory furnace, the most economical method of making charcoal is
+an important question.
+
+Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any shape and
+size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the builder or by the
+necessities of the shape of the ground selected. They do not differ from
+each other in any principle of manufacture, nor does there seem to be
+any appreciable difference in the quality of the fuel they produce, when
+the process is conducted with equal care in the different varieties; but
+there is a considerable difference in the yield and in the cost of the
+process in favor of small over large kilns. The different varieties have
+come into and gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of
+construction and of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the
+cover of a meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the
+meiler and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to
+replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has all
+the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar to
+itself.
+
+The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, the round,
+and the conical, but the first two seem to be disappearing before the
+last, which is as readily built and much more easily managed.
+
+
+ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS
+
+Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone together.
+Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not necessary. The
+foundations are usually made of stone. There are several precautions
+necessary in constructing the walls. The brick should be sufficiently
+hard to resist the fire, and should therefore be tested before using. It
+is an unnecessary expense to use either second or third quality
+fire-brick. As the pyroligneous acid which results from the distillation
+of the wood attacks lime mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with
+fire-clay mortar, to which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam
+mixed with coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As
+the principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care
+must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and
+frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is especially
+necessary that all the joints should be carefully filled, as any small
+open spaces would admit air, and would materially decrease the yield of
+the kiln. The floor of the kiln was formerly made of two rows of brick
+set edgewise and carefully laid, but latterly it is found to be best
+made of clay. Any material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It
+must be well beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six
+inches higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the
+lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted on
+the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered with a
+coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does not require
+to be renewed for several years.
+
+[Illustration: RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL.]
+
+The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect the
+masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found to
+result from so doing, since of late years they have been made
+water-proof, the practice has been discontinued.
+
+The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The diameter is
+not considered of much importance, except in so far as it is desirable
+to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most of the wood is
+small, and only a small part of it is large, the large pieces are
+usually split, to make it pack well. It has been found most satisfactory
+to have three rows of vents around the kiln, which should be provided
+with a cast-iron frame reaching to the inside of the furnace. The vents
+near the ground are generally five inches high--the size of two
+bricks--and four inches wide--the width of one--and the holes are closed
+by inserting one or two bricks in them. They are usually the size of one
+brick, and larger on the outside than on the inside. These holes are
+usually from 0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to
+0.90 m. apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of
+the brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with the
+floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is sometimes an
+additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid escape of the
+smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then closed, and kept
+closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies mostly to the best
+types of conical kilns. In the circular and conical ones the top
+charging door is sometimes used for this purpose. Hard and soft woods
+are burned indifferently in the kilns. Hard-wood coal weighs more than
+soft, and the hard variety of charcoal is usually preferred for blast
+furnaces, and for such purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3
+per cent. or even more in using hard woods. For the direct process in
+the bloomaries, soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is
+not usually advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters
+in capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield,
+but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got from
+kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft wood. The
+average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, two and a half
+to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, or 30 to 40 bushels
+to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, so that the loss in fine
+coal is very much diminished. The pieces usually come out the whole
+size, and sometimes the whole length of the wood.
+
+The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively in use.
+They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of wood. The
+usual sizes are given in the table below:
+
+                              1   2   3   4
+  Length                     50  40  40  48
+  Width                      12  15  14  17
+  Height                     12  15  18  18
+  Capacity, in cords         55  70  75  90
+
+1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. 4. Kiln
+at Lauton, Mich.
+
+The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of No. 4, as
+constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a good burn, will
+yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal.
+
+The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet high, and
+1-1/2 brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks to the cubic foot of
+wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist the expansion and
+contraction due to the heating and cooling, they should be provided with
+buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 wide, as at Wassaic, New York;
+but many of them are built without them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as
+shown in the engraving. In both cases they are supported with strong
+braces, from 3 to 4 feet apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast
+iron, which are buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below
+with iron rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath
+the floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches
+square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are
+sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, which are
+securely fastened by iron rods running through the corners, as shown.
+When a number of kilns are built together, as at the Michigan Central
+Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the plan view, only the end
+kilns are braced in this way. The intermediate ones are supported below
+by wooden braces, securely fastened at the bottom. The roof is always
+arched, is one brick, or eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers,
+fourteen being used in each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in
+the center a round hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter,
+which is closed by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M.
+brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is so far
+from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it is increasing
+more rapidly than the population of the United Kingdom. The statistics
+of population show an increase of 16 per cent. on the last decennial
+period, while the increase in the United Kingdom in the ten years
+preceding the last census was under 11 per cent. This increase appears
+to be general, and is only slightly influenced by immigration. "The
+population of the West Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater
+than that of any of the larger Australian colonies, and three times that
+of New Zealand."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING.
+
+
+M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some very
+interesting experiments on the development and distribution of heat
+produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of forging. The
+method used was as follows: The bar was carefully polished on both
+sides, and this polished part covered with a thin layer of wax. It was
+then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey of known weight, P,
+falling from a height, H. The faces of the monkey and anvil were exactly
+alike, and care was taken that the whole work, T = PH, should be
+expended upon the bar. A single blow was enough to melt the wax over a
+certain zone; and this indicated clearly how much of the lateral faces
+had been raised by the shock to the temperature of melting wax. The form
+of this melted part could be made to differ considerably, but
+approximated to that of an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of
+this zone, b the width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity,
+and t-t0 the excess of temperature of melting wax over the temperature
+of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the base of a horizontal
+prism, which is everywhere heated to the temperature, t, the heating
+effect produced will be expressed by
+
+Ab x d x C(t-t0)
+
+Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical system,
+the energy developed in heat is given by
+
+T1 = 425 AbdC(t-t0).
+
+Dividing T1 by T, we obtain the ratio which the energy developed in heat
+bears to the total energy of the blow.
+
+With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found always to
+extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar by the blow. We
+are speaking for the present of cases where the faces of the monkey and
+anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar the zone took the form of a
+sort of cross with curved arms, the arms being thinner or thicker
+according to the greater or less energy of the shock. These forms are
+shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will be seen that these zones correspond to
+the zones of greatest sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a
+sharp edged hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done
+in this sliding which is afterward transformed into heat.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat developed
+and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than had been
+expected when the other sources of loss were taken into consideration.
+In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a table given the limits
+vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. with an energy of 40
+kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an energy of 90
+kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly constant at 70 per
+cent. It will be seen that the proportion is less when the energy is
+less, and it also diminishes with the section of the bar. This is no
+doubt due to the fact that the heat is then conducted away more rapidly.
+On the whole, the results are summed up by M. Tresca as follows:
+
+(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and the
+energy of the blow.
+
+(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described allows
+this heat to be clearly indicated.
+
+(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of the
+material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the mechanical cause
+which produces the heating effect.
+
+(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient size, about
+80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat.
+
+(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, showing
+the distribution of the heat and the character of the deformation in the
+bar.
+
+(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage is not
+reliable.
+
+So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey have
+sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are somewhat
+different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in the case of bars
+struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. It will be seen that,
+instead of commencing at the edges of the indent, the fusion begins near
+the middle, and appears in small triangular figures, which gradually
+increase in width and depth until at last they meet at the apex, as in
+Fig. 12. The explanation is that with the rounded edges the compression
+at first takes place only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner
+remaining comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is
+concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are moderate in
+intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in cases of holes
+punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when examined, was found
+to have suffered the greatest compression just below the punch. With
+regard to the percentage of energy developed as heat, it was about the
+same as in the previous experiments, reaching in one case, with an iron
+bar and with an energy of 110 kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high
+figure of 91 per cent. With copper, the same figure varied between 50
+and 60 per cent.--_Iron_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE.
+
+By Prof. C.W. MacCord.
+
+
+The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a propeller
+engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder and valve gear
+were recently designed by the writer, and are in process of construction
+by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of Charleston, S.C.
+
+In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as will be
+perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, following
+nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed by a shifting
+link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; and the expansion
+valves are of the well known Meyer type, consisting of two plates on the
+back of the main valve, driven by a third eccentric, and connected by a
+right and left handed screw, the turning of which alters the distance
+between the plates and the point of cutting off.
+
+The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel features,
+of which the following description will be understood by reference to
+the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale than the general
+plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1-2 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.]
+
+The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and left
+handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it is rotated.
+
+Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut upon
+the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with the
+eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases the valve
+stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so that it must both
+slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two stuffing boxes, necessarily
+of comparatively large size.
+
+All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under
+consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this
+friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and more
+compact, in the following manner:
+
+Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their lower ends
+by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, and at their
+upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling snugly between two
+collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, imparts a longitudinal
+motion to the latter, while at the same time leaving it free to rotate.
+
+This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for
+adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central
+spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through the
+upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by means of a
+bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is communicated to
+the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the body of the latter
+and projecting inwardly so as to slide in corresponding longitudinal
+grooves in the spindle.
+
+Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine is
+running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of the bevel
+pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the index, which points
+out upon the dial the distance followed. These details are shown in
+Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of which it may be added that
+Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve chest and its contents, the cover,
+and also the balance plate for relieving the pressure on the back of the
+main valve (in the arrangement of which there is nothing new), being
+removed in order to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and
+spindle above described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is
+a transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by a
+plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side being a
+section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting more clearly the
+manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve chest; the latter
+having no pipes for this service, the steam enters below the valve, at
+each end of the chest, just as it escapes in the center.
+
+The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off
+eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of this
+kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular position in
+relation to the crank being changed when the engine is reversed; two
+strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the eccentric in one
+direction, the other in the opposite, by acting against the reverse
+faces of a projection from the side of The eccentric pulley.
+
+The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in connection
+with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of reversing an engine
+when driving a single slide valve. Its use in connection with the Meyer
+cut-off valves, however, is believed to be new; and the reason for its
+employment will be understood by the aid of Fig. 6.
+
+For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular
+vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering them
+both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; let L O M
+represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is shown the port
+leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of the main valve, at the
+beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will then be apparent that the
+center of the eccentric must at that instant be at the point, C, if the
+engine turn to the left, as shown by the arrow, and at G, if the
+rotation be in the opposite direction; C and G then may be taken as the
+centers of the "go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively,
+which operate the main valve through the intervention of the link.
+
+Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in effect
+revolves in the same direction about the center of the main eccentric.
+Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, represent the face of
+the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, the back of the main valve,
+in which the port, C N, corresponds to one of those shown in Fig. 4; and
+the motion of the cut-off valve over this seat will be precisely, the
+same as though it were driven directly by an eccentric revolving around
+the center, C.
+
+In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon the
+assumption that the best results will be effected by such an arrangement
+that when cutting off at the earliest point required, the cut-off valve
+shall, at the instant of closing the port, be moving over it at its
+highest speed. And this requires that the center of the eccentric shall
+at the instant in question lie in the vertical line through C.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 3-12 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.]
+
+Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the angle
+through which the crank will turn while the piston is traveling that
+distance is readily found; then, drawing an indefinite line C T, making
+with the vertical line, G O, an angle, G C T. equal to the one thus
+determined, any point upon that line may be assumed as the position of
+the required center of the cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the
+stroke.
+
+But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same manner when
+backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be symmetrically
+situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O M bisects and is
+perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the cut-off eccentric be fixed
+on the shaft, its center must be located at H, the intersection of C T
+with L M. This would require the edge of the cut-off valve at the given
+instant to be at Q, perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main
+valve would be equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the
+eccentric, the actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the
+real eccentricity.
+
+This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if the
+lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of the
+cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close the port.
+CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, AB.
+
+The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter decreases;
+therefore at some point they will become equal in velocity, and the
+openings of the two ports will be the same; and the question is, Will
+this maximum effective port area give a sufficient supply of steam?
+
+This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine under
+consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum distance of
+5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it is found that
+the actual port opening for that point of cutting off is three-fifths of
+that allowed when following full stroke, whereas the speed of the piston
+at the time when this maximum opening occurs is less than half its
+greatest speed.
+
+This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, no
+longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is reversed it
+ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the angle, KOL. By
+leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, by the means above
+described, through the angle, KOP, the desired object is accomplished.
+The real eccentricity is now reduced in the proportion of OK to OH,
+while the lengths of the cut-off valves, and what is equally important,
+their travel over the back of the main valve, are reduced in the
+proportion of CK to CH, in this instance nearly one-half; a gain quite
+sufficient to warrant the adoption of the expedient.
+
+The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the manner of
+suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, this link is
+used only for reversing, and is therefore always in "full gear" in one
+direction or the other; and the striking feature of the arrangement here
+used is that, whether going ahead or backing, there is _no slipping of
+the link upon the link block_.
+
+The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved flat bar,
+L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the link is hung
+upon the pins, which project from the sides of the eccentric rods at
+their upper ends.
+
+This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the
+reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next to the
+eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which projects the
+journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical section by the
+plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer end of a lever, M,
+which transmits the reciprocating motion to the valve, through the
+rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected with the lever, M, by the
+bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a slotted arm, G, as shown in the end
+view, Fig. 10. The center line of this slot lies in the plane which
+contains the axes of the journal, J, and of the shaft, O.
+
+A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in this block
+is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the pin, A, of one
+of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as shown in Fig. 8;
+and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, with the upper end of
+the reversing lever, T, which is operated by the worm and sector. The
+distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other words the length of the lever, M,
+is precisely equal to the distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right
+line; and the rods, R and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also
+each of precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the
+reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, as in
+Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end is exactly
+in line with the rock-shaft, O.
+
+When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the arm, G,
+and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions will be
+identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of the
+rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely to the
+pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the journal, J, so
+that the result is the same as though this eccentric rod were connected
+directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being also in line with B and J,
+and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it will be seen that the
+bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as though the two were
+rigidly fastened together.
+
+When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in Fig. 12,
+the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the arm, G, and is
+thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The suspension-rod, S,
+will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, will have been drawn, by
+the bridle-rod, R, into line with the journal, J, and the bridle-rod
+itself will now vibrate with the lever, M, whose sole motion will be
+derived from the pin, A.
+
+There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus suspended and
+operated is run in "full gear," either forward or backward.
+
+If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as an
+expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip while
+running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be observed
+that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker arm is one of
+vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion relatively to the
+sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the center, P, whose motion
+relatively to E is a small amount of sliding in the direction of the
+slot, due to the fact that the rocker arm itself, which virtually
+carries the block, E, vibrates about O, while the suspension-rod, S,
+vibrates about another fixed center. It will thus be seen that, finally,
+the block slip will be determined by the difference in curvature of arcs
+_which curve in the same direction_, whether the engine be running
+forward or backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block
+slip in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of
+two arcs curving in opposite directions.
+
+Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new
+arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect to
+reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, while in
+the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable feature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI.
+
+
+The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of Mr.
+Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called the Poti,
+which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly differs from all
+others of her class, at least as regards her model. Her extremities,
+which are strongly depressed in the upperworks, and the excessive
+inclination of her sides, give the boat as a whole a certain resemblance
+to the rams of our navy, such as the Taureau and Tigre.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".]
+
+A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. Her
+water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in no wise
+cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is entirely of
+steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 meters; extreme
+breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, 1.9 meters;
+displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound one, is of 600
+H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or 33-34 meters, per hour,
+and it will probably reach 40 kilometers.
+
+The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., and 2
+Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be sufficient for a
+voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 knots.--_L'Illustration_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.
+
+
+The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present the means
+of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has recourse to a
+motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. The sail
+constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not figure in our
+enumeration, considering the essentially variable character of the force
+utilized.
+
+In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a rude
+one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and mollusks,
+and the mode that we now wish to make known is without contradiction
+that which imitates these the best.
+
+Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in effecting a
+movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and forcing it out at
+the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists cite whole families of
+mollusks that move about in this way with great rapidity. It is probable
+that such was the origin of the first idea of this mode of operating.
+However this may be, as long ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in
+England, on this principle, by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the
+patents of Allen (1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli
+presented to the Academic des Sciences a similar project during the last
+century.
+
+Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. This
+ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, and was
+constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of this was
+incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the advantage that could
+be got from the idea. Another boat, the Albert, was built at Stettin,
+after the same type and at about the same epoch; and the question was
+considered of placing a reaction propeller upon the Great Eastern.
+
+About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of Cokerill de
+Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did service as an excursion
+boat between Liege and Seraing. The propeller of this consisted of a
+strong centrifugal pump, with vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure
+engine. This pump sucked water into a perforated channel at the bottom
+of the boat, and forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling
+tubes. These latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the
+sides of the vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such
+a way as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward.
+The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, as in
+the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected the
+propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the propelling
+tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when they were turned
+toward the front, she was thrust backward. When one was turned toward
+the front and the other toward the stern, the boat swung around.
+Finally, when the two mouths were placed vertically the boat remained
+immovable. All the evolutions were easy, even without the help of the
+rudder, and the ways in which the propelling tubes could be placed were
+capable of being varied _ad infinitum_ by a system of levers.
+
+The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, and
+took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and forward, of
+85 kilometers, with four stoppages.
+
+The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most satisfactory.
+It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of effective duty it
+would have been desirable to reduce the velocity of the water at its
+exit from the propellers.
+
+Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the system
+employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. Seraing's
+experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and the theoretic
+effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar system of
+construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in practice, falls to 40
+or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases.
+
+It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary pumps where
+effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., we might obtain
+much better results, and it is this that justifies the new researches
+that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot & Pinette, whose first
+experiments we are about to make known.
+
+In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these
+researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of
+propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of
+side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and the
+draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that of the
+hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine might be
+directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be had of a
+sensibly constant speed, and without change in its running; the
+production of waves capable of injuring the banks of canals will be
+avoided; the propeller will be capable of being utilized as a bilge
+pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the boat will be able to run at
+any speed under good conditions, while the helix works well only when
+the speed of the vessel corresponds to its pitch; it will be possible to
+put the propelling apparatus under water; and, finally, it will be
+possible to run the pump directly by the shaft of the high speed engine,
+without intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very
+great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by piles
+and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines.
+
+[Illustration: NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.]
+
+We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the description of
+which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram that accompanies this
+article. The inventors have employed a boat 14 meters in length by 1.8
+m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught behind and 32 in front. The
+section of the midship beam is 70 square decimeters, and that of the
+exhaust port is 4. At a speed of 2.2 meters per second the tractive
+stress, K, is from 10 to 11 kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers
+per hour, or 3.75 meters per second, the engine develops a power of 12
+horses. The piston is 19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15
+centimeters. The shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410
+revolutions per minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction
+occurs at the lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced
+out at B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for
+putting the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run
+backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small dimensions
+and is only used for _directing_ the boat. The vessel may be turned
+about _in situ_ by opening one of the receiving tubes, according to the
+side toward which it is desired to turn.
+
+This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first trials
+of her that have recently been made upon the Saone have shown the
+necessity of certain modifications that the inventors are now at work
+upon.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER.
+
+[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.]
+
+By Professor W.C. UNWIN.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes carrying
+segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by the motor, the
+power of which is to be measured. If the pulley turns with left-handed
+rotation, the friction would carry the strap toward the left, unless the
+weight, Q, were greater than P. If the belt does not slip in either
+direction when the pulley rotates under it, then Q-P exactly measures
+the friction on the surface of the pulley; and V being the surface
+velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, is exactly the work consumed by the
+dynamometer. But the work consumed in friction can be expressed in
+another way. Putting [theta] for the arc embraced by the belt, and [mu]
+for the coefficient of friction,
+
+  Q/P = [epsilon]^{[mu]^{[theta]}},
+
+or for a given arc of contact Q = [kappa]P, where [kappa] depends only
+on the coefficient of friction, increasing as [mu] increases, and _vice
+versa_. Hence, for the belt to remain at rest with two fixed weights, Q
+and P, it is necessary that the coefficient of friction should be
+exactly constant. But this constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient
+of friction varies with the condition of lubrication of the surface of
+the pulley, which alters during the running and with every change in the
+velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in a
+dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations of the
+weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled without
+impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors Ayrton and Perry
+have recently used a modification of this dynamometer, in which the part
+of the cord nearest to P is larger and rougher than the part nearest to
+Q. The effect of this is that when the coefficients of friction
+increase, Q rises a little, and diminishes the amount of the rougher
+cord in contact, and _vice versa_. Thus reducing the friction,
+notwithstanding the increase of the coefficient. This is very ingenious,
+and the only objection to it, if it is an objection, is that only a
+purely empirical adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that
+the range of the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of
+the weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a
+dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the
+coefficient of friction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG.2 FIG.3]
+
+For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 lengthens, Q
+increases, and the frictional resistance on the surface of the pulley
+increases, both in consequence of the increase of Q, which increases the
+pressure on the pulley, and of the increase of the coefficient of
+friction. Similarly for any increase of the coefficient of friction, the
+spring in Fig. 3 shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface
+of the pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the
+normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the
+increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction on
+the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given
+variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, and
+the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is less. Fig.
+3, therefore, is the better form.
+
+A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break set to a
+given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence of any cause
+the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., the difference of
+tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient of friction would
+increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from 1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig.
+3. That is, the vibration of the spring, and the possible error of
+measurement of the difference of tension would be much greater in Fig. 2
+than in Fig. 3. It has recently occurred to the author that a further
+change in the dynamometer would make the friction on the pulley still
+more independent of changes in the coefficient of friction, and
+consequently the measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate.
+Suppose the cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by
+the motor and round a fixed pulley, C.
+
+For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, but they
+are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the spring balance
+be at the free end of the cord toward which the pulley runs. Then it
+will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. in the friction produces
+a somewhat greater variation of P than in Fig. 3. But P is now so much
+smaller than before that Q-P is much less affected by any error in the
+estimate of P. An alteration of 20 per cent. in the friction will only
+alter the quantity Q-P from 5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less
+than 6 per cent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer are due
+to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are caused by
+variations of the coefficient of friction of the dynamometer. By making
+P very much smaller than in the usual form of the dynamometer, any
+errors in determining it have much less influence on the measurement of
+the work absorbed. We may go further. The cord may be taken over four
+pulleys; in that case a variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional
+coefficient only alters the total friction on the pulleys 11/4 percent. P
+is now so insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it
+is of comparatively little consequence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in the form
+Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the author thinks
+that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V grooves in the
+pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the greatest resistance with
+the least variation of the coefficient of friction; the heat developed
+being in that case neutralized by a jet of water on the pulley. It would
+be quite possible with a pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at
+50 feet of surface velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible
+wire, capable of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these
+proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable value
+of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a brake in
+the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and with a brake in
+the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. But since it would
+be easy to have two, three, or more wires side by side, each carrying
+its load of 100 lb., large amounts of horsepower could be conveniently
+absorbed and measured.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SEE'S GAS STOVE.
+
+
+This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided with
+radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either the upper or
+lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products of combustion are
+discharged through a pipe of small diameter, which may be readily
+inserted into an already existing chimney or be hidden behind the
+wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas flame is so well absorbed by
+radiation from the radiator rings that the gases, on making their exit,
+have no longer a temperature of more than from 35 to 40 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: SEE'S GAS STOVE.]
+
+The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is surrounded on all
+sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being entirely of cast iron,
+it will last for a long time. The joints, being of asbestos, are
+absolutely tight, so as to prevent the escape of bad odors. The water
+due to the condensation of the gases is led through a small pipe out of
+doors or into a vessel from whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to
+change the hygrometric state of the air. The consumption of gas is very
+small, it taking but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic
+meters to a temperature of 18 deg. C.--_Revue Industrielle_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India last
+year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of cattle,
+46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, 2,606 were killed
+by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the deaths occasioned by the
+attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207
+by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 by alligators; 18,591 wild animals
+and 322,421 snakes were destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards
+amounting to 141,653 rupees.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY.
+
+
+Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] devised a
+method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste and odor to
+impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic hydrogen, the
+apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, and afterward
+electrolyzers with platinum plates.
+
+[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, 1882, p.
+5472.]
+
+His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the
+distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in
+December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In
+reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the
+experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce
+important modifications and simplifications into the process. In the
+zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to employ
+zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state presents
+grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower part, under the
+influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an obstacle to the free
+circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, the cleaning presents
+insurmountable difficulties. This is why he substituted for the
+clippings zinc in straight and corrugated plates such as may be easily
+found in commerce. The management and cleaning of the pile thus became
+very simple.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS.]
+
+The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the form
+shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, or, what is
+better, rectangular, because of the square form under which the sheets
+of zinc are found in commerce.
+
+In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc plates, b,
+b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating with a flat
+one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been scoured, first with a
+weak solution of caustic soda in order to remove every trace of fatty
+matter derived from rolling, and then with very dilute hydrochloric
+acid, and finally are washed with common water. In order to facilitate
+the disengagement of hydrogen during the reaction, care must be taken to
+form apertures in the zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row
+with respect to the bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150
+hectoliters contains 105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates,
+whose total weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing
+surface of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of
+impure spirits of 50 deg. to 60 deg. Gay-Lussac. The raw impure spirits enter
+the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a sufficient stay
+therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, into a reservoir, R,
+from whence, by means of a pump, they are forced to the rectifier.
+
+The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged through an
+aperture in the cover of the pile.
+
+As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with alcoholic vapors
+may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. The liquefied alcohol
+returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of 15 deg., the quantity of
+alcohol carried along mechanically is insignificant. In order to secure
+a uniformity of action in all parts of the spirits, during the period
+devoted to the operation, the liquid is made to circulate from top to
+bottom by means of a pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the
+liquid in the vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation
+consists in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the
+pile, by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to
+completely fill it.
+
+The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper working
+of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the following
+conditions:
+
+1. Impure spirits of 40 deg. Gay-Lussac, and not water, should be used as a
+menstruum for the salt of copper.
+
+2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive solutions of
+1/2 per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of sulphate of copper per 100
+square meters of zinc exposed, or a total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate
+for a pile of 150 hectoliters capacity.
+
+3. A temperature of 25 deg. should not be exceeded during the
+sulphatization.
+
+The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of the
+alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each charging
+with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days to form the
+pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of a chocolate-brown
+and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence becomes much greater after
+a fortnight's operation.
+
+Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and continuity of
+the reaction. Below +5 deg. the couple no longer works, and above +35 deg. the
+reaction becomes vigorous and destroys the adherence of the copper to
+such a degree that it becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The
+battery is kept up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of
+hydrochloric acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5
+kilos. of acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this
+acid is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the
+electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of the
+copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of operating
+from 18 months to two years without being renewed or cleaned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.]
+
+Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to deodorize
+the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a rectifier. But,
+in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the treatment by the pile
+with another one by electrolysis. The voltameters in which this second
+operation is performed have likewise been modified. They consist now
+(Fig. 2) of cylindrical glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in
+height, with polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite
+cover through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the
+liquid, E+E-E'+E', to circulate.
+
+The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, R,
+which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per hour.
+In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, there is
+placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that supplies them a
+second and constant level reservoir regulated by an automatic cock.
+
+In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12
+hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters of
+impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished to the
+voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors in
+derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of resistance wires
+interposed in the circuit of the inductors.
+
+The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by means of a
+commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez galvanometer. The
+voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted in derivation in
+groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse them in two parallel
+currents. The Siemens machine is of the type SD2, and revolves at the
+rate of 1,200 times per minute, absorbing a motive power of four horses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.]
+
+The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected by the
+metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages this process
+presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and simple
+distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. Naudin:
+
+In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol must
+undergo five rectifications in order that the products composing the
+mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated and sold according
+to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield in the first
+distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss experienced in
+distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 per cent.; (4) the
+quantity of essential oils (mixture of the homologues of ethylic
+alcohol) collected at the end of the first distillation equals, on an
+average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of a rectification may be estimated
+at, on an average, 4 francs per hectoliter.
+
+All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the electric
+method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an average, 0.40
+franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is therefore
+considerable. For an establishment in which 150 hectoliters of 100 deg.
+alcohol are treated per day this saving becomes evident, amounting, as
+it does, to 373 francs.
+
+We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying spirits
+which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the ordinary
+processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for example, that
+artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the old processes,
+give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that derived from Indian
+corn.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES.
+
+
+Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in _Neueste Erfindung_.:
+Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a stiff dough and pressed
+into moulds made of iron and brass. After drying for a few days in a
+closed place, it is heated in a furnace where it is protected from the
+direct flames and burned, feebly at first, then strongly, the fire being
+gradually raised to white heat which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The
+fire is then permitted to slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the
+carbon is taken out of the furnace.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS.
+
+By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D.
+
+[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia College
+of Pharmacy.]
+
+
+The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very different
+aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they appeared fifty or
+sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass of observations in most
+of these lines of study has enormously increased during this interval.
+Were that all, the change could hardly be considered as an unmixed
+benefit, because of the increased difficulty of assimilation of this
+additional matter. Many would be the contradictions in the observations
+and hopeless would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos.
+The advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one
+resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following
+simply from diligence in the application of the old ways.
+
+Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The chemistry of
+the last century and the early decades of this was largely a descriptive
+science, such as the natural history branches, zoology, and botany are
+still in great part. Reasonably exact mineral analyses were made, it is
+true, but the laws of chemical combination and the fundamental
+conceptions of atoms and molecules had not been as yet generally
+established. Now, this want of comprehensive views of chemical
+reactions, their why and wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the
+study of inorganic and metallic compounds, but what must have been the
+conditions for studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely
+spread in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous
+that, in the absence of any established relationships, not much more
+than a mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of
+chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists have
+attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of organic
+chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range most carbon
+compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or as benzol
+derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. To do this,
+methods of analysis very different from those used in mineral chemistry
+had to be applied. The mere finding out of percentage composition tells
+us little or nothing about an organic compound. What the elements are
+that compose the compound is not to be found out. That can be told
+beforehand with almost absolute certainty. What is wanted is to know how
+the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together,
+for, strange to say, these differences of groupings, which may be found
+to exist between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with
+radically different properties and serve us as a basis of
+classification.
+
+The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required very
+different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a compound
+in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we submit it to a
+course of treatment with reagents, which take it apart very gradually,
+or modify it in the production of some related substance. In this way,
+we are enabled to establish its relations with well defined classes and
+to put it in its proper place. Of equal importance with the analytical
+method of study, however, is the synthetical. This method of research,
+as applied to organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of
+modern chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical
+and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of
+vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler compounds.
+Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds used in the arts
+attest its practical value. It may, therefore, seem anomalous when I say
+that one of the most important of all the classes of organic compounds
+has not shared in this advance. The alkaloids, that most important class
+from a medical and pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite
+recently been defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases,
+containing nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives
+was not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
+nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing unknown.
+Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their constitution was
+very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of any of the more
+important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently desirable thing to
+effect from every point of view. Within the last five years, however,
+quite considerable progress has been made in arriving at a clearer
+understanding of these most important compounds, and I shall offer to
+your attention this evening a brief statement of what has been done and
+what seems likely to be accomplished in the near future.
+
+It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines or
+ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic character of
+these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential element, and,
+above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way these bases united
+with acids to form salts, not by replacement of the hydrogen of the
+acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, pointed unmistakably to
+this constitution. But with this granted, the simplest alkaloid
+formulas, those of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, and nicotine,
+C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, still showed that the amine molecule contained quite
+complex groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of
+the alkaloids--the non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the
+three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the
+difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those
+alkaloids at all comparable with that attained in the case of other
+organic compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until
+analysis had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these
+compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried upon
+the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of the
+decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief
+reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of assistance
+to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this field.
+
+It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of ammonia-like
+bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or amido-toluol, and xylidine
+or amido-xylol, which are utilized practically in the manufacture of the
+so-called aniline dye-colors. It is perhaps not so well known that there
+are other series of bases found there too. The first of these is the
+pyridine series, including _pyridine_, C_{5}H_{5}N, _picoline_
+(methyl-pyridine), C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), _lutidine_ (dimethyl-pyridine),
+C_{5}H_{5}N(CH_{3})_{2}, and _collidine_ (trimethyl-pyridine),
+C_{5}H_{2}N(CH_{3})_{3}. This series is also found in relatively larger
+proportion in what is known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry
+distillation of bones.
+
+The second series is the quinoline series, including _quinoline_,
+C_{9}H_{7}N, _lepidine_ (methyl-quinoline), C_{10}H_{9}N, and
+_cryptidine_ (dimethyl-quinoline), C_{11}H_{11}N. The two compounds
+which give name to these series, pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N, and quinoline,
+C_{9}H_{7}N, respectively, bear to each other a relation analogous to
+that existing between benzol, C_{6}H_{6}, and naphthalene, C_{10}H_{8};
+and the theory generally accepted by those chemists who have been
+occupying themselves with these bases and their derivatives is that
+pyridine is simply benzol, in which an atom of nitrogen replaces the
+triad group, CH, and quinoline, the naphthalene molecule with a similar
+change. Indeed, Ladenberg has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as
+an alteration product from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover,
+from methyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), would be derived an acid know
+as pyridine-carboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), just as benzoic acid,
+C_{6}H_{5}COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, C_{6}H_{5}CH_{3}, and
+from dimethyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{3}N(CH_{3})_{2}, an acid known as
+pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}, just as phthalic
+acid, C_{6}H_{4}(COOH)_{2}, is derived from dimethyl-benzol,
+C_{6}H_{4}(CH_{3})_{2}. The same thing applies to quinoline as compared
+to naphthalene.
+
+We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of reagents
+upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most efficacious in
+decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing and reducing agents,
+of bromine, of organic iodides, of concentrated acids and alkalies, and
+of heat.
+
+Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to _conine_,
+first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to be a secondary
+amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable hydrogen atom of the
+original ammonia molecule. Its formula is therefore C_{8}H_{16}NH. From
+conine can be prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and
+dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon,
+C_{8}H_{14}, conylene, homologous with acetylene, C_{2}H_{2}. Conine, on
+oxidation, yields chiefly butyric acid, but among the products of
+oxidation has been found the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred
+to. The formula of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, shows it to be homologous with
+piperidine, C_{5}H_{11}N, a derivative of piperine, the alkaloid of
+pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just as piperidine is derived from
+pyridine by the action of reducing agents, so conine is probably derived
+from a propyl-pyridine. The artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric
+with the natural conine, will be referred to later.
+
+_Nicotine_, C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, the next simplest in formula of the
+alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that is, contains no replaceable hydrogen
+atoms in its molecule. It shows very close relations to pyridine. When
+nicotine vapor is passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially
+collidine, and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases
+such as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to
+120 deg.C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and
+pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with ferricyanide of
+potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, C_{10}H_{10}N_{2}. Potassium
+permanganate, chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid,
+C_{6}H_{5}NO_{2}, which is simply pyridine-carboxylic acid,
+C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), and which, distilled over quick-lime, yields
+pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N.
+
+Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up first
+the opium alkaloids. _Morphine_, C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}, is a tertiary
+amine, and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which
+class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction with
+ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from it, is
+_codeine_, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. Besides the
+methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and several have been
+recently prepared, giving rise to a class of artificial alkaloids known
+as _codeines_. Morphine, rapidly distilled over zinc dust, yields
+phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other
+bases. The action of strong hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it
+into apomorphine, C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}, by the withdrawal of a molecule of
+water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda solution change
+morphine into oxidimorphine, C_{34}H_{36}N_{2}O_{6}. When heated with
+strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine.
+
+_Narcotine_, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated with manganese
+dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits apart into opianic
+acid, C_{10}H_{10}O_{5}, and cotarnine, C_{12}H_{13}NO_{3}. This latter,
+by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, C_{8}H_{7}NO_{4}, and
+this, on heating with hydrochloric acid to 240 deg. C., yields
+pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{9}N(COOH)_{2}. The base cotarnine
+also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with water alone.
+In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction product meconine,
+C_{10}H_{10}O_{4}, is produced.
+
+_Meconic acid_, C_{7}H_{4}O_{7}, which is found in opium in combination
+with the different bases, has also been investigated. By acting upon
+meconic acid with ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter,
+when heated with zinc dust, yields pyridine.
+
+If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly
+interesting results. _Quinine_, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, when carefully
+oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, yields a series of
+products. First is formed quitenine, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O_{4}, a weak
+base, then quininic acid, C_{11}H_{9}NO_{3}, then the so-called
+oxycinchomeronic acid, C_{8}H_{5}N0_{6}, and finally cinchomeronic acid,
+C_{7}H_{6}NO_{4}. Now the two acids last mentioned are simple
+substitution products of pyridine, oxycinchomeronic acid being a
+pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{2}N(COOH)_{3}, and cinchomeronic
+acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}. When
+distilled with potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its
+homologues. The alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base.
+
+_Quinidine_ yields with chromic acid the same decomposition products as
+quinine.
+
+_Cinchonine_, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O, the second most important alkaloid of
+these barks, when oxidized with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic
+acid, which is a quinoline-carboxylic acid, C_{9}H_{6}N(COOH),
+cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine
+dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When cinchonine is
+treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into quinoline and a
+solid body, which on further treatment yields a liquid base,
+C_{7}H_{9}N, which is probably lutidine. It has been found, moreover,
+that both tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition
+products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled with
+solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both the pyridine
+and quinoline series.
+
+_Cinchonidine_, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields quinoline
+also, and with nitric acid the same products as cinchonine.
+
+_Strychnine_ has been found to be a tertiary amine. When distilled with
+potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed.
+
+_Brucine_ is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by substitution in a
+double ammonia molecule. When distilled with potassium hydrate it yields
+quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric collidines.
+
+The alkaloid _atropine_ has been quite thoroughly studied with results
+of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or hydrochloric acid,
+it takes up a molecule of water and is split into tropine,
+C_{8}H_{15}NO, and tropic acid, C_{9}H_{10}O_{3}. This latter is
+phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180 deg.C. with
+concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and
+yields tropidine, C_{8}H_{13}N, a liquid base, with an odor resembling
+conine. When this tropidine is heated with an excess of bromine, it
+yields dibrompyridine.
+
+_Piperine_, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well studied. When
+boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a molecule of water
+and splits apart into piperic acid, C_{12}H_{10}O_{4}, and piperidine,
+C_{5}H_{11}N. This latter base has been shown to be a hydrogen addition
+product of pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. When heated with concentrated
+sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine hydrochlorate,
+also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180 deg. C., yields
+dibrompyridine.
+
+_Sinapine_, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in white mustard
+seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied to atropine and
+piperine, quite different results. When boiled with baryta water,
+sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, C_{11}H_{12}O_{5}, and choline,
+C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2}, the latter a well-known constituent of the bile, and
+produced also in the decomposition of the lecithin of the brain and yolk
+of egg.
+
+_Cocaine_, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by heating with
+hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and a crystalline
+base, ecgonine, C_{9}H_{15}NO_{3}.
+
+_Caffeine_ and _theobromine_ have also quite different relations.
+Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of theobromine, and
+can be prepared from it. When caffeine is carefully oxidized with
+chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and methyl-urea. Both theobromine
+and caffeine are decomposed by heating to 240 deg. C. in sealed tubes with
+hydrochloric acid, identical products being obtained. These products are
+carbon dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the
+last three being of course in combination with the excess of
+hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and
+caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their relations.
+
+If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way of
+decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, we
+review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids mentioned,
+except the last four, a more or less immediate connection with the
+pyridine and quinoline bases has been indicated. The conviction
+accordingly forces itself upon us that, if we want to attack the problem
+of building up any of these important alkaloids artificially, we must
+turn to these bases as our starting point.
+
+As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the pyridine series
+also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and
+collidine, the first four members of the pyridine series, have,
+moreover, all been formed synthetically, although the processes are not
+such as would yield the products as cheaply as they can be gotten from
+Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the first member of the higher series, had been
+made synthetically by several chemists, but by expensive and involved
+methods, when Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol
+and glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline with
+glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a commercial scale if
+desirable. Shortly after, by an application of the same principle,
+Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of lepidine, the second member
+of the quinoline series.
+
+At the same time that this general agreement to consider these bases as
+the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis of the
+natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was thought well
+to look into the question whether these bases and their immediate
+derivatives had any therapeutic value of their own.
+
+Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have shown
+may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by Dr.
+Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was found to
+have an action upon animals in many respects resembling that of conine.
+Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large number of these
+pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, moreover, that the
+hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a physiological action quite
+analogous to that of conine.
+
+The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied quite
+extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that several of its
+salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very like quinine, and
+capable in cases of being used as a substitute for it. In general, the
+hydrogen addition products were found to be more active than the simple
+base, an observation entirely in accord with the theory formed by
+Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the result of the study of the
+decomposition products of the alkaloids, viz., the alkaloids are in
+general hydrogen addition products of pyridine and quinoline, or of the
+two bases combined. Thus Prof. Filehne found that hydrochlorate of
+tetrahydroquinoline was much more energetic in its action than
+quinoline, but could not be used on account of a too powerful local
+effect. The hydrochlorate of dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was
+distinguished by its strong bitter taste, much resembling that of
+quinine, had an effect like that of curare poison. The most decided
+febrifuge action, however was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the
+hydrochlorate of oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice
+by Prof. O. Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate
+of tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of "Kairolin."
+These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, without any
+unpleasant after effects or local disturbances.
+
+The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of the
+alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who,
+unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in 1880--Koenigs and
+Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. The study of the
+decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids especially points quite
+distinctly to the probable existence in quinine of a hydrogen addition
+product of pyridine, in combination with a methyl-quinoline group. The
+many experiments that are now being made to test this and other
+questions that suggest themselves, will not long leave us in the dark.
+Whether a practical commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is
+another matter, but it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps
+even of probability.
+
+It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been
+effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia is
+formed _paraconine_, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural conine, but
+differing in physiological action. By the action of sodium upon pyridine
+is produced a compound C_{10}H_{8}N_{2}, known as dipyridyl, and this,
+under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms and becomes
+_isonicotine_ C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, a physiologically active alkaloid,
+isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a series of alkaloids
+under the name of _codeines_, by the substitution of other organic
+radicals instead of methyl in the codeine reaction, has already been
+alluded to. _Atropine_ can be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid,
+the two decomposition products already noted. The latter of these
+products is already shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and
+the other will no doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial
+atropine is identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also
+formed a series of artificial alkaloids, called _tropeines_, by uniting
+the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of the
+compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as _homatropine_, an
+alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but possessing some decided
+advantages in its use. _Piperine_ has also been made by the uniting of
+piperidine and piperic acid, and, as piperidine has already been formed
+from pyridine, we have here a true synthesis also. Both _theobromine_
+and _caffeine_, its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine,
+which itself can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano.
+
+We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the last
+few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of the
+alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their
+constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular
+structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, keen-sighted
+chemists will effect their artificial formation. When these most
+valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a state of entire
+purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the present extraction of
+them from relatively rare plants, organic chemistry will have placed all
+of us under obligations as great as those owing any branch of science,
+no matter how practical we call it.--_Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE.
+
+By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York.
+
+
+If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by the
+apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. Everywhere
+attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. We are compelled
+to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to the relative merits
+of various therapeutic measures, that those who were foremost to
+disparage the treatment pursued by others were totally ignorant of the
+fact that those same symptomatic manifestations which they were
+considering might be owing to entirely different causes from similar
+conditions described by others. Hence a commensurate modification in
+therapy might not only be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is
+more especially of recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate
+the various etiological factors involved in different forms of headache
+has been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a
+monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick Headache,"
+which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of this particular
+form of headache. The work, however, is conspicuously lacking in those
+philosophical qualities which are so necessary to a true understanding
+of the questions involved. Dr. E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a
+most interesting paper on "Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views
+therein expressed are remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly
+scientific elucidation of the two great physiological principles
+involved in the consideration of by far the greater majority of
+instances of cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by
+this eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within
+the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says:
+"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and
+therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the
+physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, among
+the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more puzzling or
+more destructive of logical practice than a contradiction between the
+doctrine of physiology and the daily practice of medicine."
+
+[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. Sieveking,
+M.D., _Medical Times and Gazette_ London, August 12, 1854.]
+
+What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, indeed,
+the position then taken has received substantial indorsement through the
+positive results of more recent experimental physiology. Conspicuous in
+this connection are the inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and
+Hammond, touching the modifications in the cerebral circulation during
+sleep and wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively
+proved that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep
+and increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to
+confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have published
+the results of those researches in various papers and articles.[1] "What
+Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, "that it results either
+from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more modern terms, from hyperaemia
+or anaemia, applies equally to headache; but, to embrace all the causes
+of this affection we must add a third element, which, though most
+commonly complicating one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily
+included in them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood."
+While I agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be
+ascribed to the first two factors--cerebral hyperaemia and anaemia, in the
+production of the group of symptoms known as "headache,"--I fail to
+perceive why especial prominence should be given to the third condition
+mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I am quite unable to imagine how the
+periodical, and more especially the intermittent form, of headache is to
+be explained by what Dr. Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a
+"change in the constitution of the blood." It is quite evident,
+admitting that such a change is capable of producing an amount of
+cerebral irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that
+the latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This
+is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not
+fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third
+causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly willing
+to admit that other factors besides cerebral hyperaemia and anaemia may
+produce the functional variety of headache. There would seem to be ample
+ground for ascribing great causative importance to excessive irritation
+of the brain plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while,
+being unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed,
+oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree of
+mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of the
+multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time permit. As
+regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content myself by referring
+to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred Diseases of the Nervous
+System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in which will be found many
+interesting facts bearing on the question. Accepting the propositions,
+then, that the more adjacent causes of headache are (1) cerebral
+hyperaemia, (2) cerebral anaemia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral
+plasma itself, let us now consider how these morbid factors are most
+scientifically and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more
+particularly, those distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so
+baneful an item in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are
+best overcome.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by J.L. Corning,
+M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.]
+
+Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and maniacs,
+which involved the application of protracted pressure to the common
+carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these experiments the
+thought suggested itself that suppression of the carotids might prove a
+salutary means of reducing that form of cerebral congestion which is so
+prolific a source of headache and vertigo. Accordingly I made a
+protracted series of experiments with carotid compression upon those
+suffering from congestive headache, and I can only say that I have been
+so far pleased with the uniformly good results obtained, that I have
+felt it a duty to call the attention of the profession to a procedure
+which, for obvious reasons, possesses all the advantages of local
+depletion by leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of
+either of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as
+substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of the
+carotids have already been described in former communications. It is
+only necessary to say that the implements in question are of two kinds;
+one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, which being held
+in the hand of the operator permits him to exert any degree of pressure
+upon both carotids for any desired length of time. The other instrument,
+which I have designated as the "carotid truss," for lack of a better
+name, is a circular spring provided with adjustable pads at each
+extremity. The spring is placed about the neck of the patient, and by
+suitable appliances the pads at the extremities can be placed directly
+above the trunks of the two common carotid arteries. By turning the
+screws to which the pads are attached the desired amount of pressure can
+be applied to the arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length
+of time by the patient.
+
+With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting the most
+obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly short time (on
+one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, the headache is of
+manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by any especial circulatory
+derangements, I have never been able to achieve notable results with
+this method. Indeed, pressure upon the carotids is an excellent method
+of differentiating the congestive form of headache from the nervous
+varieties of head pains.
+
+Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most valuable
+methods which we possess for treating the form of headache under
+consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the smaller
+arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the plasma of the
+brain itself.
+
+A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or less
+extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head and
+spinal symptoms, is cold.
+
+A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to the head,
+at the same time, is afforded by a species of refrigerating electrode,
+designed by myself for this purpose. The apparatus in question consists
+of a concave sponge electrode, the concavity of which corresponds to the
+convexity of the external aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is
+a chamber of metal or India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole
+is secured to the head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and
+connection established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an
+appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is applied
+over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be taken not to
+employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and other unpleasant
+symptoms may be produced. An application of from five to ten minutes is
+usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. As an additional security it
+is well to recommend the patient to take a hot foot-bath, and to remain
+as quiet as possible for twelve hours succeeding the treatment. In
+hyperaemic headache cupping and blood-letting have been recommended; but
+as a rule both procedures are not only unnecessary but positively
+inadmissible, as exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by
+compression upon the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of
+the peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost always
+be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the symptoms. Among the
+internal remedies which may be employed with good effect in certain
+cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and Indian hemp. The inhalation
+of from five to ten drops of chloroform is an excellent expedient in
+some instances. Chlorodyne, which is nothing more than a mixture of
+sedatives, often works well, and indeed frequently excels other
+remedies. The regulation of the heart's action is also of very great
+importance in these cases, and the physician should have no hesitancy in
+resorting to such remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose
+of reducing the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a
+matter of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to;
+the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are
+indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be
+absolutely forbidden.--_Med. Record_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION.
+
+[Footnote: From a paper published in the _British Medical Journal_.]
+
+By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St.
+Vincent's Hospital, Dublin.
+
+
+From time immemorial, the _Verbascum thapsus_, or great mullein, has
+been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the treatment of the
+above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most persons would call it
+a weed--found in many parts of the United Kingdom; and, according to
+Sowerby's _British Botany_, vol. vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly
+distributed over England and the south of Scotland." In most parts of
+Ireland, however, in addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated
+in gardens, and occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is
+done wholly and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the
+herb by phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are
+advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city,
+pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be
+bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far as I
+know, has its use received the official sanction of the medical
+profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter at the
+Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, suggested that it
+would be desirable to make a therapeutical research into the powers of
+this drug, and ascertain by actual experiment its efficacy or otherwise.
+Having partially accomplished this, I am anxious to very briefly set
+forth what has been done, in order that others may be induced to
+co-operate in the work.
+
+"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of the
+Scrophulariaceae; but the old Irish remedy is the great mullein, or
+_Verbascum thapsus_, a faithful delineation of which will be found in
+Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a hardy biennial, with a thick
+stalk, from eighteen inches to four feet high, and with very peculiar
+large woolly and mucilaginous leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly
+yellow and nearly sessile flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late
+summer or autumn, shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it
+appears to have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy
+for diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude
+to it.
+
+"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from a garden
+near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced operations.
+As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured from our
+drug-contractor.
+
+"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place an ounce
+of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones, in a
+pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to strain. This strained
+fluid is given warm to the patient, with or without a little sugar. It
+is administered twice a day; and the taste of the mixture is bland,
+mucilaginous, comforting to the praecordia, and not disagreeable. I
+resolved to try this method, and also the watery infusion; and,
+moreover, the natural expressed juice fortified with glycerin. This
+latter preparation was carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves,
+by Dr. John Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales.
+
+"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too many, were
+now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's Hospital. They were
+admitted in all stages, from an early one to the most advanced. On each
+admission the case was carefully examined; the history, symptoms, and
+physical signs were exactly noted; and the patient was weighed on a
+stage balance with great accuracy. The patient was put as much as
+possible on the mullein treatment only. For obvious reasons, no
+cod-liver oil, koumiss, or other weight producer was given; the patients
+got the diet suitable to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms
+became troublesome, received appropriate treatment. As much as possible,
+however, they were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely
+satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, they
+were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that this should
+be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, with the same
+clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the same conditions. In
+securing this the patients anxiously co-operated; and it was frequently
+amusing, but sometimes painful, to watch the satisfaction or chagrin
+with which the weekly result was received. I must here tender my
+acknowledgments to our zealous, attentive, and accurate house surgeon,
+Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom this important, but tedious, duty was
+discharged."
+
+Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein plant has
+been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that these cases,
+although too few to justify any general conclusion, appear to establish
+some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in milk is liked by the
+patients; in watery infusion it is disagreeable, and the succus is still
+more so. The hot milk decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic
+neighbors call _pectorale_) sensation, and when once patients take it
+they experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or
+twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases
+phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the patients
+scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon to phthisical
+sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of checking phthisical
+looseness of the bowels was very marked, and experiment proved that this
+was not merely due to the well known astringent properties of boiled
+milk. It also gave great relief to the dyspnoea. For phthisical night
+sweats it is utterly useless; but these can be completely checked by the
+hypodermic use of from one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the
+atropia sulphate; the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable,
+as the larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular
+accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of weight,
+nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. Carrick, in
+his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of Southern Russia (page
+213), says: "I have seen a consumption invalid gain largely in weight,
+while the disease was making rapid progress in her lungs, and the
+evening temperature rarely fell below 101 deg. Fahr. Until then I considered
+that an increase of weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the
+arrest of the malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does
+not; but unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the
+mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive invalid
+must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In pretubercular and
+early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein appears to have a distinct
+weight-increasing power; and I have observed this in several private
+cases also. Having no weighings of these latter, however, makes this
+statement merely an expression of opinion. In early cases, mullein milk
+appears to act very much in the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when
+we consider that it is at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth
+a trial. I will continue the research by careful weighings of early
+cases; and will further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of
+mullein to the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the
+phthisical bacillus.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE.
+
+
+Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude that the
+use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase the quantity of
+bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This increased flow is
+beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in the gall-bladder. A
+subsequent increase in the quantity of bile indicates a greater flow of
+bile into the gall-bladder, and this also is of service in emptying out
+any stagnant bile, and restoring the normal condition when this is
+disturbed. Artificial solutions of alkaline salts were found to have a
+similar action to the natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the
+action varies according to the concentration of the solution.
+Bicarbonate of sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting
+effect on the composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and
+weak solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than
+Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile much
+like that of the mineral waters.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VIVISECTION.
+
+
+Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of
+experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is as
+old as science itself.
+
+Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century of the
+Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is regarded as
+having merited his name (_Galenus_, "gentle") from the mildness of his
+character. Five centuries before him, under the Ptolemies, Egyptian
+experimenters had operated upon condemned persons. So, then, vivisection
+is not, as usually thought, a diabolical invention of modern science.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.]
+
+In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon animals
+that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the hog, and the
+dog, and who share with the king of creation the privilege of eating a
+little of everything. Claude Bernard, however, had another way of
+looking at things. It is true that he especially made researches into
+the general laws of physiology, the secret of the vital functions, and
+the operation of the various organic systems that constitute living
+matter, but his immediate object was not to furnish weapons for the art
+of curing. He left to physicians and surgeons the care of drawing
+conclusions from his great work in biology, and of acting experimentally
+upon animals allied to man in order to found a rational system of
+therapeutics. So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the
+animal scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him
+greater service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded
+animals offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than
+others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present more
+accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so much account
+of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary in many cases to
+choose subjects that possess endurance. The unfortunate frog, so aptly
+named "the Job of physiology," becomes resigned to living under most
+dreadful conditions, and when, through sheer exhaustion, he has
+succumbed, his twitching limbs may still he used as an object of
+experimentation for twenty-four hours. Thanks are due to nature for
+giving so extraordinary a vitality to the tissues of a modest
+batrachian! We owe to it the famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta
+to the discovery of the pile and what followed it, the astonishing
+conquests of electricity and those more marvelous ones still that are
+now in their dawn. Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the
+homage that we pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been
+imposed upon this brave animal!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.]
+
+The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly enough for
+the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend it. No one,
+however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription of it, but it is
+only desired that the abuse of an abominable practice shall be curbed.
+Does the abuse exist? That is the question, and it may be answered in
+the affirmative. Yes, we do sometimes impose useless sufferings upon
+animals. It is a culpable folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat
+barbarous experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known
+physical fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it
+would only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to
+expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of
+vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it should be
+confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask that it be
+confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the exclusion of visitors,
+and to require from students a diploma guaranteeing their knowledge and
+giving a programme of researches to be made. It is useless to seek in
+the living what a study of the corpse reveals in all its details.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.]
+
+And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a series
+of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the practice of
+vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by Claude Bernard. Fig.
+1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a strong cord placed behind an
+iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in
+which hares or cats are placed in order to anaesthetize them. Fig. 4
+shows the mode of fixing an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of
+fixing him on his back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting
+table, and Fig. 7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the
+general arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9
+shows (1) an anaesthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) the
+extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the muzzle is
+applied for anaesthetizing, and gives the details of construction of the
+chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the arrangement of the apparatus used
+for holding the animal's jaws open upon the vivisecting
+table.--_L'Illustration_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL.
+
+[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association for the
+Protection of the Insane and translated for the American Psychological
+Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.]
+
+By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany.
+
+
+The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different
+directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and which
+require different means in order to attain lasting success. Since the
+number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last few years, in
+all civilized countries, so that the responsibility of the proper charge
+of them occupies continually not only the community, but also the State;
+and since the public as well as the private asylums are filled almost
+before they are finished, it becomes necessary to rid the institutions,
+as soon as possible, of those patients which have been cured, as well as
+of those which are improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as
+possible, returned to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the
+expectation that the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial
+influence, besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded
+institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found that
+the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is not of
+sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting interests.
+Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged patient returns
+to the institution, after a short lapse of time, because the "rudder"
+(steuer) of his intelligence was soon shattered in the turmoil of life.
+How can, for instance, the indigent and poor patient, after his
+discharge from the institution in which he has found a shelter and the
+proper care, stand up in the struggle for existence and the support of
+his family? Is it not to be expected that a large proportion of those
+who have been discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand
+the ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil
+which constantly stirs mind and soul?
+
+Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of benevolent
+people have been formed in all countries in which true civilization and
+humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish social evils, whose object
+is to assist the restored patient who has been discharged from the
+institution, at a time when he is most in need of help and assistance.
+Switzerland has taken the lead of all countries by her brilliant
+example, and there these societies found the greatest encouragement. It
+should be looked upon as a good sign of the spirit of modern times, that
+the seed of true humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far
+and wide, for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all
+European countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch
+of a truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been
+organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by aiding
+them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct donations of money,
+etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a relapse of the disease.
+May this portion of the work of your society be an ever-flowing fountain
+of joy and satisfaction to your members!
+
+Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, namely,
+_the prevention of insanity_. It is nevertheless true, and cannot be
+doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity increases in a manner
+which is out of proportion to the increase of the population. Much
+thought has been given to the cause of this phenomenon, and physicians
+as well as moralists, national economists as well as philosophers and
+philanthropists, have endeavored to fathom the connection between this
+fact and the conditions of modern social life. According to all
+observations, it is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a
+single etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of
+influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages in
+the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which give
+rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the manner in
+which modern civilization influences mankind, in its development and
+culture, in the family and in the school-room, in its views of life and
+habits; also in the manner in which civilization forces a man to fight a
+heavier and harder battle for pleasure and possessions, power and
+knowledge, and causes him to go even beyond his powers of endurance.
+
+More than even civilization itself, are at fault those pernicious
+abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted from generation
+to generation, or are also often newly developed and appear to belong to
+our civilization. If we want to prevent the increase of insanity, we
+must endeavor to do away with these monstrosities and eccentricities
+from our social life which remove mankind more and more, in a pernicious
+manner, from its natural development and from the normal conditions of
+moral and physical life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous
+offshoots of pseudo civilization, which are the enemies of the normal
+existence of man. It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as
+the entire society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which
+spurs man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical
+life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile decay of
+both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which causes the
+modern individual in every class of society to find satisfaction in over
+excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is necessary to strengthen more
+than has been done heretofore the young, by means of their education, in
+their physical development, and at the same time to diminish, in proper
+proportion, the amount of mental over-exertion; and finally it is
+necessary to fight against, to do away with, those habits of modern
+society-life which have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well
+as the mental and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there
+is none so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as
+well as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors.
+
+Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and increase
+of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only on account of
+its existing relation, but particularly because intemperance, among all
+the factors which aid in the increase of insanity, can best be
+diminished, and its influence weakened, through the will of the single
+individual, as well as of society as a whole. The relation between
+intemperance and insanity is so definite and clear, that it is not
+necessary to adduce proofs of this fact. I will not refer to the
+writings of the older authors, such as Rush, in America; Hutchison,
+Macnish, Carpenter, and others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden;
+Ramaer, in Holland; Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and
+others, in France; Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in
+Germany. I could name a much larger number of the greatest modern
+authorities on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the
+increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding increase
+of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those countries in
+which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and particularly in the
+form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and corn, has only in later
+years become general. Thus Lunier has shown the number of alcoholic
+insane increased by ten per cent. in those departments in which more
+whisky and less wine is consumed.
+
+In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and in that
+country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, Castiglione, Ferri,
+and others) the frequency of insanity caused by the abuse of alcohol
+stands in an unmistakable relation to the consumption of alcohol in
+certain provinces of Italy.
+
+In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London
+Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members was,
+that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase of
+insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, and
+alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental disease.
+Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that intemperance,
+without hereditary predisposition, was one of the most powerful agencies
+in the production of aberration of the mind. Even Beckwith, who could
+not coincide with others as to the great importance of intemperance as
+an etiological element, says distinctly, that intemperance was, by far,
+the most potent of all removable causes of mental disease.
+
+In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different provinces
+of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both in public
+institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the census report
+of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that everywhere, where the
+number of drinking places, i.e., the consumption of alcohol, was
+greatest, the number of insane was also largest. Without doubt, to my
+mind it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most
+potent cause of the development and spread of mental diseases.
+
+As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the nerve
+centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive quantity. In
+consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation and nutrition an
+acute intoxication takes place, which may range from a slight excitation
+to a complete loss of consciousness. After habitual abuse of alcohol,
+the functional disturbances of the brain and spinal cord became constant
+and disappear the less, as in the central organs degenerative processes
+are more and more developed, processes which lead to congestions and
+hemorrhagic effusions in the meninges and in the brain itself, to
+softening or hardening, and finally to disappearance of the brain
+substance. These degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a
+progressive decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the
+ethical functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble
+mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and motor
+disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy.
+
+The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by alcohol
+intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if we assert that
+from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand in a direct or
+indirect relation to the evil consequences of intemperance in the use of
+intoxicating liquors. This is the opinion of a large number of
+authorities on mental diseases in all countries. Habitual intemperance
+leads to severe (psychical?) lesions (of the nervous system) which may
+show themselves in the different forms of insanity, but express
+themselves chiefly as mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous
+system was weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in
+those whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see
+less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological
+disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands
+particular attention.
+
+An investigation among the patients in the insane department of the
+Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was lately
+carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des Alcoholismus zur
+Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed that among 607 patients
+who had entered the ward as epileptics or epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7
+per cent. had been addicted to drink; 133 before, and 17 after the
+disease had shown itself; further, that of 1572 patients with delirium
+tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per
+cent., were epileptic; and that in 221 intemperance was present before
+the outbreak of epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which
+entered the department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent.,
+were inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had
+occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per cent.
+were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of intemperate
+parents.
+
+If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, does
+directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, the
+baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the intemperance of
+parents, upon the mental constitution of their progeny is surely just as
+great and disastrous. The children of intemperate parents frequently
+become drunkards themselves; they have inherited a degeneration of the
+vitiated constitution, and carry the stamp of this degeneration within
+themselves. The offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly,
+and die early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel,
+Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born idiotic, or
+show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of alcohol, the
+individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered and depraved,
+and, according to the law of inheritance, is transmitted through the
+progeny to the race.
+
+Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease (Stuttgart,
+1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names alcoholism among the
+transient abnormal conditions which, during conception, exert their
+influence, so that children of intemperate parents acquire pathological,
+and especially neuro-pathological, dispositions. Intemperance, says this
+author, in its acute, as well as in its chronic form, causes frequently
+pathological changes in the nervous system, and thus may the
+pathological differences in children of the same parents be partially
+explained. On account of the inheritance of a depraved and pathological
+constitution, the children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from
+an abnormal psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane,
+epileptics, suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of
+drunkards, do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of
+neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, also of
+depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime.
+
+Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated facts,
+nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well as
+inexhaustible source for the increase and development of insanity; and
+that every effort toward diminution of the frequency of insanity, toward
+the prevention of mental diseases, must be directed against this
+widespread evil, intemperance.
+
+May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil in a
+narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse which cannot
+be too much contended with.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC.
+
+[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.]
+
+By J.W. COLCORD.
+
+
+Several articles during the past few months, copied from English
+pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic properties of
+plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my attention, I
+determined to try a few experiments when opportunity offered. Having a
+shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a bountiful crop of the article,
+I was easily able to secure an abundant supply for my experiments.
+Believing that better results would be obtained from fresh plants than
+from dried, I expressed the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise"
+mill, obtaining about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves.
+The juice was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a
+large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered
+liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the press
+into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute alcohol,
+evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, mixing with the
+12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of alcohol. This
+preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents virtually equal
+parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a dark brown color with a
+marked odor of the recent plant, and so far, after standing three months
+undisturbed on my shelves, shows no sign of precipitation.
+
+My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the expressed
+juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing three months,
+the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of precipitation. This, I
+think, promises to be the most efficient preparation, and will prove
+valuable as an injection in the treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages,
+and similar disorders.
+
+Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice and
+alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one part of
+alcohol.
+
+In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in about
+equal proportions, and was removed about one month after making by
+filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of precipitation
+since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown liquids.
+
+Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had sufficient trial
+to form an opinion, although, as far as I can judge, they have proved
+satisfactory. While writing this article, a cook from a neighboring
+restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a potato slicer, exposing the
+bone, came in for treatment. Having bandaged I applied the glycerate,
+which soon stopped the profuse bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it
+to apply subsequently. I asked her to report to me in two or three days,
+and, on reporting, I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic
+properties are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have
+been able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it
+can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct,
+undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or
+housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds.
+
+The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for the
+purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to add to our
+list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer and more
+extended experiment.--_New Remedies_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DANGER FROM FLIES.
+
+
+Dr. Grassi is said (_British Medical Journal_) to have made an
+important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to flies. It
+was always recognized that these insects might carry the germs of
+infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known that they are
+capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the ova of various
+worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in their faeces. This
+point has now been established, and several striking experiments
+illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his laboratory a plate containing a
+great number of the eggs of a human parasite, the _Tricocephalus
+dispar_. Some sheets of white paper were placed in the kitchen, which
+stands about ten meters from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual
+little spots produced by the faeces of flies were found on the paper.
+These spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some
+of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were then
+caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the ova. Similar
+experiments with the ova of the _Oxyuris vermicularis_ and of the
+_Toenia solium_ afforded corresponding results. Shortly after the flies
+had some mouldy cream, the _Oidium lactis_ was found in their faeces. Dr.
+Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that every
+one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, and
+afterward examine the faeces and intestines of the flies; numerous spores
+will be found. As flies are by no means particular in choosing either a
+place to feed or a place to defecate, often selecting meat or food for
+the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision of possible consequences is
+raised.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS.
+
+
+The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the serpents,
+alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our illustration, must
+be commended as a valuable improvement of the Zoological Society's
+establishment in Regent's Park. This building, which has a rather
+stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, constructed of brick and
+terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, stands close to the south
+gate of the Gardens, entered from the Broad Walk of the Park. The
+visitor, on entering by that gate, should turn immediately to the left
+hand, along the narrow path beside the aviary of the Chinese golden
+pheasants, and will presently come to the Reptile House, which is too
+much concealed from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious
+interior, represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places
+in the whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted,
+very nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some
+fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and in
+baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with substantial
+margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the reptiles crawling over
+them, while one basin is further protected by an iron grating, contain
+water in which the alligators, the infant crocodiles, and a number of
+tortoises, but none of the larger species, make themselves quite at
+home. One side of the house, with its windows looking into a pleasant
+airy vestibule, is occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller
+lizards, with boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables,
+which present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the
+hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large wall
+cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, rising about
+14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are confined--the huge
+pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the poisonous cobras and
+rattlesnakes, and others well known to the visitors at these gardens.
+Each cage or compartment has a sliding door of iron behind, to which the
+keeper has access in a passage running along the back of the wall, and
+there are doors also from one compartment to another. The floor is of
+smooth slate, and the largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or
+to climb up the trunks and branches of trees placed there for its
+exercise and amusement.
+
+[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY.]
+
+
+THE BABIROUSSA.
+
+We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, a male
+and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the society by
+Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, in the Malay
+Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different stalls of the
+ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The babiroussa is a
+species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of Eastern Asia, and
+remarkable, in the male animal, for the extraordinary growth and
+direction of the canine teeth. The upper pair of canine teeth, growing
+out through the upper jaw, curve backward and upward on the forehead,
+having somewhat the aspect of horns; while the lower canine teeth form a
+pair of crooked tusks in the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for
+defensive fighting, as a guard to the head, but could not serve for
+attack. The skull of a babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in
+the possession of Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the
+Zoological Society's collection.--_Illustrated London News_.
+
+[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797.
+
+
+
+
+ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY.
+
+PART IV.
+
+By NELSON H. DARTON.
+
+
+Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old one, and
+well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits prescribed in
+introducing this series of paper, but by only a few miles, and being
+such an interesting locality, I have included it in the granular
+limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge in the gneiss within a
+space of ten acres, about two miles north of the railroad station of
+Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and
+Western Railroad, and is reached by a road running north from about a
+mile east of the railroad station. This road branches into two at the
+limestone kilns, about a mile from the railroad track, and the left hand
+branch is taken, which leads more directly to the quarry, which is on
+the right hand, about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the
+loose rock lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr.
+John J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the
+furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for agricultural
+purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity for fifteen miles.
+Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of the minerals so
+characteristic of the locality, and for which it has become
+famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite pyrites, biotite,
+aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly others in lesser quantity.
+
+_Serpentine_.--All the varieties of this species, and of every color
+from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed through the
+limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and pockets. It is
+generally soft, translucent, and to be found in masses from a pea to a
+cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure oil green color, rich and
+translucent, making a very fine and attractive looking mineral specimen.
+No difficulty need be experienced in producing all the varieties of this
+mineral, as much has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of
+the quarry, as it is always carefully separated from the limestone as
+being useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar
+beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as marmolite,
+which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral packed together
+similar to mica, but of the green color of the serpentine picolite, or
+fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs of a light grass green color,
+and is a very interesting variety.
+
+In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to procure
+that which is the most translucent, and that holding miniature veins of
+asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of the pure serpentine
+alone, but occur in the southern end of the main quarry. The width of
+these veins of asbestos is seldom over an inch, but those of even much
+less are highly prized as specimens. These veins of asbestos are, in
+places, several inches in length, but are generally much broken in
+removing them, as their fibrous structure, at right angles to their
+length, makes them very fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can
+seldom be found. However, they make much finer specimens when with the
+serpentine. Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of
+gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this assortment
+is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which they were
+formed, which was by a process termed segregation.
+
+This gurhofite, called bone
+by the quarrymen, occurs in white, dense looking masses, intermingled
+with the serpentine, especially in the upper end of the quarry, where
+veins six and eight inches in thickness are abundant, and from which
+specimens may be readily obtained showing the fibrous structure of the
+gurhofite and the association with the serpentine, to which it is found
+attached; it is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and
+need not be mistaken for it.
+
+_Phlozopite_.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, near the
+asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, which is a
+variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a pure silvery
+white color, and from one by three inches in area to less. It is easily
+separable in folia, and cannot be confounded with any of the other
+minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone holding abundance of this mineral
+is exposed, whence it may be plentifully obtained in excellent crystals.
+
+_Pyrites_.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in the gneissic
+rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very fine, perfect crystals
+may be found handsomely dressed upon the rock. There is no particular
+portion of the quarries in which they abound.
+
+_Biotite_.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of a dark brown
+color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the veins of
+limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; on the north
+wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, and there even in
+large number, in a locality, generally a pocket in the gneiss.
+
+_Tremolite_ is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone in the
+extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the main one,
+over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white crystals, about a
+quarter inch in width and from a half to three inches in length. The
+crystals are opaque, but very smooth and glistening, lining cavities in
+this mass of limestone. It is a variety of hornblende, composed of
+silica, lime, and magnesia, with a little alumina. It probably occurs in
+places in the vicinity of this block, and in finer specimens, as these
+are frequently, when near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is
+a characteristic granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one.
+We will again meet it when examining the New York city localities.
+
+_Aragonite_ occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow color and
+fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When they are separated
+by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the fibers are very large,
+coarse, and brittle, and thus do not resemble asbestos, although in some
+instances they might be mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from
+it by effervescing on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate
+of lime, and also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine
+specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it may
+occur in greater profusion.
+
+Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being in the
+form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with aragonite of
+a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. As before noticed,
+Staten Island is the best locality for this species.
+
+_Calcite_.--In places the limestone is perfectly crystallized, and of a
+pure white or other color, when it forms an attractive mineral, and
+often worth removing. The limestone of the main quarry, carefully
+averaged, was found to have the following chemical composition.
+
+  Lime.                11.09
+  Magnesia.            37.94
+  Carbonic acid.       30.61
+  Silica.              10.22
+  Water and loss.       4.90
+  Iron and alumina.     5.24
+                      ------
+                      100.00
+
+In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from its rough
+state resembles "_verde antique_," and at that of a beautiful color;
+samples of this should be obtained.
+
+_Feldspar_.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the space between
+the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh red color and
+often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an inch and a half in
+length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily distinguished from
+calcite, which it much resembles, but which has only a hardness of 3,
+and dissolves with effervescence in acids.
+
+A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to spend a
+holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many interesting
+and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip as well. In
+reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and if one has an
+early start these may all be visited. I will describe a few of these,
+which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and instructing
+geological features and not far from the main line of travel.
+
+Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the first stop
+may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey City. Here a visit
+to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably taken; and as I have
+written a full account of this locality in a previous portion of these
+articles,[1] I will not reiterate it here, but refer to that paper. The
+mine, I might add, is only a mile north of the railroad station, and on
+Schuyler Avenue, a short distance north from its junction with the
+Jersey City and Paterson turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and
+walking on the track for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep
+cut, the manner in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so
+large a portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great
+advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. At a
+point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the layers of
+shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a slight irregularity
+in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, and is a point at which
+the layers of rock on the east have fallen vertically, the western side
+remaining in its original position. This fault has a thrust of only
+three feet, but is an instructive example of faults which occur on a
+tremendous scale in some of the other formations. It will be noticed
+that between the two edges of the separated layers there is a deposit of
+a talcky substance, which has been derived from infiltrating waters.
+Fissure veins are generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled
+in a similar manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further
+west a short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its
+banks for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the
+intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington pumps
+and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The Passaic
+River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and Paterson road may
+be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence it is two miles east
+to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the bank of the Passaic may be
+followed and the quarries reached in an hour from Belleville. Here again
+are met the sandstones and shales, besides another and larger fault, and
+many interesting features of the sandstone and its quarrying may be
+examined. The railroad station having been regained, Paterson is the
+next point of interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the
+city are the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these
+may be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of the
+station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the trap above
+and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales and
+conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track (the
+Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed for some
+distance west, when the various strata can be examined in the cut of the
+railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the trap; this is noticed
+as a depression in the face of the cliff, and it may be seen by the
+superposition of the layers of trap and basalt. Where the fault occurs a
+short distance further west, there is another smaller fault. A visit to
+the Great Falls of the Passaic is a very pleasurable diversion at this
+point, and these are about a half mile north of this locality. Here the
+arrangement of the trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied,
+and the mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one
+of these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson,
+wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West
+Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to the
+Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein the
+contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the numerous
+additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is the best point
+in which to find these exposures, and from the viaduct crossing the
+river an excellent view of the surrounding country may be obtained.
+Regaining the train, Montville is soon reached and visited, and after
+this, if time sufficient Boonville, two miles west, may be taken in, or
+it may be necessary to go there to catch a return train, as but few stop
+at Montville. At Boonton there are many interesting features--iron works
+furnaces, localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints,
+conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor to
+give a detailed account in some other of this series of articles.
+
+[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM.
+
+
+An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus Gate,
+Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine
+Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The ruin has proved
+to be one of great extent, and of special interest. The way in which it
+was brought to light is worth recording. In an uneven field, which rose
+considerably above the land about it, parts of which appearing, indeed,
+like little hillocks, the owner of the soil tried to maintain a
+vegetable garden, but the ground was so dry that neither grain nor
+vegetables would flourish, and even irrigation did little or no good;
+besides, here and there large holes appeared in the ground which could
+not be accounted for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what
+there was below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very
+soon came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed
+up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. The
+amount of _debris_ which had accumulated above the floor of these
+buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this mass of earth has
+required much time and labor, and the work is not yet completed. The
+piece of ground in question has about 60 yards of frontage on the main
+road, and extends, so far as the excavations go, about the same distance
+back from the road, that is, to the east.
+
+The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, and is
+very near the street. The ground in front of the church is paved with
+fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was entered were 5
+feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat wider. From the entrance
+to the altar step, or platform, the distance is 55 feet, and from that
+point to the back of the apse 15 feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is
+16 feet 6 inches. The width of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet
+in front of the altar step a wall has been thrown across the church in a
+manner similar to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This
+wall, also those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the
+interior of the apse, show that the building was originally painted, and
+some of the figures and designs can still be traced. At the southeast
+corner of the church, leading from the apse, there is a narrow but well
+built passageway to the buildings in the rear. The character of these
+buildings is not very evident; certainly they did not stand on a line
+with the church, but at an angle of 25 deg. with that line. Between the
+church and what appears now to have been the main building in the rear,
+there was a passage not over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear
+of the church is 47 feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20
+feet more of a special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and
+which had a beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the
+entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic floor
+is 140 feet.
+
+On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall of the
+main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 feet 6 inches
+long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This is considerably
+wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even the entrance of the
+church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have been found, but in one
+place two or three square yards have been preserved, enough to show that
+the work was extremely beautiful. The colored tracings resemble those in
+the church on the Mount of Olives, and on one side are the large Greek
+letters [Theta][epsilon][omicron][nu]. North of this mosaic floor, and
+of the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both,
+there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has been
+leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced in an
+east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 inches
+deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From about the
+middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right angle and runs 20
+feet or more to the north; it is possible that it led _from_ the north,
+and at the point indicated turned a right angle and ran to the west.
+Piles of stones and _debris_ prevent us at present from deciding as to
+the length of the channel or where it comes from. In the bank of
+_debris_, which rises on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height
+of 20 feet, there is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed
+of cement, running north and south at right angles to the line of the
+church and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later
+period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the mosaic
+pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and the mass of
+_debris_ which is yet to be removed.
+
+In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is found,
+very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut channel, there
+is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of the floor. The tomb
+is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered by a doorway 26 inches
+wide, which is well built, and in the sides of which are grooves for a
+door to slide up and down. On the wall of the tomb at the east end there
+is a raised Greek cross, 22 inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot
+stand erect in its highest part, but it is to be considered that the
+loculi are two-thirds full of _debris_, composed chiefly of decayed
+bones and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up
+to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The loculi are
+2 feet in depth.
+
+What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," turn out
+to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 feet long by
+28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided (one or two of
+them at least) into apartments by means of arches. The lower courses of
+the walls, to the height of several feet, are of squared stones, while
+the upper portions and the roofs are of rubble work, which was covered
+with a heavy coating of plaster. The threshold of one has been exposed,
+which is 6 feet in the clear, and the sides of the doorway show
+excellent work.
+
+Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each 33 inches
+in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of which were
+nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were closed, were many
+feet below the surface of the ground before the excavations began, hence
+no one knows how old the water in them may be. Some of the slabs with
+which the church was paved were 6 feet long by 21/2 feet wide. In the
+church two pieces of cornice were found, each 8 feet in length. One is
+entire and quite plain, while the other is broken in the middle. It is
+upon this that the figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were
+painted. They can still be traced, although exposure has nearly
+obliterated the colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken
+glass have been found and some small articles in marble of no great
+value. The top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a
+basin, and a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water
+to run off.
+
+South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main building there
+is a large underground chamber with seven openings (each the size of a
+man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 feet wide and nearly 20
+feet long, but the depth is not yet ascertained, owing to the
+accumulation of _debris_ on the bottom. On the west and north sides a
+wall of solid rock appears to a depth of 6 feet, showing that the
+chamber was excavated in part at least in the solid rock. The use of
+this chamber does not appear evident, unless it may have been a store
+room. The place within the city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a
+similar chamber (not dug in the solid rock, however), with similar
+openings in the ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some
+distance to the east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to
+purchase the land in that direction, in order to allow of the
+excavations being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the
+buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat of
+ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is
+superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move with
+aggravating slowness.
+
+Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that the west
+wall of what he called the "main building," toward the apse of the
+church, has been removed and the floor cleared, exposing a fine
+pavement. This pavement, the threshold before mentioned, and the mosaic
+floor all belong to one period, and to a structure very much older than
+the date of the "main building." It puzzled the doctor, because the
+threshold west of the mosaic floor was not square with the east wall of
+the "main buildings," but the reason is now clear. Captain Conder says
+of this church with such of the ruins about it as were exposed when he
+was there, that "the whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As
+regards the church itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor
+especially may belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At
+the south side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the
+largest cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick
+stone 5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against
+the wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a
+way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the two
+halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest to state
+that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years since, and for
+a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last it was sold for 40
+Napoleons. During the present year it has passed into the hands of the
+French for 2,000 Napoleons.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DAMMARA AUSTRALIS
+
+
+One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of collections of
+such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, is the subject of
+the present note. Some months since cones were observed to be forming on
+this tree, and a representation of which we are now enabled, through the
+courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay before our readers. We are not aware
+whether the tree has previously produced cones at Kew, though we have
+the impression that such is the case; at any rate it has done so
+elsewhere, as recorded in the _Flore des Serres_, 1856, p. 75, but
+fertile seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen.
+
+In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect and
+richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive tiers of
+branches, which render it specially suitable for the decoration of
+winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, where no great
+amount of heat is required. In the northern island of New Zealand,
+however, it is quite another matter, for there, where it is known as the
+Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable of timbers, as may be judged
+from the fact that the trunk of the tree attains a height of from 50 to
+100 feet clear of the branches; moreover, it yields a gum resin like
+copal, which exudes from the trunk, and which is sometimes found below
+ground in the vicinity of the trees, thus giving the clew to the real
+nature of amber and other similar substances.
+
+[Illustration: THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.]
+
+The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the construction
+of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and elasticity rendering it
+particularly suitable for this purpose, and Laslett speaks of it as one
+of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand, and
+recommends its use for the decks of yachts, for cabin panels, for
+joiner's work generally, or for ornamental purposes. Owing to the
+difficulty and expense of working the forests, and the great distance,
+comparatively little of it comes to this country.--_The London
+Gardeners' Chronicle_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES.
+
+
+Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the woods,
+and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, than to buy
+nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail because proper
+precautions have not been taken. In digging up a tree, all the roots
+outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are cut off, and the tree is
+reset with its full head of branches. Whoever has seen trees in the
+forest that were upturned by a tornado, must have been struck by the
+manner in which the roots run very near to the surface, and to a great
+distance. When the roots of these trees are cut off at two or three feet
+from the trunk, few or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the
+mass of tops is left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not
+be responded to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must
+follow. If such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a
+bare pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little
+more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to meet
+the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and growth above
+and below ground is well balanced.
+
+We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or more
+high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees treated
+in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten years ago.
+They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show no signs of
+former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the edge of the woods,
+are better furnished with roots. These should be prepared for
+transplanting by digging down to the roots, and cutting off all that
+extended beyond the desired distance. This will cause the formation of
+fibrous roots near the tree. It will be safer to take two years for the
+operation, cutting half of the roots each year. Such trees may be
+removed in safety, especially if a good share of the top is removed at
+transplanting--_American Agriculturist_.
+
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