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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Project for Flying, by Robert Hardley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Project for Flying
+       In Earnest at Last!
+
+Author: Robert Hardley
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2004 [EBook #11244]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PROJECT FOR FLYING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+A Project for Flying.
+
+In Earnest at Last!
+
+1871
+
+Price, TWENTY-FIVE CENTS.
+
+
+
+
+A Project for Flying.
+
+
+In Earnest At Last.
+
+
+
+The following appeared in one of our public journals of the date
+indicated
+
+_To the Editor of the Tribune._
+
+SIR:--You rightly appreciate the interest with which the popular
+mind regards all efforts in the direction of navigating the air.
+
+One man of my acquaintance was deeply interested to know the
+results of the California Experiment, because he alone, as he believed,
+had questioned Nature and learned from her the great secret of aerial
+navigation.
+
+To-day's _Tribune_ brings us the full account of the machine, its
+performance and _modus operandi_; and without the authority of my
+friend, I can pronounce at once that the thing is simply ridiculous. It is
+the same old useless effort, with the same impossible agents. But to-day,
+within twenty miles of Trinity steeple, lives the man who can give to
+the world the secret of navigating the air, in calm or in storm, with
+the wind or against it; skimming the earth, or in the highest currents,
+just as he wills, with all the ease, and all the swiftness, and all the
+exactitude of a bird.
+
+My friend is only waiting for an opportunity to perfect his plan, when
+he will make it known.
+
+Yours truly,
+
+W.H.K.
+
+_New York; June 14th_, 1869.
+
+Two years have passed and no progress has been made in aerial
+navigation.
+
+The California Experiment failed. The great Airship "CITY OF NEW
+YORK," had previously escaped the same fate, only because more prudent
+than her successor she declined a trial. The promising and ambitious
+enterprise of Mr. Henson has hardly been spoken of for a quarter of a
+century. And notwithstanding the fact that the number of ascensions in
+balloons in the United States and Europe must be counted by thousands,
+and although the exigencies of recent wars have made them useful, yet
+it must be confessed that the art of navigating the air remains in
+much the same state in which the brothers Montgolfiers left it at the
+close of the last century.
+
+The reason for this want of progress in the art referred to, is not to
+be sought in any want of interest in the subject, or of enthusiasm in
+prosecuting experiments. Certainly not for want of interest in the
+subject because _to fly_, has been the great desideratum of
+the race since Adam. And we find in the literature of every age
+suggestions for means of achieving flight through the air, in
+imitation of birds; or for the construction of ingenious machines for
+aerial navigation. And if history and traditions are to be credited,
+it would be equally an error to suppose that our age alone had
+attempted to put theory into practice in reference to navigating the
+air.
+
+Even the fables of the ancients abound with stories about flying: that
+of Dedalus and his son Icarius, will occur to every reader. And the
+representations of the POETS, and the allusions in HOLY WRIT equally
+prove how natural and dear to the mind of man is the idea of
+possessing "wings like a dove."
+
+But it is safe enough to assert, that hitherto, all attempts at
+_navigating_ the air have been failures.
+
+Floating through the atmosphere in a balloon, at the mercy not only of
+every _wind_ but of every _breath_ of air, is in no adequate
+sense aerial navigation. And I do not hesitate to say, that balloons
+are absolutely incapable of being directed.
+
+All the analogies by which inventors have been encouraged in their
+expectations are false, the rudders of ships and the tails of birds
+are no exceptions. They will never be able to guide balloons as
+sailors do ships, by a rudder, because ships do not float suspended
+in the water as balloons float in the air; nor do birds _float_
+through the air in any sense. They are not bouyant--lighter than the
+element in which they move, but immensely heavier; besides they do not
+guide themselves wholly by their tails. We may depend upon it, if we
+ever succeed in navigating the air, it will be by a strict adherence
+to the principles upon which birds fly, and a close imitation of the
+means which they employ to effect that object.
+
+It is true, that in respect to the means to be employed, animals
+designed by the Creator for flight, have greatly the advantage of us,
+but what natural deficiencies will not human ingenuity supply, and
+what obstacles will not human skill overcome? It has already triumphed
+over much greater than any that Nature has interposed between man and
+the pleasures of aerial communication.
+
+We have to a great extent, mastered the mysterious elements of nature.
+
+We have conquered the thunderbolt and learned to write with the
+burning fluid out of which it is forged.
+
+We have converted the boundless ocean into a vast highway, traversed
+for our use and on our errands, by the swift agent, and by great ships
+driven against wind and tide by the mighty power of steam.
+
+And yet a single generation ago, we knew nothing of all this, Our
+grand-sires would have given these achievements a prominent place in
+the list of impossible things.
+
+But, do you say, "the Creator never intended us to
+fly--_therefore_, it is impossible."
+
+For what did the Creator give us skill and boundless perseverance?
+Was it designed that we should _swim_, more than that we should
+furnish ourselves with wings and mount up as eagles? "We sink like
+lead in the mighty waters," we only fall a little faster through the
+air.
+
+Still, I grant that the problem of aerial navigation will only be
+solved when the principles of flight are clearly understood, and we
+recognize precisely what are the obstacles which prevent us from
+flying by artificial means.
+
+Will these obstacles prove insuperable? It is at present believed by
+the multitude that they will, but I entertain a different opinion,
+most decidedly.
+
+From my earliest youth this subject has occupied my thoughts. It
+has been the study of my life, and I modestly trust that I have not
+questioned nature and science in vain.
+
+In the first place, I undertook to make myself familiar with the
+obstacles to be overcome. I found the greatest of these to be gravity.
+I found, however, that heavy fowls, who were unable to rise _from
+the earth_, and only accomplished flight by taking advantage of an
+eminence, sustained themselves without difficulty when once fairly
+embarked. I also found that the best flyers were not equal to the feat
+of keeping me company, when walking at my usual pace; hence I inferred
+that _velocity_ was a necessary element in flight, and that
+gravity, so fatal to human attempts to fly, might be made a powerful
+auxiliary when rightly used.
+
+Acting upon this hint, I made experiments with heavy barn yard fowls,
+and finally constructed a light apparatus to be operated by myself,
+using, principally, my feet as a motive power, which I repeatedly
+tried with various and _constantly increasing_ degrees of
+success.
+
+Now I am satisfied that my system is right. It is my sober conviction
+that the time to realize the dream and hope of ages has come.
+Startling as the announcement may be, I propose not only to make short
+excursions through the air myself, but to teach others to do the same.
+
+Yet, knowing perfectly the obstacles in the way of flight, and knowing
+equally well how to overcome them, I am yet well aware that I must
+perfect my knowledge by practice before entire success can be
+achieved.
+
+This is only reasonable.
+
+How was it with the swimmer; how was it with the agile and dexterous
+skater; how with the acrobat, and what but practice has just enabled
+WESTON to walk one hundred and twelve miles in twenty-four hours, and
+four hundred miles in five days?
+
+For want of a better name, I will call the machine upon which I am to
+practice, the "Instructor." It is simple, but it gives the learner
+just what he wants--an endless series of _inclined planes_.
+
+It will prevent accidents, and until the student has mastered the
+mechanical movements necessary to flight, will supplement his efforts
+by partially balancing his weight.
+
+It consists of a beam fifty feet long, poised and attached by a
+universal joint to the top of a form post, say twenty feet or more in
+height. Upon one end of this beam the practitioner stands, arrayed in
+his wings. A movable weight at the other end completes the apparatus;
+and yet this simple machine, will form the entering wedge to aerial
+navigation.
+
+And now methinks I see you smile, but, my unbelieving friends, let me
+remind you that COPERNICUS, and GALILEO, and FRANKLIN, and FULTON,
+and MORSE,--all better men than your humble servant, were laughed at
+before me.
+
+_Their_ work is done. Their monuments stand in all lands, and yet
+_one_ of this band of truly great and worthy names still lives,
+and to him I am indebted for many kind and encouraging words.
+
+It is little besides this that I ask of _you_. The stock which
+you are solicited to take in this enterprise is small. But enable me
+by your patronage to devote myself for a time wholly to my project.
+See to it, that I do not fail for want of support. Buy my little
+pamphlet at its insignificant cost, ask your friends to do so; and
+should any of you wish to contribute anything more to this cause,
+which I have made my own, and which I am determined to push to
+a triumphant issue, he may be sure that he will receive the
+acknowledgments of a grateful and earnest man, who has himself devoted
+to it the aspirations and efforts of a long life, and who is still
+willing to take all the risks of failure upon himself.
+
+The undersigned would be pleased to have friends interested in this
+subject, call upon him, when the matter will be more fully described.
+
+ROBERT HARDLEY,
+
+17 PERRY STREET, or
+
+114 Sixth Ave., cor. 9th St.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE AERIAL MACHINE.]
+
+
+
+
+REMARKS ON THE ELLIPSOIDAL BALLOON,
+
+PROPELLED BY THE
+
+_Archimedean Screw_,
+
+DESCRIBED AS THE NEW AERIAL MACHINE,
+
+NOW EXHIBITING AT THE ROYAL ADELAIDE GALLERY, LOWTHER ARCADE, STRAND.
+
+
+
+
+REMARKS, &c.
+
+
+The object proposed in the construction of the Machine which is here
+presented to the public view, is simply to illustrate and establish
+the fact, that, by a proper disposition of parts and the application
+of a sufficient power, it is possible to effectuate the propulsion or
+guidance of a Balloon through the air, and thus to prepare the way for
+the more perfect accomplishment of this most interesting and desirable
+result.
+
+In the contrivance of this design, one of the first effects aimed
+at was to reduce the resistance experienced by the Balloon in its
+progress, which is greater or less according to the magnitude and
+shape of its opposing surface. To this intent is the peculiar
+_form_ of the Balloon, which is an _Ellipsoid_ or _prolate
+spheroid_, the axis of which is twice its minor diameter; in
+other words, twice as long as it is broad. By this construction the
+opposition to the progress of the Balloon in the direction of either
+end is only one _half_ of what it would be, had it been a Balloon
+of the ordinary spherical form and of the same diametrical magnitude.
+For the exact determination of this proportion we are more
+particularly indebted to the researches of Sir George Cayley, a
+distinguished patron of the art, who, a few years back, instituted a
+series of experiments with a view to ascertain the comparative amounts
+of resistance developed by bodies of different forms in passing
+through the air; the results of which he communicated to the world in
+an essay first published in the Mechanic's Magazine, and afterwards in
+a separate pamphlet. According to these experiments it appears, that
+the opposition which an ellipsoid or oval (of the nature of the
+Balloon, if we may so call it, in the model) is calculated to
+encounter in proceeding _endways_ through the atmosphere is only
+_one-sixth_ of what a _plane_ or _flat_ surface of equal area with its
+largest vertical section, would experience at the same rate; while the
+resistance to the progress of a globe, such as the usual Balloon, would
+be one third of that due to a similar circular plane of like diameter:
+shewing an advantage, in respect of diminished resistance, in favour of
+the former figure, to the extent we have above described; an advantage it
+enjoys along with an increased capacity for containing gas--the cubical
+contents of an ellipsoid of the proportions here observed, being exactly
+double of those of an ordinary Balloon of equal diameter, and
+consequently competent to the support of twice the weight.
+
+Independent of the advantage of reduced resistance in this form, there
+is another of nearly, if not quite, equal importance, in the facility
+it affords of directing its course; an object scarcely, if at all,
+attainable with a Balloon of the usual description however powerfully
+invested with the means of motion; as any one will readily perceive
+who has ever noticed or experienced the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility, of guiding a tub afloat in the water, compared with the
+condition of a boat or other similarly constructed body, in the same
+element. The efficacy of this provision and its necessity will appear
+more forcibly when we observe that whenever the Balloon in the machine
+here described is thrown out of its direct bearing by the shifting of
+the net-work which connects it with the hoop, or by any other accident
+whereby its position is altered with respect to the propelling power,
+its course is immediately affected, and it ceases to progress in a
+straight line, following the direction of its major axis, unless
+corrected by the intervention of a sufficient rudder.
+
+The second object, after establishing a proper form for the floating
+body, was to contrive a disposition of striking surface that should
+be able to realise the greatest amount of propulsive re-action, in
+proportion to its magnitude and the force of its operation, which it
+is possible to accomplish. To shew by what steps and in consequence of
+what reasoning this point was determined as in the plan adopted, would
+occupy considerably more space than the few pages we have to spare
+would admit of our devoting to it. Suffice it to say that of all the
+means of creating a resistance in the atmosphere capable of being
+applied to the propulsion of the Balloon, the Archimedean Screw
+was ascertained to be undoubtedly the best. It is true that by a
+_direct_ impact or stroke upon the air, as for instance by the
+action of a fan, or the wafting of any _flat_ surface at _right
+angles_ to its own plane, the maximum effect is accomplished
+which such a surface is capable of producing with a given power. The
+mechanical difficulties, however, which attend the employment of such
+a mode of operation are more than sufficient to counterbalance any
+advantage in point of actual resistance which it may happen to
+possess; at least in any application of it which has hitherto been
+tried or proposed: so that here, as in the case of ships propelled
+by steam, the _oblique_ impact obtained by the rotation of the
+striking surface is found to be the most conducive to the desired
+result; and of these, that arrangement which is termed the Archimedean
+Screw is the most effective.
+
+The result aimed at, being the development of the greatest amount of
+re-action in the direction of the axis of revolution, it is not enough
+to have determined the _general_ character of the instrument
+to be employed; the proper disposition or inclination of its parts
+becomes a question of the first importance. According as the
+_turns_ of the screw are more or less oblique with respect to the
+air they strike or the axis on which they revolve, more or less of the
+resistance they generate by their rotation becomes _resolved_, as
+it is technically expressed, in the direction of the intended course:
+in other words, converted to the purpose in view, namely, the
+propulsion of the Balloon.
+
+Our limited space here again prevents us from entering into a detail
+of the experiments by means of which the true solution of this
+question has been arrived at, and the proper angle determined at which
+the superficial spiral exercises the greatest amount of propulsive
+force of which such an engine is capable. These experiments have been
+chiefly carried on by Mr. Smith, the ingenious and successful adapter
+of this instrument to the propulsion of steam vessels, for a series of
+years, with the greatest care, and at a very considerable expense; and
+the result of his experience gives an angle of about 67 deg. or 68 deg. for
+the outer circumference of the screw, as that productive of the
+maximum effect; a conclusion which is further verified by the
+experiments of Sir George Cayley, of Mr. Charles Green, the most
+celebrated of our practical aeronauts, and others who have employed
+their attention upon the subject. This conclusion requires only one
+modification, which ought to be noticed; namely, that in cases of
+extreme velocity, the number of the angle may be still further
+increased with advantage, until an inclination of about 73 deg. be
+obtained; when it appears any further advance in that direction is
+attended with a loss of power. With these facts in view, the impinging
+surface of the Archimedean Screw, in the model under consideration,
+has been so disposed as to form, at its outer circumference, an angle
+of 68 deg. with the axis of revolution, gradually diminishing as it
+approaches the centre, according to the essential character of such a
+form of structure.
+
+The novelty of the application of this instrument to the propulsion
+both of ships and balloons, suggests the propriety of a few more
+explanatory remarks to elucidate its nature and meet certain
+objections which those who are ignorant of its peculiar qualities are
+apt to raise in respect of it.
+
+Previous to the adoption of this particular instrument, various
+analogous contrivances had been resorted to in order to produce the
+same effects. Of these, examples are afforded in the sails of the
+windmill, the vane of the smoke jack, and of more modern introduction,
+the _propellers_ designed by Mr. Taylor for the equipment of
+steam-boats, and which Mr. Green has availed himself of to shew
+the effect of atmospheric re-action in directing the course of the
+balloon. Now all these and similar expedients are merely modifications
+of the same principle, more or less perfect as they more or less
+resemble the perfect screw, but all falling far short of the efficacy
+of that instrument in its primitive character and construction. The
+reason of this deficiency can be readily accounted for. All the
+modifications alluded to, which have hitherto been applied to the
+purposes of locomotion, are adaptations of _plane_ surfaces.
+Now it is the character of _plane_ surfaces to present the
+same angle, and consequently to impinge upon the air with the same
+condition of obliquity throughout. But the _rate_ of revolution,
+and consequently of impact, varies according to the distance from the
+axis; being greatest at the outer edge, and gradually diminishing as
+it approaches the centre of rotation, where it may be supposed to be
+altogether evanescent. Now it is by the re-action of the air against
+_one_ side of the impinging plane, that the progressive motion is
+determined in the opposite direction, which re-action is proportioned
+to the _rate_ of impact, the angle remaining the same. If then
+we suppose a re-action corresponding to the _greatest rate_ of
+revolution, which is that due to the _outermost_ portion of the
+impinging surface (that most removed from the axis of rotation) we
+shall have a _progressive_ motion in the whole apparatus greater
+than the rate of impact of the _innermost_ or more central
+portions of the revolving plane; and accordingly the re-action will be
+thereabouts transferred from the back to the front of the propulsive
+apparatus, and tend to retard instead of advancing the progress of
+the machine to which it is attached. This inconvenience is felt and
+acknowledged by all those who have employed this principle to obtain a
+progressive motion, and accordingly a provision has been made against
+it in the _removal_ or _reduction_ of the central portion
+of the revolving vanes, with a view to let the air escape or pass
+through as the instrument advances; a provision which is certainly
+effectual to that end, but at the cost of the _surface_, which is
+the ultimate source of the required re-action. All this is avoided
+in the use of the perfect screw. There, the rate of rotation and the
+angle of impact mutually corresponding, may be said to play into each
+other's hands; the spiral becoming more extended as the impact becomes
+less forcible, that is as it approaches the centre, where both
+altogether vanish or disappear; thus obviating the possibility of any
+interruption to the course of the machine from the contrarious impact
+of the air, however quick or however slow the motions, either of the
+screw itself or of the machine which is propelled by its operation. In
+attestation of this fact and as showing the immunity of the perfect
+screw from the disparaging effects experienced by the other modes of
+accomplishing the same object, I will only mention a circumstance
+related to me by Mr. Smith himself, to whom I am glad to acknowledge
+myself indebted for so much valuable information respecting this
+instrument, which, by the light he has thrown upon its use and the
+improvements he has introduced into its construction, he may be truly
+said to have made his own. Upon a late occasion, when trying one of
+the larger class of vessels which had just been furnished by him upon
+this principle, some persons not perceiving the true nature of the
+figure employed, contended that some opposition must be experienced by
+the central portion of the screw, which revolved so much less rapidly
+than the rate of the ship itself. In order to convince them of their
+error, Mr. Smith caused a portion of the surface in question, next the
+axis, to a certain distance, to be cut away, leaving an opening, by
+which, for the water to escape. The result was, immediately the loss
+of one mile an hour in the rate of the ship; thus shewing that even
+the most apparently feeble portion of the impinging surface of this
+instrument contributes, in its degree, to the constitution of the
+aggregate force of which it is productive.
+
+This peculiarity of construction is the main cause of the advantage
+which the Archimedean Screw possesses over all its types or
+imitations; but it is not the only one. The _entirety_ or
+_unbroken continuity_ of its surface is another, not much less
+influential. The value of this will be the more readily appreciated
+when we consider that air, unlike water and other non-elastic fluids,
+undergoes a rarefaction or impoverishment of density, and consequently
+of resisting power, accordingly as it is swept away by the rapid
+passage of impinging planes; the parts immediately _behind_, and
+to a considerable distance, being thereby relieved from the support
+they had previously experienced, and extending (and consequently
+becoming thinner) in order to fill up the space thus partially cleared
+away. Now it is evident that if other planes be brought into operation
+in the parts of the atmosphere thus impoverished, before they have
+had time to recover their pristine or natural density, they will
+of necessity act with diminished vigour; the resistance being ever
+proportioned to the density of the resisting medium. This is the
+condition into which, more or less, all systems of revolving planes
+are necessarily brought, that consist of more than one; and is a
+grand cause of the little real effect they have been made capable
+of producing, whenever tried. The nature of this objection, and the
+extent to which it operates, will appear most strikingly from the
+following fact. Mr. Henson's scheme of flight is founded upon the
+principle of an inclined plane, started from an eminence by an
+extrinsic force, applied and _continued_ by the revolution
+of impinging vanes, in form and number resembling the sails of a
+windmill. In the experiments which were made in this gallery with
+several models of this proposed construction, it was found that so far
+from _aiding_ the machine in its flight, the operation of these
+vanes actually _impeded_ its progress; inasmuch as it was always
+found to proceed to a greater distance by the mere force of acquired
+velocity (which is the only force it ever displayed), than when
+the vanes were set in motion to aid it--a simple fact, which it is
+unnecessary to dilate upon. It is to the agency of this cause, namely,
+the broken continuity of surface, that, I have no doubt, is also to be
+ascribed the failure of the attempt of Sir George Cayley to propel a
+Balloon of a somewhat similar shape to the present, which he made at
+the Polytechnic Institution a short while since, when he employed
+a series of revolving vanes, four in number, disposed at proper
+intervals around, but which were found ineffectual to move it. Had
+these separate surfaces been thrown into _one_, of the nature
+and form of the Archimedean Screw, there is little doubt that the
+experiment would have been attended with a different result. In
+accordance with the principles here illustrated, the Archimedean
+Screw properly consists of only _one_ turn; more than one being
+productive of no more resistance, and consequently superfluous. A
+single unbroken turn of the screw, however, when the diameter is of
+any magnitude, would require a considerable length of axis, which in
+its adaptation to the Balloon, would be practically objectionable;
+accordingly _two half turns_, nearly equivalent in power to one
+whole turn, has been preferred; as in most instances it has been by
+Mr. Smith, himself, in his application of it to the navigation of the
+seas,
+
+Indeed, in all other respects, except the nature of its material, the
+screw here represented is exactly analogous to that used by Mr. Smith
+in its most perfect form, having been, in fact, designed, and in part
+constructed under his own supervision.[A]
+
+The model upon which these principles have been now, for the first
+time, successfully, at least, tried in the air, is constructed upon
+the following scale. The Balloon is, as before stated, an ellipsoid
+or solid oval; in length, 13 feet 6 inches, and in height, 6 feet 8
+inches. It contains, accordingly, a volume of gas equal to about 320
+cubic feet, which, in pure hydrogen, would enable it to support a
+weight of twenty-one pounds, which is about its real power when
+recently inflated, and before the gas has had time to become
+deteriorated by the process of _endosmose_.[B] The whole weight
+of the machine and apparatus is seventeen pounds; consequently there
+is about four pounds to spare, in order to meet this contingency.
+
+[Footnote A: The frame was made at Mr. Smith's request, by Mr.
+Pilgrim, of the Archimedes; the original experimental vessel in which
+this mode of propulsion was first tried upon the large scale. Mr.
+Pilgrim has been long versed in all that relates to the mechanism of
+this instrument, and is indeed a most expert and ingenious artist.]
+
+[Footnote B: _Endosmose_ is that operation by which gases of
+different specific gravities are enabled, or rather forced to come
+together through the pores of any membranous or other flexible
+covering by which it is sought to restrain them. As above referred to,
+it is the introduction of atmospheric air into the body of the Balloon
+through the pores of the silk, however accurately varnished, by which
+the purity of the hydrogen gas is contaminated, and its buoyant power
+ultimately exhausted This it is impossible to prevent by any process,
+except the interposition of a _metallic_ covering; as for
+instance, by _gilding_ the Balloon, which would be effectual
+could it be contrived to endure the constant friction and bending of
+the material itself.]
+
+Beneath the centre of the Balloon, and about two-thirds of its length,
+is a frame of light wood, answering to the hoop of an ordinary
+Balloon; to which are attached the cords of the net which encloses the
+suspending vessel, and which serves to distribute the pressure of the
+appended weight equally over its whole surface, as well as to form an
+intermediate means of attachment for the rest of the apparatus. This
+consists of a car or basket in the centre; at one end the rudder, and
+at the other the Archimedean Screw. The car is about two feet long
+and eighteen inches broad, and is laced to the hoop by cords, which
+running through loops instead of being fastened individually, allow of
+unlimited play, and equalize the application of the weight of the car
+to the hoop, as of the whole to the Balloon above. The Archimedean
+Screw consists of an axis of hollow brass tube eighteen inches in
+length, through which, upon a semi-spiral of 15 deg. of inclination, are
+passed a series of radii or spokes of steel wire, two feet long, (thus
+projecting a foot on either side) and which being connected at their
+outer extremities by two bands of flattened wire, form the frame work
+of the Screw, which is completed by a covering of oiled silk cut into
+gores, and tightly stretched, so as to present as nearly uniform a
+surface as the nature of the case will permit. This Screw is supported
+at either end of the axis by pillars of hollow brass tube descending
+from the hoop, in the lower extremities of which are the holes in
+which the pivots of the axis revolve. From the end of the axis which
+is next the car, proceeds a shaft of steel, which connects the
+Archimedean Screw with the pinion of a piece of spring machinery
+seated in the car; by the operation of which it is made to revolve,
+and a progressive motion communicated to the whole apparatus. This
+spring is of considerable power compared with its dimensions, being
+capable of raising about 45 pounds upon a barrel of four inches
+diameter after the first turn, and gradually increasing as it is wound
+up. It weighs altogether, eight pounds six ounces.
+
+The rudder is a light frame of cane covered with silk, somewhat of the
+form of an elongated battledoor, about three feet long, and one foot
+wide, where it is largest. It might be made considerably larger if
+required, being exceedingly light and yet sufficiently strong for any
+force to which it could be subjected. It weighs altogether only two
+ounces and a half. This instrument possesses a double character.
+Besides its proper purpose of guiding the horizontal course of the
+Balloon, it is capable of being applied in a novel manner to its
+elevation or depression, when driven by the propulsive power of
+the Screw. Being so contrived as to be capable of being turned
+_flat_, and also directed upwards or downwards as well as to the
+right or left, it enables the aeronaut to transfer the resistance of
+the air, which, in any inclined position, it must generate in its
+passage, to any side upon which he may desire to act, and thus give a
+determination to the course of the Balloon in the opposite direction.
+This will appear more clear as well as more certain when we consider,
+that the aerial vessel being in a state of perfect equipoise, as
+it ever must be when proceeding on the same level, the slightest
+alteration in its buoyancy is sufficient to send it to a considerable
+distance either up or down as the case may be: the rejection of a
+pound of ballast, or of an equivalent amount of gas, being enough to
+conduct the aeronaut to the extremest limits of his desires in either
+direction, whatever may be the size of his Balloon. Now a resistance
+equal to many pounds is attainable by an inclined plane of even
+moderate dimensions when propelled even with moderate velocity; and
+being readily governed by the mere inclination of the impinging plane
+at the will and by the hand of the aerial voyager, it will be in his
+power to vary the level of his machine with very considerable nicety;
+enabling him to approach the surface of the earth, or in a gentle
+curve to sweep away from its occasional irregularities, and proceed to
+a very considerable elevation without interrupting the progress of his
+course, and, what is of more importance, without sacrificing any part
+of his resources in gas or ballast, upon the preservation of which the
+duration of his career so entirely depends. These properties of the
+rudder it is not possible to display in the present exhibition, owing
+to the confined nature of the course which it is necessary to pursue;
+but they were sufficiently tested in the preliminary experiments at
+Willis's Rooms, where the space being larger, a circular motion was
+conferred upon the machine by connecting it with a fixed centre round
+which it was thus made to revolve, without the necessity of confining
+it to the one level.
+
+The rate of motion which the Balloon thus equipped is capable of
+accomplishing varies according to the circumstances of its propulsion.
+When the Archimedean Screw precedes, the velocity is less than when
+it is made to follow, owing to the reaction of the air in the former
+instance against the car, the under surface of the balloon, and other
+obstacles, by which its progress is retarded. Again, when the cord
+upon which it travels is most tense and free from vibration, the rate
+is found to be considerably accelerated, compared with what it is when
+the contrary conditions prevail. But chiefly is its speed affected
+by the proper _ballasting_ of the machine itself, upon which,
+depends the friction it encounters from the cord on which it travels.
+Under ordinary circumstances it proceeds at a rate of about four miles
+an hour, but when the conditions alluded to have been most favourable,
+it has accomplished a velocity of not less than five; and there is no
+doubt that were it altogether free from restraint, as it would be in
+the open air, with a hand to guide it, its progress would be upwards
+of six miles an hour.
+
+Having now, I trust, sufficiently explained the principles exemplified
+in the model here described, it may be expected that I should add a
+few words regarding their reduction into practice upon a larger scale
+and in the open air, with such difficulties to contend with as may be
+expected to be encountered in the prosecution of such a design. In the
+first place, however, it will be necessary to disabuse the public mind
+of some very prevailing misconceptions with respect to the conditions
+of a Balloon exposed to the action of the winds, pursuing its
+course under the exercise of an inherent propulsive power. These
+misconceptions, which, be it observed, are more or less equally
+participated in by the scientific as by the ignorant, when devoid
+of that practical experience which is the basis of all aeronautical
+proficiency, are of a very vague and general character, and
+consequently not very easy accurately to define. In order, therefore,
+to make sure of meeting all the objections and removing all the doubts
+to which they are calculated to give rise, it will be advisable, even
+at the risk of a little tediousness, to separate them into distinct
+questions and treat them accordingly.
+
+One of the most specious of these misconceptions regards the effects
+of the resistance of the atmosphere upon the figure of the Balloon
+when rapidly propelled through the air, whereby it is presumed its
+opposing front will be driven in, and more or less incapacitated from
+performing the part assigned to it; namely, to cleave its way with the
+reduced resistance due to its proper form. To obviate, this imagined
+result, various remedies have been proposed--such as, to construct
+that part of the machine of more solid materials than the rest, or
+else (as suggested by one of the most scientific and ingenious of
+those who have devoted their attention to the theory of aerial
+navigation), to subject the gaseous contents of the Balloon to such a
+degree of artificial condensation by compression, as shall supply
+from within a force equal to that from without; adopting, of course,
+materials of a stronger texture than those at present in use, for the
+construction of the balloon. Now the contingency against which it is
+here sought to provide, and which I grant is a very reasonable one to
+anticipate, has nevertheless no real existence in practice; at least
+in such a degree as to render it necessary to have recourse to any
+particular expedient for its prevention. Taking it for granted that
+the hypothesis in which it is involved is founded upon a presumed
+analogy with a Balloon exposed to the action of the wind while in a
+state of attachment to the earth, I would first observe that the cases
+in question, however apparently analogous, are in reality essentially
+dissimilar. In the one case (that where the Balloon is supposed to be
+attached to the earth) all the _motion_, and consequently all the
+_momentum_, is in the air; in the other case (where the Balloon
+is supposed to be progressive), it is in the constituent particles of
+the machine itself and of its gaseous contents. And this momentum,
+which is ever proportioned to the rate of its motion, and,
+consequently, to the amount of resistance it experiences, is amply
+sufficient to secure the preservation of the form of its opposing
+front, however partially distended, and whatever the velocity with
+which it might happen to be endowed. Independently, however, of this
+corrective principle, another, equally efficacious is afforded in the
+buoyant power of the included gas, which, occupying all the upper part
+of the Balloon so long as it is in a condition to sustain itself in
+the air, and generally extending to its whole capacity, presses from
+within with a force far greater than any it could experience from
+the external impact of the atmosphere, and sufficiently resists any
+impression from that quarter which might tend to impair its form.
+To what extent this is effective, will appear more clearly when we
+observe that in any balloon inflated, it is the _sides_ of the
+distended globe that bear out the weight of the appended cargo,
+through the intervention of the network; a weight only limited by the
+sustaining power of the machine itself, and in the case of the great
+Vauxhall or Nassau Balloon, amounting to more than two tons, and
+consequently pressing with a force far exceeding any that could arise
+from the impact of the air at any rate of motion it could ever be
+expected to accomplish. And this statement, which represents the
+theoretical view of the question, is fully borne out by the real
+circumstances of the case as they appear in practice. So far
+from justifying the apprehensions of those who conceive that the
+_front_ of the Balloon would be disfigured by its compulsory
+progression through the air, the result is exactly the reverse; the
+only tendency to derangement of form displaying itself in the part
+_behind_, where the rushing in of the atmospheric medium to fill
+the place of the advancing body (in the nature of an _eddy_,
+as it is termed in water), might and no doubt would, to some extent
+(though perhaps but slightly) affect the figure of that part, in a
+manner, however, calculated rather to aid than to impair the general
+design in view,
+
+Another error of more universal prevalency, because of a more
+superficial character, regards the condition of the Balloon as
+affected by the currents of air, in and through which it might have
+to be propelled. The arguments founded upon such a view of the case,
+generally assume some such form as the following--"It is true you can
+accomplish such or such a rate of motion; but that is only in a room,
+with a calm atmosphere, or with a favourable current of wind. In the
+open air, with the wind at the rate of twenty or thirty miles an hour,
+your feeble power would be of no avail. You could never expect to
+direct your course _against_ the wind, and if you were to attempt
+it and the wind were strong, you would inevitably be blown to pieces
+by the force of the current." Now this argument is equally nought with
+the preceding. The condition of the Balloon, as far as regards the
+exercise of its propulsive powers, is precisely the same whether the
+wind be strong or gentle, with it or against it. In neither case would
+the Balloon experience any opposition or resistance to its progress
+but what _itself_, by its _own_ independent motion, created;
+and that opposition or resistance would be exactly the same in
+whatever direction it might be sought to be established. The Balloon,
+passively suspended in the air, without the exercise of a propulsive
+power, experiences no effects whatever from the motion of the
+atmosphere in which it is carried, however violent; and the
+establishment of such a propulsive power could never subject it to
+more than the force itself, with which it was invested. The _way_
+which the Balloon so provided would make through the air would always
+be the same, in whatever direction, or with whatever violence the wind
+might happen to blow; and the condition of the Balloon would always be
+the same that was due to its _own independent_ rate of motion,
+without regard to any other circumstances whatever. If it was
+furnished with the means of accomplishing a rate of motion equal to
+ten miles an hour, it would experience a certain amount of atmospheric
+resistance due to that rate; and this amount of resistance with
+all its concomitant consequences, neither more nor less, would it
+experience, whether it endeavoured to make this way _against_ a
+wind blowing at the rate of 100 miles an hour, or _with_ the same
+in its favour. The result, so far as regards its distance from the
+place of starting, would, I grant, be very different; but at present
+we are only considering the conditions of its motion through the
+_air_, and these, I repeat, would be the same whatever the rate
+or course of the wind; so that all speculations on this score
+must resolve themselves into questions of _quantity_, not of
+_quality_, in the effect sought to be accomplished: in other
+words, all consideration of the rate of the wind must be left out of
+the argument, except, in so far as it shall be taken to regulate the
+limit which shall be assigned to the rate of the aerial machine, as
+sufficient to justify its claims to the title of a successful mode of
+navigating the skies.[A]
+
+[Footnote A: The condition of a Balloon propelled by machinery is very
+analogous to that of a boat in the water driven by oars or paddles.
+Suppose such a boat to be rowing or paddling up a river against the
+stream, if a piece of cork be thrown overboard it appears to be
+carried away with the current. But this is delusive; it is the boat
+_alone_ which really moves away from the cork. For if the boat be
+left to its own course, both it and the cork will float down together;
+and if the use of the oars or paddles be resumed, the distance
+between the boat and the cork will proceed to develope itself exactly
+according to the rate of the _boat_, without any regard to that
+of the _stream_. If the stream be excessively rapid, the boatsmen
+will appear to be exercising very great force to enable them to stem
+the torrent and avoid being carried backward. Now the resistance which
+they experience and all its attendant effects are only those which
+they create for themselves, and which they would experience in exactly
+the same degree were they to endeavour to move _at the same rate_
+in calm water or with the current in their favour. If the current be
+at the rate of ten miles an hour and they are just able to maintain
+their place, they are proceeding at the rate of ten miles an hour, and
+they experience the opposition due to that rate of motion; precisely
+the same as they would experience if they sought to accomplish the
+same rate of motion under any other circumstances. And if the current
+were 100 miles an hour, they would suffer no more from endeavouring to
+go against it, with the force just ascribed to them, than if they
+were to exercise the same force in any other direction, or in a water
+perfectly tranquil. Apply this reasoning to the case of a Balloon
+propelled by machinery, and much of the obscurity in which it is
+involved will disappear.]
+
+With these conditions established, it will now be seen that we have
+nothing to consider, in discussing the probable success of any scheme
+of aerial navigation with the aid of the Balloon (so far as its mere
+movements are concerned)[A] except the _actual rate of motion_
+which it is competent to accomplish; whether or not it be sufficient
+to meet the exigencies of the case as they may happen to be estimated.
+That its capabilities in that respect, be displayed within a room, or
+in a calm atmosphere, or under what may be called the most favourable
+circumstances, has nothing in it to disparage or affect the general
+question. Whatever it can do _there_, it can do the same in a
+hurricane; and the only real question is, "whether, what it _can_
+accomplish in respect of rate, is enough to answer the purpose in
+view."
+
+[Footnote A: I have said "so far as its mere movements are concerned;"
+because the complete success of the scheme, how far it is an available
+and satisfactory mode of transport, depends upon other conditions
+besides the accomplishment of a given rate of motion--as for instance,
+whether it be safe, or practicable, or consistent with a due
+preservation of the _buoyancy_ of the Balloon, so as to allow of
+its being employed in voyages of sufficient distance and duration,
+or capable of being worked at moderate cost, or whether it leave
+sufficient allowance for cargo; with many others of less striking
+importance, which the practical aeronaut will readily suggest for
+himself.]
+
+The model we have been just describing is capable as we have seen, of
+accomplishing a rate of about six miles an hour. Now the resistance to
+the progress of a Balloon varies as the squares of the velocities or
+rates of motion. Accordingly, for the same Balloon to accomplish
+twice the speed, or twelve miles an hour, it would be necessary to be
+provided with four times the power. Thus as the spring power employed
+in the model is equal to a weight of 45 pounds, upon a barrel of four
+inches in diameter, it would require one competent to raise 180 pounds
+on the same sized barrel, to enable it to propel the same Balloon at
+double the present rate.
+
+But with regard to Balloons of different sizes and of the same shape,
+the power required to produce the same rate of motion, would be as
+the squares of their respective diameters: for the power is as the
+resistance, the resistance as the surface, and the surface follows the
+proportion just assigned. In order, therefore to propel a Balloon
+of the same form and twice the diameter, at the same rate, it would
+require a force of four times the amount.
+
+Now to apply this to the consideration of a Balloon of superior
+magnitude, let us assume one of 100 feet in length, and fifty feet in
+height. The buoyant power of such a machine, or the weight it would
+carry, supposing it inflated with gas of the same specific gravity,
+compared with that of the model, would be as the cubes of their
+respective diameters; or in, about, the ratio of 420 to one. Such a
+Balloon, therefore, so inflated, would carry a weight of about 8700
+pounds, or above three tons and three quarters. As, however, it would
+be very expensive to inflate such a vessel with pure hydrogen gas, it
+would be advisable to found our calculations upon the use of coal gas;
+under which circumstances the weight it would carry would be limited
+to about three tons. Deducting from this, one ton for the weight of
+the Balloon itself and its necessary equipments, there would remain
+two tons, or about 4500 pounds, to be devoted to the power, whatever
+it might be, by which the machinery was to be moved, and the living
+cargo it might have to carry. Nor let the reader be surprised at
+the magnitude of the figures we are here employing, as if it were
+something extraordinary or beyond the power of man to accomplish. The
+dimensions and power we have here assumed is very little greater than
+those of the great Vauxhall Balloon,[A] and considerably less than
+some of _Montgolfieres_, or Fire-balloons, which were first
+employed.
+
+[Footnote A: The height of the Vauxhall Balloon is about eighty feet,
+its breadth about fifty. It contains 85000 cubic feet of gas, and
+supports a weight of upwards of two tons.]
+
+Now the resistance which such a Balloon as I have here described would
+experience in its passage through the air, and consequently the power
+it would require to establish that resistance compared with those
+of the model, we have said would be as the _squares_ of their
+respective diameters, or in, about, the ratio of only fifty-six to
+one; in other words, whatever force it would take to propel the model
+at any given rate, it would require just fifty-six times the power
+to accomplish the same result with the large Balloon we have been
+describing.
+
+In order to ascertain precisely what this power would be in any given
+instance, it only remains to find an expression for the spring power
+with which we have been hitherto dealing, that shall be more generally
+comprehensible.
+
+This we shall do by a comparison with the power of steam, according to
+the usual mode of estimating it; that is, reckoning a one-horse power
+to be equal to the traction or draught of 32,000 lbs. through the
+space of one foot in a minute. According to this scale, observing the
+corresponding conditions of the spring--namely, the weight it balances
+on the barrel, (answering to the force of traction) = 45 lbs., the
+circumference of the barrel (answering to the space traversed) = one
+foot, and the time of uncoiling for each turn, (answering to the rate
+of the operation) say, three seconds and a half--we find the power of
+the spring employed in the propulsion of the model, to be as nearly as
+possible the forty-second part of the power of one horse; from whence
+it is easy to deduce the conditions of flight assignable to the same,
+and to different sized Balloons of the same shape, at any other degree
+of speed. Assuming, for instance, a Balloon of 100 feet in length and
+50 feet in height, and proposing a rate of motion equal to 20 miles an
+hour, we have, in the first instance, the power required to propel
+the model at that rate, compared with that already ascertained for a
+velocity of six miles an hour, in the ratio of the _squares of the
+two velocities_, as nearly ten to one; that is, ten forty-seconds,
+or about one-fourth of a horse power. To apply this to the larger
+Balloon, we must take the squares of their respective diameters; which
+being nearly in the ratio of 56 to 1, gives an amount of 56 times
+one-fourth or about 14 horses, as the sum of the power required.
+
+From what particular source the power to be employed in the propulsion
+of the Balloon should be deduced, is not indeed a question without
+some difficulties and doubts in the determination. To all the moving
+powers at present before the world some objections apply which
+disparage their application, or altogether exclude them from our
+consideration.
+
+The power of the coiled spring is too limited to be employed upon
+a larger scale. The use of the steam-engine is accompanied with a
+gradual consumption of the resources of the Balloon in ballast, and
+consequently in gas, the one being exactly answerable to the other,
+and is therefore not calculated for voyages of long duration. Human
+strength appears to be too feeble for great results, and moreover,
+requires repose; which reduces the amount assignable to each man to a
+fraction of its nominal value. Of electro-magnetism as yet we know
+too little to enable us to pronounce upon it with certainty. Of the
+remaining powers known only one is worth mentioning in connexion
+with this subject, namely, the elastic force of air; and this I only
+mention because it has been taken up by one whose authority in these
+matters is deservedly entitled to much weight, and who entertains
+great hopes of making it ultimately subservient to the purpose in
+view.
+
+But although none of these powers, in their present state, be so
+perfectly adapted to the propulsion of the Balloon as to leave
+nothing further to desire, yet are some of them so far applicable as,
+undoubtedly, to enable us to accomplish, by their means, a very large
+amount of success. A steam engine of the power required, namely, equal
+to fourteen horses, could be easily constructed, far within the limits
+of weight which we have at our disposal upon that account in the
+Balloon under consideration, or even in one much smaller; and recent
+improvements have so far reduced the amount of coal required for its
+maintenance, that perhaps as long a voyage could be made by means of
+it now, as would be expected or required. Even human strength, by
+a certain mode of applying it, might be made effectual to the
+accomplishment of a very sufficient rate of motion, say fourteen or
+fifteen miles an hour, for, continuously, as long a period as the
+natural strength of man, moderately taxed, could endure, and which we
+may reckon at twelve hours.
+
+It is true that neither the velocity here quoted, nor that before
+assumed is so great as to enable the aeronaut to compete with some of
+the modes of transit employed on the surface of the earth; as, for
+instance, the railroads, where 25 miles an hour is not an unusual
+speed. Yet is not the aerial machine which could command such a
+rate of motion to be despised, or set aside as inferior in actual
+accomplishments to what is already at our disposal; for it must not
+be lost sight of, that railroads, or terrestrial roads of every
+description, must ever be limited in their extent and direction, and
+travelling on them, however perfectly contrived, subject to deviations
+and interruptions, particularly in passing from one country to another
+beyond the seas, which if taken into account, would reduce the
+apparent estimate of their rates, considerably under the lowest of
+those assigned to the Balloon in the previous calculation; and at all
+events, by sea, much less, under the most favourable circumstances is
+the ordinary rate of ships.
+
+But, it may be observed, we are here counting upon a rate of motion as
+established, which is only effectual to that extent in the absence of
+contrary currents of wind. This is true; nevertheless it is no bar to
+the use which might be made of the aerial conveyance so furnished, nor
+any disparagement to the advantages which might be drawn from it;
+for not only does the aeronaut possess the means of choosing, within
+certain limits, the currents to which he may please to commit himself,
+and of which, abundance of every variety is sure to be met with at
+some elevation or other in the atmosphere, but, as in all general
+arguments, where the conditions are equally applicable to both sides
+of the question, they may be fairly left out as neutralising each
+other, so, here it must not be forgotten, that the currents in
+question, being altogether indeterminate, and equally to be expected
+from all quarters, an equal chance exists of advantages to be derived,
+as of disadvantages to be encountered from their occurrence; and that,
+even without the means of making a selection, the admitted laws of
+reasoning would justify us in considering the chances of the latter
+to be fully counterbalanced by those of the former. It is enough, for
+moderate success at least, if, possessing the power of avoiding the
+bad, and of availing himself of the good, the aeronaut be furnished
+with the means of making a sufficient progress for himself when the
+atmosphere is such as neither to favour nor to obstruct him; and in
+this condition I humbly conceive he would be placed, with even a
+less rate of motion than that which we have before assigned, and
+confidently reckon upon being able to accomplish.
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Project for Flying, by Robert Hardley
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