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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Unitarianism, by W.G. Tarrant
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Unitarianism
+
+Author: W.G. Tarrant
+
+Release Date: February 18, 2004 [EBook #11142]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK UNITARIANISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julie Barkley and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+UNITARIANISM
+
+
+W.G. TARRANT
+
+
+
+LONDON
+
+1912
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+  Some Terms explained
+
+
+THE EARLIER MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND:
+
+  i. The Unitarian Martyrs
+  ii. Influences Making for 'Latitude'
+  iii. The Old Nonconformists
+  iv. The 'Unitarian Tracts'
+  v. The Old Dissent
+
+
+NEW ENGLAND:
+
+  i. Before the 'Great Awakening'
+  ii. The Liberal Reaction
+
+
+ENGLISH UNITARIANISM RECOGNIZED BY LAW
+
+
+QUESTIONS OF INHERITANCE
+
+
+MODERN UNITARIANISM:
+
+  i. The Communities
+  ii. Ideas and Tendencies
+  iii. Methods and Teachings
+
+
+UNITARIANS AND OTHER RELIGIOUS LIBERALS
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In certain quiet nooks of Old England, and, by contrast, in some of the
+busiest centres of New England, landmarks of religious history are to be
+found which are not to be easily understood by every passer-by. He is
+familiar with the ordinary places of worship, at least as features in,
+the picture of town or village. Here is the parish church where the
+English episcopal order has succeeded to the Roman; yonder is the more
+modern dissenting chapel, homely or ornate. But, now and then, among the
+non-episcopal buildings we find what is called distinctively a 'Meeting
+House,' or more briefly a 'Meeting,' which may perhaps be styled 'Old,'
+'New,' or 'Great'. Its architecture usually corresponds with the
+simplicity of its name. Plain almost to ugliness, yet not without some
+degree of severe dignity, stand these old barn-like structures of
+brick--occasionally of stone; bearing the mellowing touch of time,
+surrounded by a little overshadowed graveyard, they often add a peculiar
+quaintness and solemnity to the scene. Mrs. Gaskell has described one
+such in her novel _Ruth_, and admirers of her art should know well that
+her own grave lies beside the little sanctuary she pictured so lovingly.
+
+Sometimes, however, the surroundings of the ancient chapel are less
+attractive. It stands, it may be, in some poverty-stricken corner or
+court of a town or city. Whatever picturesqueness it may have had once
+has long since vanished. Unlovely decay, an air of desolation, symptoms
+of neglect, present a mournful sight, and one wonders how much longer
+the poor relic will remain. Many places of the kind have already been
+swept away; others have been renovated, enlarged, and kept more worthy
+of their use. Not all the Meeting Houses are of one kind. Independents,
+Baptists, and Friends, each possess some of them. Now and again the
+notice-board tells us that this is a 'Presbyterian' place of worship,
+but a loyal Scot who yearns for an echo of the kirk would be greatly
+surprised on finding, as he would if he entered, that the doctrine and
+worship there is not Calvinistic in any shape whatever,
+but--_Unitarian_.
+
+A similar surprise awaits the visitor to New England, it may be even a
+greater. For if he should tread In the footsteps of the Pilgrim Fathers
+and find the 'lineal descendants' of their original places of worship at
+Plymouth, Salem, or Boston, he will find _Unitarians_ in possession. So
+it is in many of the oldest towns founded by the American colonists of
+the seventeenth century. In their centres the parish churches, 'First,'
+'Second,' or otherwise, stand forth challenging everybody's attention.
+There is no lack of self-assertion here, nothing at all like the
+shrinking of the Old English Presbyterian into obscure alleys and
+corners. Spacious, well appointed, and secure, these _Unitarian_ parish
+churches, in the words of a popular Unitarian poet, 'look the whole
+world in the face, and fear not any man.'
+
+The object of the present brief sketch is to show how these landmarks
+have come to be where they are, to trace the thoughts and fortunes of
+Unitarians from their rise in modern times, to indicate their religious
+temper and practical aims, and to exhibit the connections of the
+English-speaking Unitarians with some closely approximating groups in
+Europe and Asia.
+
+Before entering upon a story which is extremely varied and
+comprehensive, one or two important points must be emphasized. In the
+first place the reader must bear in mind that the term 'Unitarianism' is
+one of popular application. It has not been chosen and imposed as
+sect-name by any sect-founder, or by any authoritative assembly. There
+has never been a leader or a central council whose decisions on these
+matters have been, accepted by Unitarians as final. Even when most
+closely organized they have steadily resisted all attempts so to fix the
+meaning of 'Unitarianism' as to exclude further growth of opinion.
+Consequently there is always room for variety of opinion among them; and
+every statement of their principles and teachings must be taken as a
+sort of average estimated from a survey more or less extended.
+
+Thus the significance of Unitarianism as a feature of modern religious
+development cannot be grasped apart from its history as a movement of
+thought. Nowhere is it more necessary than here to reflect that to know
+what a thing is we must know what it has been and consider what its
+future naturally involves.
+
+Secondly, amid all the varieties of thought referred to, complicated as
+they are by the eager advance of some and the clinging to survivals by
+others, there are two notes to be found undeniably, if unequally,
+characteristic of Unitarianism. It is both _rationalist_ and _mystical_.
+If the historian seems more attentive to the former than to the latter,
+this must not be taken as indicating their relative importance.
+Obviously, it is easier to record controversies than to unfold the
+wealth of profound conceptions. Perhaps we may fairly suggest the true
+state of the case by the mere juxtaposition of such earlier names as
+Socinus, Bidle, and Locke, with those of Channing, Emerson, and
+Martineau; or by a reference to the earlier Unitarian hymns in contrast
+with those of the later stages.
+
+
+SOME TERMS EXPLAINED
+
+A brief explanation at the outset may help the reader to follow more
+intelligently the history of Unitarianism. As is well known, the chief
+issue between Trinitarians and Unitarians arises in connection with the
+relation of Jesus Christ to God, questions concerning the Holy Spirit
+being usually less discussed. There are consequential issues also,
+bearing upon man's nature, atonement, salvation, and other subjects, but
+these call for no remark here. In its full statement, as given for
+instance in the 'Athanasian Creed,' the Trinitarian dogma presents the
+conception of Three 'Persons' in One God--Father, Son, and Holy
+Spirit--'Persons' with different: functions, but all equal and
+co-eternal. The Eastern (Greek Orthodox) Church differs from the Western
+(Roman Catholic) in holding that the Third Person 'proceeds' from the
+Father alone; the Western adds--'and from the Son' (_filioque_). The
+full dogma as given in the 'Athanasian Creed' is not thought to be
+earlier than the fifth century; debates as to the 'two natures' in
+Christ, and the 'two wills,' and other abstruse points involved in the
+dogma, continued for centuries still. At an earlier period discussion
+was carried on as to whether the Son were of the 'same substance'
+(_homo-ousion_) or 'similar substance' (_homoi-ousion_) with the Father.
+The latter view was held by Arius and his party at the Council of
+Nicaea, A.D. 325. Athanasius held the former view, which in time, but
+only after many years of controversial strife and actual warfare, became
+established as orthodox. The Arians regarded the Son, as a subordinate
+being, though still divine. Another variety of opinion was put forth by
+Sabellius (_c._ 250 A.D.), who took the different Persons to be so many
+diverse modes or manifestations of the One God. This Sabellian idea,
+though officially condemned, has been often held in later times.
+Socinianism, so far as regards the personality and rank of Christ,
+differed from Arianism, which maintained his pre-existence, though not
+eternal; the Socinian doctrine being that the man Jesus was raised by
+God's approving benignity to 'divine' rank, and that he thus became a
+fit object of Christian 'worship.' The Humanitarian view, finally,
+presented Jesus as a 'mere man,' i.e. a being not essentially different
+in his nature from the rest of humankind. Modern Unitarianism, however,
+usually avoids this kind of phrase; 'all minds,' said Channing, 'are of
+one family.'
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EARLIER MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND
+
+
+I. THE UNITARIAN MARTYRS
+
+The rise of any considerable body of opinion opposed to the cardinal
+dogma of orthodoxy was preceded in England by a very strongly marked
+effort to secure liberty of thought, and a corresponding plea for a
+broadly comprehensive religious fellowship. The culmination of this
+effort, is reached, for the period first, to be reviewed, in the
+writings of _John Locke_ (1632-1704). This celebrated man, by his
+powerful arguments for religious toleration and his defence of the
+'reasonableness' of the Christian religion, exerted an influence of the
+most important kind. But we must reach him by the path of his
+predecessors in the same line. The principles of liberty of thought and
+the broadest religious fellowship are warmly espoused by Unitarians, and
+they look upon all who have advanced these principles as in spirit
+related to them, however different their respective theological
+conclusions may have been.
+
+At the time of the Reformation a great deal of speculation broke forth
+on points hitherto closed by the Church's authority, including the
+fundamental doctrine of the Trinity. But, while this new ferment led to
+departures from the received opinions in many countries, especially in
+Poland and the Netherlands, the Protestant leaders maintained that upon
+the great articles of the creeds they were still one with Rome, and in
+fact they soon displayed an eagerness to stifle heresy. Men often fail
+to see the logic of their own position, and many who claimed the right
+to differ from Rome on points which Rome considered vital were unable to
+grant that others had an equal right to differ from Luther, Calvin, or
+an English State Church. The outrageous cruelty of Calvin towards the
+Anti-trinitarian _Servetus_, whom he caused to be burned at Geneva in
+1553, affords a glaring instance of this inconsistency. But a sad proof
+is given that, about that time, even Anti-trinitarians themselves were
+not always tolerant.
+
+Among the countries where the orthodox dogma was most freely questioned
+was Transylvania, adjacent to Hungary proper.
+
+Here the sovereign, John Sigismund, took sides with the
+Anti-trinitarians, and issued in 1568 an edict permitting four
+recognized types of doctrine and worship--Romanist, Lutheran, Calvinist,
+and Unitarian. The Transylvanians were at this time largely under the
+influence of their Polish brethren in the faith, who still practised the
+invocation of Christ. _Francis David_, a powerful religious leader in
+Hungary, having arrived at a 'Humanitarian' view of Christ two centuries
+before it was held by English Unitarians, opposed Christ-worship. In
+1579, when a Catholic had succeeded to the throne, David was denounced
+for an intolerable heretic by the Polish party, and, being imprisoned,
+died the same year. This blot on the record has long been deplored, and
+David is held in honour as a martyr by the Transylvanian Unitarian
+Church, which still flourishes, and forms a third member in alliance
+with the Unitarians of Great Britain and America. As, however, these
+Transylvanian (popularly called 'Hungarian') Unitarians had until the
+nineteenth century little or no connection with the English and
+Americans, and have not materially affected the development of the
+movement, we omit the details of their special history.
+
+In England a number of Anti-trinitarians suffered burning in the
+sixteenth century, being usually, but loosely, described as 'Arians.'
+The last two in England who died by fire as heretics were men of this
+class. In March, 1612, Bartholomew Legate was burned at Smithfield, and
+a month later Edward Wightman had the same fate at Lichfield. So late as
+1697 a youth named Pakenham was hanged at Edinburgh on the charge of
+heretical blasphemy. Although these were the only executions of the kind
+here in the seventeenth century, the evidence is but too clear that the
+authorities conceived it to be their duty to put down this form of
+opinion with the severest rigour. In a letter sent by Archbishop Neile,
+of York, to Bishop Laud, in 1639, reference is made to Wightman's case,
+and it is stated that another man, one Trendall, deserves the same
+sentence. A few years later, Paul Best, a scholarly gentleman who had
+travelled in Poland and Transylvania and there adopted Anti-trinitarian
+views, was sentenced by vote of the House of Commons to be hanged for
+denying the Trinity. The Ordinance drawn up in 1648 by the Puritan
+authorities was incredibly vindictive against what they judged to be
+heretical. Happily, Oliver Cromwell and his Independents were conscious
+of considerable variety of opinion in their own ranks, and apparently
+the Protector secured Best's liberation. It was certainly he who saved
+another and more memorable Unitarian from the extreme penalty.
+
+This man was _John Bidle_, a clergyman and schoolmaster of Gloucester.
+His Biblical studies led him to a denial of the Trinity, which he lost
+no occasion of making public. During twenty years, broken by five or six
+imprisonments, he persisted in the effort to diffuse Unitarian
+teachings, and even to organize services for Unitarian worship. His
+writings and personal influence were so widely recognized that it became
+a fashion later to speak of Unitarians as 'Bidellians.' Cromwell was
+evidently troubled about him, feeling repugnance to his doctrine yet
+averse to ill-treat a man of unblemished character. In 1655, ten years
+after Bidle's first imprisonment, the Protector sent him to the Scilly
+Islands, obviously to spare him a worse fate, and allowed him a yearly
+sum for maintenance. A few months before Cromwell's death, he was
+brought back to London, and on being set at liberty at once renewed his
+efforts. Finally, he was caught 'conventicling' in 1662 and sent to
+gaol, and in September of that year he died.
+
+
+II. INFLUENCES MAKING FOR 'LATITUDE'
+
+The foregoing sufficiently illustrates the position confronting those
+who at that time openly avowed their departure from the Trinitarian
+dogma. Those who dared and suffered were no doubt but a few of those who
+really shared in the heretical view; the testimony of orthodox writers
+is all in support of this surmise. Equally clear is the fact that while
+the religious authorities were thus rigorous a steadily deepening
+undercurrent of opinion made for 'Latitude.' How far this Latitude might
+properly go was a troublesome question, but at any rate some were
+willing to advocate what many must have silently desired.
+
+Apart from the extremists in the great struggle between High Church and
+Puritans there existed a group of moderate men, often of shrewd
+intellect, ripe scholarship, and attractive temper, who sought in a
+wider liberty of opinion an escape from the tyrannical alternatives
+presented by the two opposing parties. Even in connection with these
+very parties there were tendencies peculiar to themselves, which could
+not fail in the end to mitigate the force of their own contentions. The
+High Church was mostly 'Arminian,' i.e. on the side of the more
+'reasonable' theology of that age. The Puritans were wholly committed to
+the principle of democratic liberty, as then understood, and in
+religious matters set the Bible in the highest place of authority. It
+could not be but that these several factors should ultimately tell upon
+the solution of the problem of religious liberty. But the immediate
+steps toward that solution had to be taken by the advocates of Latitude.
+Among them were Lord Falkland, John Hales, and William Chillingworth,
+the last of whom is famous for his unflinching protest that 'the Bible,
+the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants,' a saying which was as
+good as a charter to those who based their so-called heresies on the
+explicit words of Scripture. In the second half of that seventeenth
+century the work of broadening the religious mind was carried forward by
+others of equal or even greater ability; it is sufficient here to name
+Jeremy Taylor among Churchmen, and Richard Baxter among Nonconformists.
+
+There was, of course, a good deal of levity, the temper of the Gallio
+who cares for none of these things. But this was not the temper of the
+men to whom we refer. Their greatest difficulty, indeed, arose from
+their intense interest in religious truth. They could not conceive a
+State which should not control men's theology in some real way. Even
+Locke did not advocate toleration for the atheist, for such a man (in
+his opinion) could not make the solemn asseverations on which alone
+civil life could go forward. Nor would he tolerate the Roman Catholic,
+but in this case political considerations swayed the balance; the
+Catholic introduced the fatal principle of allegiance to a 'foreign
+prince.' Taking for granted, then, the necessity for some degree of
+State supervision of religion, how could this be rendered least inimical
+to the general desire for liberty?
+
+The reply to this question brought them very close to the position taken
+up by _Faustus Socinus_ long before, viz. that the 'essentials' of a
+Christian faith should be recognized as few and, as far as possible,
+simple. Of course, it is from his name that the term 'Socinian' is
+derived, a term that has often been applied, but mistakenly, to
+Unitarians generally. The repeated and often bitter accusation brought
+against the advocates of Latitude that they were 'Socinians,' or at
+least tainted with 'Socinianism,' renders appropriate some short account
+of Socinus himself.
+
+This man was one of the sixteenth-century Italian Reformers who were
+speedily crushed or dispersed by the vigilance of the Inquisition. Those
+who escaped wandered far, and some were at different times members of
+the Church for 'Strangers,' or foreigners, to which Edward VI assigned
+the nave of the great Augustine Church, still standing at Austin Friars
+in the heart of the City of London. It is Interesting to observe here
+that a Dutch liberal congregation lineally inherits the place to-day.
+Careful investigation has shown that among the refugees here in the
+sixteenth century were some whose opinions were unsound on the Trinity;
+possibly they affected English opinion in some small degree. _Loelius
+Socinus_ (1525-62), uncle of _Faustus_ (1539-1604), was for a short time
+in London, but interesting thinker as he was, his nephew who never set
+foot in England really exerted much more influence upon English thought.
+
+It was, however, in Poland especially that the influence of Faustus
+Socinus first became prominent. That country, then flourishing under its
+own princes, early became (as we have seen) the home of an
+Anti-trinitarian form of Protestantism. Socinus joined this group, and
+during the latter half of the sixteenth century effected much
+improvement among them, organizing their congregations, establishing
+schools, promoting a Unitarian literature. The educational work thus
+begun achieved great success; but in his own lifetime Socinus met with
+fierce opposition and even personal violence. He died in 1604; the
+Polish Unitarian Church fell under the persecution of both Catholics and
+orthodox Protestants, and was finally crushed out in 1660.
+
+Important for our present study is the fact that the literary output of
+these Polish Socinians was both large and of high quality. Their
+'Racovian Catechism' was translated into different languages, and early
+found its way into England. James I promptly had it burned, despite the
+fact that the Latin version was dedicated to himself! Other books and
+pamphlets followed, and even if we abate something as due to the
+exaggerating fears and suspicions of the authorities, there would seem
+to have been no time as the seventeenth century went on when Socinian
+literature was not widely circulated here, albeit at first in secret.
+
+Into the details of this literature there is no need to go; it is
+sufficient to observe its outstanding features. They correspond in the
+main to the temper of the master mind, Socinus, a man who in the absence
+of imaginative genius displayed remarkable talent as a reasoner, and a
+liberal disposition considerably in advance of his times. The later
+Socinian writings, preserved in eight large volumes issued by the
+'Polish Brethren' (Amsterdam, 1666), exhibit in addition the results of
+much diligent research and scholarship, in which the wide variety of
+opinion actually held by the Fathers and later Church authorities is
+proved, and the moral is drawn. In the presence of so much fluctuating
+teaching upon the abstruser points of the creeds was it not desirable to
+abandon the pretence of a rounded system complete in every detail? Would
+it not he better to simplify the faith--in other and familiar words, to
+reduce the number of 'essentials'? In order to discover these
+essentials, surely the inquirer must turn to the Bible, the record of
+that miraculous revelation which was given to deliver man's unassisted
+reason from the perils of ignorance and doubt. At the same time, man's
+reason itself was a divine gift, and the Bible should be carefully and
+rationally studied in order to gather its real message. As the fruit of
+such study the Socinians not only propounded an Anti-trinitarian
+doctrine derived from Scripture, but in particular emphasized the
+arguments against the substitutionary atonement as presented in the
+popular Augustinian scheme and philosophically expounded in Anselm's
+_Cur Deus Homo_. Socinus himself must be credited with whatever force
+belongs to these criticisms on the usual doctrine of the death of
+Christ, and it may be fairly said that most of the objections advanced
+in modern works on that subject are practically identical with those of
+three centuries ago.
+
+Now there is good reason for believing that towards the end of the
+seventeenth century this Socinian literature really attracted much
+attention in England, and probably with considerable effect. But as a
+matter of fact no English translation of any part of it was made before
+John Bidle's propagandist activity in the middle of the century, and we
+have the explicit testimony of Bidle himself and most of the earlier
+Unitarians that they were not led into their heresy by foreign books. It
+was the Bible alone that made them unorthodox.
+
+A famous illustration of this is the case of _John Milton_ (1608-74). In
+1823 a long-forgotten MS. of his was found in a State office at
+Westminster, and two years later it was published under the editorship
+of Dr. Sumner, afterwards Bishop of Winchester. The work is entitled _A
+Treatise of Christian Doctrine_. It was a late study by the poet,
+laboriously comparing texts and pondering them with a mind prepared to
+receive the verdict of Scripture as final, whether in agreement with
+orthodoxy or not.
+
+The most ardent of Milton's admirers, and even the most eager Unitarian,
+must find the book a trial; but the latter can at least claim the author
+of _Paradise Lost_ as an Anti-trinitarian, and the former may solace
+himself by noticing that here, as in all the rest, Milton's soul 'dwelt
+apart.' He emphatically denies that it was the works of 'heretics, so
+called,' that directed and influenced his mind on the subject. We may
+notice here the interesting fact that another great mind of that age,
+_Sir Isaac Newton_, has left evidence of his own defection from the
+orthodox view; and his correspondent _John Locke_, whose views appear to
+have been even more decided, is only less conspicuous on this point
+because his general services to breadth and liberality of religious
+fellowship are more brilliantly striking.
+
+Locke's _Plea for Toleration_ is widely recognized as the deciding
+influence, on the literary side, which secured the passage of the
+Toleration Act in 1689. Deferring for the moment further allusion to the
+position created by this Act, we must at once observe the scope of one
+of Locke's works which is not so popularly known. This is his
+_Reasonableness of Christianity_, which with his rejoinders to critics
+makes a considerable bulk in his writings. In pursuance of the aim to
+'reduce the number of essentials' and to discover that in the Christian
+religion which is available for simple people--the majority of
+mankind--Locke examines the historical portion of the New Testament, and
+presents the result. Practically, this amounts to the verdict that it is
+sufficient for the Christian to accept the Messiahship of Christ and to
+submit to his rule of conduct. The orthodox critics complained that he
+had omitted the epistles in his summary of doctrine; his retort is
+obvious: if the gospels lead to the conclusion just stated, the epistles
+cannot be allowed, however weighty, to establish a contrary one. Of
+course, Locke was called a 'Socinian'; but the effect of his work
+remained, and we should remark that if it looked on the one hand toward
+the orthodox, on the other it looked toward the sceptics and
+freethinkers who began at that time a long and not ineffectual criticism
+of the miraculous claims of Christianity. Locke endeavoured to convince
+such minds that Christianity was in reality not an irrational code of
+doctrines, but a truly practical scheme of life. In this endeavour he
+was preceded by Richard Baxter, who had written on the 'Unreasonableness
+of Infidelity,' and was followed during the eighteenth century by many
+who in the old Dissenting chapels were leading the way towards an overt
+Unitarianism.
+
+
+III. THE OLD NONCONFORMISTS
+
+The reader must be reminded here of a few salient facts in the religious
+history of the seventeenth century. All these undercurrents of heterodox
+thought, with but few and soon repressed public manifestations of its
+presence, were obscured by the massive movement in Church and State.
+During the Commonwealth the episcopal system was abolished, and a
+presbyterian system substituted, though with difficulty and at best
+imperfectly. After the Restoration of Charles II the Act of Uniformity
+re-established episcopacy in a form made of set purpose as unacceptable
+to the Puritans as possible. Thereupon arose the rivalry of Conformist
+and Nonconformist which has ever since existed in England. Severely
+repressive measures were tried, but failed to extinguish Nonconformity;
+it stood irreconcilable outside the establishment. There were distinct
+varieties in its ranks. The Presbyterians, once largely dominant, were
+gradually overtaken numerically by the Independents. Perhaps it is
+better to say that, in the circumstances of exclusion in which both were
+situated, and the impossibility of maintaining a Presbyterian order and
+organization, the dividing line between these two bodies of
+Nonconformists naturally faded out. There was little, if anything, to
+keep them apart on the score of doctrine; and in time the Presbyterians
+certainly exhibited something of the tendency to variety of opinion
+which had always marked the Independents. Besides these bodies, the
+Baptists and Quakers stand out amid the sects comprised in
+Nonconformity. In both of these there were distinct signs of
+Anti-trinitarianism from time to time; as to the former, indeed, along
+with the earlier Baptist movements in England and on the Continent
+(especially in the Netherlands) there had always gone a streak of heresy
+alarming to the authorities. Among the Quakers, William Penn is
+specially notable in connection with our subject. In 1668 he was
+imprisoned for publishing _The Sandy Foundation Shaken_, in which
+Sabellian views were advocated. It need hardly be pointed out that among
+the still more eccentric movements, if the term be allowed, heterodoxy
+as to the Trinity was easy to trace.
+
+When the Toleration Act was passed the old Nonconformity became
+'Dissent,' that being the term used in the statute itself. Dissenters
+were now granted freedom of worship and preaching, but only on condition
+that their ministers subscribed to the doctrinal articles of the Church
+of England, including, of course, belief in the Trinity. Unitarians,
+therefore, were excluded from the benefit of the Act, and the general
+views of Dissenters upon the subject are clear from the fact that they
+took special care to have Unitarians ruled out from the liberty now
+being achieved by themselves. Locke and other liberal men evidently
+regretted this limitation, but the time was not ripe, and in fact the
+penal law against Unitarians was not repealed till 1813. Unluckily, too,
+for the Unitarians, a sharp controversy, due to their own zeal, had
+broken out at the very time that the Toleration Act was shaping, and as
+this had other important results we must give some attention to it.
+
+
+IV. THE 'UNITARIAN TRACTS'
+
+There are six volumes, containing under this title a large number of
+pamphlets and treatises, for and against the new views, published about
+this period. It is the first considerable body of Unitarian literature.
+Its promoter was _Thomas Firmin_, a disciple of John Bidle, on whose
+behalf he interceded with Oliver Cromwell, though himself but a youth at
+the time. Firmin, a prosperous citizen of London, counted among his
+friends men of the highest offices in the Church, some of whom are said
+to have been affected with his type of thought. Apart from his
+Unitarianism he is remarkable as an enlightened philanthropist of great
+breadth of sympathy. Men of very different theological bent who were
+fain to seek refuge in London from persecutions abroad were aided by
+funds raised by him. We should notice also that, ardent as he was in
+diffusing Unitarian teachings, he had no wish at first to set up
+separate Unitarian chapels; his desire was that the national Church
+should include thinkers like himself. We are thus pointed into a path
+which for a time at least promised more for Unitarian developments than
+anything very evident in the Dissenting community.
+
+The situation is aptly illustrated by a little book of 184 pages which
+is included in the first volume of the _Tracts_. This work is specially
+noteworthy as one of the first English books to use the name
+'Unitarian,' though the use is here so free and without apology or
+explanation that we must suppose it had already attained a certain vogue
+before 1687, the date of the book. The title is _A Brief History of the
+Unitarians, called also Socinians_. Neither author nor publisher is
+named, but the former is known to have been the Rev. Stephen Nye, a
+clergyman, whose grandfather, Philip Nye, was noted in his day as one of
+the few Independents in the Westminster Assembly. Stephen Nye's book
+takes the form of four Letters, ostensibly written to an unnamed
+correspondent who has asked for an account of the Unitarians, 'vulgarly
+called Socinians.' The opening letter states their doctrine, after the
+model of Socinus--God is One Person, not Three; the Lord Christ is the
+'Messenger, Servant, and Creature of God,' also the 'Son of God, because
+he was begotten on the blessed Mary by the Spirit or Power of God'; 'the
+Holy Ghost or Spirit, according to them, is the Power and Inspiration of
+God.' (We may notice here that Bidle, otherwise agreeing with Socinus,
+regarded the Holy Spirit as a living being, chief among angels.) Nye,
+writing as if an impartial observer, presents the Scripture argument in
+support of the doctrine of the Unitarians, 'which,' says he, 'I have so
+related as not to judge or rail of their persons, because however
+learned and reasonable men (which is their character among their worst
+adversaries) may be argued out of their errors, yet few will be
+swaggered or chode out of them.' He traces the doctrine to the earliest
+Christian times, and shows the stages of Trinitarian growth.
+Incidentally he says that Arian doctrines are openly professed in
+Transylvania and in some churches of the Netherlands, and adds that
+'Nazarene and Arian Churches are very numerous' in Turkish, Mahometan,
+and pagan dominions where liberty of conscience is allowed. He mentions
+celebrated scholars who have 'certainly been either Arians or Socinians,
+or great favourers of them,' such as Erasmus, Grotius, Petavius,
+Episcopius, and Sandius--the last-named a learned historian who had made
+a special point of collecting admissions by orthodox writers of the
+invalidity of all the texts in turn usually quoted in support of the
+Trinity. In the subsequent chapters Nye deals _seriatim_ with such
+texts, and the book ends with a commendation from 'A Gentleman, a Person
+of Excellent Learning and Worth,' to whom the publisher had sent it for
+remark.
+
+Upon such levels the discussion proceeded, the skill and adroitness of
+the heretics contrasting with the obvious perplexity of the orthodox,
+who soon fell to accusing one another of stumbling into erroneous
+statements. Dons, deans, and even bishops joined in the fray, and some
+of them, notably Dr. Sherlock, Master of the Temple, got into sad
+trouble with their brethren. Finally, the clergy were forbidden to
+prolong the discussion, which indeed promised little satisfaction to any
+but the heretics who enjoyed the difficulties of the orthodox champions.
+The traditional formularies were there, and these must suffice. In the
+presence of the restrictions imposed by the Toleration Act speculation
+outside the Church turned towards 'Deism'--perhaps the best modern
+equivalent would be 'Natural Religion.' Speculation inside the Church
+had to accommodate itself to the creeds and articles, and thus there
+grew up an Arianism among the clergy which was really largely diffused
+and produced some important books. One of these was Dr. Samuel Clarke's
+_Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity_ (1712), a work which appears to have
+helped many a clergyman to ease his conscience while reciting the
+authorized Trinitarian expressions, though in substance his opinions
+were no less heretical than those for which men had suffered under the
+law.
+
+A contemporary case of such suffering was that of _Thomas Emlyn_
+(1663-1711), an Irish clergyman who was sentenced at Dublin in 1703 to
+imprisonment which lasted for two years. This gross treatment, excited
+keen criticism at home and in the American colonies, whither our
+attention must soon turn. Emlyn was the first minister to call himself a
+'Unitarian,' but under the pressure of the times, and in accordance with
+the spirit of Clarke and the other Arianizing clergy, he found it
+expedient to declare himself a 'true Scriptural Trinitarian.'
+
+
+V. THE OLD DISSENT
+
+It is estimated that about a thousand Meeting Houses were erected by
+Dissenters in the twenty years following the passing of the Toleration
+Act. After the death of Queen Anne others were built, but in no great
+numbers. The prevailing impression of the state of religion in England
+during the first half of the eighteenth century is a gloomy one.
+Formalism and apparently an insincere repetition of the doctrinal
+phrases imposed by the law was but too evident in the State Church.
+Dissent had its bright features, but these grew dim as years went on. It
+must be admitted that the odds were heavy against that party. Without
+conforming no one could be appointed to public office, and the
+'occasional conformity' of sharing the communion service at an
+established church now and again in order to qualify was at length
+forbidden by the Act of 1711. The sons of the Dissenting gentry and
+manufacturers were excluded from the universities, and though a shift
+was made by 'Academies' here and there, the excellence of the education
+they might impart could not compensate for the deprivation of the social
+advantages of Oxford and Cambridge. By an Act of 1714 schools for more
+than a rudimentary education were forbidden to be taught by Dissenters.
+Thus, we are not surprised to hear, considerable defection went on, and
+early in the century congregations began to dwindle. As it proceeded
+some became very small indeed, and many died out altogether.
+
+The trusts upon which the Meeting Houses were founded were frequently
+free from any close definitions of the doctrines supposed to be held by
+the congregation. Much discussion arose in later years as to the purport
+of this freedom; perhaps there was some expectation of changing opinion
+in the future, but more probably the doctrinal status was taken for
+granted. It must be remembered that no Dissenting preacher could legally
+officiate without previously 'subscribing' to the doctrinal articles of
+the Church of England or their equivalents in the Westminster Assembly's
+catechisms. Thus, while the Dissenter might alter the terms of his
+liturgy to a degree not allowed to the Churchman (though the latter
+would in those lax days go pretty far sometimes), he was still supposed
+to be 'sound' on the fundamental creeds. It would appear to be a
+fortunate accident for Unitarian development in some of these old
+Dissenting congregations that, either the prevalent understanding or a
+hope for speedy inclusion in the national Church, or a prevision on the
+part of liberal-minded men here and there, left so largely undefined the
+basis of religious union among them, as congregations.
+
+However that may be, it is certain that a degree of reluctance to
+'subscribe' began to show itself, and this, we surmise, was often due to
+other reasons than liberality pure and simple. That there were
+broad-minded men who, while conscientiously orthodox themselves, refused
+to exclude unorthodox ministers from their fellowship is shown by a
+notable instance among the Baptists. Before 1700, Matthew Caffyn, one of
+their body, being charged with Anti-trinitarian opinions, was still
+retained in membership by vote of the General Baptist Assembly, this
+being the first instance of any organization's formal acceptance of
+latitude respecting the Trinity. In Ireland, deterred no doubt by the
+harsh punishment of Emlyn, there was natural hesitation in avowing such
+latitude; but in 1721 a division began in Ulster between those who
+insisted on 'subscribing' the creed anew and those who opposed; and a
+few years later the 'non-subscribers,' being excluded from the Synod,
+formed a new Presbytery which in course of time became distinctly
+Unitarian. The historic event for English 'non-subscription' was a
+declaration made at a meeting of Dissenting ministers, Independents,
+Baptists, and Presbyterians, held in 1719 at Salter's Hall, London.
+Certain Exeter ministers had become unsound in doctrine, and refused to
+renew their subscription to the creeds and articles, claiming to believe
+'the Scripture'--a well-understood expression in those days. The
+question of their exclusion was referred to London, and there again the
+point of renewed 'subscription' was raised before the vote on the Exeter
+case was taken. By seventy-three to sixty-nine it was decided that the
+declaration of faith should be confined to 'the words of Scripture'--as
+Sir Joseph Jekyll put it, 'the Bible carried it by four.' This was
+widely recognized as setting open the door for liberty in matters of
+religion, and the interesting fact should be recorded that Independents
+and Presbyterians were found on both sides.
+
+Here, then, we may for the present leave the English development; it was
+slow, tentative, for the most part obscure. In one direction and another
+the movement of thought might be perceived, in the Church, among the
+'Congregationals,' or Baptists, or Presbyterians, as the case might be.
+It was only long after that much preponderance of heretical opinion was
+distinctive of Presbyterian congregations. In the Academies men like
+_Philip Doddridge_ (1702-51), the hymn writer, were affording room at
+least for ample discussion among the students, and moderate as his own
+opinions were he is credited with having made so-called 'orthodoxy' a
+byword. The Independents, Caleb Fleming and _Nathaniel Lardner_
+(1684-1768), led the way to 'Humanitarian' views, the latter being a
+learned writer of much influence. It is said that another great hymn
+writer, Isaac Watts, finally shared the Humanitarian view. On the whole,
+with some notable exceptions, the Dissenting preachers seem to have been
+decorously dull, and uninspiringly ethical. Without the zeal of the
+'enthusiast,' whom they severely scanned from afar, and seeking in all
+things to prove that Christianity was so 'reasonable' as to be identical
+with 'rational philosophy,' it is little wonder that when the popular
+mind began to be stirred by a religious 'Revival' they were not its
+apostles, but mostly its critics. This is precisely the point where we
+may fitly turn to consider the growth of Unitarianism in New England.
+
+
+
+
+
+NEW ENGLAND
+
+
+I. BEFORE THE 'GREAT AWAKENING'
+
+As in the Old Country, so in the colonies of North America, a great
+evangelical revival took place towards the middle of the eighteenth
+century. John Wesley the Arminian, and George Whitefield the Calvinist,
+were the great apostles of this movement, and the latter especially was
+very influential in America. The English revivalists were not alone,
+however; among the most powerful leaders in the colonies was Jonathan
+Edwards, whose name ranks very high in the records of religious
+philosophy in the States. Despite preliminary obstacles this preacher of
+the most stern and unflinching determinism produced a quite
+extraordinary effect at last. As usually happens, his dogmas were more
+easily repeated by others than his reasoning; violent excitement ran
+through the colonies, and it was this that gave a decisive turn to the
+liberalism which ultimately developed into a very memorable phase of
+Unitarianism. The preceding steps may be briefly indicated.
+
+A familiar epigram preserves the acid truth that the Puritan emigrants
+who left England in the seventeenth century went to North America in
+order to worship God in their own way, and to compel everyone else to do
+the same. Religious liberty was certainly not understood by them as it
+is understood to-day. The sufferings of the Baptists and Quakers, for
+example, make a sad chapter of New England history. About the middle of
+the century, _Roger Williams_ (1599-1683), having ventilated opinions
+contrary to the general Calvinism, was driven out of Salem, where he had
+ministered to a grateful church. His pleas for a real religious freedom
+were in vain, and he was forced to wander from the colonial settlements
+and find a precarious home among the Indians. After much privation, he
+succeeded in establishing a new colony at Rhode Island, where a more
+liberal atmosphere prevailed.
+
+It does not appear that Williams had much influence in the general world
+of religious thought, but two things at least were favourable to the
+modification of orthodoxy. On the one hand there was inevitably a looser
+system of supervision in a new country, and the pressure of penal law
+could not be exerted so effectually as in England. On the other hand the
+organization of worship and teaching, though intended to be strict and
+complete, an intention fairly successful in practice, was actually
+founded upon broad principles. Each township maintained its 'parish
+church,' but this, originally of a Low Church or 'Presbyterian' type,
+was usually accommodated as years went on to a Congregational model.
+These churches were looked upon as centres of religious culture for the
+respective communities by whose regular contributions they were
+supported and endowed. The 'covenants' by which the members bound
+themselves were often expressed in terms quite simple, and even
+touching; the colonists were in the main faithful to the parting
+injunction of the famous Pastor John Robinson, who sped the 'Pilgrim
+Fathers' on their way with the assurance that the Lord had 'more light
+and truth to break forth from His Holy Word.' Occasionally, it is
+expressly declared by the covenanting members that theirs is an attitude
+of devout expectation of religious growth.
+
+As would naturally be expected, the conditions of the earlier
+generations in the colonies were not in favour of a deeply studious
+ministry; the leaders were more frequently men of shrewd and practical
+piety than profound scholars. As things became more settled, and
+especially after the Toleration Act had secured a more assured state of
+feeling at home, the minds of men were set at liberty in a greater
+degree. Locke's works were carried across the sea, and Dr. Clarke's
+Arianizing writings soon followed. Apparently, the first stir of any
+importance was produced by the scandal of the punishment of Thomas
+Emlyn, the Irish clergyman who has been previously referred to. Emlyn's
+writings received a great advertisement, and although he managed, like
+Clarke, to avoid further legal difficulties by publishing a statement of
+his adherence to a 'Scriptural Trinity,' his defection from the orthodox
+dogma was clear enough and his arguments against that dogma remained.
+Another case which was notorious in those days was that of _William
+Whiston_ (1667-1752), the well-known translator of the works of
+Josephus, who was dismissed from his professorship at Cambridge in 1710
+for Arianism. A prolific writer and a shrewd debater, Whiston played no
+small part in the general leavening of opinion.
+
+But probably the most direct of the literary influences in this
+direction came from the pen of _Dr. John Taylor_ (1694-1761), one of the
+most able and learned of the Presbyterian divines. His treatises on
+_Original Sin_ (1740) and the _Atonement_ (1751) dealt with subjects of
+the profoundest importance in relation to the usual Trinitarian scheme
+of doctrine. Preferring, for his own part, to be known by no sectarian
+name but to be reckoned among 'Christians only,' Taylor was recognized
+far and wide as a writer extremely 'dangerous' to the ordinary type of
+belief. When the American revivalists were at their height, there were
+many quiet and staid New England ministers who found in Taylor a welcome
+ally against the extravagances which they witnessed and deplored. The
+more logical the Calvinist was, the more vivid in depicting the horrors
+of predestined damnation, the more vigorous these men became in
+denouncing such a doctrine. Perhaps the growing sense of individual
+liberty and personal rights had much to do with the reaction. A theory
+based upon the postulate of an absolute and unconditioned sovereignty
+divine did not accord with the growing democratic temper. Preachers
+began to insist, and hearers to agree, that, whatever 'salvation' is, it
+must be reasonable if reasonable creatures are to enjoy its benefits.
+Here also, as among the English latitude-men, the conviction grew that
+the essentials of a Christian belief must be few and simple and these
+such as plain men could understand and discuss; and here, as among the
+sober Dissenters at home, men looked askance on unintelligent outbursts
+of emotion.
+
+The process of change was not very fast, and a good many who were
+sensible of change in their opinions were reluctant to accept new
+doctrinal designations. Arians they might be, but they preferred to be
+known as standing by a 'Scriptural Christianity.' For, whatever new
+books might be written, the Bible remained their chief study and their
+support in discussion. Keen, rational rather than mystical, yet deeply
+interested in moral progress and human elevation, these American divines
+were much of a mind with their English brethren whose path lay in the
+same direction. One of the most influential preachers was _Charles
+Chauncey_ (1706-87); who for sixty years was minister at the 'First
+Church,' Boston. His theology was Arian and 'Universalist' (i.e. holding
+the doctrine of a final universal salvation); his Anti-Calvinism came
+out forcibly in his protests against the revivalist excesses. It is
+recorded of him that in his youth, disgusted by noisy fanatics, he
+prayed God never to make him an orator. His prayer was granted--and
+still he was a power!
+
+
+II. THE LIBERAL REACTION
+
+With the rise of the new liberalism in the American colonies no name is
+more conspicuous than that of _Jonathan Mayhew_ (1721-66), whose
+eloquence was of a more modern type than most of his day. He is credited
+with having deeply moved many who became leaders in turn, whether as
+ministers or laymen. After the interruption of normal development
+inevitable during the War of Independence, things moved more rapidly.
+The French Revolution evoked the warmest sympathy in the United States,
+and its effect on religion there was largely to increase a sense of the
+worth of man. 'Universalism,' the final restoration of all, became a
+conspicuous doctrine with some. The need for practical measures to
+uplift the general life here was a theme more to the mind of others. The
+distinctly 'Unitarian' trend was from the first associated with this
+eager attention to the higher culture. Harvard College, in the very
+heart of New England, rapidly developed into a fruitful source of the
+newer ideas, which were embodied in the lives of 'statesmen, merchants,
+physicians, lawyers, and teachers'; and thus the community, in all its
+more vigorous members, became charged with a fresh conception of life
+and religion.
+
+In the first decade of the nineteenth century we begin to trace
+publications more or less distinctly Unitarian. One of these was the
+_Monthly Anthology_, the pioneer among American literary magazines. One
+of its two editors was the Rev. William Emerson, father of Ralph Waldo
+Emerson. As the divergence of ideas grew more distinct debate began to
+be fierce. The new magazine took a bold line, while many liberals were
+still hesitating. In 1808 the trouble came to the surface. Harvard was
+denounced by the orthodox party, in consequence of the appointment of a
+liberal minister, Henry Ware, to a professorship involving pastoral care
+of the students. An orthodox rival school was set up at Andover. A few
+years later a pamphlet appeared giving letters alleged to have been sent
+to England by Boston ministers reporting that a certain number were
+Unitarians. The name was unwelcome at the time, especially because it
+was associated with the 'humanitarianism' then becoming widely taught in
+England. The implicated ministers, being charged with cowardly evasion,
+replied with warmth; they were, in fact, mostly Arians, and thus their
+views really were different from the English type. Moreover, again in
+contrast with the English, they expressed strong dislike of controversy;
+all they asked was to be left alone to proclaim the 'Simple
+Christianity' in which they believed.
+
+The upshot showed, however, that controversy was not to be avoided, and
+during twenty years from 1815 onwards it raged more or less severely. An
+epoch in this long and regrettable warfare was marked by a sermon
+preached at Baltimore in 1819. The preacher was one of the most famous
+men on the Unitarian roll, _William Ellery Channing_ (1780-1842).
+Already eminent, he continued to hold a position unique in the religious
+life of New England; his saintly character and his noble if simple
+eloquence made him a leader in spite of himself. For a long time he had
+maintained a mediating position--all through his life he resolutely
+disclaimed sectarianism; but in 1819, after years of discussion, it was
+obvious that, for good or evil, the old dogma and the new spirit lay far
+apart. From that date liberals and conservatives in the old
+Congregational system of New England were divided, and 'Unitarian
+Christianity,' which was the subject of Channing's discourse, was a
+recognized type in the land. In 1825 the American Unitarian Association
+was founded. It was but a struggling society at first, not for lack of
+sympathy with its principle, but because many Unitarians, like Channing,
+so strongly disliked the notion of forming a new sect that they took
+little interest in methods of propagandism common to most religious
+bodies.
+
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH UNITARIANISM RECOGNIZED BY LAW
+
+
+By a mere coincidence the British and Foreign Unitarian Association was
+founded almost on the same day in 1825 as the American Unitarian
+Association. This step evidently implies a great change in Unitarian
+affairs since the times of that early Dissent towards which attention
+has been previously directed. We must now endeavour to trace the change
+in detail.
+
+It will be remembered that tendencies to Anti-trinitarian thought--using
+that term to cover all the varieties of heretical opinion on the
+subject--were manifested both within the established Church and without.
+As regards the latter phase, the evidence is clear that, whatever the
+doctrinal 'subscription' was worth which Dissenting preachers had to
+make, there was a decided lapse from the orthodox standard on the part
+of a considerable number. This lapse, however, was for the most part
+left obscure while the pulpits resounded with 'plain, moral discourses.'
+Now and again, one bolder than the rest ventured to discuss controverted
+points of doctrine. Such a man was _Joseph Priestley_ (1733-1804), whose
+career is interesting as an illustration of the growth of opinion, and
+especially important in regard to the denominational advance of
+Unitarianism. He began life as a Calvinistic Independent, and became
+Arminian, Arian, and Humanitarian in turn. His devotion to science is
+well known, and he ranks with Lavoisier as an original discoverer of
+oxygen. He was an indefatigable student, a voluminous writer, a ready
+controversialist; and though his speaking was marred by imperfect
+utterance he attained to considerable influence in public address. No
+Unitarian leader hitherto has displayed more activity, and few, if any,
+have possessed greater controversial ability than he. His opinions,
+indeed, were in some respects peculiar to himself; he called himself a
+Socinian, but it was with a difference, and no Unitarian to-day would
+endorse some of his main positions. But his work for the cause was
+invaluable, and his personal character is held in the highest esteem.
+Originally he would have preferred that the Unitarians should remain as
+a 'liberal leaven' in the churches; eventually he became the chief
+organizer of Unitarian worship and propaganda.
+
+The first 'Unitarian Church,' however, was due to a clergyman,
+_Theophilus Lindsey_ (1723-1808). After long and arduous efforts to
+secure relaxation from the doctrinal subscription imposed on the clergy,
+Lindsey resigned his living at Catterick, in 1773, facing poverty and
+hardship with a courage that elicited warm commendations, though few
+were found to imitate the example. In spite of the terrors of the law,
+now becoming a dead letter, he opened a Unitarian chapel in Essex
+Street, London, in 1774. The service was on the episcopal model, but
+with a liturgy adapted to 'the worship of the Father only.' This feature
+has been claimed to be the distinctive characteristic of modern
+Unitarianism. It will be remembered that Socinus inculcated a sort of
+subordinate worship of Christ, and the Arians of course held to the same
+practice, Humanitarianism, the view that Jesus Christ was truly a man
+and in no sense a deity, obviously made it impossible to offer him the
+adoration due to God alone. This view had been slowly spreading since
+the days of Lardner; Priestley, Lindsey, and the active men of the party
+generally shared it. There were exceptions still, however. _Dr. Richard
+Price_ (1723-91), a London Presbyterian divine of great eminence,
+remembered as one of the founders of actuarial science, held by his
+Arianism to the last; this did not prevent him from lending a hand in
+the organization of the Unitarian forces, but there was for a time some
+difficulty on the subject. The more ardent professors of the new
+doctrine of 'the sole worship of the Father' were for excluding the
+Arians from fellowship, and one of the societies then formed actually
+adhered to a rather offensive formula on the subject till about 1830.
+
+A considerable number of liberal Churchmen of the laity, including some
+of rank, supported Lindsey's movement. An indication of changing moods
+is given in the fact that in 1770 an Act was passed permitting the
+Dissenting ministers to preach provided that they made a declaration of
+belief in the Scriptures as containing the revealed will of God. This
+was considered by many a welcome relief from the requirement of the
+Toleration Act that the minister must subscribe to the doctrinal
+articles of the established Church, and it was certainly a much less
+definite test. Priestley, for his part, however, regretted the change;
+the old subscription was in reality ceasing to be enforced, and he was
+afraid lest persecuting vigilance would set in again. As a matter of
+fact, the Act of 1779, long obsolete, has never been repealed, but very
+few people are aware of its existence. Priestley's many controversies
+tended to excite a good deal of interest, some of it more than
+unfriendly, in the new movement. In 1791, when a party of Unitarians
+dined at Birmingham in celebration of the French Revolution, serious
+riots broke out, and Priestley, who was then minister of the New Meeting
+there, was made a principal victim though he was not one of the diners.
+His house and library were burned, and he barely escaped the violence of
+the mob. Other residences were also destroyed, and the Old and New
+Meetings were burnt down. Ultimately, in 1794, Priestley sought asylum
+in America from the ill-will that pursued him even in London. Bishop
+Horsley, one of his sturdiest opponents in controversy, said, 'the
+patriarch of the sect is fled.'
+
+It was earlier in the same year that the first organized Unitarian
+propaganda took shape in a _Unitarian Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge_. District unions were soon formed, and in 1806 a Unitarian
+Fund was raised by means of which the first itinerant missionary of the
+body, _Richard Wright_ (1764-1836), was sent literally from end to end
+of Great Britain. In 1813, Unitarians were set free from legal penalties
+by the repeal, so far as they were concerned, of the exceptive clauses
+of the Toleration Act, this relief coming twenty years after Charles
+James Fox had tried to secure it for them. The member who was successful
+was Mr. William Smith, who sat for Norwich, and whose granddaughter was
+Florence Nightingale. In 1819 an Association was founded to protect and
+extend the Civil Rights of Unitarians. It was by combining the three
+societies--the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, the Fund, and
+Civil Rights Society, that the British and Foreign Unitarian Association
+was formed, as has been said, in 1825.
+
+In order to understand fairly the scope and spirit of that earlier
+Unitarian period, thus at last organized in full legal recognition,
+though still suffering from the prejudice inevitably created by more
+than a century of legal condemnation, a few salient points should be
+kept in view. First, the heterogeneous elements in the 'body,' if it
+could be called such, were a source of weakness in regard to united
+action. Instead of belonging, as their American brethren did, to one
+ecclesiastical group, and that the dominant one, the English Unitarians
+included Dissenters of different tendencies and traditions, with a few
+recruits from the State Church. The 'Presbyterian' congregations, as
+they were not very strictly called, were the backbone of the 'body';
+many of these, however, were very weak, and in the course of a few
+decades some were destined to follow those which had died out in the
+eighteenth century. Converts not infrequently lent new force in the
+pulpit, but at the risk of substituting an eager missionary spirit for
+the usual staid decorum of the old families. In these the ideals of
+breadth, simplicity, and moral excellence were stronger than the desire,
+natural in a convert, to win the world to one's opinion.
+
+Again, it must be borne in mind that then, as generally, there were men
+whose thoughts ran ahead of those of the majority. Priestley, for
+example, while adhering to the idea that the Christian revelation had
+been guaranteed by miracles, had abandoned belief in the Virgin birth as
+early as 1784, and went so far as to maintain that Jesus was not
+impeccable and had certainly entertained erroneous ideas about
+demoniacal possession. Probably there were very few who had arrived at
+these conclusions even thirty years later; some Unitarians repudiated
+them at a much later period. The miraculous element, however, was
+formerly accepted by all. So was the authority of Scripture, though here
+again men like Priestley were ahead of the rest in bringing to the study
+of the Bible the principles of historical criticism. _Thomas Belsham_
+(1750-1829), a typical Unitarian scholar and divine at this period, was
+one of several who carried forward the science of Biblical
+interpretation, and by the use of a vigorous and fearless intellect
+anticipated views of Genesis and the Pentateuch which did not find
+general acceptance till much later.
+
+It is customary for Unitarians themselves to-day to look back on these
+years of early zeal and controversy with but a qualified sympathy, so
+much was still cherished in the body as a whole that is no longer
+tenable, and again so much that was undreamed then is indispensable to
+modern thought. One of the greatest of Unitarians, Dr. Martineau, whose
+important share in the development of their ideas and life must be
+considered farther on, referred in a discourse of about forty years ago
+to three distinct stages in Unitarian theology. First, he pointed to the
+significance of the struggle for the principle of 'Unity in the Divine
+causation,' as against a doctrine which, as Unitarians maintain,
+endeavours in vain by words to prevent a triplicity of 'Persons' from
+sliding into a group of three Divine Beings. This struggle marks in
+great part the whole track by which the reader has come thus far in the
+present story. The second stage, according to Dr. Martineau, is that in
+which the Conscience of Man is emphasized, in virtue of the belief in a
+real responsibility and an actual power to choose the right or the
+wrong. This 'Religion of Conscience' he sees especially illustrated in
+the principles enunciated and the work accomplished by Channing; perhaps
+it would be fair to say that many who had preceded the American leader
+were imbued with a measure of his wisdom when they insisted, as we have
+seen, on the adaptability of the pure Gospel message to the needs and
+understanding of men everywhere, and declared that its aim was 'to make
+men good and keep them so.' The third stage, which Dr. Martineau
+considered to be fully begun at the time of his sermon (1869), is that
+of the 'Religion of the Spirit,' in which the ideas of the Divine
+Sovereignty and the Human Duty are rounded into vital beauty and
+completeness by the idea of the actual relation of Man to God as a Son
+to a Father.
+
+We have referred in advance to this compendious view in order to show
+whither the sequel is to lead us, but before this all-important
+development can be traced there remains one more piece of external
+history to be supplied. Happily it may be dealt with summarily.
+
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS OF INHERITANCE
+
+
+The bitterness of theological discussion which troubled the earlier
+decades of the nineteenth century received new provocation in the shape
+of litigation about property. Both in England and America the right of
+Unitarianism was challenged to hold those Meeting Houses and Parish
+Churches respectively, to which allusion was made in our opening pages.
+In New England the chief matter of contention was settled as early as
+1818. In the Old Country the struggle was much more protracted, and was
+only brought to an end by special legislation in 1844.
+
+The American dispute may be briefly stated. In consequence of the
+growing and unconcealed departure of the liberal Congregationalists from
+the doctrinal standards of the past there arose a feeling among the
+conservatives that the former group should go out of fellowship, but the
+communal conditions of the parish made this out of the question. All the
+citizens had a right to share in the provision for religion which was
+made at the general cost. An acute difficulty, however, presented itself
+in regard to the choice of minister. Should he be of the orthodox or the
+heterodox type? The appointment being for life made an election most
+critical. An incident of this kind occurred at Dedham, Mass., and coming
+into the courts led to a decision in favour of the liberals, i.e. of the
+'Unitarianizers.' The case was argued in this way: A majority of members
+on the register being in favour of one type, are they at liberty to
+choose as they will? Or have the citizens at large, being contributories
+to the maintenance funds, a right to vote? It was decided by the courts
+that the popular right was valid as against the wishes of any inner and
+covenanted group of worshippers. This meant, in substance, that orthodox
+voters were outvoted by heterodox voters who had not enrolled themselves
+by a religious pledge. The chagrin of the defeated conservatives was
+naturally great, and harsh language ensued. The upshot was unaffected,
+of course, and time alone has had to soften the angry feelings which for
+a long time kept the two wings of New England Congregationalism hostile,
+to the regret of good men on each side. In recent years very friendly
+relationships have been happily set up, while the Unitarians remain
+undisputed heirs of the old Parish Churches. It should be carefully
+noted, however, that in 1833 the communal support of religion was
+abolished, and all religious bodies in the United States have been
+dependent since then upon private resources.
+
+In England the orthodox opponents of Unitarianism tried to oust the
+heterodox congregations of the old Meeting Houses. A suit for possession
+of endowment funds which was finally decided against the Unitarians of
+Wolverhampton began in 1817; and a strongly organized attack followed in
+1825. A rich fund for ministerial support, Lady Hewley's Charity, was,
+after actions carried to the highest court, declared not to be
+applicable to the assistance of Unitarians. This decision, in 1842,
+looked like the beginning of the end for the tenure of the Meeting
+Houses themselves, the Wolverhampton case being now decided on the lines
+of the Hewley judgment. But an Act of Parliament--the _Dissenters'
+Chapels Act_--passed in 1844 (owing in some part to the powerful support
+of Mr. W.E. Gladstone), secured the congregations in undisturbed
+possession. The principle of this law applies to all places of worship
+held upon 'Open,' i.e. non-doctrinal Trusts; where the congregation can
+show that the present usage agrees substantially with that of the past
+twenty-five years, it is not to be ejected. At the time of this
+litigation the term 'English Presbyterian' came much into vogue among
+Unitarians, and for some time there was a marked abatement of
+propagandist zeal.
+
+
+
+
+
+MODERN UNITARIANISM
+
+
+I. THE COMMUNITIES
+
+Having now followed the fortunes of the Unitarians up to the point where
+they obtained a recognized position among religious organizations, we
+need not enter into the minute details of their denominational history.
+Less than seventy years have elapsed since the passing of the
+Dissenters' Chapels Act, and less than a century since the judgment in
+the Dedham case. The congregational increase, though substantial, has
+not been great; Unitarians claim rather to have influenced the advance
+of thought in other denominations than to have created one more sect. At
+present their numerical strength may be estimated from the following
+particulars.
+
+In the British Isles and colonial centres there are nearly four hundred
+places of worship, and a similar number of ministers; in many cases the
+congregations are small, and the list of ministers includes some that
+are retired and others who are regarded as 'lay-workers' only. There are
+about five hundred ministers and congregations in the United States. Two
+or three colleges in England and a similar number in America train
+students for the ministry, but many join the ranks from other
+denominations. Women are eligible as ministers, but actual instances are
+rare. Local unions exist to a fairly adequate extent. In England and
+America National Conferences meet at intervals; the Unitarian
+Associations continuously publish literature, send out lecturers, and
+promote new congregations. There are several periodicals. The most
+noteworthy in England is the _Hibbert Journal_, which follows in the
+line of other reviews of high standard in past years, and which
+specially illustrates the spirit animating a large and influential
+section of the body. It is promoted for free and open intercourse
+between serious thinkers of all schools of theological and social
+philosophy, and is reported to have a circulation quite beyond that of
+any similar publication. The 'Hibbert Lectures,' connected with the
+trust founded in 1847 for the diffusion of 'Christianity in its simplest
+and most intelligible form,' further exemplify the broad interpretation
+of this duty. Scholars of different churches have contributed to the
+series of volumes well known to religious students. The principle
+followed in general is stated in the oft-quoted phrase--'Free Learning
+and Free Teaching in Theology.'
+
+It is needful, perhaps, to guard against the inference that the
+Unitarian movement is only, or in the main, an intellectual one. Since
+1833, in consequence of a visit by _Dr. Joseph Tuckerman_, from Boston,
+'Domestic Missions' were founded, to promote the religious improvement
+of the neglected poor, and to-day this kind of work still goes on with
+much social benefit in our larger cities. Similar benevolence has marked
+the American side. Many congregations, too, are composed largely of
+working-people, and in recent years a Van Mission has carried the
+Unitarian message into the country villages, mining districts, and other
+populous parts. These aspects of their activity are apt to be obscured
+owing to a pardonable disposition of Unitarianism to point to the 'great
+names' associated with their churches. In the American list, for
+example, we find Emerson, Longfellow, O.W. Holmes, Bryant,
+Hawthorne--Whittier and Lowell had close affinities; Bancroft, Motley,
+Prescott, Parkman; Margaret Fuller, Louisa Alcott; and statesmen,
+jurists, merchants, and scientists too numerous to set down here.
+Obviously, the English side cannot rival such a brilliant roll; the
+_élite_ of society has not been here, as in New England, on the side of
+the newer theology. Yet English Unitarianism has its eminent names also,
+alike in literature, science, politics, philanthropy, and scholarship of
+various kinds; and the body is credited with a civic strength out of
+proportion to the number of its avowed adherents, while its
+philanthropies have been of the same broad and enlightened kind as those
+which enrich the American record.
+
+
+II. IDEAS AND TENDENCIES
+
+More important to the general public is the question of ideas which now
+prevail among Unitarians. Our preceding sketch has shown some of the
+results of the freedom claimed by them in one generation after another.
+We have now to see in what respects the nineteenth century effected a
+further change.
+
+In the first third of the century there can be no doubt that Unitarians
+adhered tenaciously, but with discrimination, to the idea of the final
+authority of the Bible. In this respect they were like Protestants
+generally, and though they nevertheless brought 'reason' to bear on
+their reading of the Scriptures, other Protestants did the same, if to a
+less degree. Both in the United States and in England this attitude was
+still common up till nearly the middle of the century, and instances
+could easily be found later still. The miraculous element was thus
+retained, though as we have seen as early as in Priestley's case there
+was a tendency to eliminate some part of the supernatural. That a
+thoroughgoing belief could be stated in good round terms is evident from
+the following sentence taken from a book issued by _Dr. Orville Dewey_
+(1794-1882), one of the most eloquent pulpit orators of his day. The
+book is entitled _Unitarian Belief_, its date is 1839. Referring to the
+Bible the author says, 'Enough is it for us, that the matter is divine,
+the doctrines true, the history authentic, the miracles real, the
+promises glorious, the threatenings fearful.' There is good ground for
+taking this as a fair example of the ideas prevalent among American
+Unitarians at that time. Perhaps the statement was made the more
+emphatic in view of some remarks recently uttered by two young men whose
+influence, along with more general tendencies, proved fatal to the old
+doctrine.
+
+One of these young men was _James Martineau_ (1805-1900), who at the age
+of thirty-one was already known as a writer and preacher far above the
+average. He was then resident in Liverpool, where he wrote a remarkable
+little book with the title _The Rationale of Religious Inquiry_ (1886).
+More than fifty years later he published an even more remarkable book,
+_The Seat of Authority in Religion_. There is, indeed, half a century of
+development between the two books, yet the germinal thought of the
+second may be detected in the first. The point at issue is where the
+ultimate appeal should lie in matters of religion. With the keen eye for
+the weaknesses of his fellow-worshippers which always characterized him,
+Martineau said, 'The Unitarian takes with him [to the study of the
+Bible] the persuasion that nothing can be scriptural which is not
+rational and universal.' This fixed opinion, which he ranks along with
+the foregone conclusions of other types of theologian, was just that
+which we have observed in the general course of liberals from Locke
+onwards. Though in a note Martineau concedes that his words may somewhat
+strongly accentuate the common opinion, he represents Unitarians as
+virtually saying, 'If we could find the doctrines of the Trinity and the
+Atonement, and everlasting torments in the Scriptures, we should believe
+them; we reject them, not because we deem them unreasonable, but because
+we perceive them to be unscriptural. For my own part, I confess myself
+unable to adopt this language'--not, he says, but that he does think
+them actually 'unscriptural.' 'But I am prepared to maintain, that if
+they were in the Bible, they would still be incredible.... Reason is the
+ultimate appeal, the supreme tribunal, to which the test of even
+Scripture must be brought.' It abates nothing from the force of these
+declarations that then, and for some time afterwards, Martineau himself
+accepted the miracles. The 'old school' perceived the sharp edge of such
+a weapon, and its wielder was during many years regarded as a
+'dangerous' innovator.
+
+The other young writer to whom reference has been made was _Ralph Waldo
+Emerson_ (1803-82), son and grandson of ministers of the liberal
+Congregational type in New England and himself for a short time minister
+of the Second Church, Boston. Preferring the freedom of the lecturing
+platform, Emerson had already withdrawn from the ministry, but in 1838
+he gave an 'Address to the Senior Class' in the Divinity School,
+Harvard, which proved a second landmark in the history of American
+Unitarianism. Nineteen years before, Channing had decisively pointed out
+that Unitarianism and orthodoxy are two distinct theologies. In the
+Divinity School Address, Emerson maintained that the idea of
+'supernaturalism' is rendered obsolete by a recognition of the reality
+of things. Bringing a gift of pungent prose to the service of a poetic
+imagination, Emerson startled the decorously dignified authorities of
+the New England pulpit; he 'saved us,' says Lowell, 'from the body of
+this death.' He pointed from the record of miracles past to an
+ever-present miracle. To the illumination of 'reason,' which Unitarians
+had followed so loyally--within the proviso of a special revelation--he
+brought the light of a mystic intuition. Some of his elders judged it to
+be 'false fire' perilously akin to the 'enthusiasm' which their
+predecessors had so often condemned. In daring simplicity he urged that
+there had been 'noxious exaggeration about the _person_ of Jesus.' 'The
+soul knows no persons.' The divine is always latent in the human.
+Revelation is not ended--as if God were dead!
+
+The shock to the old-fashioned minds was immense. Long and far-sounding
+debate followed, though Emerson, with provoking self-possession,
+declined to argue. He simply 'announced.' This oracular attitude
+certainly affected some of the younger men greatly, but fortunately for
+the success of the new gospel one of these younger men translated the
+oracular into a more popular and reasoned form. Three years after
+Emerson's Address, _Theodore Parker_ (1810-60) completed the Unitarian
+trilogy by a sermon on _The Transient and the Permanent in Theology_. It
+may be said to have done for Emerson's message the kind of service
+rendered by Huxley to Darwin's. Parker at once became a marked man; most
+Unitarian pulpits were closed against him, but a large hall accommodated
+the vast crowds that came to hear him. It is doubtful if such numerous
+congregations ever listened to a Unitarian before or since. He continued
+an arduous work for some fifteen years, but it wore him out before his
+time. He was an erudite scholar and a prolific writer. Discarding the
+claims of Christianity to be the only 'divine revelation,' he based his
+clear and always optimistic theism on the broad facts of human
+experience. Ardently interested in social and political questions, he
+poured satire without stint on the religious defenders of slavery, and
+himself dared all risks along with the foremost abolitionists. Such a
+man could not but count for much; and though his radical views in
+theology greatly disturbed for many years the conservatives in the
+body--for Unitarianism itself had by this time a well-defined
+conservative type--they could not fail to permeate the minds of the
+masses.
+
+Of Emerson's own life-work this is hardly the place to speak at large,
+but in connection with the development of that 'Religion of the Spirit'
+in which Dr. Martineau sees the culmination of the theological progress
+of Unitarianism, Emerson's share must be allowed to be a large one. When
+Dean Stanley visited America he is said to have reported that he had
+heard sermons from many pulpits, but 'Emerson was the one preacher in
+them all.' It is certain that at one time the style, if not also the
+thought, of Emerson was extensively copied by the preachers, not always
+to the gain of solidity. A degree of jauntiness appears in the worse
+specimens of these imitations, and Lord Morley's criticism that Emerson
+himself was too oblivious of the dark side of human suffering and guilt
+would doubtless apply to much of the Unitarian eloquence at one time
+inspired by his witching voice.
+
+This, however, is but one side of the American message in the nineteenth
+century; evidence abounds that a 'Christocentric' type of teaching, with
+adhesion to much of old material of the Gospels, held its own till a
+generation ago, and its peculiar accent is not without echoes to-day. On
+the whole it is probable that, as at the beginning of the century, the
+'liberals' in New England Congregationalism were somewhat shocked at
+some of the daring views of the Priestleyan Unitarians in England, so
+even towards its close the general position of thought was more
+conservative there than was the rule here. Certainly, also, there was a
+deep, tender tone manifested even where opinion was most radical among
+the American Unitarians, and of this no better proof can be cited than
+the large number of hymns of a high order both of thought and expression
+which have been written among them. They serve to show that a frank
+acceptance of the evolutionary philosophy by no means necessarily
+entails the decay of devout personal piety or the loss of beautiful
+ideals. Among the American hymnists the following are specially eminent,
+and their productions are often to be found in 'orthodox' collections:
+_Samuel Longfellow_ (brother to H.W.L.), _Samuel Johnson_, _W.C.
+Gannett_, _J.W. Chadwick_, and _F.L. Hosmer_.
+
+On the English side other sweet singers have appeared: 'Nearer, my God,
+to Thee,' by _Sarah Flower Adams_, is a world-renowned hymn; and if the
+names of Channing, Emerson, and Parker cannot be equally matched here in
+their several spheres, there has been no lack of able and scholarly
+representatives, and one name at least is of universal reputation. That
+name, of course, is _Martineau_. The effective changes from the old
+Unitarianism to the modern type are best displayed in the story of his
+long life and the monumental books which bear his name. Reference has
+been made to his early brilliance; its promise was amply fulfilled in
+the course of a career more than usually prolonged. The note of original
+thought sounded in the _Rationale_ (see p. 63[*]) was to be heard again
+and again in other and more permanent utterances, and not seldom to the
+perplexity and dismay of many of his Unitarian brethren. Alike in
+religious philosophy, in attitude to the Scriptures, and in matters of
+church organization, he found himself from time to time at variance with
+most of those close around him. His philosophical and critical influence
+was in large measure victorious; in regard to organization the results
+were less satisfactory to himself. It will be instructive to observe his
+progress.
+
+[*: third paragraph of Modern Unitarianism: II. Ideas and Tendencies.]
+
+As regards philosophy, it is necessary to remember the influence of
+Priestley and Belsham. These Unitarian leaders, following Hartley's
+psychology, stood for a _determinism_ which was complete. God was the
+Great Cause of all; not the 'First Cause' of the deistic conception,
+operative only at the beginning of the chain of events and now remote
+from man and the world, but present and immediate, exhibiting his divine
+purposes in all the beings created by him. Christianity, in the view of
+this school, was the means by which God had been pleased to make known
+the grand consummation of this life in a perfected life to come; Jesus,
+the Messiah, was the chosen revealer of the divine will, and his
+resurrection was the supreme and necessary guarantee that his message
+was true. Martineau, like the rest of his generation, was brought up in
+this necessarianism; but its tendency, as he reviewed and tested it, was
+to do violence to certain irrepressible factors of the spiritual life.
+It is only fair to say, there was even in this Priestleyan school room
+for a mystical mood; but on the whole it appeared dry and intellectual,
+lacking the warm and operative forces of a deeper devotion.
+
+It is interesting to find that Martineau himself confessed that the
+freshening touch upon his own inner life came in a closer contact with
+evangelical piety. His mind was to the end of his many years readily
+responsive to congenial impulses, let them come whence they would, and
+no small part of his service to Unitarianism consists in the broader
+sympathies which he generated in its circles. To Channing, also, he
+expressed gratitude for helping to wake in him a new sense of the
+meaning of life and religion. It was Channing's characteristic to insist
+on the significance of personality. The worth, the depth, and also the
+rights of the Human made so vivid an appeal to his mind as to react on
+his conceptions of the Divine. Within, a few years after the _Rationale_
+was published, Martineau is found making an obvious change of base. He
+has realized that the externally communicated religion of the old
+school, however sublime in its proportions, fails to meet the needs or,
+indeed, to fit the facts of the inner life. Man's personality rises, in
+his thought, into touch with God's; the revelation from without can only
+be recognized as such by the aid of a revelation within; a real
+activity, a genuine moral choice, and a resulting character, the marks
+of a truly living Soul, these are indispensable to an adequate view of
+the religious life. But all this involves two significant positions,
+each far asunder from those hitherto put forth--there must be Freedom,
+at least in the moral world; and the Divine assurances of moral values
+and of loving aid to win them are no longer confined to an outer record.
+Such a record may yield invaluable service as a heightener and
+interpreter of individual experience; to the last we find Martineau
+attaching a profound and quite special significance to the revelation in
+Jesus of the life of sonship to God, and retaining tenaciously the
+Christian attitude in preference to one of simple theism. But his system
+is based on the internal; all the rest, the Church, the Bible, Nature,
+however august and charged with meaning, is supplementary to that.
+
+In the American field, under the influence of Emerson and the German
+philosophy, what is called 'Transcendentalism' flourished midway in the
+century, and there as well as in England its extravagances were
+deplored. Martineau himself, while approaching so nearly to the egoistic
+centre, was safeguarded from all such vagaries by an all-pervading sense
+of duty. In his volumes of sermon the _Endeavours after the Christian
+Life_, and _Hours of Thought on Sacred Things_, which remain among the
+choicest of their kind in our language, his austerity of moral tone is
+only relieved by an elevation of poetic mysticism till then unknown in
+Unitarian literature. It was, indeed, his conviction that the body would
+not write poetry for a generation or two, so dry and prosaic did he find
+it; but at that very time his own efforts in hymnody on one side and on
+the other his lyric prose, almost too richly ornate for general wear,
+were touching new springs of feeling. By and by, he issued in
+conjunction with others a set of liturgical services, which did much to
+lend dignity to congregational worship. And what gave unique influence
+to his ideas was his intimate connection from 1840 to 1885 with
+'Manchester College,' London, one of the successors to the old
+'Academies' (now after its several migrations handsomely housed at
+Oxford). At this college, as professor of mental and moral philosophy
+and for many years as Principal, he made a deep and lasting impression
+on the minds of most of the leading scholars and preachers. His great
+works. _Types of Ethical Theory_ and _A Study of Religion_, gathered up
+the harvest of long study and exposition in these subjects, and are the
+most important of their kind given by Unitarians to the world.
+
+In accordance with what has been indicated, the later attitude of
+Martineau, and naturally of his pupils--though the principle of free and
+independent judgment is and always has been insisted upon--has been
+radical in respect to Biblical, and especially to New Testament,
+studies. An influence in this department more direct than his own was
+formerly found in the writings and lectures of _John James Tayler_
+(1797-1869), his predecessor as Principal. This ripe and fearless
+scholar brought home to Unitarians the wealth of continental literature
+on the subject. The 'old school' stood aghast as the tide of 'German
+criticism' overflowed the old landmarks of thought; and when Tayler
+himself issued a work strongly adverse to the apostolic authorship of
+the Fourth Gospel distress was extreme. In these matters, however, the
+tide proved irresistible, and the next generation of preachers and
+students were among the most ardent translators and popularizers of the
+new views of Jewish and Christian origins. The 'free' character of the
+pulpits has made the way easier than in most other denominations for the
+incoming of modern thought in this and other directions.
+
+The influence of natural science upon the trend of Unitarian opinion has
+hardly been second to that of Biblical criticism. Some names in the list
+of prominent Unitarians are celebrated in this connection--_Louis
+Agassiz_ (1807-73), for example, on the American side, _Sir Charles
+Lyell_ (1797-1875) and _Dr. W.B. Carpenter_ (1813-85) on the English
+side. A son of the last named, _Dr. J. Estlin Carpenter_, a man of wide
+and varied scholarship, is now Principal of Manchester College. A field
+in which he is specially expert is that of comparative religion, and
+here also is a source of many considerations that have transformed
+Unitarianism into one of the most liberal types of thought in the modern
+religious world.
+
+It is not to be inferred, however, that the 'radical' tendencies, while
+predominant, have everywhere prevailed among Unitarians. The
+'conservative' side continued in the third quarter of the nineteenth
+century to yield important signs of its existence and fruitfulness, and
+its vitality is far from exhausted still. The miraculous element has
+even here been reduced to a minimum, but it has left a tinge on the
+picture of Jesus which fills the imagination and kindles the reverent
+affection of many. Among the more gifted representatives of this school
+we may name the Americans _Dr. H.W. Furness_ (1802-96) and _Dr. J.
+Freeman Clarke_ (1810-88), and the English _John Hamilton Thom_
+(1808-94). Thom's sermons are ranked among the highest for spirituality
+and penetration; they certainly had profound effect in stimulating the
+wise and generous philanthropy of _William Rathbone_ and _Sir Henry
+Tate_. A celebrated representative of this side of Unitarianism is _Dr.
+James Drummond_, still living, the author of several works of European
+repute among New Testament scholars, one being a defence of the
+Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel. He succeeded Martineau as
+Principal of Manchester College. His volume. _Studies of Christian
+Doctrine_, is the most important statement of the Unitarian view
+published in recent years.
+
+As time went on, it fell to Martineau and other leading Unitarians to
+take up a defensive attitude against the extreme forces of negation. In
+particular, he came to be recognized as a champion of theism against
+materialist evolution. Four volumes of 'Essays' contain some of his
+acutest writings on the subject. An address presented to him on his
+eighty-third birthday celebrated his eminence in this and other ways; it
+bore the signatures of six hundred and fifty of the most brilliant of
+his contemporaries, at their head being Tennyson and Browning.
+
+All this strenuous progress, however, was for Martineau dogged by a
+shadow of peculiar disappointment. In youth he was as ardent a
+'Unitarian' as any; but, about the time of the Dissenters' Chapels Act
+(1844), he and Tayler and some others felt increasing dissatisfaction
+with the tendency of the more active Unitarians to degenerate into a
+sect. As we have seen, the same divergence of feeling arose in America,
+and Channing always strove to keep Unitarianism there from succumbing to
+denominationalism. The ardour of those especially who had newly espoused
+the Unitarian view and found it precious to themselves may be easily
+understood, and they might be forgiven some impatience with the apparent
+apathy of those who had no great desire to multiply proselytes. Some of
+these eager spirits strove to rescue the body from what they evidently
+regarded as a paralysing indefiniteness. From time to time it was argued
+that Unitarianism must be 'defined' authoritatively; then, and then
+only, might a triumphant progress be secured. Mixed with such notions
+was apparently a desire to keep the imprudent and 'advanced' men from
+going 'too far.' In one form or other this opposition has persisted till
+the present; but its acrimony has sensibly lessened as, on the one hand,
+the 'denominational' workers have more fully accepted the principle of
+unfettered inquiry, and on the other, the lessons of experience have
+shown that, however eager the Unitarians may be for the widest possible
+religious fellowship, they are, in fact, steadily left to themselves by
+most of the other religious bodies, especially in this country.
+Martineau himself about forty years ago tried to form, along with
+Tayler, a 'Free Christian Union' which should ignore dogmatic
+considerations; but Tayler died, and so little encouragement was met
+with outside the Unitarian circle that the thing dropped after two
+years. Nearly twenty years later, at the Triennial Conference (held in
+1888 at Leeds), a remarkable address was given by the now venerable
+'leader' (whom, as he mournfully said, no one would follow), in favour
+of setting up again an English Presbyterian system which should swallow
+up all the many designations and varieties of association hitherto
+prevailing among Unitarians. The proposal was considered impracticable,
+and the dream of a 'Catholicity' which should embrace all who espoused
+the free religious position, whatever their doctrines, seemed farther
+than ever from fulfilment. In later years the idea has, however,
+continued to be mooted, and some Unitarians hope still to see the
+development of a 'Free Catholicism' in which the traditional distinction
+between Unitarian and Trinitarian will be lost.
+
+Meanwhile, as has been said, the extension of Unitarian worship and the
+diffusion of literature goes on with a fair amount of success. In
+America, thanks largely to the sagacious toil of a remarkable organizer,
+_Dr. H.W. Bellows_ (1814-82), the Unitarian Association has proved a
+strong and effective instrument for this purpose, and the British
+Association, whose headquarters are now in the building where Lindsey
+opened the first Unitarian Church in 1774, has also thriven considerably
+in recent years. It is said that the rate of growth in the number of
+congregations in the United Kingdom has been about 33 per cent during
+the past half-century; in America the rate is somewhat higher.
+
+
+III. METHODS AND TEACHINGS
+
+It will not be surprising to the reader to learn that a religious body
+having such a past and being so variously recruited to-day is far from
+stereotyped in method. At the same time there is practical agreement on
+the main lines of doctrine.
+
+In worship different forms are used. Many churches have liturgies,
+adopted at discretion and usually supplemented by free prayer. In others
+the free service alone is preferred. Lessons are chiefly taken from the
+Bible, but selections are sometimes read from other devotional
+literature. Several hymnals have wide acceptance; a few are peculiar to
+single congregations. The large majority of sermons are read, though
+extempore address is now less infrequent than formerly. 'Sacraments' are
+not considered indispensable, but the Lord's Supper is retained in many
+cases and is regarded as a memorial. The baptism (or 'dedication') of
+infants is also practised.
+
+Ministerial ordination is not considered as imparting supernatural
+gifts, but as a solemnity marking the entrance of the accredited person
+into full recognition and office. The congregation makes its own choice
+of a minister, though in case of its dependence upon outside financial
+assistance the advice of the managers of the Fund may be offered. The
+support of the churches and Sunday-schools, etc., is generally by
+voluntary contributions; endowments exist in some instances. Church
+membership is usually granted without insistence upon any religious
+declaration. New buildings are invariably associated with the 'open
+trust' principle, the way being thus left open for such changes in
+worship and opinion as may hereafter seem right. Some churches decline
+to be known as 'Unitarian,' and where that name is adopted it is usual
+to find with it the explanation that this does not pledge or limit
+future development or bar the widest religious sympathy in the present.
+
+Reference has been made to Sunday-schools. In this field Unitarians have
+always been pioneers, and their aims have usually been to promote
+culture without sectarian zeal. Many large schools continue, as in the
+past, to form centres of education of the widest type, not only to
+children but adults. Much interest is taken in social amelioration; some
+observers have asserted that this interest is more vivid in many
+quarters than any in matters theological or philosophical.
+
+Statements of the teachings usually accepted in the churches are
+numerous. One here quoted will fairly represent the general type. It was
+drawn up by _Richard Acland Armstrong_ (1843-1905), an eager social
+reformer, a powerful preacher and author, and memorable especially as a
+popularizer of Martineau's religious philosophy. Of course, from what
+has been already said, such a statement is not regarded as an
+authoritative creed, but simply takes its place as one out of many
+summaries for popular diffusion.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity teaches that God is our Father, full of love for
+all of us. It learns from Jesus that the Father listens to our prayers
+and watches over us with even more tender care than over the lilies of
+the field and the birds of the air.
+
+'It learns from Jesus too, that however important it may be to have
+correct views concerning religious matters, it is much more important to
+love God with all our heart and mind and soul and strength, and our
+neighbour as ourselves. For he says that these are the first two
+commandments, and that there is no other whatever that is greater than
+these.
+
+'It learns from Jesus, also, that the way to enter the kingdom of Heaven
+is, not merely to hold a correct theology or to receive any outward
+sacraments, but to "be converted and become as little
+children"--simple-hearted, loving, pure.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity teaches that God our Father claims us all as
+children, and that when Jesus speaks of himself as God's Son, he means
+us all to remember that we are God's children too, though unhappily we
+have stained our sonship and daughterhood with many unworthy thoughts
+and deeds.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity loves the Parable of the Prodigal Son, because
+it shows so clearly and so beautifully the love and forgiveness of God,
+and with what tender pity he looks on us when we have sinned.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity believes that God speaks to his children now as
+truly as he did to the Prophets of old and to Jesus Christ, comforting,
+strengthening, enlightening them. Conscience itself is his holy voice.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity sees in Jesus Christ a supremely beautiful life
+and character, a marvellous inspiration for us all, an ideal after which
+we may strive; and it loves to think of him as our Elder Brother, of the
+same nature as ourselves.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity does not believe that God will plunge any of his
+children into everlasting woe. Such a thought of God is a contradiction
+of his Fatherhood. He is leading us all, by different ways, towards the
+pure and holy life for which he brought us into being.'
+
+Along with this may be taken the declaration adopted, as a result of
+somewhat protracted discussions, at the National Conference of
+Unitarians in America, 1894; it would probably be accepted in all
+similar assemblies.
+
+'These churches accept the religion of Jesus, holding in accordance with
+his teaching that practical religion is summed up in love to God, and
+love to man; and we invite to our fellowship any who, while differing
+from us in belief, are in general sympathy with our spirit and our
+practical aims.'
+
+
+
+
+
+UNITARIANS AND OTHER RELIGIOUS LIBERALS
+
+
+The broadly sympathetic spirit which has been observed at work in the
+foregoing story has led to interesting relationships between Unitarians
+and some other religious bodies. The Universalists, who are strongest in
+the United States, are cordially fraternal with them; and a large
+proportion of the 'Christians'--a non-dogmatic body--are equally close
+in sympathy. The Hicksite Friends, named after Elias Hicks, who early in
+the nineteenth century avowed Anti-trinitarian views, and some other
+religious bodies less conspicuous are more or less directly included in
+the Unitarian forces, though not organically in union. With the French
+Liberal Protestants there has been warm co-operation for many years, and
+the same is true of Dutch, German, and Swiss reformers. Since the visit
+of Rammohun Roy, the Indian reformer, in 1833, the English in particular
+have developed kindly relations with the Indian theist movement, and
+students from India and Japan are regularly educated at Oxford for the
+ministry of free religion in their own countries. It is in this way,
+more than by the ordinary types of missionary activity, that Unitarians
+have hitherto attempted to influence the non-Christian races.
+
+During recent years there have been held international congresses
+promoted by the Unitarians of Great Britain, America, and Transylvania,
+and attended by representatives of the various sections just named as
+well as by others from the orthodox churches, including Anglican and
+Romanist, who venture to brave the authorities thus far. Proposals have
+already been made for a world-wide union of Religious Liberals, in view
+of the remarkable success of these great congresses; but the
+circumstances of the different groups, especially in Germany and
+Holland, seem to forbid expectation of such a development within any
+near period. On the whole, Unitarians appear to be encouraged by the
+signs of the times, and to do their share of religious culture and
+benevolent work while cultivating the friendship of 'Modernists' of all
+kinds, Christian, Jewish, Moslem, and Hindoo.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHRONOLOGY
+
+
+1536-1612. Many trials and executions for denying the Trinity; notably
+_Servetus_ (1553); four East Anglians, 1579-89; Legate and Wightman,
+1612.
+
+1568. Francis David founds the Unitarian Church in Hungary.
+
+1578-1604. Faustus Socinus active in Poland.
+
+1595. The Racovian Catechism. Other Socinian works follow.
+
+1640. Canon against Socinian books in England.
+
+1644-62. John Bidle's career.
+
+1646 and onward. Anti-trinitarians among Baptists, Independents,
+Friends, etc. Books against 'Socinianism.'
+
+1662. Act of Uniformity--ejection of Nonconformists.
+
+1674. Milton d., leaving his _Treatise of Christian Doctrine_ in MS.;
+discovered 1823 and published.
+
+1687. Stephen Nye's _Brief History of the Unitarians_, etc.
+
+1689. Toleration Act--Unitarians excluded.
+
+1689-97. The 'Unitarian Controversy.' Being suppressed, 'Arianism'
+developed among clergy, 'Deism' among other writers.
+
+1690. Presbyterian Academy (now College, Carmarthen) founded.
+
+1695. Locke's _Reasonableness of Christianity_.
+
+1700. General Baptist Assembly accept Anti-trinitarian membership.
+
+1703. Thomas Emlyn imprisoned for denying the Trinity.
+
+1719. 'Non-subscription' vote at Salter's Hall, London.
+
+1740+. Arianism diffused; Humanitarianism incipient.
+
+1742. The 'Great Awakening' revival in New England, followed by a
+Liberal reaction.
+
+1755-1804. Joseph Priestley's career.
+
+1774. Theophilus Lindsey's Unitarian Chapel, London.
+
+1786. Manchester Academy (now College, Oxford) founded.
+
+1790+. Unitarian propaganda active in England.
+
+1808. Controversy in New England Congregationalism.
+
+1813. Toleration Act extended to Unitarians.
+
+1817. Proceedings begun against Unitarians in respect of inherited
+Chapels, etc.
+
+1818. The 'Dedham Case,' Massachusetts.
+
+1819. Dr. Channing's 'Baltimore Sermon.'
+
+1825. Founding of Associations in Great Britain and U.S.A.
+
+1836. Martineau's _Rationale_.
+
+1838. Emerson's _Divinity School Address_.
+
+1842. Theodore Parker's _Discourse_.
+
+1844. Dissenters' Chapels Act.
+
+1847. Hibbert Trust founded.
+
+1854. Unitarian Home Missionary Board (now College, Manchester) founded.
+
+1882. National Triennial Conferences begun.
+
+1890. Martineau's _Seat of Authority_.
+
+1900. International Congresses founded.
+
+
+
+
+
+AUTHORITIES
+
+
+R. WALLACE. _Anti-trinitarian Biography_, 3 vols., Lond., 1850.
+
+A. GORDON. _Heads of English Unitarian History_, 1 vol., Lond., 1895.
+
+J.H. ALLEN. _Unitarianism since the Reformation_, 1 vol., New York,
+1894.
+
+J.J. TAYLER. _Retrospect of the Religious Life of England_, 1 vol.,
+Lond. (3rd Ed.), 1876.
+
+W.G. TARRANT. _Story and Significance of the Unitarian Movement_, 1
+vol., Lond., 1910. (Gives more detailed references.)
+
+
+For statistics and special characteristics of the various Liberal
+Religious bodies in general accord with Unitarians see the following
+records of the International Congresses:--
+
+_Liberal Religious Thought at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century._
+Ed. by W. COPELAND BOWIE, Lond., 1901.
+
+_Religion and Liberty._ Ed. by P.H. HUGENHOLTZ, jun., Leyden, 1904.
+
+_Actes du III'me Congrès International du Christianisme Libéral et
+Progressif._ Ed. by E. MONTET, Geneva, 1906.
+
+_Freedom and Fellowship in Religion._ Ed. by C.W. WENDTE, Boston, 1907.
+
+_Fifth International Congress of Free Christianity and Religious
+Progress._ Ed. by WENDTE and DAVIS, Berlin (and London), 1911.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Unitarianism, by W.G. Tarrant
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Unitarianism, by W.G. Tarrant
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Unitarianism
+
+Author: W.G. Tarrant
+
+Release Date: February 18, 2004 [EBook #11142]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK UNITARIANISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julie Barkley and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+UNITARIANISM
+
+
+W.G. TARRANT
+
+
+
+LONDON
+
+1912
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+  Some Terms explained
+
+
+THE EARLIER MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND:
+
+  i. The Unitarian Martyrs
+  ii. Influences Making for 'Latitude'
+  iii. The Old Nonconformists
+  iv. The 'Unitarian Tracts'
+  v. The Old Dissent
+
+
+NEW ENGLAND:
+
+  i. Before the 'Great Awakening'
+  ii. The Liberal Reaction
+
+
+ENGLISH UNITARIANISM RECOGNIZED BY LAW
+
+
+QUESTIONS OF INHERITANCE
+
+
+MODERN UNITARIANISM:
+
+  i. The Communities
+  ii. Ideas and Tendencies
+  iii. Methods and Teachings
+
+
+UNITARIANS AND OTHER RELIGIOUS LIBERALS
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In certain quiet nooks of Old England, and, by contrast, in some of the
+busiest centres of New England, landmarks of religious history are to be
+found which are not to be easily understood by every passer-by. He is
+familiar with the ordinary places of worship, at least as features in,
+the picture of town or village. Here is the parish church where the
+English episcopal order has succeeded to the Roman; yonder is the more
+modern dissenting chapel, homely or ornate. But, now and then, among the
+non-episcopal buildings we find what is called distinctively a 'Meeting
+House,' or more briefly a 'Meeting,' which may perhaps be styled 'Old,'
+'New,' or 'Great'. Its architecture usually corresponds with the
+simplicity of its name. Plain almost to ugliness, yet not without some
+degree of severe dignity, stand these old barn-like structures of
+brick--occasionally of stone; bearing the mellowing touch of time,
+surrounded by a little overshadowed graveyard, they often add a peculiar
+quaintness and solemnity to the scene. Mrs. Gaskell has described one
+such in her novel _Ruth_, and admirers of her art should know well that
+her own grave lies beside the little sanctuary she pictured so lovingly.
+
+Sometimes, however, the surroundings of the ancient chapel are less
+attractive. It stands, it may be, in some poverty-stricken corner or
+court of a town or city. Whatever picturesqueness it may have had once
+has long since vanished. Unlovely decay, an air of desolation, symptoms
+of neglect, present a mournful sight, and one wonders how much longer
+the poor relic will remain. Many places of the kind have already been
+swept away; others have been renovated, enlarged, and kept more worthy
+of their use. Not all the Meeting Houses are of one kind. Independents,
+Baptists, and Friends, each possess some of them. Now and again the
+notice-board tells us that this is a 'Presbyterian' place of worship,
+but a loyal Scot who yearns for an echo of the kirk would be greatly
+surprised on finding, as he would if he entered, that the doctrine and
+worship there is not Calvinistic in any shape whatever,
+but--_Unitarian_.
+
+A similar surprise awaits the visitor to New England, it may be even a
+greater. For if he should tread In the footsteps of the Pilgrim Fathers
+and find the 'lineal descendants' of their original places of worship at
+Plymouth, Salem, or Boston, he will find _Unitarians_ in possession. So
+it is in many of the oldest towns founded by the American colonists of
+the seventeenth century. In their centres the parish churches, 'First,'
+'Second,' or otherwise, stand forth challenging everybody's attention.
+There is no lack of self-assertion here, nothing at all like the
+shrinking of the Old English Presbyterian into obscure alleys and
+corners. Spacious, well appointed, and secure, these _Unitarian_ parish
+churches, in the words of a popular Unitarian poet, 'look the whole
+world in the face, and fear not any man.'
+
+The object of the present brief sketch is to show how these landmarks
+have come to be where they are, to trace the thoughts and fortunes of
+Unitarians from their rise in modern times, to indicate their religious
+temper and practical aims, and to exhibit the connections of the
+English-speaking Unitarians with some closely approximating groups in
+Europe and Asia.
+
+Before entering upon a story which is extremely varied and
+comprehensive, one or two important points must be emphasized. In the
+first place the reader must bear in mind that the term 'Unitarianism' is
+one of popular application. It has not been chosen and imposed as
+sect-name by any sect-founder, or by any authoritative assembly. There
+has never been a leader or a central council whose decisions on these
+matters have been, accepted by Unitarians as final. Even when most
+closely organized they have steadily resisted all attempts so to fix the
+meaning of 'Unitarianism' as to exclude further growth of opinion.
+Consequently there is always room for variety of opinion among them; and
+every statement of their principles and teachings must be taken as a
+sort of average estimated from a survey more or less extended.
+
+Thus the significance of Unitarianism as a feature of modern religious
+development cannot be grasped apart from its history as a movement of
+thought. Nowhere is it more necessary than here to reflect that to know
+what a thing is we must know what it has been and consider what its
+future naturally involves.
+
+Secondly, amid all the varieties of thought referred to, complicated as
+they are by the eager advance of some and the clinging to survivals by
+others, there are two notes to be found undeniably, if unequally,
+characteristic of Unitarianism. It is both _rationalist_ and _mystical_.
+If the historian seems more attentive to the former than to the latter,
+this must not be taken as indicating their relative importance.
+Obviously, it is easier to record controversies than to unfold the
+wealth of profound conceptions. Perhaps we may fairly suggest the true
+state of the case by the mere juxtaposition of such earlier names as
+Socinus, Bidle, and Locke, with those of Channing, Emerson, and
+Martineau; or by a reference to the earlier Unitarian hymns in contrast
+with those of the later stages.
+
+
+SOME TERMS EXPLAINED
+
+A brief explanation at the outset may help the reader to follow more
+intelligently the history of Unitarianism. As is well known, the chief
+issue between Trinitarians and Unitarians arises in connection with the
+relation of Jesus Christ to God, questions concerning the Holy Spirit
+being usually less discussed. There are consequential issues also,
+bearing upon man's nature, atonement, salvation, and other subjects, but
+these call for no remark here. In its full statement, as given for
+instance in the 'Athanasian Creed,' the Trinitarian dogma presents the
+conception of Three 'Persons' in One God--Father, Son, and Holy
+Spirit--'Persons' with different: functions, but all equal and
+co-eternal. The Eastern (Greek Orthodox) Church differs from the Western
+(Roman Catholic) in holding that the Third Person 'proceeds' from the
+Father alone; the Western adds--'and from the Son' (_filioque_). The
+full dogma as given in the 'Athanasian Creed' is not thought to be
+earlier than the fifth century; debates as to the 'two natures' in
+Christ, and the 'two wills,' and other abstruse points involved in the
+dogma, continued for centuries still. At an earlier period discussion
+was carried on as to whether the Son were of the 'same substance'
+(_homo-ousion_) or 'similar substance' (_homoi-ousion_) with the Father.
+The latter view was held by Arius and his party at the Council of
+Nicaea, A.D. 325. Athanasius held the former view, which in time, but
+only after many years of controversial strife and actual warfare, became
+established as orthodox. The Arians regarded the Son, as a subordinate
+being, though still divine. Another variety of opinion was put forth by
+Sabellius (_c._ 250 A.D.), who took the different Persons to be so many
+diverse modes or manifestations of the One God. This Sabellian idea,
+though officially condemned, has been often held in later times.
+Socinianism, so far as regards the personality and rank of Christ,
+differed from Arianism, which maintained his pre-existence, though not
+eternal; the Socinian doctrine being that the man Jesus was raised by
+God's approving benignity to 'divine' rank, and that he thus became a
+fit object of Christian 'worship.' The Humanitarian view, finally,
+presented Jesus as a 'mere man,' i.e. a being not essentially different
+in his nature from the rest of humankind. Modern Unitarianism, however,
+usually avoids this kind of phrase; 'all minds,' said Channing, 'are of
+one family.'
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EARLIER MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND
+
+
+I. THE UNITARIAN MARTYRS
+
+The rise of any considerable body of opinion opposed to the cardinal
+dogma of orthodoxy was preceded in England by a very strongly marked
+effort to secure liberty of thought, and a corresponding plea for a
+broadly comprehensive religious fellowship. The culmination of this
+effort, is reached, for the period first, to be reviewed, in the
+writings of _John Locke_ (1632-1704). This celebrated man, by his
+powerful arguments for religious toleration and his defence of the
+'reasonableness' of the Christian religion, exerted an influence of the
+most important kind. But we must reach him by the path of his
+predecessors in the same line. The principles of liberty of thought and
+the broadest religious fellowship are warmly espoused by Unitarians, and
+they look upon all who have advanced these principles as in spirit
+related to them, however different their respective theological
+conclusions may have been.
+
+At the time of the Reformation a great deal of speculation broke forth
+on points hitherto closed by the Church's authority, including the
+fundamental doctrine of the Trinity. But, while this new ferment led to
+departures from the received opinions in many countries, especially in
+Poland and the Netherlands, the Protestant leaders maintained that upon
+the great articles of the creeds they were still one with Rome, and in
+fact they soon displayed an eagerness to stifle heresy. Men often fail
+to see the logic of their own position, and many who claimed the right
+to differ from Rome on points which Rome considered vital were unable to
+grant that others had an equal right to differ from Luther, Calvin, or
+an English State Church. The outrageous cruelty of Calvin towards the
+Anti-trinitarian _Servetus_, whom he caused to be burned at Geneva in
+1553, affords a glaring instance of this inconsistency. But a sad proof
+is given that, about that time, even Anti-trinitarians themselves were
+not always tolerant.
+
+Among the countries where the orthodox dogma was most freely questioned
+was Transylvania, adjacent to Hungary proper.
+
+Here the sovereign, John Sigismund, took sides with the
+Anti-trinitarians, and issued in 1568 an edict permitting four
+recognized types of doctrine and worship--Romanist, Lutheran, Calvinist,
+and Unitarian. The Transylvanians were at this time largely under the
+influence of their Polish brethren in the faith, who still practised the
+invocation of Christ. _Francis David_, a powerful religious leader in
+Hungary, having arrived at a 'Humanitarian' view of Christ two centuries
+before it was held by English Unitarians, opposed Christ-worship. In
+1579, when a Catholic had succeeded to the throne, David was denounced
+for an intolerable heretic by the Polish party, and, being imprisoned,
+died the same year. This blot on the record has long been deplored, and
+David is held in honour as a martyr by the Transylvanian Unitarian
+Church, which still flourishes, and forms a third member in alliance
+with the Unitarians of Great Britain and America. As, however, these
+Transylvanian (popularly called 'Hungarian') Unitarians had until the
+nineteenth century little or no connection with the English and
+Americans, and have not materially affected the development of the
+movement, we omit the details of their special history.
+
+In England a number of Anti-trinitarians suffered burning in the
+sixteenth century, being usually, but loosely, described as 'Arians.'
+The last two in England who died by fire as heretics were men of this
+class. In March, 1612, Bartholomew Legate was burned at Smithfield, and
+a month later Edward Wightman had the same fate at Lichfield. So late as
+1697 a youth named Pakenham was hanged at Edinburgh on the charge of
+heretical blasphemy. Although these were the only executions of the kind
+here in the seventeenth century, the evidence is but too clear that the
+authorities conceived it to be their duty to put down this form of
+opinion with the severest rigour. In a letter sent by Archbishop Neile,
+of York, to Bishop Laud, in 1639, reference is made to Wightman's case,
+and it is stated that another man, one Trendall, deserves the same
+sentence. A few years later, Paul Best, a scholarly gentleman who had
+travelled in Poland and Transylvania and there adopted Anti-trinitarian
+views, was sentenced by vote of the House of Commons to be hanged for
+denying the Trinity. The Ordinance drawn up in 1648 by the Puritan
+authorities was incredibly vindictive against what they judged to be
+heretical. Happily, Oliver Cromwell and his Independents were conscious
+of considerable variety of opinion in their own ranks, and apparently
+the Protector secured Best's liberation. It was certainly he who saved
+another and more memorable Unitarian from the extreme penalty.
+
+This man was _John Bidle_, a clergyman and schoolmaster of Gloucester.
+His Biblical studies led him to a denial of the Trinity, which he lost
+no occasion of making public. During twenty years, broken by five or six
+imprisonments, he persisted in the effort to diffuse Unitarian
+teachings, and even to organize services for Unitarian worship. His
+writings and personal influence were so widely recognized that it became
+a fashion later to speak of Unitarians as 'Bidellians.' Cromwell was
+evidently troubled about him, feeling repugnance to his doctrine yet
+averse to ill-treat a man of unblemished character. In 1655, ten years
+after Bidle's first imprisonment, the Protector sent him to the Scilly
+Islands, obviously to spare him a worse fate, and allowed him a yearly
+sum for maintenance. A few months before Cromwell's death, he was
+brought back to London, and on being set at liberty at once renewed his
+efforts. Finally, he was caught 'conventicling' in 1662 and sent to
+gaol, and in September of that year he died.
+
+
+II. INFLUENCES MAKING FOR 'LATITUDE'
+
+The foregoing sufficiently illustrates the position confronting those
+who at that time openly avowed their departure from the Trinitarian
+dogma. Those who dared and suffered were no doubt but a few of those who
+really shared in the heretical view; the testimony of orthodox writers
+is all in support of this surmise. Equally clear is the fact that while
+the religious authorities were thus rigorous a steadily deepening
+undercurrent of opinion made for 'Latitude.' How far this Latitude might
+properly go was a troublesome question, but at any rate some were
+willing to advocate what many must have silently desired.
+
+Apart from the extremists in the great struggle between High Church and
+Puritans there existed a group of moderate men, often of shrewd
+intellect, ripe scholarship, and attractive temper, who sought in a
+wider liberty of opinion an escape from the tyrannical alternatives
+presented by the two opposing parties. Even in connection with these
+very parties there were tendencies peculiar to themselves, which could
+not fail in the end to mitigate the force of their own contentions. The
+High Church was mostly 'Arminian,' i.e. on the side of the more
+'reasonable' theology of that age. The Puritans were wholly committed to
+the principle of democratic liberty, as then understood, and in
+religious matters set the Bible in the highest place of authority. It
+could not be but that these several factors should ultimately tell upon
+the solution of the problem of religious liberty. But the immediate
+steps toward that solution had to be taken by the advocates of Latitude.
+Among them were Lord Falkland, John Hales, and William Chillingworth,
+the last of whom is famous for his unflinching protest that 'the Bible,
+the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants,' a saying which was as
+good as a charter to those who based their so-called heresies on the
+explicit words of Scripture. In the second half of that seventeenth
+century the work of broadening the religious mind was carried forward by
+others of equal or even greater ability; it is sufficient here to name
+Jeremy Taylor among Churchmen, and Richard Baxter among Nonconformists.
+
+There was, of course, a good deal of levity, the temper of the Gallio
+who cares for none of these things. But this was not the temper of the
+men to whom we refer. Their greatest difficulty, indeed, arose from
+their intense interest in religious truth. They could not conceive a
+State which should not control men's theology in some real way. Even
+Locke did not advocate toleration for the atheist, for such a man (in
+his opinion) could not make the solemn asseverations on which alone
+civil life could go forward. Nor would he tolerate the Roman Catholic,
+but in this case political considerations swayed the balance; the
+Catholic introduced the fatal principle of allegiance to a 'foreign
+prince.' Taking for granted, then, the necessity for some degree of
+State supervision of religion, how could this be rendered least inimical
+to the general desire for liberty?
+
+The reply to this question brought them very close to the position taken
+up by _Faustus Socinus_ long before, viz. that the 'essentials' of a
+Christian faith should be recognized as few and, as far as possible,
+simple. Of course, it is from his name that the term 'Socinian' is
+derived, a term that has often been applied, but mistakenly, to
+Unitarians generally. The repeated and often bitter accusation brought
+against the advocates of Latitude that they were 'Socinians,' or at
+least tainted with 'Socinianism,' renders appropriate some short account
+of Socinus himself.
+
+This man was one of the sixteenth-century Italian Reformers who were
+speedily crushed or dispersed by the vigilance of the Inquisition. Those
+who escaped wandered far, and some were at different times members of
+the Church for 'Strangers,' or foreigners, to which Edward VI assigned
+the nave of the great Augustine Church, still standing at Austin Friars
+in the heart of the City of London. It is Interesting to observe here
+that a Dutch liberal congregation lineally inherits the place to-day.
+Careful investigation has shown that among the refugees here in the
+sixteenth century were some whose opinions were unsound on the Trinity;
+possibly they affected English opinion in some small degree. _Loelius
+Socinus_ (1525-62), uncle of _Faustus_ (1539-1604), was for a short time
+in London, but interesting thinker as he was, his nephew who never set
+foot in England really exerted much more influence upon English thought.
+
+It was, however, in Poland especially that the influence of Faustus
+Socinus first became prominent. That country, then flourishing under its
+own princes, early became (as we have seen) the home of an
+Anti-trinitarian form of Protestantism. Socinus joined this group, and
+during the latter half of the sixteenth century effected much
+improvement among them, organizing their congregations, establishing
+schools, promoting a Unitarian literature. The educational work thus
+begun achieved great success; but in his own lifetime Socinus met with
+fierce opposition and even personal violence. He died in 1604; the
+Polish Unitarian Church fell under the persecution of both Catholics and
+orthodox Protestants, and was finally crushed out in 1660.
+
+Important for our present study is the fact that the literary output of
+these Polish Socinians was both large and of high quality. Their
+'Racovian Catechism' was translated into different languages, and early
+found its way into England. James I promptly had it burned, despite the
+fact that the Latin version was dedicated to himself! Other books and
+pamphlets followed, and even if we abate something as due to the
+exaggerating fears and suspicions of the authorities, there would seem
+to have been no time as the seventeenth century went on when Socinian
+literature was not widely circulated here, albeit at first in secret.
+
+Into the details of this literature there is no need to go; it is
+sufficient to observe its outstanding features. They correspond in the
+main to the temper of the master mind, Socinus, a man who in the absence
+of imaginative genius displayed remarkable talent as a reasoner, and a
+liberal disposition considerably in advance of his times. The later
+Socinian writings, preserved in eight large volumes issued by the
+'Polish Brethren' (Amsterdam, 1666), exhibit in addition the results of
+much diligent research and scholarship, in which the wide variety of
+opinion actually held by the Fathers and later Church authorities is
+proved, and the moral is drawn. In the presence of so much fluctuating
+teaching upon the abstruser points of the creeds was it not desirable to
+abandon the pretence of a rounded system complete in every detail? Would
+it not he better to simplify the faith--in other and familiar words, to
+reduce the number of 'essentials'? In order to discover these
+essentials, surely the inquirer must turn to the Bible, the record of
+that miraculous revelation which was given to deliver man's unassisted
+reason from the perils of ignorance and doubt. At the same time, man's
+reason itself was a divine gift, and the Bible should be carefully and
+rationally studied in order to gather its real message. As the fruit of
+such study the Socinians not only propounded an Anti-trinitarian
+doctrine derived from Scripture, but in particular emphasized the
+arguments against the substitutionary atonement as presented in the
+popular Augustinian scheme and philosophically expounded in Anselm's
+_Cur Deus Homo_. Socinus himself must be credited with whatever force
+belongs to these criticisms on the usual doctrine of the death of
+Christ, and it may be fairly said that most of the objections advanced
+in modern works on that subject are practically identical with those of
+three centuries ago.
+
+Now there is good reason for believing that towards the end of the
+seventeenth century this Socinian literature really attracted much
+attention in England, and probably with considerable effect. But as a
+matter of fact no English translation of any part of it was made before
+John Bidle's propagandist activity in the middle of the century, and we
+have the explicit testimony of Bidle himself and most of the earlier
+Unitarians that they were not led into their heresy by foreign books. It
+was the Bible alone that made them unorthodox.
+
+A famous illustration of this is the case of _John Milton_ (1608-74). In
+1823 a long-forgotten MS. of his was found in a State office at
+Westminster, and two years later it was published under the editorship
+of Dr. Sumner, afterwards Bishop of Winchester. The work is entitled _A
+Treatise of Christian Doctrine_. It was a late study by the poet,
+laboriously comparing texts and pondering them with a mind prepared to
+receive the verdict of Scripture as final, whether in agreement with
+orthodoxy or not.
+
+The most ardent of Milton's admirers, and even the most eager Unitarian,
+must find the book a trial; but the latter can at least claim the author
+of _Paradise Lost_ as an Anti-trinitarian, and the former may solace
+himself by noticing that here, as in all the rest, Milton's soul 'dwelt
+apart.' He emphatically denies that it was the works of 'heretics, so
+called,' that directed and influenced his mind on the subject. We may
+notice here the interesting fact that another great mind of that age,
+_Sir Isaac Newton_, has left evidence of his own defection from the
+orthodox view; and his correspondent _John Locke_, whose views appear to
+have been even more decided, is only less conspicuous on this point
+because his general services to breadth and liberality of religious
+fellowship are more brilliantly striking.
+
+Locke's _Plea for Toleration_ is widely recognized as the deciding
+influence, on the literary side, which secured the passage of the
+Toleration Act in 1689. Deferring for the moment further allusion to the
+position created by this Act, we must at once observe the scope of one
+of Locke's works which is not so popularly known. This is his
+_Reasonableness of Christianity_, which with his rejoinders to critics
+makes a considerable bulk in his writings. In pursuance of the aim to
+'reduce the number of essentials' and to discover that in the Christian
+religion which is available for simple people--the majority of
+mankind--Locke examines the historical portion of the New Testament, and
+presents the result. Practically, this amounts to the verdict that it is
+sufficient for the Christian to accept the Messiahship of Christ and to
+submit to his rule of conduct. The orthodox critics complained that he
+had omitted the epistles in his summary of doctrine; his retort is
+obvious: if the gospels lead to the conclusion just stated, the epistles
+cannot be allowed, however weighty, to establish a contrary one. Of
+course, Locke was called a 'Socinian'; but the effect of his work
+remained, and we should remark that if it looked on the one hand toward
+the orthodox, on the other it looked toward the sceptics and
+freethinkers who began at that time a long and not ineffectual criticism
+of the miraculous claims of Christianity. Locke endeavoured to convince
+such minds that Christianity was in reality not an irrational code of
+doctrines, but a truly practical scheme of life. In this endeavour he
+was preceded by Richard Baxter, who had written on the 'Unreasonableness
+of Infidelity,' and was followed during the eighteenth century by many
+who in the old Dissenting chapels were leading the way towards an overt
+Unitarianism.
+
+
+III. THE OLD NONCONFORMISTS
+
+The reader must be reminded here of a few salient facts in the religious
+history of the seventeenth century. All these undercurrents of heterodox
+thought, with but few and soon repressed public manifestations of its
+presence, were obscured by the massive movement in Church and State.
+During the Commonwealth the episcopal system was abolished, and a
+presbyterian system substituted, though with difficulty and at best
+imperfectly. After the Restoration of Charles II the Act of Uniformity
+re-established episcopacy in a form made of set purpose as unacceptable
+to the Puritans as possible. Thereupon arose the rivalry of Conformist
+and Nonconformist which has ever since existed in England. Severely
+repressive measures were tried, but failed to extinguish Nonconformity;
+it stood irreconcilable outside the establishment. There were distinct
+varieties in its ranks. The Presbyterians, once largely dominant, were
+gradually overtaken numerically by the Independents. Perhaps it is
+better to say that, in the circumstances of exclusion in which both were
+situated, and the impossibility of maintaining a Presbyterian order and
+organization, the dividing line between these two bodies of
+Nonconformists naturally faded out. There was little, if anything, to
+keep them apart on the score of doctrine; and in time the Presbyterians
+certainly exhibited something of the tendency to variety of opinion
+which had always marked the Independents. Besides these bodies, the
+Baptists and Quakers stand out amid the sects comprised in
+Nonconformity. In both of these there were distinct signs of
+Anti-trinitarianism from time to time; as to the former, indeed, along
+with the earlier Baptist movements in England and on the Continent
+(especially in the Netherlands) there had always gone a streak of heresy
+alarming to the authorities. Among the Quakers, William Penn is
+specially notable in connection with our subject. In 1668 he was
+imprisoned for publishing _The Sandy Foundation Shaken_, in which
+Sabellian views were advocated. It need hardly be pointed out that among
+the still more eccentric movements, if the term be allowed, heterodoxy
+as to the Trinity was easy to trace.
+
+When the Toleration Act was passed the old Nonconformity became
+'Dissent,' that being the term used in the statute itself. Dissenters
+were now granted freedom of worship and preaching, but only on condition
+that their ministers subscribed to the doctrinal articles of the Church
+of England, including, of course, belief in the Trinity. Unitarians,
+therefore, were excluded from the benefit of the Act, and the general
+views of Dissenters upon the subject are clear from the fact that they
+took special care to have Unitarians ruled out from the liberty now
+being achieved by themselves. Locke and other liberal men evidently
+regretted this limitation, but the time was not ripe, and in fact the
+penal law against Unitarians was not repealed till 1813. Unluckily, too,
+for the Unitarians, a sharp controversy, due to their own zeal, had
+broken out at the very time that the Toleration Act was shaping, and as
+this had other important results we must give some attention to it.
+
+
+IV. THE 'UNITARIAN TRACTS'
+
+There are six volumes, containing under this title a large number of
+pamphlets and treatises, for and against the new views, published about
+this period. It is the first considerable body of Unitarian literature.
+Its promoter was _Thomas Firmin_, a disciple of John Bidle, on whose
+behalf he interceded with Oliver Cromwell, though himself but a youth at
+the time. Firmin, a prosperous citizen of London, counted among his
+friends men of the highest offices in the Church, some of whom are said
+to have been affected with his type of thought. Apart from his
+Unitarianism he is remarkable as an enlightened philanthropist of great
+breadth of sympathy. Men of very different theological bent who were
+fain to seek refuge in London from persecutions abroad were aided by
+funds raised by him. We should notice also that, ardent as he was in
+diffusing Unitarian teachings, he had no wish at first to set up
+separate Unitarian chapels; his desire was that the national Church
+should include thinkers like himself. We are thus pointed into a path
+which for a time at least promised more for Unitarian developments than
+anything very evident in the Dissenting community.
+
+The situation is aptly illustrated by a little book of 184 pages which
+is included in the first volume of the _Tracts_. This work is specially
+noteworthy as one of the first English books to use the name
+'Unitarian,' though the use is here so free and without apology or
+explanation that we must suppose it had already attained a certain vogue
+before 1687, the date of the book. The title is _A Brief History of the
+Unitarians, called also Socinians_. Neither author nor publisher is
+named, but the former is known to have been the Rev. Stephen Nye, a
+clergyman, whose grandfather, Philip Nye, was noted in his day as one of
+the few Independents in the Westminster Assembly. Stephen Nye's book
+takes the form of four Letters, ostensibly written to an unnamed
+correspondent who has asked for an account of the Unitarians, 'vulgarly
+called Socinians.' The opening letter states their doctrine, after the
+model of Socinus--God is One Person, not Three; the Lord Christ is the
+'Messenger, Servant, and Creature of God,' also the 'Son of God, because
+he was begotten on the blessed Mary by the Spirit or Power of God'; 'the
+Holy Ghost or Spirit, according to them, is the Power and Inspiration of
+God.' (We may notice here that Bidle, otherwise agreeing with Socinus,
+regarded the Holy Spirit as a living being, chief among angels.) Nye,
+writing as if an impartial observer, presents the Scripture argument in
+support of the doctrine of the Unitarians, 'which,' says he, 'I have so
+related as not to judge or rail of their persons, because however
+learned and reasonable men (which is their character among their worst
+adversaries) may be argued out of their errors, yet few will be
+swaggered or chode out of them.' He traces the doctrine to the earliest
+Christian times, and shows the stages of Trinitarian growth.
+Incidentally he says that Arian doctrines are openly professed in
+Transylvania and in some churches of the Netherlands, and adds that
+'Nazarene and Arian Churches are very numerous' in Turkish, Mahometan,
+and pagan dominions where liberty of conscience is allowed. He mentions
+celebrated scholars who have 'certainly been either Arians or Socinians,
+or great favourers of them,' such as Erasmus, Grotius, Petavius,
+Episcopius, and Sandius--the last-named a learned historian who had made
+a special point of collecting admissions by orthodox writers of the
+invalidity of all the texts in turn usually quoted in support of the
+Trinity. In the subsequent chapters Nye deals _seriatim_ with such
+texts, and the book ends with a commendation from 'A Gentleman, a Person
+of Excellent Learning and Worth,' to whom the publisher had sent it for
+remark.
+
+Upon such levels the discussion proceeded, the skill and adroitness of
+the heretics contrasting with the obvious perplexity of the orthodox,
+who soon fell to accusing one another of stumbling into erroneous
+statements. Dons, deans, and even bishops joined in the fray, and some
+of them, notably Dr. Sherlock, Master of the Temple, got into sad
+trouble with their brethren. Finally, the clergy were forbidden to
+prolong the discussion, which indeed promised little satisfaction to any
+but the heretics who enjoyed the difficulties of the orthodox champions.
+The traditional formularies were there, and these must suffice. In the
+presence of the restrictions imposed by the Toleration Act speculation
+outside the Church turned towards 'Deism'--perhaps the best modern
+equivalent would be 'Natural Religion.' Speculation inside the Church
+had to accommodate itself to the creeds and articles, and thus there
+grew up an Arianism among the clergy which was really largely diffused
+and produced some important books. One of these was Dr. Samuel Clarke's
+_Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity_ (1712), a work which appears to have
+helped many a clergyman to ease his conscience while reciting the
+authorized Trinitarian expressions, though in substance his opinions
+were no less heretical than those for which men had suffered under the
+law.
+
+A contemporary case of such suffering was that of _Thomas Emlyn_
+(1663-1711), an Irish clergyman who was sentenced at Dublin in 1703 to
+imprisonment which lasted for two years. This gross treatment, excited
+keen criticism at home and in the American colonies, whither our
+attention must soon turn. Emlyn was the first minister to call himself a
+'Unitarian,' but under the pressure of the times, and in accordance with
+the spirit of Clarke and the other Arianizing clergy, he found it
+expedient to declare himself a 'true Scriptural Trinitarian.'
+
+
+V. THE OLD DISSENT
+
+It is estimated that about a thousand Meeting Houses were erected by
+Dissenters in the twenty years following the passing of the Toleration
+Act. After the death of Queen Anne others were built, but in no great
+numbers. The prevailing impression of the state of religion in England
+during the first half of the eighteenth century is a gloomy one.
+Formalism and apparently an insincere repetition of the doctrinal
+phrases imposed by the law was but too evident in the State Church.
+Dissent had its bright features, but these grew dim as years went on. It
+must be admitted that the odds were heavy against that party. Without
+conforming no one could be appointed to public office, and the
+'occasional conformity' of sharing the communion service at an
+established church now and again in order to qualify was at length
+forbidden by the Act of 1711. The sons of the Dissenting gentry and
+manufacturers were excluded from the universities, and though a shift
+was made by 'Academies' here and there, the excellence of the education
+they might impart could not compensate for the deprivation of the social
+advantages of Oxford and Cambridge. By an Act of 1714 schools for more
+than a rudimentary education were forbidden to be taught by Dissenters.
+Thus, we are not surprised to hear, considerable defection went on, and
+early in the century congregations began to dwindle. As it proceeded
+some became very small indeed, and many died out altogether.
+
+The trusts upon which the Meeting Houses were founded were frequently
+free from any close definitions of the doctrines supposed to be held by
+the congregation. Much discussion arose in later years as to the purport
+of this freedom; perhaps there was some expectation of changing opinion
+in the future, but more probably the doctrinal status was taken for
+granted. It must be remembered that no Dissenting preacher could legally
+officiate without previously 'subscribing' to the doctrinal articles of
+the Church of England or their equivalents in the Westminster Assembly's
+catechisms. Thus, while the Dissenter might alter the terms of his
+liturgy to a degree not allowed to the Churchman (though the latter
+would in those lax days go pretty far sometimes), he was still supposed
+to be 'sound' on the fundamental creeds. It would appear to be a
+fortunate accident for Unitarian development in some of these old
+Dissenting congregations that, either the prevalent understanding or a
+hope for speedy inclusion in the national Church, or a prevision on the
+part of liberal-minded men here and there, left so largely undefined the
+basis of religious union among them, as congregations.
+
+However that may be, it is certain that a degree of reluctance to
+'subscribe' began to show itself, and this, we surmise, was often due to
+other reasons than liberality pure and simple. That there were
+broad-minded men who, while conscientiously orthodox themselves, refused
+to exclude unorthodox ministers from their fellowship is shown by a
+notable instance among the Baptists. Before 1700, Matthew Caffyn, one of
+their body, being charged with Anti-trinitarian opinions, was still
+retained in membership by vote of the General Baptist Assembly, this
+being the first instance of any organization's formal acceptance of
+latitude respecting the Trinity. In Ireland, deterred no doubt by the
+harsh punishment of Emlyn, there was natural hesitation in avowing such
+latitude; but in 1721 a division began in Ulster between those who
+insisted on 'subscribing' the creed anew and those who opposed; and a
+few years later the 'non-subscribers,' being excluded from the Synod,
+formed a new Presbytery which in course of time became distinctly
+Unitarian. The historic event for English 'non-subscription' was a
+declaration made at a meeting of Dissenting ministers, Independents,
+Baptists, and Presbyterians, held in 1719 at Salter's Hall, London.
+Certain Exeter ministers had become unsound in doctrine, and refused to
+renew their subscription to the creeds and articles, claiming to believe
+'the Scripture'--a well-understood expression in those days. The
+question of their exclusion was referred to London, and there again the
+point of renewed 'subscription' was raised before the vote on the Exeter
+case was taken. By seventy-three to sixty-nine it was decided that the
+declaration of faith should be confined to 'the words of Scripture'--as
+Sir Joseph Jekyll put it, 'the Bible carried it by four.' This was
+widely recognized as setting open the door for liberty in matters of
+religion, and the interesting fact should be recorded that Independents
+and Presbyterians were found on both sides.
+
+Here, then, we may for the present leave the English development; it was
+slow, tentative, for the most part obscure. In one direction and another
+the movement of thought might be perceived, in the Church, among the
+'Congregationals,' or Baptists, or Presbyterians, as the case might be.
+It was only long after that much preponderance of heretical opinion was
+distinctive of Presbyterian congregations. In the Academies men like
+_Philip Doddridge_ (1702-51), the hymn writer, were affording room at
+least for ample discussion among the students, and moderate as his own
+opinions were he is credited with having made so-called 'orthodoxy' a
+byword. The Independents, Caleb Fleming and _Nathaniel Lardner_
+(1684-1768), led the way to 'Humanitarian' views, the latter being a
+learned writer of much influence. It is said that another great hymn
+writer, Isaac Watts, finally shared the Humanitarian view. On the whole,
+with some notable exceptions, the Dissenting preachers seem to have been
+decorously dull, and uninspiringly ethical. Without the zeal of the
+'enthusiast,' whom they severely scanned from afar, and seeking in all
+things to prove that Christianity was so 'reasonable' as to be identical
+with 'rational philosophy,' it is little wonder that when the popular
+mind began to be stirred by a religious 'Revival' they were not its
+apostles, but mostly its critics. This is precisely the point where we
+may fitly turn to consider the growth of Unitarianism in New England.
+
+
+
+
+
+NEW ENGLAND
+
+
+I. BEFORE THE 'GREAT AWAKENING'
+
+As in the Old Country, so in the colonies of North America, a great
+evangelical revival took place towards the middle of the eighteenth
+century. John Wesley the Arminian, and George Whitefield the Calvinist,
+were the great apostles of this movement, and the latter especially was
+very influential in America. The English revivalists were not alone,
+however; among the most powerful leaders in the colonies was Jonathan
+Edwards, whose name ranks very high in the records of religious
+philosophy in the States. Despite preliminary obstacles this preacher of
+the most stern and unflinching determinism produced a quite
+extraordinary effect at last. As usually happens, his dogmas were more
+easily repeated by others than his reasoning; violent excitement ran
+through the colonies, and it was this that gave a decisive turn to the
+liberalism which ultimately developed into a very memorable phase of
+Unitarianism. The preceding steps may be briefly indicated.
+
+A familiar epigram preserves the acid truth that the Puritan emigrants
+who left England in the seventeenth century went to North America in
+order to worship God in their own way, and to compel everyone else to do
+the same. Religious liberty was certainly not understood by them as it
+is understood to-day. The sufferings of the Baptists and Quakers, for
+example, make a sad chapter of New England history. About the middle of
+the century, _Roger Williams_ (1599-1683), having ventilated opinions
+contrary to the general Calvinism, was driven out of Salem, where he had
+ministered to a grateful church. His pleas for a real religious freedom
+were in vain, and he was forced to wander from the colonial settlements
+and find a precarious home among the Indians. After much privation, he
+succeeded in establishing a new colony at Rhode Island, where a more
+liberal atmosphere prevailed.
+
+It does not appear that Williams had much influence in the general world
+of religious thought, but two things at least were favourable to the
+modification of orthodoxy. On the one hand there was inevitably a looser
+system of supervision in a new country, and the pressure of penal law
+could not be exerted so effectually as in England. On the other hand the
+organization of worship and teaching, though intended to be strict and
+complete, an intention fairly successful in practice, was actually
+founded upon broad principles. Each township maintained its 'parish
+church,' but this, originally of a Low Church or 'Presbyterian' type,
+was usually accommodated as years went on to a Congregational model.
+These churches were looked upon as centres of religious culture for the
+respective communities by whose regular contributions they were
+supported and endowed. The 'covenants' by which the members bound
+themselves were often expressed in terms quite simple, and even
+touching; the colonists were in the main faithful to the parting
+injunction of the famous Pastor John Robinson, who sped the 'Pilgrim
+Fathers' on their way with the assurance that the Lord had 'more light
+and truth to break forth from His Holy Word.' Occasionally, it is
+expressly declared by the covenanting members that theirs is an attitude
+of devout expectation of religious growth.
+
+As would naturally be expected, the conditions of the earlier
+generations in the colonies were not in favour of a deeply studious
+ministry; the leaders were more frequently men of shrewd and practical
+piety than profound scholars. As things became more settled, and
+especially after the Toleration Act had secured a more assured state of
+feeling at home, the minds of men were set at liberty in a greater
+degree. Locke's works were carried across the sea, and Dr. Clarke's
+Arianizing writings soon followed. Apparently, the first stir of any
+importance was produced by the scandal of the punishment of Thomas
+Emlyn, the Irish clergyman who has been previously referred to. Emlyn's
+writings received a great advertisement, and although he managed, like
+Clarke, to avoid further legal difficulties by publishing a statement of
+his adherence to a 'Scriptural Trinity,' his defection from the orthodox
+dogma was clear enough and his arguments against that dogma remained.
+Another case which was notorious in those days was that of _William
+Whiston_ (1667-1752), the well-known translator of the works of
+Josephus, who was dismissed from his professorship at Cambridge in 1710
+for Arianism. A prolific writer and a shrewd debater, Whiston played no
+small part in the general leavening of opinion.
+
+But probably the most direct of the literary influences in this
+direction came from the pen of _Dr. John Taylor_ (1694-1761), one of the
+most able and learned of the Presbyterian divines. His treatises on
+_Original Sin_ (1740) and the _Atonement_ (1751) dealt with subjects of
+the profoundest importance in relation to the usual Trinitarian scheme
+of doctrine. Preferring, for his own part, to be known by no sectarian
+name but to be reckoned among 'Christians only,' Taylor was recognized
+far and wide as a writer extremely 'dangerous' to the ordinary type of
+belief. When the American revivalists were at their height, there were
+many quiet and staid New England ministers who found in Taylor a welcome
+ally against the extravagances which they witnessed and deplored. The
+more logical the Calvinist was, the more vivid in depicting the horrors
+of predestined damnation, the more vigorous these men became in
+denouncing such a doctrine. Perhaps the growing sense of individual
+liberty and personal rights had much to do with the reaction. A theory
+based upon the postulate of an absolute and unconditioned sovereignty
+divine did not accord with the growing democratic temper. Preachers
+began to insist, and hearers to agree, that, whatever 'salvation' is, it
+must be reasonable if reasonable creatures are to enjoy its benefits.
+Here also, as among the English latitude-men, the conviction grew that
+the essentials of a Christian belief must be few and simple and these
+such as plain men could understand and discuss; and here, as among the
+sober Dissenters at home, men looked askance on unintelligent outbursts
+of emotion.
+
+The process of change was not very fast, and a good many who were
+sensible of change in their opinions were reluctant to accept new
+doctrinal designations. Arians they might be, but they preferred to be
+known as standing by a 'Scriptural Christianity.' For, whatever new
+books might be written, the Bible remained their chief study and their
+support in discussion. Keen, rational rather than mystical, yet deeply
+interested in moral progress and human elevation, these American divines
+were much of a mind with their English brethren whose path lay in the
+same direction. One of the most influential preachers was _Charles
+Chauncey_ (1706-87); who for sixty years was minister at the 'First
+Church,' Boston. His theology was Arian and 'Universalist' (i.e. holding
+the doctrine of a final universal salvation); his Anti-Calvinism came
+out forcibly in his protests against the revivalist excesses. It is
+recorded of him that in his youth, disgusted by noisy fanatics, he
+prayed God never to make him an orator. His prayer was granted--and
+still he was a power!
+
+
+II. THE LIBERAL REACTION
+
+With the rise of the new liberalism in the American colonies no name is
+more conspicuous than that of _Jonathan Mayhew_ (1721-66), whose
+eloquence was of a more modern type than most of his day. He is credited
+with having deeply moved many who became leaders in turn, whether as
+ministers or laymen. After the interruption of normal development
+inevitable during the War of Independence, things moved more rapidly.
+The French Revolution evoked the warmest sympathy in the United States,
+and its effect on religion there was largely to increase a sense of the
+worth of man. 'Universalism,' the final restoration of all, became a
+conspicuous doctrine with some. The need for practical measures to
+uplift the general life here was a theme more to the mind of others. The
+distinctly 'Unitarian' trend was from the first associated with this
+eager attention to the higher culture. Harvard College, in the very
+heart of New England, rapidly developed into a fruitful source of the
+newer ideas, which were embodied in the lives of 'statesmen, merchants,
+physicians, lawyers, and teachers'; and thus the community, in all its
+more vigorous members, became charged with a fresh conception of life
+and religion.
+
+In the first decade of the nineteenth century we begin to trace
+publications more or less distinctly Unitarian. One of these was the
+_Monthly Anthology_, the pioneer among American literary magazines. One
+of its two editors was the Rev. William Emerson, father of Ralph Waldo
+Emerson. As the divergence of ideas grew more distinct debate began to
+be fierce. The new magazine took a bold line, while many liberals were
+still hesitating. In 1808 the trouble came to the surface. Harvard was
+denounced by the orthodox party, in consequence of the appointment of a
+liberal minister, Henry Ware, to a professorship involving pastoral care
+of the students. An orthodox rival school was set up at Andover. A few
+years later a pamphlet appeared giving letters alleged to have been sent
+to England by Boston ministers reporting that a certain number were
+Unitarians. The name was unwelcome at the time, especially because it
+was associated with the 'humanitarianism' then becoming widely taught in
+England. The implicated ministers, being charged with cowardly evasion,
+replied with warmth; they were, in fact, mostly Arians, and thus their
+views really were different from the English type. Moreover, again in
+contrast with the English, they expressed strong dislike of controversy;
+all they asked was to be left alone to proclaim the 'Simple
+Christianity' in which they believed.
+
+The upshot showed, however, that controversy was not to be avoided, and
+during twenty years from 1815 onwards it raged more or less severely. An
+epoch in this long and regrettable warfare was marked by a sermon
+preached at Baltimore in 1819. The preacher was one of the most famous
+men on the Unitarian roll, _William Ellery Channing_ (1780-1842).
+Already eminent, he continued to hold a position unique in the religious
+life of New England; his saintly character and his noble if simple
+eloquence made him a leader in spite of himself. For a long time he had
+maintained a mediating position--all through his life he resolutely
+disclaimed sectarianism; but in 1819, after years of discussion, it was
+obvious that, for good or evil, the old dogma and the new spirit lay far
+apart. From that date liberals and conservatives in the old
+Congregational system of New England were divided, and 'Unitarian
+Christianity,' which was the subject of Channing's discourse, was a
+recognized type in the land. In 1825 the American Unitarian Association
+was founded. It was but a struggling society at first, not for lack of
+sympathy with its principle, but because many Unitarians, like Channing,
+so strongly disliked the notion of forming a new sect that they took
+little interest in methods of propagandism common to most religious
+bodies.
+
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH UNITARIANISM RECOGNIZED BY LAW
+
+
+By a mere coincidence the British and Foreign Unitarian Association was
+founded almost on the same day in 1825 as the American Unitarian
+Association. This step evidently implies a great change in Unitarian
+affairs since the times of that early Dissent towards which attention
+has been previously directed. We must now endeavour to trace the change
+in detail.
+
+It will be remembered that tendencies to Anti-trinitarian thought--using
+that term to cover all the varieties of heretical opinion on the
+subject--were manifested both within the established Church and without.
+As regards the latter phase, the evidence is clear that, whatever the
+doctrinal 'subscription' was worth which Dissenting preachers had to
+make, there was a decided lapse from the orthodox standard on the part
+of a considerable number. This lapse, however, was for the most part
+left obscure while the pulpits resounded with 'plain, moral discourses.'
+Now and again, one bolder than the rest ventured to discuss controverted
+points of doctrine. Such a man was _Joseph Priestley_ (1733-1804), whose
+career is interesting as an illustration of the growth of opinion, and
+especially important in regard to the denominational advance of
+Unitarianism. He began life as a Calvinistic Independent, and became
+Arminian, Arian, and Humanitarian in turn. His devotion to science is
+well known, and he ranks with Lavoisier as an original discoverer of
+oxygen. He was an indefatigable student, a voluminous writer, a ready
+controversialist; and though his speaking was marred by imperfect
+utterance he attained to considerable influence in public address. No
+Unitarian leader hitherto has displayed more activity, and few, if any,
+have possessed greater controversial ability than he. His opinions,
+indeed, were in some respects peculiar to himself; he called himself a
+Socinian, but it was with a difference, and no Unitarian to-day would
+endorse some of his main positions. But his work for the cause was
+invaluable, and his personal character is held in the highest esteem.
+Originally he would have preferred that the Unitarians should remain as
+a 'liberal leaven' in the churches; eventually he became the chief
+organizer of Unitarian worship and propaganda.
+
+The first 'Unitarian Church,' however, was due to a clergyman,
+_Theophilus Lindsey_ (1723-1808). After long and arduous efforts to
+secure relaxation from the doctrinal subscription imposed on the clergy,
+Lindsey resigned his living at Catterick, in 1773, facing poverty and
+hardship with a courage that elicited warm commendations, though few
+were found to imitate the example. In spite of the terrors of the law,
+now becoming a dead letter, he opened a Unitarian chapel in Essex
+Street, London, in 1774. The service was on the episcopal model, but
+with a liturgy adapted to 'the worship of the Father only.' This feature
+has been claimed to be the distinctive characteristic of modern
+Unitarianism. It will be remembered that Socinus inculcated a sort of
+subordinate worship of Christ, and the Arians of course held to the same
+practice, Humanitarianism, the view that Jesus Christ was truly a man
+and in no sense a deity, obviously made it impossible to offer him the
+adoration due to God alone. This view had been slowly spreading since
+the days of Lardner; Priestley, Lindsey, and the active men of the party
+generally shared it. There were exceptions still, however. _Dr. Richard
+Price_ (1723-91), a London Presbyterian divine of great eminence,
+remembered as one of the founders of actuarial science, held by his
+Arianism to the last; this did not prevent him from lending a hand in
+the organization of the Unitarian forces, but there was for a time some
+difficulty on the subject. The more ardent professors of the new
+doctrine of 'the sole worship of the Father' were for excluding the
+Arians from fellowship, and one of the societies then formed actually
+adhered to a rather offensive formula on the subject till about 1830.
+
+A considerable number of liberal Churchmen of the laity, including some
+of rank, supported Lindsey's movement. An indication of changing moods
+is given in the fact that in 1770 an Act was passed permitting the
+Dissenting ministers to preach provided that they made a declaration of
+belief in the Scriptures as containing the revealed will of God. This
+was considered by many a welcome relief from the requirement of the
+Toleration Act that the minister must subscribe to the doctrinal
+articles of the established Church, and it was certainly a much less
+definite test. Priestley, for his part, however, regretted the change;
+the old subscription was in reality ceasing to be enforced, and he was
+afraid lest persecuting vigilance would set in again. As a matter of
+fact, the Act of 1779, long obsolete, has never been repealed, but very
+few people are aware of its existence. Priestley's many controversies
+tended to excite a good deal of interest, some of it more than
+unfriendly, in the new movement. In 1791, when a party of Unitarians
+dined at Birmingham in celebration of the French Revolution, serious
+riots broke out, and Priestley, who was then minister of the New Meeting
+there, was made a principal victim though he was not one of the diners.
+His house and library were burned, and he barely escaped the violence of
+the mob. Other residences were also destroyed, and the Old and New
+Meetings were burnt down. Ultimately, in 1794, Priestley sought asylum
+in America from the ill-will that pursued him even in London. Bishop
+Horsley, one of his sturdiest opponents in controversy, said, 'the
+patriarch of the sect is fled.'
+
+It was earlier in the same year that the first organized Unitarian
+propaganda took shape in a _Unitarian Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge_. District unions were soon formed, and in 1806 a Unitarian
+Fund was raised by means of which the first itinerant missionary of the
+body, _Richard Wright_ (1764-1836), was sent literally from end to end
+of Great Britain. In 1813, Unitarians were set free from legal penalties
+by the repeal, so far as they were concerned, of the exceptive clauses
+of the Toleration Act, this relief coming twenty years after Charles
+James Fox had tried to secure it for them. The member who was successful
+was Mr. William Smith, who sat for Norwich, and whose granddaughter was
+Florence Nightingale. In 1819 an Association was founded to protect and
+extend the Civil Rights of Unitarians. It was by combining the three
+societies--the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, the Fund, and
+Civil Rights Society, that the British and Foreign Unitarian Association
+was formed, as has been said, in 1825.
+
+In order to understand fairly the scope and spirit of that earlier
+Unitarian period, thus at last organized in full legal recognition,
+though still suffering from the prejudice inevitably created by more
+than a century of legal condemnation, a few salient points should be
+kept in view. First, the heterogeneous elements in the 'body,' if it
+could be called such, were a source of weakness in regard to united
+action. Instead of belonging, as their American brethren did, to one
+ecclesiastical group, and that the dominant one, the English Unitarians
+included Dissenters of different tendencies and traditions, with a few
+recruits from the State Church. The 'Presbyterian' congregations, as
+they were not very strictly called, were the backbone of the 'body';
+many of these, however, were very weak, and in the course of a few
+decades some were destined to follow those which had died out in the
+eighteenth century. Converts not infrequently lent new force in the
+pulpit, but at the risk of substituting an eager missionary spirit for
+the usual staid decorum of the old families. In these the ideals of
+breadth, simplicity, and moral excellence were stronger than the desire,
+natural in a convert, to win the world to one's opinion.
+
+Again, it must be borne in mind that then, as generally, there were men
+whose thoughts ran ahead of those of the majority. Priestley, for
+example, while adhering to the idea that the Christian revelation had
+been guaranteed by miracles, had abandoned belief in the Virgin birth as
+early as 1784, and went so far as to maintain that Jesus was not
+impeccable and had certainly entertained erroneous ideas about
+demoniacal possession. Probably there were very few who had arrived at
+these conclusions even thirty years later; some Unitarians repudiated
+them at a much later period. The miraculous element, however, was
+formerly accepted by all. So was the authority of Scripture, though here
+again men like Priestley were ahead of the rest in bringing to the study
+of the Bible the principles of historical criticism. _Thomas Belsham_
+(1750-1829), a typical Unitarian scholar and divine at this period, was
+one of several who carried forward the science of Biblical
+interpretation, and by the use of a vigorous and fearless intellect
+anticipated views of Genesis and the Pentateuch which did not find
+general acceptance till much later.
+
+It is customary for Unitarians themselves to-day to look back on these
+years of early zeal and controversy with but a qualified sympathy, so
+much was still cherished in the body as a whole that is no longer
+tenable, and again so much that was undreamed then is indispensable to
+modern thought. One of the greatest of Unitarians, Dr. Martineau, whose
+important share in the development of their ideas and life must be
+considered farther on, referred in a discourse of about forty years ago
+to three distinct stages in Unitarian theology. First, he pointed to the
+significance of the struggle for the principle of 'Unity in the Divine
+causation,' as against a doctrine which, as Unitarians maintain,
+endeavours in vain by words to prevent a triplicity of 'Persons' from
+sliding into a group of three Divine Beings. This struggle marks in
+great part the whole track by which the reader has come thus far in the
+present story. The second stage, according to Dr. Martineau, is that in
+which the Conscience of Man is emphasized, in virtue of the belief in a
+real responsibility and an actual power to choose the right or the
+wrong. This 'Religion of Conscience' he sees especially illustrated in
+the principles enunciated and the work accomplished by Channing; perhaps
+it would be fair to say that many who had preceded the American leader
+were imbued with a measure of his wisdom when they insisted, as we have
+seen, on the adaptability of the pure Gospel message to the needs and
+understanding of men everywhere, and declared that its aim was 'to make
+men good and keep them so.' The third stage, which Dr. Martineau
+considered to be fully begun at the time of his sermon (1869), is that
+of the 'Religion of the Spirit,' in which the ideas of the Divine
+Sovereignty and the Human Duty are rounded into vital beauty and
+completeness by the idea of the actual relation of Man to God as a Son
+to a Father.
+
+We have referred in advance to this compendious view in order to show
+whither the sequel is to lead us, but before this all-important
+development can be traced there remains one more piece of external
+history to be supplied. Happily it may be dealt with summarily.
+
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS OF INHERITANCE
+
+
+The bitterness of theological discussion which troubled the earlier
+decades of the nineteenth century received new provocation in the shape
+of litigation about property. Both in England and America the right of
+Unitarianism was challenged to hold those Meeting Houses and Parish
+Churches respectively, to which allusion was made in our opening pages.
+In New England the chief matter of contention was settled as early as
+1818. In the Old Country the struggle was much more protracted, and was
+only brought to an end by special legislation in 1844.
+
+The American dispute may be briefly stated. In consequence of the
+growing and unconcealed departure of the liberal Congregationalists from
+the doctrinal standards of the past there arose a feeling among the
+conservatives that the former group should go out of fellowship, but the
+communal conditions of the parish made this out of the question. All the
+citizens had a right to share in the provision for religion which was
+made at the general cost. An acute difficulty, however, presented itself
+in regard to the choice of minister. Should he be of the orthodox or the
+heterodox type? The appointment being for life made an election most
+critical. An incident of this kind occurred at Dedham, Mass., and coming
+into the courts led to a decision in favour of the liberals, i.e. of the
+'Unitarianizers.' The case was argued in this way: A majority of members
+on the register being in favour of one type, are they at liberty to
+choose as they will? Or have the citizens at large, being contributories
+to the maintenance funds, a right to vote? It was decided by the courts
+that the popular right was valid as against the wishes of any inner and
+covenanted group of worshippers. This meant, in substance, that orthodox
+voters were outvoted by heterodox voters who had not enrolled themselves
+by a religious pledge. The chagrin of the defeated conservatives was
+naturally great, and harsh language ensued. The upshot was unaffected,
+of course, and time alone has had to soften the angry feelings which for
+a long time kept the two wings of New England Congregationalism hostile,
+to the regret of good men on each side. In recent years very friendly
+relationships have been happily set up, while the Unitarians remain
+undisputed heirs of the old Parish Churches. It should be carefully
+noted, however, that in 1833 the communal support of religion was
+abolished, and all religious bodies in the United States have been
+dependent since then upon private resources.
+
+In England the orthodox opponents of Unitarianism tried to oust the
+heterodox congregations of the old Meeting Houses. A suit for possession
+of endowment funds which was finally decided against the Unitarians of
+Wolverhampton began in 1817; and a strongly organized attack followed in
+1825. A rich fund for ministerial support, Lady Hewley's Charity, was,
+after actions carried to the highest court, declared not to be
+applicable to the assistance of Unitarians. This decision, in 1842,
+looked like the beginning of the end for the tenure of the Meeting
+Houses themselves, the Wolverhampton case being now decided on the lines
+of the Hewley judgment. But an Act of Parliament--the _Dissenters'
+Chapels Act_--passed in 1844 (owing in some part to the powerful support
+of Mr. W.E. Gladstone), secured the congregations in undisturbed
+possession. The principle of this law applies to all places of worship
+held upon 'Open,' i.e. non-doctrinal Trusts; where the congregation can
+show that the present usage agrees substantially with that of the past
+twenty-five years, it is not to be ejected. At the time of this
+litigation the term 'English Presbyterian' came much into vogue among
+Unitarians, and for some time there was a marked abatement of
+propagandist zeal.
+
+
+
+
+
+MODERN UNITARIANISM
+
+
+I. THE COMMUNITIES
+
+Having now followed the fortunes of the Unitarians up to the point where
+they obtained a recognized position among religious organizations, we
+need not enter into the minute details of their denominational history.
+Less than seventy years have elapsed since the passing of the
+Dissenters' Chapels Act, and less than a century since the judgment in
+the Dedham case. The congregational increase, though substantial, has
+not been great; Unitarians claim rather to have influenced the advance
+of thought in other denominations than to have created one more sect. At
+present their numerical strength may be estimated from the following
+particulars.
+
+In the British Isles and colonial centres there are nearly four hundred
+places of worship, and a similar number of ministers; in many cases the
+congregations are small, and the list of ministers includes some that
+are retired and others who are regarded as 'lay-workers' only. There are
+about five hundred ministers and congregations in the United States. Two
+or three colleges in England and a similar number in America train
+students for the ministry, but many join the ranks from other
+denominations. Women are eligible as ministers, but actual instances are
+rare. Local unions exist to a fairly adequate extent. In England and
+America National Conferences meet at intervals; the Unitarian
+Associations continuously publish literature, send out lecturers, and
+promote new congregations. There are several periodicals. The most
+noteworthy in England is the _Hibbert Journal_, which follows in the
+line of other reviews of high standard in past years, and which
+specially illustrates the spirit animating a large and influential
+section of the body. It is promoted for free and open intercourse
+between serious thinkers of all schools of theological and social
+philosophy, and is reported to have a circulation quite beyond that of
+any similar publication. The 'Hibbert Lectures,' connected with the
+trust founded in 1847 for the diffusion of 'Christianity in its simplest
+and most intelligible form,' further exemplify the broad interpretation
+of this duty. Scholars of different churches have contributed to the
+series of volumes well known to religious students. The principle
+followed in general is stated in the oft-quoted phrase--'Free Learning
+and Free Teaching in Theology.'
+
+It is needful, perhaps, to guard against the inference that the
+Unitarian movement is only, or in the main, an intellectual one. Since
+1833, in consequence of a visit by _Dr. Joseph Tuckerman_, from Boston,
+'Domestic Missions' were founded, to promote the religious improvement
+of the neglected poor, and to-day this kind of work still goes on with
+much social benefit in our larger cities. Similar benevolence has marked
+the American side. Many congregations, too, are composed largely of
+working-people, and in recent years a Van Mission has carried the
+Unitarian message into the country villages, mining districts, and other
+populous parts. These aspects of their activity are apt to be obscured
+owing to a pardonable disposition of Unitarianism to point to the 'great
+names' associated with their churches. In the American list, for
+example, we find Emerson, Longfellow, O.W. Holmes, Bryant,
+Hawthorne--Whittier and Lowell had close affinities; Bancroft, Motley,
+Prescott, Parkman; Margaret Fuller, Louisa Alcott; and statesmen,
+jurists, merchants, and scientists too numerous to set down here.
+Obviously, the English side cannot rival such a brilliant roll; the
+_elite_ of society has not been here, as in New England, on the side of
+the newer theology. Yet English Unitarianism has its eminent names also,
+alike in literature, science, politics, philanthropy, and scholarship of
+various kinds; and the body is credited with a civic strength out of
+proportion to the number of its avowed adherents, while its
+philanthropies have been of the same broad and enlightened kind as those
+which enrich the American record.
+
+
+II. IDEAS AND TENDENCIES
+
+More important to the general public is the question of ideas which now
+prevail among Unitarians. Our preceding sketch has shown some of the
+results of the freedom claimed by them in one generation after another.
+We have now to see in what respects the nineteenth century effected a
+further change.
+
+In the first third of the century there can be no doubt that Unitarians
+adhered tenaciously, but with discrimination, to the idea of the final
+authority of the Bible. In this respect they were like Protestants
+generally, and though they nevertheless brought 'reason' to bear on
+their reading of the Scriptures, other Protestants did the same, if to a
+less degree. Both in the United States and in England this attitude was
+still common up till nearly the middle of the century, and instances
+could easily be found later still. The miraculous element was thus
+retained, though as we have seen as early as in Priestley's case there
+was a tendency to eliminate some part of the supernatural. That a
+thoroughgoing belief could be stated in good round terms is evident from
+the following sentence taken from a book issued by _Dr. Orville Dewey_
+(1794-1882), one of the most eloquent pulpit orators of his day. The
+book is entitled _Unitarian Belief_, its date is 1839. Referring to the
+Bible the author says, 'Enough is it for us, that the matter is divine,
+the doctrines true, the history authentic, the miracles real, the
+promises glorious, the threatenings fearful.' There is good ground for
+taking this as a fair example of the ideas prevalent among American
+Unitarians at that time. Perhaps the statement was made the more
+emphatic in view of some remarks recently uttered by two young men whose
+influence, along with more general tendencies, proved fatal to the old
+doctrine.
+
+One of these young men was _James Martineau_ (1805-1900), who at the age
+of thirty-one was already known as a writer and preacher far above the
+average. He was then resident in Liverpool, where he wrote a remarkable
+little book with the title _The Rationale of Religious Inquiry_ (1886).
+More than fifty years later he published an even more remarkable book,
+_The Seat of Authority in Religion_. There is, indeed, half a century of
+development between the two books, yet the germinal thought of the
+second may be detected in the first. The point at issue is where the
+ultimate appeal should lie in matters of religion. With the keen eye for
+the weaknesses of his fellow-worshippers which always characterized him,
+Martineau said, 'The Unitarian takes with him [to the study of the
+Bible] the persuasion that nothing can be scriptural which is not
+rational and universal.' This fixed opinion, which he ranks along with
+the foregone conclusions of other types of theologian, was just that
+which we have observed in the general course of liberals from Locke
+onwards. Though in a note Martineau concedes that his words may somewhat
+strongly accentuate the common opinion, he represents Unitarians as
+virtually saying, 'If we could find the doctrines of the Trinity and the
+Atonement, and everlasting torments in the Scriptures, we should believe
+them; we reject them, not because we deem them unreasonable, but because
+we perceive them to be unscriptural. For my own part, I confess myself
+unable to adopt this language'--not, he says, but that he does think
+them actually 'unscriptural.' 'But I am prepared to maintain, that if
+they were in the Bible, they would still be incredible.... Reason is the
+ultimate appeal, the supreme tribunal, to which the test of even
+Scripture must be brought.' It abates nothing from the force of these
+declarations that then, and for some time afterwards, Martineau himself
+accepted the miracles. The 'old school' perceived the sharp edge of such
+a weapon, and its wielder was during many years regarded as a
+'dangerous' innovator.
+
+The other young writer to whom reference has been made was _Ralph Waldo
+Emerson_ (1803-82), son and grandson of ministers of the liberal
+Congregational type in New England and himself for a short time minister
+of the Second Church, Boston. Preferring the freedom of the lecturing
+platform, Emerson had already withdrawn from the ministry, but in 1838
+he gave an 'Address to the Senior Class' in the Divinity School,
+Harvard, which proved a second landmark in the history of American
+Unitarianism. Nineteen years before, Channing had decisively pointed out
+that Unitarianism and orthodoxy are two distinct theologies. In the
+Divinity School Address, Emerson maintained that the idea of
+'supernaturalism' is rendered obsolete by a recognition of the reality
+of things. Bringing a gift of pungent prose to the service of a poetic
+imagination, Emerson startled the decorously dignified authorities of
+the New England pulpit; he 'saved us,' says Lowell, 'from the body of
+this death.' He pointed from the record of miracles past to an
+ever-present miracle. To the illumination of 'reason,' which Unitarians
+had followed so loyally--within the proviso of a special revelation--he
+brought the light of a mystic intuition. Some of his elders judged it to
+be 'false fire' perilously akin to the 'enthusiasm' which their
+predecessors had so often condemned. In daring simplicity he urged that
+there had been 'noxious exaggeration about the _person_ of Jesus.' 'The
+soul knows no persons.' The divine is always latent in the human.
+Revelation is not ended--as if God were dead!
+
+The shock to the old-fashioned minds was immense. Long and far-sounding
+debate followed, though Emerson, with provoking self-possession,
+declined to argue. He simply 'announced.' This oracular attitude
+certainly affected some of the younger men greatly, but fortunately for
+the success of the new gospel one of these younger men translated the
+oracular into a more popular and reasoned form. Three years after
+Emerson's Address, _Theodore Parker_ (1810-60) completed the Unitarian
+trilogy by a sermon on _The Transient and the Permanent in Theology_. It
+may be said to have done for Emerson's message the kind of service
+rendered by Huxley to Darwin's. Parker at once became a marked man; most
+Unitarian pulpits were closed against him, but a large hall accommodated
+the vast crowds that came to hear him. It is doubtful if such numerous
+congregations ever listened to a Unitarian before or since. He continued
+an arduous work for some fifteen years, but it wore him out before his
+time. He was an erudite scholar and a prolific writer. Discarding the
+claims of Christianity to be the only 'divine revelation,' he based his
+clear and always optimistic theism on the broad facts of human
+experience. Ardently interested in social and political questions, he
+poured satire without stint on the religious defenders of slavery, and
+himself dared all risks along with the foremost abolitionists. Such a
+man could not but count for much; and though his radical views in
+theology greatly disturbed for many years the conservatives in the
+body--for Unitarianism itself had by this time a well-defined
+conservative type--they could not fail to permeate the minds of the
+masses.
+
+Of Emerson's own life-work this is hardly the place to speak at large,
+but in connection with the development of that 'Religion of the Spirit'
+in which Dr. Martineau sees the culmination of the theological progress
+of Unitarianism, Emerson's share must be allowed to be a large one. When
+Dean Stanley visited America he is said to have reported that he had
+heard sermons from many pulpits, but 'Emerson was the one preacher in
+them all.' It is certain that at one time the style, if not also the
+thought, of Emerson was extensively copied by the preachers, not always
+to the gain of solidity. A degree of jauntiness appears in the worse
+specimens of these imitations, and Lord Morley's criticism that Emerson
+himself was too oblivious of the dark side of human suffering and guilt
+would doubtless apply to much of the Unitarian eloquence at one time
+inspired by his witching voice.
+
+This, however, is but one side of the American message in the nineteenth
+century; evidence abounds that a 'Christocentric' type of teaching, with
+adhesion to much of old material of the Gospels, held its own till a
+generation ago, and its peculiar accent is not without echoes to-day. On
+the whole it is probable that, as at the beginning of the century, the
+'liberals' in New England Congregationalism were somewhat shocked at
+some of the daring views of the Priestleyan Unitarians in England, so
+even towards its close the general position of thought was more
+conservative there than was the rule here. Certainly, also, there was a
+deep, tender tone manifested even where opinion was most radical among
+the American Unitarians, and of this no better proof can be cited than
+the large number of hymns of a high order both of thought and expression
+which have been written among them. They serve to show that a frank
+acceptance of the evolutionary philosophy by no means necessarily
+entails the decay of devout personal piety or the loss of beautiful
+ideals. Among the American hymnists the following are specially eminent,
+and their productions are often to be found in 'orthodox' collections:
+_Samuel Longfellow_ (brother to H.W.L.), _Samuel Johnson_, _W.C.
+Gannett_, _J.W. Chadwick_, and _F.L. Hosmer_.
+
+On the English side other sweet singers have appeared: 'Nearer, my God,
+to Thee,' by _Sarah Flower Adams_, is a world-renowned hymn; and if the
+names of Channing, Emerson, and Parker cannot be equally matched here in
+their several spheres, there has been no lack of able and scholarly
+representatives, and one name at least is of universal reputation. That
+name, of course, is _Martineau_. The effective changes from the old
+Unitarianism to the modern type are best displayed in the story of his
+long life and the monumental books which bear his name. Reference has
+been made to his early brilliance; its promise was amply fulfilled in
+the course of a career more than usually prolonged. The note of original
+thought sounded in the _Rationale_ (see p. 63[*]) was to be heard again
+and again in other and more permanent utterances, and not seldom to the
+perplexity and dismay of many of his Unitarian brethren. Alike in
+religious philosophy, in attitude to the Scriptures, and in matters of
+church organization, he found himself from time to time at variance with
+most of those close around him. His philosophical and critical influence
+was in large measure victorious; in regard to organization the results
+were less satisfactory to himself. It will be instructive to observe his
+progress.
+
+[*: third paragraph of Modern Unitarianism: II. Ideas and Tendencies.]
+
+As regards philosophy, it is necessary to remember the influence of
+Priestley and Belsham. These Unitarian leaders, following Hartley's
+psychology, stood for a _determinism_ which was complete. God was the
+Great Cause of all; not the 'First Cause' of the deistic conception,
+operative only at the beginning of the chain of events and now remote
+from man and the world, but present and immediate, exhibiting his divine
+purposes in all the beings created by him. Christianity, in the view of
+this school, was the means by which God had been pleased to make known
+the grand consummation of this life in a perfected life to come; Jesus,
+the Messiah, was the chosen revealer of the divine will, and his
+resurrection was the supreme and necessary guarantee that his message
+was true. Martineau, like the rest of his generation, was brought up in
+this necessarianism; but its tendency, as he reviewed and tested it, was
+to do violence to certain irrepressible factors of the spiritual life.
+It is only fair to say, there was even in this Priestleyan school room
+for a mystical mood; but on the whole it appeared dry and intellectual,
+lacking the warm and operative forces of a deeper devotion.
+
+It is interesting to find that Martineau himself confessed that the
+freshening touch upon his own inner life came in a closer contact with
+evangelical piety. His mind was to the end of his many years readily
+responsive to congenial impulses, let them come whence they would, and
+no small part of his service to Unitarianism consists in the broader
+sympathies which he generated in its circles. To Channing, also, he
+expressed gratitude for helping to wake in him a new sense of the
+meaning of life and religion. It was Channing's characteristic to insist
+on the significance of personality. The worth, the depth, and also the
+rights of the Human made so vivid an appeal to his mind as to react on
+his conceptions of the Divine. Within, a few years after the _Rationale_
+was published, Martineau is found making an obvious change of base. He
+has realized that the externally communicated religion of the old
+school, however sublime in its proportions, fails to meet the needs or,
+indeed, to fit the facts of the inner life. Man's personality rises, in
+his thought, into touch with God's; the revelation from without can only
+be recognized as such by the aid of a revelation within; a real
+activity, a genuine moral choice, and a resulting character, the marks
+of a truly living Soul, these are indispensable to an adequate view of
+the religious life. But all this involves two significant positions,
+each far asunder from those hitherto put forth--there must be Freedom,
+at least in the moral world; and the Divine assurances of moral values
+and of loving aid to win them are no longer confined to an outer record.
+Such a record may yield invaluable service as a heightener and
+interpreter of individual experience; to the last we find Martineau
+attaching a profound and quite special significance to the revelation in
+Jesus of the life of sonship to God, and retaining tenaciously the
+Christian attitude in preference to one of simple theism. But his system
+is based on the internal; all the rest, the Church, the Bible, Nature,
+however august and charged with meaning, is supplementary to that.
+
+In the American field, under the influence of Emerson and the German
+philosophy, what is called 'Transcendentalism' flourished midway in the
+century, and there as well as in England its extravagances were
+deplored. Martineau himself, while approaching so nearly to the egoistic
+centre, was safeguarded from all such vagaries by an all-pervading sense
+of duty. In his volumes of sermon the _Endeavours after the Christian
+Life_, and _Hours of Thought on Sacred Things_, which remain among the
+choicest of their kind in our language, his austerity of moral tone is
+only relieved by an elevation of poetic mysticism till then unknown in
+Unitarian literature. It was, indeed, his conviction that the body would
+not write poetry for a generation or two, so dry and prosaic did he find
+it; but at that very time his own efforts in hymnody on one side and on
+the other his lyric prose, almost too richly ornate for general wear,
+were touching new springs of feeling. By and by, he issued in
+conjunction with others a set of liturgical services, which did much to
+lend dignity to congregational worship. And what gave unique influence
+to his ideas was his intimate connection from 1840 to 1885 with
+'Manchester College,' London, one of the successors to the old
+'Academies' (now after its several migrations handsomely housed at
+Oxford). At this college, as professor of mental and moral philosophy
+and for many years as Principal, he made a deep and lasting impression
+on the minds of most of the leading scholars and preachers. His great
+works. _Types of Ethical Theory_ and _A Study of Religion_, gathered up
+the harvest of long study and exposition in these subjects, and are the
+most important of their kind given by Unitarians to the world.
+
+In accordance with what has been indicated, the later attitude of
+Martineau, and naturally of his pupils--though the principle of free and
+independent judgment is and always has been insisted upon--has been
+radical in respect to Biblical, and especially to New Testament,
+studies. An influence in this department more direct than his own was
+formerly found in the writings and lectures of _John James Tayler_
+(1797-1869), his predecessor as Principal. This ripe and fearless
+scholar brought home to Unitarians the wealth of continental literature
+on the subject. The 'old school' stood aghast as the tide of 'German
+criticism' overflowed the old landmarks of thought; and when Tayler
+himself issued a work strongly adverse to the apostolic authorship of
+the Fourth Gospel distress was extreme. In these matters, however, the
+tide proved irresistible, and the next generation of preachers and
+students were among the most ardent translators and popularizers of the
+new views of Jewish and Christian origins. The 'free' character of the
+pulpits has made the way easier than in most other denominations for the
+incoming of modern thought in this and other directions.
+
+The influence of natural science upon the trend of Unitarian opinion has
+hardly been second to that of Biblical criticism. Some names in the list
+of prominent Unitarians are celebrated in this connection--_Louis
+Agassiz_ (1807-73), for example, on the American side, _Sir Charles
+Lyell_ (1797-1875) and _Dr. W.B. Carpenter_ (1813-85) on the English
+side. A son of the last named, _Dr. J. Estlin Carpenter_, a man of wide
+and varied scholarship, is now Principal of Manchester College. A field
+in which he is specially expert is that of comparative religion, and
+here also is a source of many considerations that have transformed
+Unitarianism into one of the most liberal types of thought in the modern
+religious world.
+
+It is not to be inferred, however, that the 'radical' tendencies, while
+predominant, have everywhere prevailed among Unitarians. The
+'conservative' side continued in the third quarter of the nineteenth
+century to yield important signs of its existence and fruitfulness, and
+its vitality is far from exhausted still. The miraculous element has
+even here been reduced to a minimum, but it has left a tinge on the
+picture of Jesus which fills the imagination and kindles the reverent
+affection of many. Among the more gifted representatives of this school
+we may name the Americans _Dr. H.W. Furness_ (1802-96) and _Dr. J.
+Freeman Clarke_ (1810-88), and the English _John Hamilton Thom_
+(1808-94). Thom's sermons are ranked among the highest for spirituality
+and penetration; they certainly had profound effect in stimulating the
+wise and generous philanthropy of _William Rathbone_ and _Sir Henry
+Tate_. A celebrated representative of this side of Unitarianism is _Dr.
+James Drummond_, still living, the author of several works of European
+repute among New Testament scholars, one being a defence of the
+Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel. He succeeded Martineau as
+Principal of Manchester College. His volume. _Studies of Christian
+Doctrine_, is the most important statement of the Unitarian view
+published in recent years.
+
+As time went on, it fell to Martineau and other leading Unitarians to
+take up a defensive attitude against the extreme forces of negation. In
+particular, he came to be recognized as a champion of theism against
+materialist evolution. Four volumes of 'Essays' contain some of his
+acutest writings on the subject. An address presented to him on his
+eighty-third birthday celebrated his eminence in this and other ways; it
+bore the signatures of six hundred and fifty of the most brilliant of
+his contemporaries, at their head being Tennyson and Browning.
+
+All this strenuous progress, however, was for Martineau dogged by a
+shadow of peculiar disappointment. In youth he was as ardent a
+'Unitarian' as any; but, about the time of the Dissenters' Chapels Act
+(1844), he and Tayler and some others felt increasing dissatisfaction
+with the tendency of the more active Unitarians to degenerate into a
+sect. As we have seen, the same divergence of feeling arose in America,
+and Channing always strove to keep Unitarianism there from succumbing to
+denominationalism. The ardour of those especially who had newly espoused
+the Unitarian view and found it precious to themselves may be easily
+understood, and they might be forgiven some impatience with the apparent
+apathy of those who had no great desire to multiply proselytes. Some of
+these eager spirits strove to rescue the body from what they evidently
+regarded as a paralysing indefiniteness. From time to time it was argued
+that Unitarianism must be 'defined' authoritatively; then, and then
+only, might a triumphant progress be secured. Mixed with such notions
+was apparently a desire to keep the imprudent and 'advanced' men from
+going 'too far.' In one form or other this opposition has persisted till
+the present; but its acrimony has sensibly lessened as, on the one hand,
+the 'denominational' workers have more fully accepted the principle of
+unfettered inquiry, and on the other, the lessons of experience have
+shown that, however eager the Unitarians may be for the widest possible
+religious fellowship, they are, in fact, steadily left to themselves by
+most of the other religious bodies, especially in this country.
+Martineau himself about forty years ago tried to form, along with
+Tayler, a 'Free Christian Union' which should ignore dogmatic
+considerations; but Tayler died, and so little encouragement was met
+with outside the Unitarian circle that the thing dropped after two
+years. Nearly twenty years later, at the Triennial Conference (held in
+1888 at Leeds), a remarkable address was given by the now venerable
+'leader' (whom, as he mournfully said, no one would follow), in favour
+of setting up again an English Presbyterian system which should swallow
+up all the many designations and varieties of association hitherto
+prevailing among Unitarians. The proposal was considered impracticable,
+and the dream of a 'Catholicity' which should embrace all who espoused
+the free religious position, whatever their doctrines, seemed farther
+than ever from fulfilment. In later years the idea has, however,
+continued to be mooted, and some Unitarians hope still to see the
+development of a 'Free Catholicism' in which the traditional distinction
+between Unitarian and Trinitarian will be lost.
+
+Meanwhile, as has been said, the extension of Unitarian worship and the
+diffusion of literature goes on with a fair amount of success. In
+America, thanks largely to the sagacious toil of a remarkable organizer,
+_Dr. H.W. Bellows_ (1814-82), the Unitarian Association has proved a
+strong and effective instrument for this purpose, and the British
+Association, whose headquarters are now in the building where Lindsey
+opened the first Unitarian Church in 1774, has also thriven considerably
+in recent years. It is said that the rate of growth in the number of
+congregations in the United Kingdom has been about 33 per cent during
+the past half-century; in America the rate is somewhat higher.
+
+
+III. METHODS AND TEACHINGS
+
+It will not be surprising to the reader to learn that a religious body
+having such a past and being so variously recruited to-day is far from
+stereotyped in method. At the same time there is practical agreement on
+the main lines of doctrine.
+
+In worship different forms are used. Many churches have liturgies,
+adopted at discretion and usually supplemented by free prayer. In others
+the free service alone is preferred. Lessons are chiefly taken from the
+Bible, but selections are sometimes read from other devotional
+literature. Several hymnals have wide acceptance; a few are peculiar to
+single congregations. The large majority of sermons are read, though
+extempore address is now less infrequent than formerly. 'Sacraments' are
+not considered indispensable, but the Lord's Supper is retained in many
+cases and is regarded as a memorial. The baptism (or 'dedication') of
+infants is also practised.
+
+Ministerial ordination is not considered as imparting supernatural
+gifts, but as a solemnity marking the entrance of the accredited person
+into full recognition and office. The congregation makes its own choice
+of a minister, though in case of its dependence upon outside financial
+assistance the advice of the managers of the Fund may be offered. The
+support of the churches and Sunday-schools, etc., is generally by
+voluntary contributions; endowments exist in some instances. Church
+membership is usually granted without insistence upon any religious
+declaration. New buildings are invariably associated with the 'open
+trust' principle, the way being thus left open for such changes in
+worship and opinion as may hereafter seem right. Some churches decline
+to be known as 'Unitarian,' and where that name is adopted it is usual
+to find with it the explanation that this does not pledge or limit
+future development or bar the widest religious sympathy in the present.
+
+Reference has been made to Sunday-schools. In this field Unitarians have
+always been pioneers, and their aims have usually been to promote
+culture without sectarian zeal. Many large schools continue, as in the
+past, to form centres of education of the widest type, not only to
+children but adults. Much interest is taken in social amelioration; some
+observers have asserted that this interest is more vivid in many
+quarters than any in matters theological or philosophical.
+
+Statements of the teachings usually accepted in the churches are
+numerous. One here quoted will fairly represent the general type. It was
+drawn up by _Richard Acland Armstrong_ (1843-1905), an eager social
+reformer, a powerful preacher and author, and memorable especially as a
+popularizer of Martineau's religious philosophy. Of course, from what
+has been already said, such a statement is not regarded as an
+authoritative creed, but simply takes its place as one out of many
+summaries for popular diffusion.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity teaches that God is our Father, full of love for
+all of us. It learns from Jesus that the Father listens to our prayers
+and watches over us with even more tender care than over the lilies of
+the field and the birds of the air.
+
+'It learns from Jesus too, that however important it may be to have
+correct views concerning religious matters, it is much more important to
+love God with all our heart and mind and soul and strength, and our
+neighbour as ourselves. For he says that these are the first two
+commandments, and that there is no other whatever that is greater than
+these.
+
+'It learns from Jesus, also, that the way to enter the kingdom of Heaven
+is, not merely to hold a correct theology or to receive any outward
+sacraments, but to "be converted and become as little
+children"--simple-hearted, loving, pure.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity teaches that God our Father claims us all as
+children, and that when Jesus speaks of himself as God's Son, he means
+us all to remember that we are God's children too, though unhappily we
+have stained our sonship and daughterhood with many unworthy thoughts
+and deeds.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity loves the Parable of the Prodigal Son, because
+it shows so clearly and so beautifully the love and forgiveness of God,
+and with what tender pity he looks on us when we have sinned.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity believes that God speaks to his children now as
+truly as he did to the Prophets of old and to Jesus Christ, comforting,
+strengthening, enlightening them. Conscience itself is his holy voice.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity sees in Jesus Christ a supremely beautiful life
+and character, a marvellous inspiration for us all, an ideal after which
+we may strive; and it loves to think of him as our Elder Brother, of the
+same nature as ourselves.
+
+'Unitarian Christianity does not believe that God will plunge any of his
+children into everlasting woe. Such a thought of God is a contradiction
+of his Fatherhood. He is leading us all, by different ways, towards the
+pure and holy life for which he brought us into being.'
+
+Along with this may be taken the declaration adopted, as a result of
+somewhat protracted discussions, at the National Conference of
+Unitarians in America, 1894; it would probably be accepted in all
+similar assemblies.
+
+'These churches accept the religion of Jesus, holding in accordance with
+his teaching that practical religion is summed up in love to God, and
+love to man; and we invite to our fellowship any who, while differing
+from us in belief, are in general sympathy with our spirit and our
+practical aims.'
+
+
+
+
+
+UNITARIANS AND OTHER RELIGIOUS LIBERALS
+
+
+The broadly sympathetic spirit which has been observed at work in the
+foregoing story has led to interesting relationships between Unitarians
+and some other religious bodies. The Universalists, who are strongest in
+the United States, are cordially fraternal with them; and a large
+proportion of the 'Christians'--a non-dogmatic body--are equally close
+in sympathy. The Hicksite Friends, named after Elias Hicks, who early in
+the nineteenth century avowed Anti-trinitarian views, and some other
+religious bodies less conspicuous are more or less directly included in
+the Unitarian forces, though not organically in union. With the French
+Liberal Protestants there has been warm co-operation for many years, and
+the same is true of Dutch, German, and Swiss reformers. Since the visit
+of Rammohun Roy, the Indian reformer, in 1833, the English in particular
+have developed kindly relations with the Indian theist movement, and
+students from India and Japan are regularly educated at Oxford for the
+ministry of free religion in their own countries. It is in this way,
+more than by the ordinary types of missionary activity, that Unitarians
+have hitherto attempted to influence the non-Christian races.
+
+During recent years there have been held international congresses
+promoted by the Unitarians of Great Britain, America, and Transylvania,
+and attended by representatives of the various sections just named as
+well as by others from the orthodox churches, including Anglican and
+Romanist, who venture to brave the authorities thus far. Proposals have
+already been made for a world-wide union of Religious Liberals, in view
+of the remarkable success of these great congresses; but the
+circumstances of the different groups, especially in Germany and
+Holland, seem to forbid expectation of such a development within any
+near period. On the whole, Unitarians appear to be encouraged by the
+signs of the times, and to do their share of religious culture and
+benevolent work while cultivating the friendship of 'Modernists' of all
+kinds, Christian, Jewish, Moslem, and Hindoo.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHRONOLOGY
+
+
+1536-1612. Many trials and executions for denying the Trinity; notably
+_Servetus_ (1553); four East Anglians, 1579-89; Legate and Wightman,
+1612.
+
+1568. Francis David founds the Unitarian Church in Hungary.
+
+1578-1604. Faustus Socinus active in Poland.
+
+1595. The Racovian Catechism. Other Socinian works follow.
+
+1640. Canon against Socinian books in England.
+
+1644-62. John Bidle's career.
+
+1646 and onward. Anti-trinitarians among Baptists, Independents,
+Friends, etc. Books against 'Socinianism.'
+
+1662. Act of Uniformity--ejection of Nonconformists.
+
+1674. Milton d., leaving his _Treatise of Christian Doctrine_ in MS.;
+discovered 1823 and published.
+
+1687. Stephen Nye's _Brief History of the Unitarians_, etc.
+
+1689. Toleration Act--Unitarians excluded.
+
+1689-97. The 'Unitarian Controversy.' Being suppressed, 'Arianism'
+developed among clergy, 'Deism' among other writers.
+
+1690. Presbyterian Academy (now College, Carmarthen) founded.
+
+1695. Locke's _Reasonableness of Christianity_.
+
+1700. General Baptist Assembly accept Anti-trinitarian membership.
+
+1703. Thomas Emlyn imprisoned for denying the Trinity.
+
+1719. 'Non-subscription' vote at Salter's Hall, London.
+
+1740+. Arianism diffused; Humanitarianism incipient.
+
+1742. The 'Great Awakening' revival in New England, followed by a
+Liberal reaction.
+
+1755-1804. Joseph Priestley's career.
+
+1774. Theophilus Lindsey's Unitarian Chapel, London.
+
+1786. Manchester Academy (now College, Oxford) founded.
+
+1790+. Unitarian propaganda active in England.
+
+1808. Controversy in New England Congregationalism.
+
+1813. Toleration Act extended to Unitarians.
+
+1817. Proceedings begun against Unitarians in respect of inherited
+Chapels, etc.
+
+1818. The 'Dedham Case,' Massachusetts.
+
+1819. Dr. Channing's 'Baltimore Sermon.'
+
+1825. Founding of Associations in Great Britain and U.S.A.
+
+1836. Martineau's _Rationale_.
+
+1838. Emerson's _Divinity School Address_.
+
+1842. Theodore Parker's _Discourse_.
+
+1844. Dissenters' Chapels Act.
+
+1847. Hibbert Trust founded.
+
+1854. Unitarian Home Missionary Board (now College, Manchester) founded.
+
+1882. National Triennial Conferences begun.
+
+1890. Martineau's _Seat of Authority_.
+
+1900. International Congresses founded.
+
+
+
+
+
+AUTHORITIES
+
+
+R. WALLACE. _Anti-trinitarian Biography_, 3 vols., Lond., 1850.
+
+A. GORDON. _Heads of English Unitarian History_, 1 vol., Lond., 1895.
+
+J.H. ALLEN. _Unitarianism since the Reformation_, 1 vol., New York,
+1894.
+
+J.J. TAYLER. _Retrospect of the Religious Life of England_, 1 vol.,
+Lond. (3rd Ed.), 1876.
+
+W.G. TARRANT. _Story and Significance of the Unitarian Movement_, 1
+vol., Lond., 1910. (Gives more detailed references.)
+
+
+For statistics and special characteristics of the various Liberal
+Religious bodies in general accord with Unitarians see the following
+records of the International Congresses:--
+
+_Liberal Religious Thought at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century._
+Ed. by W. COPELAND BOWIE, Lond., 1901.
+
+_Religion and Liberty._ Ed. by P.H. HUGENHOLTZ, jun., Leyden, 1904.
+
+_Actes du III'me Congres International du Christianisme Liberal et
+Progressif._ Ed. by E. MONTET, Geneva, 1906.
+
+_Freedom and Fellowship in Religion._ Ed. by C.W. WENDTE, Boston, 1907.
+
+_Fifth International Congress of Free Christianity and Religious
+Progress._ Ed. by WENDTE and DAVIS, Berlin (and London), 1911.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Unitarianism, by W.G. Tarrant
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