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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Industrial Progress and Human Economics
+by James Hartness
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Industrial Progress and Human Economics
+
+Author: James Hartness
+
+Release Date: February 15, 2004 [EBook #11090]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Christopher Bloomfield and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS AND HUMAN ECONOMICS
+
+
+
+By James Hartness
+
+
+1921
+
+
+Extra Copies On Request
+
+Address all communications relative to industries to Commissioner
+of Industries, Montpelier, Vermont.
+
+This book is published by private funds
+
+_Fellow Citizen_:
+
+Vermont's natural resources have been set forth in State
+publications, not adequately, but nevertheless, in well
+prepared publications.
+
+Supplementing such publications this book deals with our human
+resources, showing the way by which our greatest resource--human
+energy--can be most effectively employed. It uses the welfare of
+man as the yardstick of measure rather than treating the subjects
+under the head of natural resources.
+
+At the present time the productive power of a day's work varies
+greatly throughout the country. It reaches its highest point where
+the most efficient implements and machines are used; where there
+is a high degree of special ability acquired by each executive and
+workman, such as has been attained in our highly specialized
+manufacturing industries, many of which may be found in our
+neighboring states. The upbuilding of such organizations is only
+in its infancy. There is now a natural drift away from congested
+cities to adjacent states where plants and homes may be spread out
+over larger areas.
+
+The personal side of this to each man is the supreme need of a
+better understanding of human economics; that is, he must know the
+best way to use his own energies, and since he must work in
+cooperation with others he should also know what constitutes the
+most effective and successful organization. As a skilled worker,
+as a scientist in some branch of the work, as an executive in
+charge of some department, as a manager, investor or banker, he
+must keenly sense the conditions on which progress is made.
+
+This book is written for the progressive young man as well as all
+those directly or indirectly interested in industrial development.
+It is at once a text book and a reference book, for, as a workman
+or executive advances he will find need of information on many of
+the points herein set forth.
+
+If the book has no immediate interest to you, please pass it along
+to another.
+
+Faithfully yours,
+
+[Signature: James Hartness]
+
+_Governor_.
+
+
+
+FOREWORD.
+
+The purpose of this book is to indicate the natural way to
+increase our industrial development. To accomplish this there is
+set forth an outline of an industrial policy. This policy relates
+to procedure and methods for starting and managing industrial
+plants.
+
+It conforms to our economic conditions and offers the safest and
+easiest course.
+
+While it is written to create more desirable industrial
+establishments within the state and to increase the vitality of
+the existing plants, it is distinctly a guide for the individual,
+for it facilitates the progress of the man as well as that of the
+state.
+
+It is a practical policy that stimulates and energizes the
+industrial spirit and at the same time, directs our energies along
+the easiest road of progress in personal and state development.
+
+It sets forth certain fundamental principles that apply broadly to
+all activities, but specifically to manufacturing and the means
+and methods that must be employed to win in the industrial
+conquest.
+
+To the investor it provides the best measure by which he can
+estimate the economic soundness and prospects of an enterprise. It
+gives confidence in right projects, making money available for
+things that are right, and reducing the hazard of investments by
+eliminating the badly or indifferently managed organizations and
+those founded on unsound policies.
+
+To the men in an organization it is also of great value, for by it
+they can estimate their own prospects for progress. They risk not
+only their earning power but their chances for personal
+development. Their chances in acquisition of high degree of
+ability and in advance from position to position also depends upon
+the policy of management and success of the enterprise. The loss
+of opportunity of any of these men really transcends the loss of
+money, for it involves the loss of personal development and all
+that that means.
+
+It is obvious too that the management of each organization will be
+of a more successful type when the entire personnel grasps the
+essentials of industrial development.
+
+When these essentials are understood and recognized as standards
+of measure there will be less conflict between the investors and
+the managers. Then it will be possible for managers and all others
+to use all of their energies wholly for progressive work rather
+than using a large part of their time and energy explaining each
+move to the investors.
+
+Managers need the support and confidence of the investors. Every
+day requires a firm adherence to a definite policy. Nothing less
+than the firmest determination will hold an organization to a true
+course. With a division of opinion, the natural drift is away from
+the standards on which modern success depends. Not only is it
+necessary to have these principles understood by investors, but
+also by all whose opinions will in any way affect the spirit of
+the men in the organization.
+
+The whole scheme, as it is set forth, is true to the fundamentals
+of human economics, for it provides ways by which the energies of
+mind and body are used most effectively. It brings a progressive
+growth and creates in each the greatest productive capacity. So
+that, as individuals and as a state, we will produce the greatest
+value for a given amount of labor.
+
+It is the only way by which we can compete with other states and
+countries. It is the natural and inevitable way for Vermonters to
+travel.
+
+
+
+CONQUEST OF PEACE.
+
+Before the war Vermont and the nation were approaching a serious
+economic crises. The war has accentuated the gravity of the
+situation, but has also demonstrated certain human characteristics
+that can be enlisted to correct our course. We found during the
+war that we were ready to take heroic action whenever an occasion
+demanded it--that there was a solidarity of purpose of our people.
+This characteristic must now be invoked. We must meet the
+conditions that confront us by unity of public opinion and team
+work.
+
+The conditions that confront us do not involve the possibility of
+immediate invasion of our country by a hostile nation, but they
+carry a burdensome penalty if we fail to take the right action.
+Happily we are not required to risk our lives or even work harder,
+but we must recognize the plain facts that we are not sharing in
+the general economic progress of our neighboring states.
+
+In war the nation that wins the victory imposes a burden of tax on
+the conquered nation. In the conquest of peace the victorious
+nations also impose a burden on the losers. This burden is just as
+real as the burden imposed by war, for in both cases the losers
+are paying tribute to the winners. This applies to states, to
+communities, to families and to men. The situation calls for
+prompt attention and concerted action by the people of our state
+and country.
+
+In the conquest of peace success comes to those people who produce
+the greatest value with a given expenditure of energy, or, in
+other words, to the people who at the end of a day's, a year's or
+a life's work can measure their return in the largest value.
+Dollars constitute our measures of value for they are our medium
+of exchange of our products of labor. If, to accomplish the same
+result, the man with inferior implements must work harder than the
+man with the best implements, it is very easy to see who has to
+pay tribute to the other in the market where values are compared
+and payment made for values.
+
+Owing to the advance that has been made both in invention of
+implements and methods and in the organization of workers, there
+is now a marked difference in the value of the product of a day's
+work. A study of this situation shows the supreme need of action
+that will direct our energies as individuals and as a state in a
+way that will bring the largest value for a day's work.
+
+We must choose with care our work, our equipment and our methods
+of combining our efforts. There must be team work within each
+industrial plant and each plant must be in tune with the whole
+competing world.
+
+As a people we have not lagged behind, in fact we have been
+leaders in many important branches, but our enterprise has known
+no state boundaries, and many of our men and women have gone to
+other states. Hence, while as a people we have been leaders, as a
+state we have been lagging behind the more active industrial
+states.
+
+Vermont is very close to the most highly developed industrial
+center on the face of this globe. These centers, through
+coordination, invention and choice of work, have been able to
+produce greater values per man per day. Men with the spirit of
+industry and a practical knowledge gained by experience in these
+highly developed centers go out from such centers and build up
+other industrial centers wherever the best opportunity appears.
+The nearest places to these centers are the most natural fields in
+which to start new organizations. But when no cooperating spirit
+is found near at hand, these carriers of industry go till they
+find better places. Many have traveled past Vermont because we
+were busy in other lines and our money was being sent to other
+states for investment. Many of our own men left the town of
+Windsor during the last sixty years, and from this one town there
+has been built a number of important industries in other states
+notably in Massachusetts and Connecticut.
+
+It is not necessary to assume that the industrial spirit has
+spread under the guidance of man or just by chance as these men of
+practical knowledge and enterprise have drifted. It may be that
+the successful new centers were merely a few of thousands of
+attempts in other places. Our problem is to study the conditions
+under which these industries thrive and then see how we can
+establish these conditions.
+
+In this way we will be acting in harmony with the natural drift or
+natural law, if you prefer, and this is one of the purposes of
+this book.
+
+
+
+VERMONT FAVORABLY LOCATED.
+
+Our nearness to these industrial states give us an advantage over
+more remote states, but it is not sufficient in itself to bring
+our share of industrial expansion. Nevertheless it is one of the
+greatest advantages and constitutes one of the strong points on
+which we base our faith in our plan for greater industrial
+development.
+
+The next element to nearness to existing plants is the spirit and
+understanding of the people. Vermont has the best spirit of
+industry but has not the fullest conception of industrial life and
+opportunity. It is this purpose of setting forth the principles of
+desirable industrial life that constitutes the next step.
+
+When these principles are understood, we will improve the chances
+for the acquisition of local industries through the coming of
+others from nearby states or by the establishment of new plants by
+some of our own people who are already well qualified to carry
+forward such enterprise. But whether it is brought about by these
+or any other means, the basic principle on which successful
+industries are built must be known and must constitute the policy
+of organization and management.
+
+The principles set forth are basic. They constitute the necessary
+addition of the practical knowledge of invention, management and
+general business knowledge gained in existing plants.
+
+Industrial life calls for the best that is found in brain,
+enterprise and ability and should have every possible aid and
+cooperation. Furthermore it should be protected from impractical
+promoters, impractical managers and obstructive theorists.
+
+It is actual work and accomplishment that counts. The workers and
+those who lead and cooperate with them should not have their
+combined efforts handicapped by those who have never done actual
+work or who have never been performing an essential service.
+
+Indifference and misdirection are our greatest enemies in times of
+peace. These hinder our growth and if allowed to exist, will
+ultimately lead to our becoming a subservient people.
+
+We are all ready to accept these facts but may differ as to the
+best ways to use our energies.
+
+We are already making good progress in various branches of
+agriculture, granite and marble work, and in various branches of
+manufacturing of wood, textiles and metal, but a direct comparison
+with our manufacturing states shows that we do not bring into the
+state an adequate return for our labor.
+
+Many of our young people migrate to more remunerative kinds of
+work in other states, and as already stated some of these
+Vermonters have led in the creation and upbuilding of great
+industrial establishments.
+
+There are now many good chances to create new and energize our
+existing industries.
+
+Some may ask why should we consider other industries when we can
+find many good opportunities in our present enterprises. The
+answer is that our people drift away to other states to get into
+these industries for there they have discovered that the best
+chance to produce a large value for a day's work is where best
+implements are used and where there is the best organization of
+workers.
+
+They have found that in some respects we are lagging behind in the
+use of best methods and best implements.
+
+
+
+OUR PROBLEM.
+
+Without going further into the analysis of the conditions that
+confront us, it is obvious that an increase in the size and number
+of desirable industries is an object worthy of our attention and
+efforts.
+
+We have clearly in mind that more money flowing into the state
+will improve our entire economic situation. Taxes, markets,
+population, schools, opportunities for Vermonters and general
+improvement in all values and interests.
+
+The next thing to do is to get an industrial policy that will
+guide us in our course as individuals, managers, engineers,
+manufacturers, investors, progressive workers and as citizens. The
+idea must precede action and the action must precede results. The
+true idea will bring results of like character, hence the need of
+the fullest knowledge on which to form the idea.
+
+A simple outline of a desirable industry may be drawn through the
+following points:
+
+First: An ideal industry is an organization in which the energies
+of mind and body are most effectively employed.
+
+Second: Since man is something more than a physical body, his work
+must be one in which he feels an interest and satisfaction.
+
+Third: Since there are various kinds of implements to aid man in
+his work, a successful organization should use the most effective
+type.
+
+Fourth: Since man is a creature of habit and functions most
+effectively when he has acquired skill through experience, each
+one in the workshop and office should be experienced in his
+particular branch of the work.
+
+Fifth: Since the high skill of men is attained through repetition
+of operations, the management must subdivide the work into classes
+in which each man can become highly proficient.
+
+Sixth: Just as there is an individual skill and ability acquired
+by the individual, so there must be a group skill built up. The
+group skill is acquired by the coordination of the energies of all
+the workers so that the work flows naturally and evenly from
+worker to worker with the minimum hindrance. This coordination
+takes place naturally through experience. It only needs common
+sense supervision and a protection of the workers from the
+impractical interference of faddists.
+
+
+
+HAVE FAITH IN VERMONT.
+
+Travelers through the west, particularly on the coast states
+bring back the story of optimism that seems to be characteristic
+of the enterprising people who migrated west in the early days.
+This spirit of optimism is not found in all parts of our country,
+and yet it is of high value. In New England for instance, in each
+state there is a state pride, but perhaps not to the extent that
+we find in the larger cities and in the west. Here we are more
+interested in the success of our various branches of activities.
+
+Vermonters have been notably free to go beyond state boundaries in
+the acquisition of trade or profession and in practice, but
+optimism, which is the parent of enterprise, has an excellent
+chance for existing in our state.
+
+The early history of industrial development shows it followed
+along the avenues of transportation--seaports and lakeports and
+railways. With the railways the industries spread to other states,
+notably Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. Now there is setting
+in a readjustment and the time is ripe for Vermonters to use some
+of their spirit of enterprise within the boundaries of the old
+state. Goods may be shipped to the best market from the top of our
+highest mountain at lower cost than it could be shipped from some
+remote competitors. There is every angle favorable except the full
+knowledge of the situation and the elements on which industrial
+success can now be achieved.
+
+The coming and use of machinery has been a most potent force in
+determining the economic rating of city and state, and it is in
+this respect that Vermont has now its great opportunity, and it is
+in the field in which invention, the use of machinery, the right
+methods of building up an effective group of workers that there is
+the surest reward for the energy put forth by investors,
+organizers and workers.
+
+If you have grasped these facts; continue to study the elements of
+the plan; fit yourself as an experienced worker or executive in
+some branch of the work; see that the scheme of work is one that
+can successfully compete with other producers; then put your whole
+self into the work.
+
+If you wish to get the plan into your own consciousness and
+action, tell it to others.
+
+Become a practical booster of the plan.
+
+It fits the future.
+
+It fits today.
+
+Be a Booster.
+
+It is right.
+
+It pays.
+
+
+
+OUR INDUSTRIAL POLICY.
+
+We must endeavor to establish desirable industries. The most
+desirable industries are those in which there is an opportunity
+for development of all the workers and a chance for the greatest
+number to find the best opportunity to acquire special skill and
+special ability. In such industries there should be the open door
+of progress so that those who are qualified for advancement can go
+forward from position to position with no barrier other than their
+own mental or physical limitations.
+
+Special ability, skill and team work are only acquired by long
+specialized practice. These qualities constitute the most valuable
+assets on which to create a new concern.
+
+Very elaborate systems have been designed for controlling the flow
+of the work through the plant and the division of the various
+activities between men and departments, but the real effective
+coordination must grow out of the actual working conditions of the
+workers. This natural evolution of the group's effectiveness as a
+single organization is one of greatest importance. The impractical
+theorist coming into an old plant will start in at once to
+rearrange the order of things irrespective of both the group
+habit-action and the habit-action of each man.
+
+Changes must be most sparingly made, with the full knowledge that
+anything that interferes with the habit-action of the workers is a
+serious hindrance. All people concerned, whether as executives in
+the industry, or as investors, must remember that in a growing
+industry, individual skill as well as group skill of the whole
+organization greatly improves with continued action. Under the
+process of continued action the average man can make a fair
+showing and with a reasonable degree of moral support will make
+good, while without it the ablest man will have a hard time and
+even fail if he is forced to accept changes that disturb
+continuity of action.
+
+The management must conform to the best world practice in
+engineering, industrial life, individual welfare and economics. It
+must have every element of organization kept in best condition.
+The spirit of the group is of great importance, for the
+organization goes forward on the congenial nature of each man's
+profession or work. Each man's energies, both mental and physical,
+must be employed constructively with the minimum disturbance. His
+energies must be concentrated on his own particular work. This
+concentration applies to all workers and executives. This plan is
+based on the fact that, through continuity of attention and
+application to a given work, man acquires a special aptitude. It
+also recognizes that each man on the face of the earth, from the
+tramp along the railroad to the most highly developed scientist
+and executive, has a special knowledge and special ability that he
+has acquired by experience.
+
+It is needless to say that in competition with the whole world
+there must be alertness every day in the guidance of details of
+mechanism and business, and that it is not by the gathering
+together of a group of men at the end of the year or even once a
+month or once a week that business can be effectively managed; it
+is a continued application to the work every day and every hour
+that counts.
+
+There should be no absentee management. The men who manage must be
+in close touch with the work and the workers--not merely through
+written or oral reports, but by actual observation.
+
+Travel, study and observation of other connections and work are
+necessary, but the home must be with the industrial plant and that
+must be the prime interest.
+
+
+
+LIMITATIONS OF MAN'S PROGRESS.
+
+It is not contemplated that all men will become managers or
+office men. Such positions are not of a kind that is satisfactory
+to many of our ablest men. Some are happiest in work in which they
+acquire great skill. They are disturbed and made uncomfortable
+when required to solve mental problems. Some of the greatest
+achievements have been wrought by such men, who have been highly
+honored in the past and such men will have more recognition as
+time goes on, for we are coming to understand the fact that we
+must depend on such men for special ability in the form of skill,
+whether it is in the surgery, mechanics, art or any other branch
+or division of work or the professions. Such men are not talkers
+and do not force themselves into spectacular positions. To say
+that there is no progress for the surgeon if he cannot become
+manager of the hospital, nor for the skilled worker if he cannot
+become manager of the industrial plant, would not be in keeping
+with facts for we know that such men have made the greatest
+contribution to the world's welfare.
+
+This plan of individual progress should not be disturbing to the
+worker who has come to a standstill. It is the ideal toward which
+we must work. It can never be wholly attained, but such a policy
+will make a vast difference with the prospects of all workers and
+in the success of industrial organizations.
+
+
+
+PROTECT THE INDUSTRIAL SPIRIT.
+
+Industries and the workers should be protected from incompetent
+managers, investigators and impractical theorists.
+
+Industries and the workers go forward by actual work, not on
+manipulation of stocks, bonds, laws and schemes to wreck or boost
+for temporary gain of some one interest.
+
+In general it is safe to have faith in the honesty of the workers
+and those who cooperate with them--at least we can start with the
+assumption that honesty and square dealing are not monopolized by
+other professions.
+
+If we will remember that an industry has a vitality the same as a
+man, that its life can be destroyed by an ignorant investigator
+with a probe poking into every nerve and muscle, we will make
+Vermont a more natural place for industrial development and
+progress.
+
+The attitude of the workers and the general public should be
+cordial instead of antagonistic for every desirable industry is an
+asset of great value.
+
+In theory and law an industry belongs to the stockholders, at
+least it is for the stockholders to elect the board of directors
+who through practical officers manage the business; but, as a
+matter of actual fact, to the man who has the best job in the
+world for himself right in that organization, the life of the
+organization is of greater importance than it is to any one of the
+stockholders. In the same sense the existence of the industry is
+of greater value to many others in the organization and in the
+community than it is to the stockholders.
+
+Hence, anything that interferes with the success of the
+organization injures many people.
+
+
+
+WHAT IS NOT AN INDUSTRY.
+
+Perhaps it will be well to state first what does not constitute
+an industry. Power, transportation facilities, fine buildings,
+fine machinery and a group of skilled workmen, a complete office
+staff and an elaborate system of fad management do not constitute
+an industry. Such an aggregation might be likened to a cargo ship
+all ready for service excepting that it lacks a captain and
+navigating officer and some one to determine what kind of a cargo
+to take, where to go and how to get there.
+
+The greatest value of an industrial plant that has everything but
+a work to do and a leader to determine its major policies, lies in
+the skilled workers and able executives in work and office. The
+buildings and machinery come next in value, but the whole thing is
+worthless without the idea and the vision.
+
+
+
+"DEAD" ORGANIZATIONS.
+
+In all cities we can see "dead" organizations. Many of these
+companies that are actually "dead" seem to have life in them
+because they continue to move, but in many instances the motion is
+only due to the momentum of a push that was given years ago.
+
+A "dead" organization may show signs of life in its gradual growth
+in size, but its real character is to be seen in the extent to
+which it is departing from specialization or by the continued use
+of antiquated methods and buildings.
+
+The departure from specialization is generally due to either lack
+of courage to discard obsolete designs or to an inclination to
+consider the business from the selling end only.
+
+It takes courage to discard an old model and it also takes courage
+to refuse to build some new invention.
+
+The indifferent management carries the old and takes on the new.
+This policy covering many years creates a condition that is far
+removed from the specialization plan.
+
+The management that views everything from the selling side of the
+business is also inclined to go on indefinitely increasing the
+line of goods manufactured.
+
+The drift away from specialization may not be disasters today or
+tomorrow, especially, if there are no competitors who are
+specialists, but the inevitable result will be the burial of the
+"dead" organization when a real competitor comes into the field.
+
+The calamity of the existence of "dead" industrial organizations
+is something more than the ultimate loss to the stockholders, it
+is the deplorable stagnation in which the workers find themselves
+with their progress blocked by lifeless management.
+
+
+
+SOME INDUSTRIAL HOWS, WHYS AND WHATS.
+
+How groups of men achieve the highest results in expenditure of
+given energy.
+
+What is necessary to establish such conditions.
+
+What are the most desirable opportunities.
+
+What are desirable industries.
+
+Why the need of building up habit-action.
+
+How a group of men, through team work, acquires a group habit- action by
+which their product greatly exceeds the product of the same number of
+men working without cooperation.
+
+How the individual ability and skill, as well as the group ability
+and skill is only to be acquired by repetition that establishes
+habit-action.
+
+Why repetition of operation is essential to acquisition of skill
+and special ability.
+
+What are the boundaries that divide the Jack of all Trades, the
+specialist and the victim of an overdose of repetition work.
+
+Why industrial managers should know the cardinal principles of
+invention, of industrial engineering, industrial management,
+industrial relations and the human factor in engineering and in
+the industries.
+
+Why a plant may be growing in size and paying dividends and may
+still be dead so far as the spirit of enterprise is concerned.
+
+Why some men try to manage industrial plants regardless of the
+cardinal principles of progress of workers and the state.
+
+Why the ideal conditions for the workers and executives can only
+be found in an industrial establishment that can successfully
+compete with others.
+
+These "whys", "whos" and "whats" are of importance to all and
+suggest a line of thought and interest in this industrial
+discussion.
+
+
+
+NEW INDUSTRIES.
+
+The first men to function in the creation of new industries are
+those who are already well grounded by long experience in some
+special form of industry. The new organizations must have men well
+qualified to direct each of its branches.
+
+In general it may be stated that a new organization must start
+with a superior article to manufacture and the elements of a
+superior organization. Sometimes it is possible by invention alone
+to win without the aid of the modern plan of specialized
+organization. On the other hand, the success may be attained by
+superior organization without a superior article to manufacture,
+but in general it is better to combine all of the possible
+beneficial factors in a new organization.
+
+Organizers should know the market possibilities. If possible, the
+product should be sold directly to the user. The contact with the
+ultimate user is of supreme importance in the development of the
+invention and the organization. In dealing through a selling
+agency the manufacturer is not in control of the whole business.
+The selling agent dictates the policy of the whole business. He
+dictates the policy of the manufacturing plant from the selling
+agent's needs and that seldom fits the manufacturing conditions.
+The selling department generally demands many changes in product
+and wide range of articles of manufacture, while the manufacturing
+conditions require that special skill and ability that can only be
+developed by continuity of action of a given kind, and this
+restricts the range of produce.
+
+If the head or one of the heads of a proposed organization knows
+the market condition and knows what can be done in the sale of a
+new article, then the question of invention and manufacture can be
+safely left to those who have been well grounded in such
+principles. That leaves only the question of the financial
+arrangements.
+
+The method of forming a stock company under the laws of Vermont is
+very simple and people are generally well disposed to invest in
+the stock of the new company providing the men at the head are
+known to be competent--the inventor as an inventor, the business
+man as a business man and so on all the way through. The standards
+of measure of each one of the men and the standards of measure of
+conducting the business are set forth in other chapters. At this
+time it is sufficient to say that getting the capital is the
+easiest part of the job. The real work is the preliminary work of
+acquiring experience and devising plans.
+
+A plan to create a new industry does not call for disloyalty to
+the employer, for as a rule it is very foolish to attempt to
+compete with an established organization excepting on some
+business that gives the new organization an advantage by one or
+more of the following points: invention, simpler product, simpler
+methods, a higher degree of specialization, a more effective and
+direct scheme of sales or a better spirit of personnel.
+
+One of the essential things for the business man--if the business
+man is not the inventor--is to grasp the fact that his success is
+tied up to the inventor. The inventor is needed in the development
+all the way through, not only in guiding the form of the
+manufactured article, but in a large degree by dictating the
+process by which the article is to be manufactured. The inventor
+usually needs curbing to keep him from disturbing his own market
+by the creation of newer forms, but these matters are treated
+under the chapter of invention.
+
+The principle element to set forth now is that it is a waste of
+time and money for a few business men to buy a patent or an
+invention and then dispense with the service of the inventor. They
+are merely going to sea without a navigator. On the other hand it
+is equally true that the inventor must consider the business side
+of the problem and do all in his power to devise effective means
+to facilitate the process of manufacturing.
+
+The point to be made here is that there is no chance to win in
+this game by sharp practice. It is only through work and the
+combined work and energy of all the men in the organization that
+anyone can win.
+
+
+
+INVENTOR'S PROPORTION.
+
+In the machine tool industries, one-third of the interest in the
+plant is given to the inventor. This, to the average investor
+appears to be an unfair proportion, but it is one of those cases
+in which the broadest vision is necessary, and a glance at the
+earning power of such organizations as well as the prestige of the
+inventions, will bear out the wisdom of the general plan in
+similar industries.
+
+The plan, however, should not be considered as something that
+boosts only one man or one group of men. If there is any attempt
+to exploit labor, the plan is wrong. The scheme must be
+fundamentally right so that each man coming into the workshop or
+the office of business finds there his best opportunity to develop
+and receive his best return for the use of his energies.
+
+It is hoped that succeeding chapters will build up confidence in
+the scheme that will make it possible for men to see the way to
+progress in this line, to have faith in each other and to know
+that their ultimate success will come through a spirit of
+cooperation, concentration of attention and energies of each man
+to his own special work so as to attain highest ability and last
+but not least, the complete coordination of all in one safe, sane
+industrious organization.
+
+
+
+MANUFACTURERS AND NEW INDUSTRIES.
+
+One of the forces that operates against increase in the number of
+industrial establishments is the fact that we do not realize the
+need of human progress in our plants. Men should progress from job
+to job until they reach their best achievement. Some gain their
+greatest success in some manual work in which they acquire great
+skill and others go on to executive positions and even graduate to
+join other organizations or to start new industries.
+
+We fail to see this fundamental law regarding the growth of the
+manufacturing organization, and seldom realize the prime necessity
+of the fundamental law relating to specialization. We overlook the
+fact that stagnation in place of progress of the men in the plant
+is deadly to the organization, and feel that if we get an
+extra-efficient man in a certain position that he must be kept there
+regardless of his own opportunity for advancement. We fail to realize
+that progress all the way through the organization, should be
+encouraged--that while man is distinctly a creature of habit, his mind
+as well as his body must be considered, and that only by changes of a
+progressive nature does he develop most favorably.
+
+Too often a manufacturer is opposed to the creation of other
+organizations by men from his own organization, when, as a matter
+of fact, it would be a great deal better for his own institution
+if he would encourage the growth of other plants that can be
+created by his own men.
+
+
+
+HABIT ACTION, BASIS OF SKILL AND PROFICIENCY.
+
+We have many text books on the subject of industrial finance, of
+engineering, of invention, of industrial management, and all these
+books are written on the assumption that the human being knows his
+own kind. A study of our failures seems to reveal, however, that
+we have misunderstood the human being.
+
+For instance, while we know that skill and experience is
+invaluable, we make our mistake by underrating its value, or too
+often we limit its application to the hand worker. We say that
+skill of the pianist, the surgeon, the workman must be acquired by
+practice. We know that in many trades a workman must spend three,
+four or more years as an apprentice, and at least the same number
+of years is necessary of actual specialized practice in almost any
+department of work, but we overlook the fact that that special
+skill or that special ability on which modern success is based
+must be acquired under certain conditions.
+
+The oriole builds a nest unlike the robin's nest. Each is
+qualified in its own work. We know that these birds would be
+sorely handicapped, and would probably be downright failures in
+providing nests in season for eggs, if each were required to work
+to plans and specifications of the other bird's nest.
+
+Our fundamental error in understanding our own kind seems to lie
+in the fact that we fail to recognize that man is a creature of
+habit to an extent not quite equal to that of the lower animals,
+but nevertheless to a degree that positively stands in the way of
+any man who tries to create or manage an industry without giving
+due value to this one element.
+
+Another way to say all this is that we must recognize experience
+is necessary--experience not only for the worker but for each one
+in the organization.
+
+The effect of this characteristic of habit action is so profound
+that any disturbance in a plant due to changing the position of
+benches or machinery or changing the character of the work
+sorely interferes with man's efficiency. On account of this
+characteristic the degree to which man's energies are most
+effectively employed goes in direct proportion to the degree in
+which there is a minimum of changes in the character of the work.
+The importance of this will be realized when we consider the
+question of competition, for that, in the last analysis,
+constitutes the measure of success.
+
+Now, if we extend the plan of acquisition of special ability to
+embrace men in office as well as in the workshop we have covered
+the whole subject and have said nothing more than that it is
+necessary for all men in the office as well as in the workshop to
+have a special ability that has been acquired by experience.
+
+If it is as simple as this, why the need of saying it? The need is
+brought about by the painful fact that one of the characteristics
+of habit action is to continue on without change even after the
+mind has apparently recognized that a change should be made.
+Success comes not from the mere _word_ knowledge of these
+things, but through action.
+
+
+
+SPECIALIZATION.
+
+Of the many elements on which industrial development depends, the
+question of specialization looms large.
+
+Under the general term "specialization" we include all plans and
+methods of work by which the scope of activity of man is
+concentrated.
+
+The highest degree of skill of artist or worker is attained by
+concentration of energies to a restricted range of work. It is
+through practice that the skill is acquired. The highest skill and
+highest ability is attained by the degree of interested attention
+and number of repetitions of a given kind of work.
+
+Other things being equal, the practice, combined with keenness of
+interest, makes the most successful man in a given profession or
+work.
+
+Repetition of operation becomes an automatic (habit) action in
+which man accomplishes the most work for a given expenditure of
+energy.
+
+These two results--proficiency and easy performance--are of
+greatest value, but repetition of action, like nearly all good
+things, is not without its drawbacks. An overdose of one kind of
+work with a limited range of action frequently leads to dulling
+the senses. This stultifying effect produces a most undesirable
+result. The harm begins when there is a loss of interest in the
+work, for it is through the interest that the progress is made.
+The dividing line between the good and bad results varies with
+different types of men.
+
+The simplest tasks may become of intense interest to the scientist
+and he may achieve great success in a work that to others seems
+monotonous drudgery. But with all its drawbacks it still is the
+best way for man to work and while we must labor to eliminate the
+condition of drudgery, we must face the plain fact that
+competition between men, industries, states and nations makes it
+absolutely necessary to specialize.
+
+Specialization by the men and groups of men will determine the
+question of superiority of advance in science, industry, commerce,
+general wealth and welfare, as well as military strength in the
+time of war.
+
+While we have clearly before us the degrading effects of
+repetition of distasteful tasks; we must not ignore the other
+extreme.
+
+The opposite condition is the employment of energies of mind and
+body in ways that cannot produce high degree of ability. With such
+desultory use of energies, a day's work is of relatively small
+value, and there is no progress.
+
+Of the two extremes we find the most prevalent to be the
+scatter-brain and scatter ability type.
+
+The industries of the higher type lead in providing the best
+implements and in organization of best team work by which each
+worker produces the greatest value for a given expenditure of
+energy.
+
+The essential bearing Of these facts is that the worker as well as
+the business man should compare his work with the work of others
+with whom he is in competition.
+
+In these days of long distance transportation our competitors in
+the market may be a long distance away.
+
+If it is in agriculture, the question of climate, soil and degree
+to which highly efficient implements can be used, are important
+factors.
+
+If it is in the professions we must see how we can acquire the
+greatest proficiency and opportunity. This again involves the
+question of the extent to which we must specialize.
+
+The measure then of success is the value of our services as
+compared with the services of others.
+
+One of the important problems in industrial management is the
+extent to which specialization should be practiced.
+
+On one hand we see the ill effects of a routine repetition where
+there has been an overdose of repetition--one that has gone beyond
+the beneficial point--and on the other hand, we find that the
+greatest achievements in the sciences and professions have been
+wrought by those who have concentrated in a way that has given
+them a higher development. Unfortunately in many of the
+industries, the development of machinery has gone forward with the
+sole end in view of dollars and cents, disregarding the effect on
+the worker.
+
+This is to be found in some of the industries in which originally
+there was an opportunity for the worker to have a keen interest in
+his work. Mention is made of this situation as it comes about with
+certain stages of development of the manufacturing processes. It
+is unfortunate and something that the engineers and managers
+should endeavor to eliminate.
+
+We have very few of such industries in Vermont; they can broadly
+be classed as undesirable industries. The fact that there are such
+industries should not in itself drive us from the scheme of
+working by which men specialize. We should, however, see to it
+that the degree of repetition of operation goes only to the
+beneficial extent. Our greatest trouble in Vermont has been the
+wasteful scattering of each man's energies over a variety of
+tasks.
+
+Competition with the outer world makes it absolutely necessary
+that we use our energies in the most effective manner; that most
+effective manner is the one by which through repetition and
+experience we acquire skill and ability. The important matter to
+decide is the degree to which we can specialize. This degree
+varies with the work and the individual. To an alert and active
+mentality routine work becomes drudgery, while to the opposite
+type, mental work is annoying. In an industry, men gradually fit
+in with the most suitable work. Each man's job should be one that
+is best for him.
+
+Nothing has been said thus far regarding the invention of new
+forms of articles to manufacture, or of new methods of machinery
+for manufacturing articles. These elements and many others are
+necessary in order to complete a successful plant, but the
+fundamentals embraced in a statement regarding the habit-action of
+man represented by special ability and skill acquired by
+experience, and the habit-action of the group acquired in the same
+way, constitutes a measure in determining the way at ninety per
+cent of the cross roads in industrial progress. Anyone undertaking
+the creation of a new organization or the management of a going
+concern must grasp these facts.
+
+The value of experience, if acquired in an industry where such
+fundamental principles have been recognized, should be given the
+highest rating. Experience, however, in an industry where the
+energies of men were not most effectively employed and where there
+was not a recognition that the effective employment of man's
+energies require a general development of mind and body up to the
+man's capacity, cannot be counted as wholly good unless, through
+force of purpose, there is the strength to adopt a new path.
+
+
+
+[Footnote]INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT.
+
+[Footnote text: A revision of material originally under title of
+Human Factor in Works Management by James Hartness, published by
+McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York.]
+
+The navigator in preparing for a voyage carefully examines each of
+his instruments. He must know the present error of his chronometer
+and its rate of change, and its general reliability as indicated
+by its past record. He must also know errors in his compasses for
+each point, and he should have the fullest information regarding
+the degree of reliability of every other means on which his
+success depends; and, last but not least, he must accurately
+determine his starting-point or point of departure.
+
+In taking up the subject before us we will do well to follow his
+example.
+
+In doing so, our task will be to examine two principal elements:
+one, the means on which we depend for interpreting the information
+that is available; and the other, the source and character of the
+information.
+
+The means may be considered analogous to the navigator's
+instruments, and is no less a thing than the brain or mental
+machinery; and the information is simply the world about us as
+seen in the existing things, such as machinery, methods, popular
+notions, textbooks, etc., all of which may be classed as
+environments, and may be considered as analogous to the charts and
+other publications of our worthy example.
+
+Like the mariner, we must determine the degree of reliability of
+all these sources of information and our means for interpreting
+observed facts.
+
+When we have ascertained this we will know what allowance to make
+from the "observed" to get the actual facts. With this knowledge
+we will be able to accurately determine both our starting-point
+and best course.
+
+The importance of considering our own minds will be seen when we
+realize that every new fact taken in must in a measure conform to
+the previous ideas. If some of these old ideas are erroneous, the
+mind must be more or less ready to discard them. It is very
+difficult to dislodge deep-seated convictions. Contradictory ideas
+are not assimilated. Only one of them is actually accepted. Even
+when to the objective reasoning they seem false, they frequently
+continue to control our actions.
+
+Since we are loaded with the popular ideas which we have absorbed
+from our environment, it will be well for us to begin by
+critically examining our environment and the process by which
+ideas have been taken in. This may enable us to put out some of
+the erroneous views, and perhaps more firmly fix the true ideas;
+thereby preparing the mind for a more ready acceptance of what
+otherwise would be barred out as contradictory.
+
+We shall not go deeply into the psychology of the subject, as it
+will not be necessary to go contrary to or beyond the well-known
+facts.
+
+We shall not try to locate the man or refer to him as the ego or
+inner man. We shall simply say that we know that we can use our
+brains to think on any subject, and we can use our senses to
+collect information regarding any chosen subject.
+
+Our senses and mental faculties can be directed to consider one
+element in a business, and for the moment be unmindful of the many
+other elements. In other words, we can to a certain extent manage
+our mental processes. Just as a horse can be managed, so may we
+manage our brains. A driver may carefully control the expenditure
+of energy and the course traveled, or he may throw the reins over
+the dash and allow the horse to go his own gait and route. In the
+same way we may manage or mismanage our brains.
+
+
+
+Good Results with Moderate Effort.
+
+A faster pace will not be advocated, for the present gait is
+overstrenuous. We hope, however, to point out a way by which good
+results may be obtained with, moderate effort.
+
+If, in the past, the brain has been found wanting, we should not
+lose confidence in its reliability until we have seen how it has
+been managed.
+
+Under some conditions its interpretations are absolutely correct;
+in fact, under all conditions that would be called fair in testing
+other kinds of mechanism.
+
+Unfortunately, these conditions have not always existed. Opinions
+regarding important matters have been formed when accurate
+mentation has been impossible.
+
+
+
+Physical Condition of Worker.
+
+If the use of the machine induces either an adverse mental
+attitude or physical condition of the worker, it will sooner or
+later be adverse to the economic success of the machine.
+
+We have indicated some of the problems and have suggested the
+well-known method of mental control for this purpose. A keen
+observer of men and machinery may not require as much of the
+so-called practical experience; another may need many years of
+actual work.
+
+The practical experience in the various departments of machine
+construction, its sale and its use, is undoubtedly almost
+absolutely necessary for the average man in this work.
+
+Its value is primarily to give an opportunity to see things in
+actual operation. The shop affords an opportunity to see how a
+machine stands up to its work, where it is weak, and a thousand
+and one points that can best be seen in actual operation. But
+there is still another phase that is comprehended more readily by
+the practical experience, and this applies to the various
+departments of business as well as to the works. It is the
+knowledge of the men and their mental make-up and attitude.
+
+A keen observer soon realizes that successful life in the
+machinery world will not come easily to any one who lacks a good
+understanding of others in the field.
+
+
+
+Capacity for New Ideas.
+
+The assimilating capacity of the industrial world is the real
+gauge of the progress which should be indulged in. This capacity
+to take in new ideas and to work by new methods is not the same in
+all beings, and it is not the same in all organizations. There are
+ways by which it may be measurably increased. New views are more
+readily digestible if presented by enthusiastic advocates, as this
+stimulates an interest. Any attempt to forcibly inject new ideas
+only results in indigestion.
+
+The assimilating capacity of an industrial organization can be
+greatly increased by any scheme that awakens an interest. The
+controlling policies should include advance in efficiency and
+generally in the quality of work turned out, but this advance
+should not involve a break in the output. It mould be based on a
+knowledge of the whole business. In other words, it should not
+only pay in the long run, but if possible it should pay from the
+moment it goes into effect.
+
+We have said that all changes should be of the digestible kind,
+and the feeding process should not be a stuffing process; that the
+ingestion should not exceed the digestion. We have also briefly
+mentioned the importance of keeping the digestion tuned up to the
+best speed by having the organization in a condition to most
+readily take in changes.
+
+That we must make some allowance for inertia of thought and habit
+in all mortals goes without saying, but the exact amount to be
+allowed is very difficult to estimate.
+
+Successful management depends on the degree with which a man can
+estimate the receptivity of other beings with whom he deals. This
+knowledge of receptivity should include the thought and action of
+men all the way from the unskilled worker to the directors, and
+also that of all men in other organizations in any way affected by
+his organization.
+
+Just as food is more digestible if agreeable to the palate, so
+this receptivity or assimilating power may be increased by
+presenting new ideas and methods in agreeable form. A full
+realization of the effect of this inertia of thought and habit
+makes the great efficiency of specialization more comprehensible.
+
+It is this human side that is the key, and if we do not act in
+full accord with it we will probably be working against a great
+handicap.
+
+The inertia works two ways. It hurts a progressive man just as
+much to be tied to a work that requires no brainwork as it hurts a
+sleepy member to be disturbed by progressive talk.
+
+
+
+Money not the Only Dividend.
+
+The major policies of management that should be known to the
+inventor are those which have been adopted to make the business
+pay. Not necessarily to pay in dollars and cents today, but to pay
+in every sense, and in the long run, in dollars and in other
+things.
+
+It cannot pay in dollars if the other things are missing. By other
+things are meant good organization built on best conditions of
+mind and body for each of the beings included in the organization.
+On such things the stability of the organization depends.
+
+No matter how much the manager of a business may wish to run it
+for other things exclusively, or for dollars exclusively, he will
+find that one is not attained without the other. He is forced to
+run a business for the dollar if he wishes to make an ideal
+organization for each member of the human family included in it.
+And vice versa, he must work toward best conditions for all the
+workers if he wishes to protect the capital invested by making a
+stable and fairly long-lived organization.
+
+This statement is inserted here to clear away doubts as to the
+real value or necessity of "making a business pay," and to make it
+clear that no thought is to be tolerated of any scheme of
+management adverse to the real interest of the workers.
+
+The men selected for each of the various positions should be men
+who are fitted to fill these very positions. This does not mean
+mere physical and mental fitness; it means each position should be
+filled by one who wants it, one who knows he is "better off" in it
+than in any other place he can find. Dissatisfied men are burdens.
+It is better to have each position filled by a man who is barely
+competent to fill it than to have it filled by a man who should
+have a much better position.
+
+Of course, this is the ideal, and all moves should be made in this
+direction whenever it is possible. As a rule, it is easier to find
+men on this basis than to find men who are bigger than the office.
+This scheme leads to more promotions in the organization and has a
+stimulating effect on all concerned.
+
+
+
+Right Placing of Men.
+
+The management's chief business should be to take man as he is
+found on earth and place each one where he will accomplish the
+best results for both the organization and himself.
+
+Barring the disgruntled, the uncongenial and the habitually
+inattentive, almost all men may be and should be profitably
+employed, the prime requisite being reasonably close attention to
+business. The thoughts must not habitually wander away from the
+work.
+
+Intrigue disappears when the management quits looking for it, and
+assures everybody, by the general method of conducting the
+business, that there will be no chance to oust this or that man.
+That each man will be retained in his place if he will but give
+reasonable application to the general interest of the organization
+and the particular work of his office.
+
+The management does not "manage" if it perpetually changes its
+men. It should bolster up the man who lacks self-confidence; it
+should puncture false ambitions, and it should use men as they are
+found in the organization. It should not be inclined to "go back
+on" a man who has blundered or who has been found lacking in
+understanding.
+
+It should not be over-ready to embrace a stranger just because his
+faults are not known.
+
+The financial hazard of a business enterprise is greatly minimized
+by using men as they are found, and properly placing them at work
+or in offices for which they are qualified.
+
+
+
+Unimportant Details.
+
+We can neither regulate the complexity of our environment nor the
+number of problems which we must settle within a given time.
+But we can improve the conditions very much by avoiding
+overconcentration on unimportant details. The brain's best time
+and energy should be reserved for our own immediate problems; it
+should not be hampered by details of others.
+
+The various officers of an industrial organization should know the
+ins and outs of the thinking machine on which they depend for
+guidance. With such knowledge each brain will give the greatest
+results, and without such knowledge the best brain may be
+untrustworthy.
+
+One of the important characteristics of the mind is its tendency
+to lose sight of everything except the subject in mind. One danger
+is dodged by jumping into another which we have not seen. Both
+dangers were plainly in sight to any one who had not concentrated
+on one of them.
+
+In the regular every-day business life, we seem to have ample time
+to consider each problem. But in reality our great length of time
+is offset by a great number of elements to consider, and a more
+profound effect of long continued teaching or molding of our
+environment.
+
+For years engineers have concentrated energies on the steam-engine
+of the reciprocating type. The master-minds have made important
+improvements in the design, and many have given up their entire
+existence to the science of analyzing the effects of each
+variation in conditions of working the steam.
+
+Our textbooks, our teaching, our observation all concentrated our
+attention on this type.
+
+For some reason Gustav deLaval, followed by C.A. Parsons and
+Nikola Tesla, broke away from this spell, and we have the steam
+turbine engine. These individuals are endowed with master-minds,
+but the task of producing the turbines was probably no greater
+than the task of others in improving the reciprocating type.
+
+In one case a great step has been taken. In the other, we have an
+example of men of undoubted ability laboring hard for entire
+lifetimes with relatively small gain.
+
+This example applies to more than the inventors' world. It has
+many parallels in the cold business management of a manufactory
+and in any one of its departments. Business management requires
+the same kind of reasoning and getting away from the spell of
+environment. But this phase we shall consider later under another
+head.
+
+The point to be brought out here is the effect of the spell of
+environment in magnifying the importance of existing views and
+methods, and the deceptive part this trusty brain plays in binding
+us to unnecessarily hard work.
+
+
+
+Cure for Mind Wandering.
+
+The mind should not be allowed to wander, for wander it will if it
+is not rationally directed. It should be furnished with some
+interest, either in the form of study that is taken up out of
+working hours, and which can be permitted to occupy the mind while
+work of the habit kind is being done, or, if it is not a study,
+there should be some wholesome interest or pleasure.
+
+Music to some furnishes this need. Music heard in the home or
+elsewhere will sometimes occupy the mind during working hours when
+the work is of a monotonous character. In some instances music has
+been provided during a certain part of the day, just for this need
+of workers who are employed in an occupation that in itself
+furnishes no mental nourishment.
+
+But these extreme cases do not represent the vast majority. They
+apply only to the needs of the mind of those engaged in a work in
+which they can awaken no interest. Nearly all kinds of work offer
+a chance for the average man to get interested directly in the
+work itself. Such an interest soon bears fruit in the results as
+well as in the comfort of the worker, and it is this phase on
+which we must depend for making specialization comfortable and
+profitable to the worker. It is this phase that is wholly
+overlooked by those mentioned above who have seen or felt the joy
+of work that comes to one who rambles into a new field. We fail to
+see that the same kind of mental pleasure may be obtained while
+working along the natural and efficient lines of habit, and that
+in one case we have had pleasure at great expense of wasted
+energy, and in the other case we may have made a true progress for
+ourselves and others by moving along the rational way.
+
+
+
+The Manager's View.
+
+The important duty of weighing up these various views devolves on
+the management, and its action should be in accordance with the
+complete and corrected view. It must consider the subject from a
+top viewpoint, and must then act.
+
+The manager keeps in mind that the machines must be built,
+purchased, and used by human beings, so he carefully studies their
+peculiarities. He knows that change of thought or habit requires
+time.
+
+In looking over the history of one of the companies engaged in
+machine building, we find that the cost of the labor has been
+lowered to about one-fifth of the original. In view of this and
+the fact that a very slight change in model sometimes involves a
+temporary increase in the cost of labor three-fold or more, we see
+good reason for reluctance in making changes, even though we know
+that two or three years later the labor cost may drop as low as
+that previous to the change in model.
+
+The inventor, the promoter, the salesman, and the oversanguine
+manager do not always foresee such things.
+
+The manager sees the enthusiasm with which the selling
+organization hails the new model. He realizes that they know the
+faults of the previous type, and he also knows that no one knows
+the faults of the new, but he lets it go. Some enthusiasm must be
+had, even if it be dearly purchased. He knows there will be many a
+troublesome delay due to the newness, even if the whole scheme
+proves very much better than the previous type.
+
+This manager knows that his business success rests on the facility
+with which the machines are satisfactorily built, the readiness of
+the buyers, and, last but not least, the facility with which the
+product is used. The facility with which the product will be used,
+to his mind, is almost beyond overestimation.
+
+
+
+Sub-division of Work.
+
+The division of work into separate operations makes it possible to
+divide the subject into relatively small sub-problems. This
+division of the subject itself brings it within the capacity of
+the lesser brains and makes it very much easier for a brain of
+greater power. In other words, the subdivision of work makes
+places in which all mental equipments may be used.
+
+It is of no benefit to any one to keep the problems difficult by
+making each man think out a process for accomplishing each one of
+a great variety of operations, when the work may be so divided
+that it is only necessary for him to think of just one little part
+of the whole. And we should not befog the issue by saying that
+this is degrading.
+
+Some of the greatest scientists that the world has known have
+concentrated attention to the smallest conceivable part of this
+world, pieces so small that the microscope alone revealed them to
+the eye. There is a chance for the thinker in most any of these
+places that have grown out of this process of finest subdivision
+of work. The hardship comes only when the mind cannot get
+interested in the work. In many cases this is undoubtedly due to a
+misfit, but in most cases it seems to be due to a false notion
+that there is nothing there of interest.
+
+The subdivision of work must go on. If hindered in any one plant,
+industry or nation more than in others, the result will be a loss
+to that one, and on the other hand, the one that carries it to the
+most efficient point will become the most powerful.
+
+This subdivision develops greatest dexterity and skill, as well as
+the keenest comprehension of the ways and means of attaining a
+given end. And this dexterity of operation is more easily carried
+on than is the fumbling uncertainty of the work of the more
+primitive type.
+
+
+
+Care in Applying New Theories.
+
+The manual worker's energies are so absorbed in the physical tasks
+that he is annoyed by any suggestion to change his method. If he
+were given the position at a desk he would probably be interested
+in the progressive schemes for betterment of methods of work or
+management of business.
+
+Bearing this state of affairs in mind, it behooves the progressive
+man to approach the problem of applying his theories in a very
+careful manner. He must realize that the men in various parts of
+the work are under stress of every day's requirements that makes
+it very difficult to intelligently take up any new scheme of
+procedure. Many an ideal doctrine is a beautiful thing in theory
+but of little value if its introduction requires an immense but
+unavailable energy to put it into practise.
+
+He must realize that it is the doing of work that counts and that
+the men who are doing things must not be annoyed. All plans for
+betterment must conform to the assimilating power of the men and
+must not cut off their food in time of change. In other words, the
+new plans should be so matched on to the old methods that the
+change to the new will not interrupt the production.
+
+We have seen that the most efficient way to use man's energies is
+to allow him to follow habit lines of thought and action, and that
+the highest efficiency is reached when these habits are habits of
+concentration of attention and are restricted to the smallest
+variety of work.
+
+
+
+Progressive Energy.
+
+Progressive energy is so valuable that it needs no praise at this
+time. We have had its value stated so often that it is actually
+over-rated in the average mind. Not that it has been over-valued,
+but that the reiteration has obscured the importance of other
+qualities. There should be a greater appreciation of the value of
+energies that are wholly employed in accomplishing results by old
+means and methods.
+
+Progressive energy, when it is kept within certain bounds, is a
+prime asset of an industrial organization. It is like a wholesome
+amount of labor to man; it may be drawn upon without loss, and its
+use actually strengthens its source. But when it is not wisely
+kept in control it only annoys and interferes with real progress
+and real accomplishment of results.
+
+The only way to get work done is to let the worker move along
+habit lines. The only way to progress efficiently is to make the
+new ways and means lead off gradually from those in use.
+
+The progressive man who actually directs work along such lines is
+the most valuable to the world. The one who ignores the "moment of
+inertia" is a disturber, whether he is a director or a "hewer of
+wood and carrier of water".
+
+The man who is doing the real work in the world is not the
+so-called progressive. He is one who points out newer or better
+methods which may be easily established by a gradual exchange of
+old habits for new ones.
+
+
+
+Profit by Experience.
+
+In considering ways and means for efficient management of
+industrial organizations, it is not necessary to commence at the
+beginning of each plant. The method of dealing with the problems
+of existing plants is also applicable to new organizations, for a
+new organization is only new in a limited sense. It uses men of
+experience. It uses existing machines and implements. It follows
+existing methods of conducting business and in the general
+management of its affairs.
+
+Even the so-called new method which may be the center around which
+the so-called new business is built contains very little that is
+new. The newest things in the ordinary industrial world contain
+many old and well-known elements. The very use of a so-called
+new method or machine as a center around which to build an
+organization is in itself so old that it is a confirmed habit with
+us to be lured on to investing in such things by the statement
+that some new process or means is to be employed.
+
+A really new thing that calls for wholly new ways and new means
+for manufacture is almost inconceivable. The nearer we approach to
+newness in the industrial world the thinner becomes the ice on
+which we are moving. Therefore, let us know that when we advise
+following habit lines in all moves in management of an existing
+organization we imply that the same course should be taken in
+establishing a new company or organization.
+
+In both cases we should employ existing ways and means,
+experienced men and well-tried implements. Both old and new should
+be conducted along the usual line in conformity with the state of
+the art, the habits of the workers, and other conditions
+indigenous to the locality. Any scheme of going contrary to the
+existing customs and usage must be entered into with full
+knowledge of the great need of patience, force and courage to
+offset the barrier of inertia.
+
+
+
+Dissipation of Energies.
+
+This tendency to dissipate energies by wandering into other fields
+is not confined to the worker; it is a most common tendency of
+business men. A manager of an industrial establishment has to
+continually combat his tendency to divert the energies of the
+organization along new lines. He knows from past experience how
+dearly bought is each new method that is introduced into his
+organization. He knows for example that it would make all of his
+men tardy at the plant in the morning if at the hour of arising he
+has issued a request for each man to dress by carefully thinking
+out each move. He knows that the day's work would never be well
+done if he asked each one to think before acting.
+
+Even conversation comes under the law of habit. It must follow the
+line that has been carefully thought out.
+
+We all know that when a man talks on subjects with which he is not
+familiar his words carry little weight.
+
+The so-called spontaneous utterances that seem so full of life and
+are apparently the product of flashed thought are either the
+welling up of some subconscious ideas quickly reconstructed to fit
+the situation or they are a haphazard jumble either meaningless or
+conveying an unintended impression. They are generally in the
+humorous line and frequently make an impression that was not
+anticipated by the utterer.
+
+The really useful talk and work is the result of wholesome habit
+of thought and action.
+
+
+
+Tying up Capital in Stock in Process of Construction.
+
+The amount of capital tied up in raw material supplies, stock in
+process and finished product should not be greater than that which
+is necessary to get the greatest output per dollar of investment.
+
+In the machinery-building world there is no such thing as a steady
+long-lived demand for any machine. Hence the proposition to build
+a locomotive or printing-press by methods employed in watch or
+sewing-machine manufacture is entirely ill-timed at least.
+
+For this reason the stock in process must not necessarily be
+considered insufficient if it appears to be on the hand-to-mouth
+plan. The dividing line between excessive and insufficient stock
+must be drawn in each individual case.
+
+Raw material should be purchased in reasonable quantities with due
+regard to the price which varies with quantities but there should
+always be a regard for the amount of capital used for this
+purpose. Any excess represents just that much extra capital
+unnecessarily risked in the business.
+
+There should be a constant supply of material throughout the
+entire work. The stock in process should flow through the plant in
+a rapid but thin stream. The quantity should be no greater than
+absolutely necessary to insure a steady supply for all of the
+workers, including the assembling and selling workers.
+
+An excessive stock of this or that piece, or of all pieces, means
+that much capital idle, and it also tends to slackness of
+management. Frequently it is the outcome of carelessness.
+
+A slip-shod management that disregards this point will use no care
+in purchase of material or in putting in the shop orders. All that
+is needed is to just hurry forward the stock that "happens" to be
+"out", and at the same time allow the accumulation of the unneeded
+stock to go on unchecked.
+
+Immense storerooms for keeping finished stock are shown with
+pride, unmindful of the fact that every dollar's worth of
+unnecessary stock on the shelves in the stockroom, every dollar's
+worth of unnecessary work in the plant, represents idle money and
+faulty management.
+
+If this money is to be retained in the business, the system should
+be changed so that the money will be put where it will bring the
+best return.
+
+The excessive stock in process is sometimes an outcome of blind
+progressiveness--the blindness that fails to see that there is as
+much money tied up in stock in process and in finished product as
+there is in the entire machinery equipment.
+
+An adaptable equipment facilitates keeping down the amount tied up
+in stock in process. The modern plant should take advantage of
+these modern methods and machines which tend toward profitable use
+of capital. Such machines are highly developed and true to the
+controlling ideal of adaptability and largest output per dollar of
+investment.
+
+
+
+Cost of the Product.
+
+The practice of disregarding the profit, when considering changes
+in machine equipment, is the natural outgrowth of the separation
+of the mechanical and the business departments.
+
+The changes in the equipment are usually determined by the
+mechanical department, and this is done with particular regard for
+the quality of work and the cost per piece. The relation between
+the profit and the net labor cost is not considered.
+
+The cost of the product of the average machinery-building plant
+may be divided into three nearly equal parts: the material, the
+labor, and the burden; or, in four equal parts, if a reasonable
+interest charge is made for the use of the capital invested.
+
+The material is the iron, steel and other material that enters
+into the construction of the machine, and it is taken in the
+condition in which it usually comes to the machine shop.
+
+The burden includes all expenses and salaries necessary for the
+maintenance of the business.
+
+About one-half the amount paid for labor goes to the men who run
+the machine tools, and the other half is paid to workmen who do
+the other work, such as handwork, assembling, transporting, etc.
+Therefore, the cost of machining is either one-sixth or one-eighth
+of the total cost.
+
+On top of the net cost of the product there should be a profit. If
+it is not there, the sooner something happens the better. If it is
+there, then it is proportioned to the volume of the output.
+Therefore, both the size of the output and the labor cost should
+be kept in mind.
+
+The size of the profit per unit of output is not generally known
+to the mechanical departments. But even if it is not known, there
+is no reason for their being uninformed as to the importance of
+large output for cost of the plant.
+
+
+
+Largest Profit Per Dollar Invested.
+
+One of the most satisfactory policies of management is that which
+tends toward getting the best return or profit per dollar of
+investment.
+
+We shall not refer to the quality of the product, the design, or
+any other elements which affect the good name and standing of the
+business, for it goes without saying that no business can be
+maintained where these are disregarded. The point to be brought
+out here is that, These thing being equal, the best scheme of
+management for profit is one that puts the capital where it will
+do the most good.
+
+The above statement is one with which all will agree, but
+strangely enough there has been a tendency to tie up capital in
+ways that actually throttle the output of the entire business.
+
+Furthermore, this is frequently done by increasing the portion of
+the investment that is irrevocably tied to the existing product,
+thus not only reducing the earning power of each dollar invested,
+but also increasing the hazard by tying the capital to the present
+product, which soon may be unsuited to the market demand.
+
+One of the most common errors in this respect is the one that
+regards the reduction of the labor cost as the paramount
+consideration.
+
+Reduction in labor cost has been the war-cry. The pay-roll has
+been talked about so much that it has seemed to become the whole
+thing. A man who declares that the labor cost per piece is not the
+most important element is at once branded as an advocate of
+old-fashioned methods.
+
+It is needless to give assurance that there is no intention to
+disregard the labor cost. The net cost per piece is a very
+important element, but it should neither eclipse the question of
+profit per dollar invested, nor the risk of the capital tied up.
+
+What is the gain if the means for reduction of the net labor cost
+reduces the profit more than the saving in labor? If doing so
+results in an actual loss of profit, why is it done?
+
+We can readily see that the overhopeful managers may disregard the
+risk of the money invested, but we cannot see why the relative
+importance, or rather unimportance, of the labor cost should be so
+disregarded.
+
+The machine tools in a plant usually determine its character. This
+character is not one that can be quickly changed, but every
+addition to the equipment does change it for better or worse.
+Usually the installation of a new machine is hailed as a
+progressive move, just because the new machine works better than
+the old, but its effect may be very bad. It may be changing the
+character of the plant adversely to the interests of all
+concerned. Therefore, the controlling spirit should see to it that
+each move is made on a basis that is economically sound.
+
+It is in these changes that the scheme of management has a chance
+to make a great difference in the earning power of the entire
+business.
+
+If too large a proportion of the total available capital is tied
+up in the machine equipment, the business is handicapped. There is
+a right amount which bears a certain relation to the total
+required to carry on the enterprise.
+
+With a given amount of capital for machine equipment, the output
+of the plant will be seriously throttled if the net cost of labor
+per piece machined is allowed to become the controlling element.
+
+
+
+The Workers Help Bring Success.
+
+The inventor, the officers, and mayhap the foreman, taken all
+together, do not and cannot make a successful machine or business
+without this supplemental work or ideas that come from actual work
+of all workers.
+
+This new kind of knowledge should not take away a man's courage;
+on the contrary, it should give him a true sense of value of
+existing, "going" things. With this knowledge he can confidently
+and earnestly push a machine that is the product of a good
+organization. He will know the great value of much experience and
+practise of each of the many men in the organization. He will
+neither kill the business by half-hearted indorsement, nor
+increase the hazard of investment by urging this or that
+modification. Nor will he advocate this or that machine being
+added to a line that is already too great.
+
+The invention, the general organization, the proper direction of
+the business, are essential to success. But without that
+organization which is only obtained by actual, thoughtful
+experience of the men who do things, all the knowledge and
+industry of the leaders are utterly useless.
+
+This knowledge produces a new kind of confidence that has greater
+faith in the existing and running things than in the claims for
+something that has not had the development of practice. It is the
+confidence that knows that the right fundamental ideas and the
+policy of "sticking to one thing" will accomplish the best
+results.
+
+This is not a doctrine of optimism that holds there is no inferior
+machine. The "best" implies the existence of the inferior. In
+nearly all lines there are many grades from the best to the worst,
+but the loss of faith in the relative value of a machine is most
+commonly due to a lack of full knowledge of the other types, and
+it is this kind of loss of courage, confidence, or whatever it may
+be, that this chapter is intended to offset.
+
+
+
+Have Faith in Your Products.
+
+What has been said regarding the optimist, the pessimist, and the
+vacillating man, from the designing and manufacturing point of
+view of a machine business, applies with equal force to the
+business organization.
+
+The business is pushed forward by men who have confidence in the
+project and in the product. If these men lose their faith in their
+own business, they not only lose their usefulness as pushers and
+managers, but they become drags on the industry, and remain so
+until restored to normality. The hazard of investment is greatly
+increased by such conditions.
+
+Instances without number have been observed in which men who have
+been successful have become unsuccessful through loss of
+confidence due to acquiring the "dangerous half-knowledge."
+
+The man who has acquired the dangerous half-knowledge should take
+a post graduate course in some institution where men are treated
+by all the most powerful agencies known to science. There may be
+no institutions of this kind in existence, but the great need will
+doubtless bring the establishment of many.
+
+The men who have lost faith in their own machinery should be told
+that no company can survive the effects of weak-kneed advocates.
+Any company is better for a certain amount of aggressive
+competition. Any company can stand more or less opposition from
+its friends the enemy, but no company can continue to exist under
+the blighting effects of the men who have lost this confidence in
+them or their product.
+
+The post graduate course for restoration of the near-wise man
+should include educational means of all kinds. The means should be
+especially adapted to the need of each student or patient.
+
+There might be a phonograph in each room, which should work all
+night and all day. This machine should repeat over and over a few
+short sentences like the following:
+
+"The only perfect machine is the one you do not know."
+
+"Study the machines offered by your competitors, just to get the
+same degree of knowledge of the 'other' machines--not for the
+purpose of slandering or even mentioning--but just to restore your
+confidence in the relative value of your own machine."
+
+"Don't try to get back your belief that your own machine is
+perfect--that has gone forever--only look at the other machines
+and learn that your own is the best."
+
+This kind of confidence will not be exuberant, but it will have
+marked efficiency in the cold gray world in which you are to again
+try your strength.
+
+
+
+Specialization.
+
+We find that in keeping with the trend toward specialization, the
+machine shop is now manned and directed by specialists, whose
+close application to the technical science of their respective
+specialties has in a degree obscured other elements with which
+their interests should be coordinated. Among these we generally
+find the so-called human element. This feature of specialization,
+which is the natural result of concentration and undivided
+attention to the work in hand, has entailed a string of
+consequences that has lessened the spirit of fellowship and
+co-operation.
+
+The workman in the old machine shop was known as a machinist, an
+apprentice or a helper. The machinist trade required skill at
+bench, vise and forge, and in the operation of the lathe and
+planer. It also required a general knowledge and resourcefulness
+which enabled the machinist to make good with the meager
+facilities. The large specialized shop of today was not known.
+
+Today the machine shop is filled with a variety of machines which
+have grown out of the original types. Each shop's equipment is
+selected to serve the needs of that shop, and since each shop has
+a special purpose, its equipment seldom includes the full range of
+machine-shop machinery.
+
+Today the work flows through the machine shop in lots of large
+numbers of pieces of a kind, and each machine, as well as each
+worker, is kept at one kind of work and usually at one simple
+operation.
+
+The worker in the machine shop of today is no longer known as a
+machinist, because that term does not cover the present
+range of positions. Even the term "all-round machinist" is no
+longer satisfactory.
+
+Specialization has made so many divisions in the work that it has
+resulted in developing men for special branches, so that today we
+have relatively few men who can skillfully operate for instance
+the engine lathe and planer. Even if there are those who ever had
+that ability, most of them have lost it through disuse.
+
+The workers are now designated by many names indicating their
+special work.
+
+The all-embracing term machine shop is divided into departments
+for drafting, designing, accounting, production, flow of work
+control, cost accounting and many other divisions. Each calls for
+executives and workers having special titles.
+
+The subdivision of work has resulted in each executive and worker
+acquiring a high degree of ability and skill for work of his kind,
+and it keeps each one doing the highest class of work for which he
+is qualified so that his time is not wasted in the simpler
+operations which can be performed by men of lesser ability.
+
+We can readily see the economic gain that accrues when the worker
+becomes more efficient; first, though the greater skill acquired
+as a result of fewer operations to perform, and second, through
+the use of the highly developed special machines, for then he is
+able to produce a greater value for a given expenditure of effort.
+We can also see the gain that results from specialization by the
+executives, for each one's attention is concentrated to the
+management of a smaller range of work; but the average mortal has
+not yet reached the point of accepting the fact that to some
+extent there should be a division between mental and physical
+tasks. It is needless to say that no one in these days would
+suggest even a possibility of a general division of the work along
+the line between the abilities of the brain and hand and in these
+days of construction and operation of intricate mechanisms like
+electric and telephone instruments and machinery, aeroplane,
+automobiles, railroad machinery, machine shop machinery, army and
+navy machinery, from the smallest instrument and small arms to the
+big machines like the battleship. The need of the man in whom is
+combined the ability of brain and hand transcends any possibility
+of our meeting the demand. But specialization does require both
+kinds of division. The one that divides along the line between
+mental and physical tasks provides great opportunities for those
+men who have special ability at either the mental or physical
+tasks. It is undoubtedly true that the greatest achievements have
+been attained by those who have been unable to combine the great
+mental and physical ability. Such men by nature and preference are
+most fitted and most comfortable in the positions in which there
+is a greater proportion of use for either the brains or fingers.
+
+Every student of this subject early recognizes that the man at the
+physical task should not be unnecessarily distracted by the vexing
+problems of planning and directing the work. In some way this does
+not seem to fit a democracy, but rather seems to lead toward
+autocracy. However, let us keep in mind that specialization is
+essential, not only at each physical task, but at the tasks at
+which there may be expended a combination of the mental and
+physical, and also at those tasks that are wholly mental, and that
+a division should be made to get the best results from the whole
+organization. While it may seem autocratic to leave to one group
+the determination of the methods of work, and to another the task
+of doing the work, the fact remains that this is an element of
+specialization. That which seems so objectionable to a man with an
+alert mind, is not so objectionable when he realizes that many men
+of the highest type are happiest when given a chance to work out
+tasks unembarrassed by problems of procedure. While this has been
+one of the great tragedies of industrial life, when square pegs
+have been put in round holes, it is one of the most important
+questions that an engineer has to consider.
+
+The human view will make us all labor towards the complete
+elimination of degrading tasks, by changing machinery and
+processes so as to fit the various types of men available. Through
+it all, we must see to it, that our scheme of work is true to the
+fundamental law of specialization, and that we recognize that
+there must be some division between the physical and mental tasks,
+and that this does not necessarily lead away from democracy. In
+fact, we must recognize there are two extremes. At one extreme we
+find the ideal of a highly specialized organization in which the
+greatest value in quality of work and quantity of output is
+possible through a complete co-ordination of the work of all types
+of men, each at his own kind of work, in which each can excel; and
+the other extreme in which we find a general disorganization which
+returns us to the primitive condition in which man's energies were
+most inefficiently used. Such a state is the natural result of
+anarchy, and it is a state that would leave this or any other
+country an easy prey to a country in which specialization existed.
+
+One means team work of great wealth-producing capacity, and the
+other a state in which the struggle for mere existence would be
+severe.
+
+The salvation of the world will be worked out if there is at least
+one well disposed nation that stands firmly for specialized
+industrial organizations. This will result in both industrial and
+military supremacy--for it is now well known that military
+supremacy cannot exist without the highest types of machinery
+building shops.
+
+Such a nation could dominate all others and could ultimately check
+the disorganizing activities of the well-intentioned but
+shortsighted reformers.
+
+The higher form fits our highest civilization and national
+security, and the other is a direct step toward chaos.
+
+Nevertheless there is almost a stampede of sentiment against
+specialization and its product--the large industrial organization.
+This stampede has taken many of our otherwise well informed
+people, and now we are seeing its extreme effect in the
+iconoclastic fever that is raging in Russia and elsewhere.
+
+We know that the individual, the industry or the nation that
+specializes will produce the greatest results with a given
+expenditure of energy, and we know that all this plan of
+specialization requires a co-ordination of the work of all.
+
+There should be brought about through specialization the highest
+degree of ability on the part of the executive officers, as well
+as the highest skill of the workers, and each man should have the
+satisfaction of knowing that no one on the face of the globe can
+excel him at his specialty, and furthermore that his energies are
+expended in the best way to produce value.
+
+Many men have already realized this ideal. Many industrial
+organizations have also attained it in a very high degree,
+and while there was a trend of some of the nations toward
+specialization before the war, there was developed in America a
+spirit of antagonism toward the large units that had grown up as a
+result of this specialization. Not that specialization was
+objectionable, but that industrial supremacy of an organization
+was thought to be a distinct menace.
+
+Since it is in these specialized industries that the individual
+should find his best opportunity to produce the greatest wealth
+for a given expenditure of effort, such organizations should be
+maintained and all others should be gradually changed over so as
+to make the most economical use of the man power of the nation.
+
+We have found by experience that industrial organizations are
+successful if they specialize. We have handed down to us the
+saying that "The Jack of all trades is master of none". Our brains
+accept these statements, we recognize them as facts, but owing to
+one of the irrational traits of the human being, it is one
+thing to believe and another to practice. It is one thing to
+superficially know that it is important for us to specialize as
+individuals, and it is quite another matter to bring ourselves to
+act in conformity with this fundamental law.
+
+The great economic gain or advantage possessed by the Ford
+Company, and many of the other companies in this country, is not
+due to the fact that they have selected a wonderful model that is
+superior to others in every way, but it is based on the fact that
+specialization makes it possible for the various officers and
+workers to become the foremost men in their respective offices.
+Specialization of an industry becomes effective only when each man
+continues at a given job or work. Shifting men about the plant is
+harmful, excepting in so far as it may be good to promote men from
+position to position to fit the development of the men and the
+industry. The plant can be wrecked by changing men from position
+to position without changing the product. It can also be, wrecked
+by changing the form of its product in fact any change, whether it
+is a change of the product or a change of the men, which
+interferes with the continuity of operation of a man along habit
+lines is an economic loss to that organization.
+
+We have stated that each man should specialize in order to produce
+the greatest value for a given expenditure of energy--that
+specialization of the industries is necessary.
+
+That each man has some special knowledge that fits his
+environment.
+
+That the skilled worker has a special knowledge for his duties.
+
+We have pointed out the need of a closer relationship between the
+specialists. That they are all interdependent and must cooperate.
+
+In setting forth the importance of the worker we must remember the
+equal importance of every other member of a well-balanced
+industry.
+
+Lay directors and even lay chief officers are not necessarily a
+menace or even burdens, if they have a fair conception of human
+nature and the importance of each element in an organization, and
+the full necessity of coordination of all.
+
+They should know, however, that every man should be paid first in
+cash and second in honor, appreciation, esteem, good will
+inspiration, commendation for his good work and good qualities,
+careful consideration of his troubles and a genuine knowledge that
+his interests are being justly considered.
+
+
+
+INVENTION
+
+The following chapter is given in its original form as a lecture
+to the Engineering Society of the Stevens Institute of Technology.
+
+Its value in furnishing a side-light on the subject of habit, to
+which the preceding chapters have been more directly applicable,
+lies in its emphasis on the importance of the inventor (or
+designer, if you prefer) having clearly before him at all times
+the effect of habits of thought and action both in himself and in
+all others. These modes must be both conserved and combated in
+himself when building up favorable mental state. He must build on
+habit in order to have his mind continue in its application to a
+chosen subject, and he must combat any tendency to follow habit
+lines of thought that may have been established by observation of
+the older forms or methods. His inventions must be of a kind that
+will be readily made, sold, and used by men whose habits of
+thought and action he cannot readily change.
+
+This should be of value not only to the designer, but also to
+those who direct or co-operate with him.
+
+In designing the parts of a machine, the need of trimming here and
+there, of giving up this or that ideal form just to get things
+together, must be seen and done unflinchingly. And in the same way
+the whole scheme must be made to conform to the economic
+conditions.
+
+If the machine under consideration is like a machine tool, and is
+to be offered for sale, then the manufacturing, selling, and use
+must be taken into account. In machine-tool design a wholly new
+invention is an exceedingly rare thing, and a successful new
+machine is still more rare.
+
+We must remember our own tendency to follow precedent, and we must
+make an effort to see the problem in its natural form without
+being misled by the solutions evolved by others.
+
+
+
+Be Practical.
+
+The toughened idealist may not look or act like an idealist,
+but in reality his idealism is one of the practically-wise
+construction. He allows his memory to hold all that is helpful of
+the past, both of the blunders or successes.
+
+The dreamer who has been toughened by experience is one who lets
+his rational brain have control. He ranks next to the stalwart
+knight of the eraser, because he has the courage to arrest the
+endless tinkering of design in order to get something done. He
+will not let the family freeze while he is thinking up some grand
+scheme of sawing and splitting wood by magic.
+
+A most cursory glance at the machinery in use in the world will
+show that the work has been done by imperfect machines. A study of
+the design of any machine brings out the innumerable shortcomings.
+
+If we see a machine that seems perfect, it is perfectly safe to
+set it down in black and white that we do not fully comprehend it.
+It is safe to say that the only perfect machine is the new model
+that is to be tried very soon.
+
+With these facts in mind it does not require very much courage to
+go ahead with an imperfect design, but unfortunately these
+thoughts will not stay in the mind of the average designer. They
+are crowded out by the flood of ideas for still further
+betterment. That is why it is just to give high rank to the man
+who had courage to go ahead and build, even when he realized the
+faults of a design.
+
+Perhaps one of the aids to this action is the knowledge that the
+apparent opportunity to improve a design may only be apparent. In
+reality the change is only a change, and is no betterment, a very
+common outcome of such ideas. The knowledge of the great array of
+failures of such "improvements" is wholesome and helpful to bear
+in mind.
+
+
+
+The Inventor Sees Opportunities to Improve.
+
+The inventor, from his point of view, sees the great need
+and opportunity to improve the design of the machine being
+manufactured. He sees that the big machines are nothing but
+enlarged editions of the early and smaller ones. He knows that
+with a change of size there should be a change of design. He knows
+that although a granite rock weighing a few tons will not be kept
+suspended in air by a heavy wind, a small part of the same rock
+will be carried away by a breeze, and may be kept suspended by a
+very slight current of air. He knows that the small particle of
+granite has a greater superficial area in proportion to its
+weight. He sees on every hand that a change of dimensions
+frequently entails a change of design.
+
+He also sees the opportunity to effect a great saving by building
+the large machine for its special service, and not on the exact
+lines of the smallest model. The failure of the management to
+adopt his plans seems nothing less than unreasonableness to the
+inventor, for like other mortals he is a trifle slow at grasping
+the fact that no two beings have exactly the same point of view or
+the same quality of sight.
+
+Another inventor sees a chance to make further improvements and he
+is disturbed because there is a ban on changes. He feels that the
+mechanical success of his previous work should be a sufficient
+guarantee of the economic advantage of the last proposed plan.
+
+If an attempt is made to show him that the ban on changes is
+absolutely necessary from an economic point of view, it is found
+that the reasoning does not get the same reaction in his mind as
+in that of the manager. To him the great advance of the new scheme
+fully warrants the temporary expense.
+
+
+
+Improvements May Be Disasterous.
+
+Improvements should be sparingly made. Any improvement that
+requires a change in construction or operation may be disasterous
+financially.
+
+This may all seem extremely pessimistic. But it is only seemingly
+so. Experience shows it to be the true view.
+
+If it is true, then the machine designer should know it. A mere
+knowledge of mechanism is insufficient for him. A large business
+experience cannot be purchased, and his success should not be
+contingent on the business ability of another. He should know how
+a machine should be designed, and should not depend too heavily on
+the views of the business men who have not a clear knowledge of
+the technical problem.
+
+Perhaps some of you may feel that there are many other problems to
+be encountered before you will meet these which I have set forth.
+But we should remember that the mind holds some of such
+impressions a very long time. It holds them below the threshold of
+conscious thought, and under ideal working conditions it brings
+them above it when they are needed.
+
+If you have caught my meaning you will not be weakened in
+enthusiasm for new work, but you will be protected in a measure
+against some of the reaction due to disappointment. There is a
+great field for earnest workers, and it is easy to become one by
+working on the lines set forth.
+
+
+
+Natural Fitness.
+
+One of the first questions that arises in the mind of one who
+intends to undertake machine design is, what constitutes natural
+fitness for it. There seems to be no positive basis on which to
+determine in advance a natural fitness for this work, but there
+are certain temperamental characteristics that undoubtedly have
+much to do with the success.
+
+The temperament should be one favorable to continuity of thought
+along a given line, as well as one that will by nature take an
+intense interest in the subject.
+
+If these characteristics are missing, it may be due more to the
+distracting interests that in these days crowd in upon the mind,
+than to a lack of natural aptitude. The absorbing interest,
+however, is essential, and it may be developed by conforming to
+well-known principles of orthodox psychology. Self-torture or hard
+driving is not nearly as helpful as a strong inner purpose to keep
+the chosen subject in the real center of conscious thought.
+
+The subject that comes to mind when there is a lull in the outside
+demands on the attention, or one that is insistent on taking
+possession of the mind, even when other matters are objectively
+more in evidence,--that subject is the one that holds the center
+of the inner attention. That is the controlling idea or purpose.
+Ordinarily, it is some diversion; occasionally, the haunting
+bugbear of some unfinished work or obligation. If the mind is
+dominated by such ideas or any other than the real problem in
+hand, the individual is seriously handicapped.
+
+When a problem of machine design is undertaken, the mind must make
+it the real center of attraction. To one having an average
+endowment for such work, this is not a difficult task, but to get
+the best results it should be rightly undertaken.
+
+
+
+Repeated Thinking.
+
+A chosen subject is brought, with some lasting effect, to the
+center of attention by repeatedly bringing it into the mind at the
+moments of lull in the pressure of other affairs. The astronomers
+wait for the moment of best seeing, and the designer must wait for
+the actual psychological moment.
+
+The best seeing condition for the astronomer is due in a small
+measure to his own physical condition, and in a large measure to
+atmospheric conditions, but the most opportune time for
+clear-headed vision of the designer is due mostly to his own
+physical and mental condition.
+
+Probably no two men have their minds equally affected by their
+environment or their physical condition, but the fact that there
+is a most favorable time and condition for such thought and work
+should continually be borne in mind. Without this a man with
+natural endowment may try his wings at flight at an inopportune
+time, and if he fails he may be firmly convinced that he was never
+made for flying.
+
+This undoubtedly applies equally well to other kinds of work. It
+may not be strictly true of a perfectly normal man (if there be
+such a creature), but it is truly applicable to many workers in
+this and similar kinds of work.
+
+This phase is mentioned in order to make clear, not only how a
+designer should work, but the thought that should be kept
+uppermost in the mind of one who is trying to do this work.
+
+The physical condition is more or less dependent on the mood, and
+to a great extent the mood is dependent on the condition of the
+body. The strenuous gait is seldom the best, and, of course, the
+extremely indifferent one is of little value. The best for the
+average man is one born of a quiet environment, with mind and body
+in a fairly restful condition, or still better, in a rested and
+fresh condition.
+
+
+
+Concentrating Attention.
+
+The quiet end of the day is almost as good for clear thinking as
+the early morning, especially if the day has not been overstrenuous
+and the activities have been gradually tapered off.
+
+There are many instances that would seem to show that the
+strenuous gait is the best, but nearly all of these evidences are
+questionable. When finally simmered down, the good work done under
+high pressure is frequently due to latent ideas that were the
+product of quiet thinking. The mood and the dominant idea may be
+predicated as necessary.
+
+As already stated, the habit of thought most favorable for the
+persistence of a single group of ideas is attained by the practice
+of switching the attention back to the desired subject.
+
+This should be done at the opportune time. The subject should not
+be forced on a tired mind. It should not be taken in as a painful
+duty, but it should be made the one thing of interest. Really
+valuable results can only come along the line of the dominant
+thought. All other work lacks directness. It follows precedent to
+an unnecessary extent.
+
+
+
+Interest Must be Awakened, Not Forced.
+
+Another way of saying all this is that the designer must get
+interested in the particular problem, and he must have an interest
+that crowds out all other thoughts, even thoughts of similar work.
+It is useless, however, to say, "get interested in the work,"
+unless we suggest a way to awaken interest. Surely, we know that
+interest does not come at mere bidding, and that it cannot be
+forced by hard work. But it can be induced by an easy process in a
+normal being, providing he has not already too firmly established
+a set of habit thoughts of another kind.
+
+The normal being, by persistent intention, can establish the
+desired thought habits by returning the preferred group of ideas
+to mind. Interest is awakened by this comparatively easy process,
+and when a genuine interest exists, the actual work follows as a
+natural result, and it is a pleasure instead of a drudgery.
+
+This is not intended as preaching in any sense; but only to bring
+to mind facts known to all, with the view of implanting these
+facts in the mind of the machine designer.
+
+Some designers have done excellent work with no thought of
+psychological problems. But in this more strenuous age it seems
+best to take advantage of every aid to the desired end.
+
+The intricacy of mechanism has reached such a state that new
+designers are almost overwhelmed with the mere thought of trying
+to comprehend the existing machines. But with the advance of the
+world of machinery, there has been a better comprehension of the
+working of the "thinking machine", and we must take advantage of
+this knowledge in order to win out. It is particularly needful now
+to study its most efficient use. We are getting to the point where
+mental energy saving methods should be used.
+
+It is not necessary to go beyond the bounds of orthodox science
+for schemes for getting the best results from a given mind. We
+have known for centuries that men tend to habits of thought as
+well as action,--that thought habits are like ruts, and these are
+encountered wherever the mind travels, and these ruts bring the
+mind back to a certain central group or community of groups of
+ideas.
+
+
+
+Establishing Useful Ruts.
+
+The real secret of success is in establishing ruts of a useful
+kind, ruts with switches that may be operated by the mind at will,
+or that work automatically when the mind would otherwise wander.
+
+Since even fleeting thoughts are germs of acts, it takes no great
+effort or self-torture if we will but understand the processes and
+smoke out the undesirable germs, and allow and encourage the
+growth of the preferred groups of thoughts. This may be called a
+lazy man's way of doing things, but it is the way to conserve the
+mental and physical energy, and it gets results.
+
+In saying that the problems of the work in hand should come
+automatically and agreeably into the mind when there is a lull in
+the impressions being made by other things, it is not the
+intention to convey the meaning that one must have no other
+interests.
+
+The mind gets its clearest view by the scheme already mentioned
+for creating interest, viz., by repeatedly bringing it back to the
+subject whenever it is found wandering.
+
+The best view for invention is that which reveals the most natural
+way for accomplishing the purpose for which the machine is wanted.
+It should not be born of precedent. It should not follow the lines
+thought out by other designers.
+
+It readily discovers the obsolete features in existing machines,
+features that were required in other days but have no use now.
+Such things remain there just because later designers have
+followed blindly.
+
+All designers follow more or less. We have shown the great need of
+following the set habits of users, but we should make a distinct
+attempt to get back to nature; that is, to see just what is best
+for the purpose, and to get the most direct and natural means. If
+this is too much of a task, just hunt for the obsolete features.
+Above all things, we must not try to follow another's work. We too
+often follow unwittingly and to our misfortune even when we try to
+keep out of the rut.
+
+Machine designers who have done original work will tell us that it
+is easier to do good work by striking out on new lines than it is
+to follow the work of others, or even to tinker over some of their
+own inventions of other years. It requires more ability to take up
+the work of another and change it, than to start out in some
+original scheme.
+
+The machine builder knows that the success of any machine depends
+on the clear-sightedness of his designer and the oneness of
+purpose of all the heads of all the departments devoted to the
+construction, sale, and oversight of the running machines in the
+hands of the users. And last but not least, in these days of
+supremacy of specialization, he knows that success comes only to
+the largest group of men organized for this particular kind of
+work.
+
+
+
+All Men are Human Beings.
+
+One of the first things we learn in the works or office is that
+all men are really human beings. The second one is that the
+meanest one is only so because of certain physical or mental
+conditions that are the direct result of natural law. Usually it
+is not necessary to drag in heredity, for we find ample cause in
+his environment, within our range of vision.
+
+As a rule, a good understanding of men insures a wholesome regard
+for them, while failure to understand the other fellow (or the
+equivalent, the failure of the other fellow to understand us) may
+bring out many things that make us feel that he is not one whose
+feelings or interests should be considered.
+
+To any one that has had experience in the shop and a fairly
+well-rounded business and financial experience in this particular
+field of work, the other fellow is invariably a good fellow whenever
+there is a chance for a fairly complete understanding.
+
+If we can accept this statement tentatively, and follow it up by a
+determined purpose to actually feel it, then we have obtained
+something by the royal process that would have otherwise required
+much time and perhaps some unpleasant experiences.
+
+This knowledge is essential to success in designing machinery.
+True, many have been successful with a very different attitude,
+but engineers of the future must see to it that as many of the
+phases are as favorable as can be made so.
+
+Regarding the absorption of the knowledge of working mechanism in
+the works this is greatly facilitated by a wholesome relationship
+with other workers, and it is greatly handicapped without it.
+Therefore, it is one of the cardinal points for the machine
+designer to get thoroughly acquainted with others in the work so
+as to know their likes and dislikes, as well as the mechanical
+needs.
+
+The favorable features in machine designs are: directness of
+mechanism for the purpose; its simplicity and its efficiency; its
+adaptability to the habit of thought and action of makers and
+users.
+
+The obstacles to its success are any of the features it may have
+that cannot be readily comprehended by those who are to build,
+sell, buy, and use these devices. It is of little value for real
+success for a machine to be one that is readily understood by a
+draftsman or manager, or that it is one that may be made to
+perform wonders in the hands of a skilled expert.
+
+The real economic success depends on the number of machines that
+will be used. The number of machines that will be used depends on
+the readiness with which the real workers take hold and manipulate
+the machine.
+
+To get a true conception of the value of a machine, it is
+necessary to look at the showing of a business engaged in its
+manufacture. In estimating the value of a machine-building
+business for this purpose it is customary to speak of its "good
+will."
+
+
+
+Easiest Way to Improve.
+
+Inventions of complete novelty and of great economic value have
+attained success going in opposition to this principle of
+conformity to the habit of the world. But the easiest way is to
+direct improvements and inventions along lines that are the most
+readily assimilated by the minds of the beings to be considered,
+and this may be said to be one of the master-keys to economic
+success.
+
+The work of building the first model of a new machine may be under
+the direct supervision of the inventor, and if only one machine is
+to be made, the inventor can follow it wherever it is used. By
+patience and industry he may instruct some one in the use of it,
+but in these days there is no chance for a great economic success
+in making just one machine, or in fact any machine for which there
+is not a large market. Hence, we will confine our attention to
+machines made in such large quantities that the complete
+supervision of manufacture, sale, and use is beyond the capacity
+of one person.
+
+For all such machinery the design must more or less conform to the
+thought and habits of work of all concerned. Some of the most
+direct designs have failed to meet with success just because the
+inventor did things in an unusual way. The unusual way is a blind
+way, and is difficult to find. In some instances it amounts to no
+way at all, for it is never used.
+
+If a radical change in design is to be made, the new machine
+should be one that will be the most readily understood. Obscure
+parts or unusual means should be avoided.
+
+If moving parts must be covered, some way should be provided for
+convenient observation. It is the obscure departure that is the
+most troublesome, and it is the obvious thing that offers the
+least resistance to progress.
+
+There is a chance to progress by obvious devices, and such
+progress is enjoyed by all, from the makers to the users. It
+stimulates their weak but wholesome appetite for progress.
+
+
+
+Technical View Insufficient.
+
+But whether the clear view of the designer is due to peculiar
+fitness for seeing such things, or to proper application, the fact
+remains that this clear view of the technical side is insufficient
+in itself. The man with the clear view must also realize that
+others do not get the same view. He must know that the mind
+automatically takes in things of interest to it and wards off
+others. Even when the individual apparently tries to comprehend
+something in which he has no special interest, it only results in
+a superficial mental impression, one that has no appreciable
+effect on the actions.
+
+This failure of mankind in general to grasp the advantages of a
+new mechanism as it appears on paper is only a slight part of the
+troubles to be encountered by a progressive designer.
+
+He has to contend with habits of thought and action of all the
+human beings affected by the new machine. This includes the entire
+group of men in the manufacturing plant in which the machine must
+be made, the business organization both in this plant and the one
+in which it is to be used, and, after all this, the greatest
+obstacle of this kind is to be met in the man who uses the
+machine. For it is in his hands that a machine must prove its
+value.
+
+When we consider the inertia of mind and body, it is truly
+marvelous that there has been any progress in machine design. In
+fact, if the machine-building trade were in retrogression, with
+only a few new men being taken in there would be little or no
+excuse for making machine tools of new design. The older workers
+would get along about as well without the improved machines.
+
+This is not said in a spirit of fault finding. It is a great fact
+that we should grasp if we are to design machinery successfully.
+
+It is difficult for the man of sanguine temperament to really
+accept this view, and it is also hard for one who is continually
+searching for knowledge. But it must be appreciated, and all work
+must conform to this principle, if it is to be pushed forward
+along the lines of easiest progress.
+
+Accepting this view is no barrier to progress. It will not
+ultimately delay the work of a reformer if he is induced to act in
+accordance with this principle. It only prevents a wreck.
+
+The knowledge of the force of habit of man should therefore be
+used in two ways:
+
+First, when the designer is trying to make the most natural
+machine for the purpose. Then he must overcome his own tendency to
+follow precedent. Second, when considering the kind of a machine
+that can be easily made, sold, and used, he must give due
+consideration to the inertia of others, for their inertia he
+cannot hope to quickly change. Reformers in this world generally
+have a hard time whenever they under estimate the inertia of men's
+minds and bodies.
+
+A designer of machinery, by close application to his tasks, should
+obtain a clearer view than it is possible for others to possess,
+of the way a machine should be designed, made, and used. It is not
+necessary to assume he has a better brain. An ordinary mind
+applied to a given subject sees it more clearly than an abler mind
+which has not considered the subject with the right interest.
+
+
+
+Inventions Should Not Mix With Details.
+
+In first working out the mechanical schemes no energy should be
+wasted in trying to make the sketches correct in proportion. The
+very functioning of the brain along the draftsman's line shifts it
+away from the inventive mood. The exact drawing frequently shows
+the necessity of change in general scheme, but that is only one of
+the after-steps.
+
+The fundamental idea is the starting-point, and must be sketched
+out as fully as possible without losing the very frail thread of
+thought.
+
+A clear view of the scheme is not to be obtained on demand. The
+schemer must wait in patience, as the astronomer waits for steady
+air, and, like the astronomer, he must have every facility in
+shipshape. The clear view is only clear to the watching eye.
+
+The coast-wise skipper in making a fog-bound harbor will see a
+buoy through a slight shift in fog, while a landsman might look in
+vain.
+
+The wanderer in the happy dreamland of mechanical scheming must
+not be looking for complete drawings, specifications, and working
+model of the invention he wishes to bring into the breathless and
+waiting world. He must be looking through the mist of the
+thickened senses as the skipper looks through the fog. The buoy
+and the scheme may be never so faintly shown, but yet with
+sufficient clearness to give a positive guide for the course.
+
+Inventive schemes cannot be forced by strenuous effort. Such
+effort may result in slight refinements of a given type, but never
+would have invented the DeLaval or Tesla turbine.
+
+It is not my purpose to belittle the great work that has been done
+in improving existing machines, for this, after all, is the real
+great work that must be done. It is the work to which the world
+owes its greatest debt for progress in material wealth.
+Furthermore, it is a phase that must be considered in connection
+with every invention before that invention can become of value to
+any one. But just now we must consider how the inventor must work
+while dreaming out the fundamental ideas of a mechanical scheme.
+
+The clear view of a mechanical scheme is more likely to come after
+a good night's rest, particularly if the schemer has retired with
+the problem in mind. There are times when invention comes under
+severe stress, hard physical work, and mental anxiety, but the
+most usual time is after a sleep which refreshed mind and body.
+After this the inventor brings his scheme to the drafting board,
+to patent office, to factory, and to the market, and in each case
+he encounters barriers.
+
+
+
+Designing by the Square Foot.
+
+The ordinary work of machine design, in which well-known parts are
+grouped to accomplish a given end, without much thought of
+attaining anything approaching the best,--such designing is like
+painting a fence, so many square feet of paper should be covered
+per day. But the real higher type of work cannot be measured in
+this way. It requires the forethought, the close application, the
+keen interest, and the comfortable idea building.
+
+Designing by the square foot is, however, a good preparation, and
+many a good brain has been developed by such work.
+
+The importance of designing a machine to meet all the conditions
+necessary to success from a mechanical and business standpoint is
+fully recognized by every one. But the grouping of the ideas in
+the mind while working out the various phases must not be hampered
+by the bewildering picture of all of these problems, each
+demanding consideration at every move. The phase in hand must have
+the concentrated attention, and the best conditions for its
+solution.
+
+The harmonizing is an after-process which must be worked out by a
+series of compromises after the various component elements have
+been almost independently considered.
+
+
+
+Problems to Consider.
+
+In taking up the problems of design of a machine, there will be
+found an almost endless number of elements to consider. The
+strictly mechanical problem of the best machine for the purpose
+never stands alone.
+
+What is the measure of the best machine? How much can be spent on
+its design and construction? How much work is to be done? An
+endless variety of questions at once crowd into the mind for
+answer.
+
+It is doubtful if all the elements could ever be tabulated in any
+form that would be a positive guide in shaping the final result,
+but in a general way the designer should make a fairly good guess
+at the kind of standard toward which he should work.
+
+There are, doubtless, men capable of carefully weighing the almost
+infinite number of variants, but such men usually lack the
+intuitive scheme of work, on which the inventive side of a
+designer depends.
+
+For the ordinary mortal the best process of working is to keep a
+vague picture of the whole requirement in mind while concentrating
+on some one phase.
+
+When the inventive qualities are to be called into use, the
+economic side, the business side, the manufacturing, the selling,
+the personal profit in cash or glory, all these must be absolutely
+crowded out of the center of the mental picture. Even fleeting
+thoughts of other elements seem to prevent the inventive
+functioning of the mind.
+
+In like manner the problems of manufacturing, selling, patents,
+business organization, must each be given a separate consideration.
+The interval between taking up the various questions should be
+as wide as possible. The mind seems to require a previous notice
+of days or weeks or more in order to take up any one of these
+problems, at least, with any hope of success.
+
+
+
+The Hero of the Eraser.
+
+The drafting board may show that no such arrangement of parts can
+ever be made, that the whole scheme must be altered to make it
+practical. A real hero is required for the work of juggling the
+elements of a drafting board. He must have patient endurance and
+sufficient strength of character to use the eraser heroically, for
+the eraser is mightier than the pencil in the drafting-room. There
+are a thousand valiant knights armed with pencils to one stalwart
+pusher of the eraser.
+
+In the drafting-room the work of harmonizing must go on;
+compromises must be made between the ideal scheme of the dreamer
+and the requirements of the manufacturing and selling departments.
+
+Next to the noble knight of the eraser comes the idealist who has
+been toughened by experience in the cold world.
+
+The idealist aims to design and construct a perfect machine. He is
+encouraged in his work by seeing a little clearer each day, month,
+and year of the time spent in the right kind of application to his
+work. He knows that the work of last year is faulty, that this
+year's work seems nearly perfect, excepting for a certain slight
+change that has just entered his mind. He cannot think of allowing
+any machine to be made without this later improvement.
+
+He is inclined to the optimistic view, his memory works best on
+the good work of the past, and is extremely poor in holding afresh
+the view of previous mistakes.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Industrial Progress and Human Economics
+by James Hartness
+
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